Topic Behavioural

7 Learning:
The Direct
Instruction
Model and
the Simulation
Model
LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this topic, you should be able to:
1." Elaborate key components and principles related to direct
instruction and simulation models;
2." Discuss the phases involved in direct instruction and simulation;
and
3." Examine the instructional and nurturant effects in both direct
instruction and simulation models.

" INTRODUCTION
In this topic, you will explore two models pertaining to the behavioural family.
The models are direct instruction and simulation. Each model will be elaborated
based on its specific features, phases and essential components. In addition, you
will also be shown some teaching-learning activities using the stipulated models.

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Other than that you will be provided with a brief background on behavioural
models as well as elaboration on the main principles pertaining to the models.

7.1 ORIGINS OF BEHAVIOURAL MODELS OF

LEARNING
Behavioural Learning models originated from classical conditioning of Pavlov
(1927) and Thorndike (1911, 1913) on reward learning. Pavlovs experiment
involved food, a dog and a bell. The experiment highlighted the significance of
conditioning in which a response is generated by providing an appropriate
stimulus.

Figure 7.1: Stimulus response theory

At the pre-conditioning stage, the dog did not react to the ringing of the bell.
However placing the food in front of the dog caused the dog to salivate.

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During the conditioning stage, the bell was rung a few times before the dog was
given the food. After conditioning, the dog was able to salivate merely by
listening to the bell. This showed that the bell functioned as a substitute stimulus
in replacement of the food. The dog associated the bell to food and thus
responded to the substitute stimulus (the bell) based on the conditioning process.

Thorndike further explored the concept of connectionism, which stresses on the

learning based on connection between stimulus and response. Thorndike
illustrated the concept using the following laws: the law of effect, the law of
exercise and the law of readiness. The law of effect explores negative and positive
reinforcements in making sure the desired response is generated. The law of
exercise works on the idea that the more stimulus is provided, the more
responses are generated. As such, it is important that the stimulus provided is
adequate to produce the required or anticipated response. However, Thorndike
through his research also discovered that stimulus-response alone would not be
able to yield the desired effect without the element of feedback. Feedback helps
to reinforce the response and enhance performance.

The law of readiness involves the ability of the physiological (nervous system)
aspect to react and respond accordingly to the stimulus-response patterns. The
readiness helps in forming patterns of behaviour (Saettler, 1990).

Based on the above contributions by the proponents of behavioural theory,

among others, more researchers explored the dimensions of behaviourism as a
learning theory.

Skinner was one of the researchers who worked on what was called the operant
conditioning mechanism. The mechanism looks into reinforcement /reward
structures to reinforce expected behaviour. The structures fall into the following
categories:

(a)" Positive reinforcements: When the expected responses are rewarded, there
is a strong possibility of the responses to be repeated.

For example, when a student is praised for his work, the student will most
likely produce a similar work performance in future.

(b)" Negative reinforcement: It involves the removal of a negative condition in

order to strengthen the behaviour.

For example, a student is not given homework as he had performed well in

his class discussions. The student views the homework as a negative aspect
and in order to make sure he does not get extra work (homework) he

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presents the expected behaviour (active class participation). Wolfgang

(2001) suggests that negative reinforcements are used sparingly in the
classroom as their effects are short term based.

(c)" Extinction or Non-Reinforcement: When a particular response is not given

attention or reinforced, it is hoped the negative behaviour can be
eradicated.

One example would be when the teacher ignores a student for

misbehaviour with the hope that the student will eventually stop
distracting the class.

(d)" Punishment: When a particular reward or benefit is removed to weaken the

behaviour.

For example, when the students come late for class, they are sent for
detention class, resulting them to lose their break time.

SELF-CHECK 7.1
Consider the following example and determine whether it is an example
of negative reinforcement or punishment:

Rahoul did not complete his homework. As a result, the teacher told
him to write an essay on merits of working hard. Rahoul also had to
complete the homework and submit to the teacher.

Self-Check 7.1 clearly indicates a punishment as Rahoul had not performed the
expected behaviour (completing his homework). Hence, he was punished where
he was given extra work (writing an essay), in addition to completing his
homework.

ACTIVITY 7.1
Discuss examples of negative reinforcements that have been carried out
in a classroom. Share ideas on how significant these negative
reinforcements are in developing behaviour modifications.

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7.2 PRINCIPLES OF BEHAVIOURAL THEORY

According to Joyce (2009), the behavioural theory highlights four main
principles: behaviour as an observable, identifiable behaviour; maladaptive
behaviours are acquired; behavioural goals are specific, discrete and
individualised; and behavioural theory focuses on the here-and-now.

(a)" Behaviour as an observable, identifiable behaviour

Behaviour theory stresses on behaviour being observable that one could
identify and explain the behaviour in an explicit manner. The theory
believes that when one is provided with the right condition and adequate
time, one can learn the right behaviour or unlearn the undesired behaviour.
The role of stimulus is pivotal in ensuring the desired outcome. The
theorists believe that this approach involves a continuous and deliberate
study of the learners as well as careful planning of learning environment,
choice of stimulus and expected responses as well as constant modification
or revisit of students responses and reactions to the stimulus.

(b)" Maladaptive behaviours are acquired

Behavioural theory focuses on behaviour modifications. It is common that
throughout learning, students tend to develop certain aversion to a
particular learning experience. These aversions can impede students
progression in learning. For example, if the child has an aversion or
maladaptive behaviour towards Mathematics, the child will tune off
towards learning the subject. It takes time to eradicate the maladaptive
behaviour but most importantly one should not ignore the behaviour. The
teacher would need to pay attention to these aversions so that the learners
would be able to overcome the learning obstacles to progress to the next
stage in learning.

(c)" Behavioural goals are specific, discrete and individualised

Learning goals play an important part in developing positive behaviour.
The behavioural goals must be specific to enable the teacher to plan, design
appropriate instructional materials to meet the intended learning outcomes.
The goals should be discrete in nature to ensure that the behaviour
modifications are made on the particular learning response. If the goals are
connected, it makes the teaching and learning complicated. The teacher
would not be able to identify which aspect of learning that is needed to be
identified in order to generate the right learning response or behaviour.

Each individual is unique. One stimulus given to two individuals will

generate different or similar responses. This is because each individual

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possesses different personality traits that respond or react differently to a

stimulus. Hence, it is crucial that the procedures encouraging positive
behaviours must be catered or customised to the specific individual.

However, group training can be made possible when the learning

procedures have taken on a self-paced mode. Each member in the group
can proceed and progress according to his or her pace based on the specific
learning goals and tasks indicated in the procedure.

(d)" Behavioural theory focuses on the here-and-now

Past behaviours or performances have no or little impact. The behaviourists
believe that the focus is on attending to learning behaviour at present, not
stressing on causal factors or variables, which may have caused the learner
to experience failure in learning. The behavioural theory looks at behaviour
modification with a positive view where past failures or mistakes are not
highlighted. The aim is to generate good behaviour through careful
planning and implementation of specialised and individualised learning
procedure.

ACTIVITY 7.2
Discuss the four principles of behavioural theory as stated and suggest
how teachers can create a conducive learning climate for their students.

7.3 OVERVIEW OF DIRECT INSTRUCTION

According to Joyce (2009), direct instruction plays a limited but important role in
the comprehensive educational programme. Critics further claim that direct
instruction should be used with caution, in terms of frequency and manner of
use. The two major goals, as stipulated by Joyce (2009), of direct instruction are
the maximisation of student learning time and the development of independence
in seeking educational goals.

7.3.1 Key Concepts in Direct Instruction

According to Barak Rosenshine (1979), direct instruction has the following
characteristics: an academic focus, a teacher-centred focus, little student choice of
activity, use of large groups instead of small groups for instruction and use of
factual questions and controlled practice in instruction.

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(a)" Academic focus here means that the learner only focuses on completing the
assigned academic tasks. Teacher solely prepares or uses learning materials
that would directly help the learner complete the task.

(b)" A teacher-centred focus highlights the importance of the teacher as the

main agent in teaching-learning process. The teacher sets the learning goals.
She also makes sure that the students are aware of the learning goals.
During the learning process, the teacher actively assesses the students
development. The teacher would provide scaffolding in terms of
demonstration or modelling to assist the students to complete the tasks.

(c)" Since this model uses the teacher centred approach, there is little student
choice of activity. Students merely follow what the teacher has set out for
them to do. The teacher tends to use large groups instead of small groups
for instruction as it helps to optimise academic learning time. Most
importantly, to ensure optimal use of learning time, it would be effective to
place students of the same learning capacity within the same group. In this
way, the teacher is able to focus relevant and appropriate learning tasks for
the students.

(d)" This approach stresses on the use of factual questions. Since the aim is to
maximise learning time, the questions posed by the teacher during the
teaching-learning sessions are directly related to the content or subject
matter. Factual based questions provide a good base for the learners to
obtain and reinforce their understanding on the subject matter.

(e)" Practice is an important component in this approach. The controlled

practice in instruction helps the students learn effectively. The teacher,
provides scaffolding during the initial stages of learning. The controlled
practice during instruction will help the students understand the key ideas.
The controlled practice will cause limited diversion in learning, enabling
the students to maximise their academic learning time by focusing on the
key concepts of the subject matter.

7.4 PRINCIPLES FOR PRACTICE IN DIRECT

INSTRUCTION
Practice in direct instruction model is an important concept. As stated by Joyce
(2009), there are some principles pertaining to designing and implementing
practice. The first principle is designing the levels of assistance or guidance. The
main aim of the direct instruction is to maximise learning time and help learners
become independent learners. The designing and planning of practice must be

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carried out meticulously so that the students can produce minimal or no errors
and reach mastery levels.

At the initial stage, when a new skill or concept is introduced, the teacher leads
the students through each step in the learning process to ensure that few errors
are made. After this highly structured practice, the students are allowed to
practise on their own while the teacher monitors them. When the students are
able to practise with accuracy, they are ready for independent practice.

The second principle is based on the length of the practice sessions. The longer
the practice session, the longer it takes for the students to forget what they have
learnt. According to Joyce (2009), the sessions must be intense, highly motivated
to achieve optimal learning outcomes. However, older students can manage
longer sessions supported by clear feedback.

The third principle is the need to monitor the initial stage of practice. The
learners are still in the process of accumulating and assimilating the new
knowledge or learning the skills. Thus students at this level must be guided
carefully by the teacher. The teacher should provide immediate corrective
feedback to help the learners reinforce their learning. The teachers feedback will
also help the students gain confidence and motivate them to progress to the next
level.

The fourth principle looks into the distribution of practice. Regular and
systematic intervals of practice session will help the learners gain and retain
information in an effective manner.

The final principle is the timing factor of the practice sessions. In the initial stage,
the practice session should be close together. This is because the learners are still
getting accustomed to the new learning items. It would be more effective if the
practice sessions are given frequently to help the learners gain knowledge and
confidence in completing the task. At the independent stage, the practice session
should be slightly further apart to enable the teacher to assess the ability of the
learners to work on the task independently.

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7.5 THE MODEL OF TEACHING

The following illustrates the direct instruction model:

(a)" Syntax ( Phases)

Direct instruction has five phases of activity: orientation, presentation,
structured practice, guided practice and independent practice. For effective
implementation of the phases, careful and detailed diagnosis of students
knowledge or skills must be carried out to optimise learning.

(b)" Social System

The social system refers to the teaching-learning climate whereby the
relationship and level of autonomy of students as well as the involvement
of the teacher is discussed and analysed. In the context of direct instruction,
the teacher is the authoritative figure. The social system is highly structured
whereby each activity is determined by the teacher and conducted based on
the aims of the learning goals. The students do not have any control over
the choice of activities as the teacher sets the teachinglearning goals.

(c)" Teaching role: this aspect looks into the role of the teacher in the teaching-
learning context. As stated by Joyce (2009), effective teachers employ the
following strategies:
(i)" Setting a framework the teacher needs to establish a framework for
the lesson and orient the students to the new materials. An effective
teacher will articulate the aims, purposes and procedures of the lesson
to help the students gain a preliminary idea of new learning idea.
(ii)" Providing clear and lucid explanation the effectiveness of the lesson
relies heavily on the teachers ability to present the content in a clear
and organised manner. According to Rosenshine (1985), effective
teachers spend more time explaining the material than non-effective
teachers.
(iii)" Posing convergent questions as opposed to divergent questions as
stated earlier in this topic, the teacher using the direct instruction
model in the classroom needs to pose questions, which are factual
based. Rosenshine (1985), further claims that effective teachers ask
more questions to check students understanding than less effective
teachers. However, in addition to the quantity of questions, one
should also consider the quality of questions. The teacher should
present questions that are able to assess students level of
comprehension and assist the students to reinforce their learning of
the new material.

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(iv)" Giving feedback Feedback is an important element in the teaching-

learning process as it helps the students to assess and reflect their
learning process. Once teacher has posed questions and the students
have responded, the teacher would need to provide feedback. The
feedback given provides the students with valuable input to ensure
that they have achieved the learning outcomes. Feedback can
motivate the students to progress in their learning especially when
they are faced with challenging learning items.
(v)" Provision of learning activities as this model emphasises the
importance of practice, therefore an effective teacher would need to
provide well-designed activities that would provide rich learning
opportunities for the students. The activities must be planned and
implemented in accordance to phases whereby there is a gradual
release of power from the teacher to the student. The activities
designed should take on initially a highly dependent mode where the
teacher fully guides or scaffolds the students. Subsequently, the
activities must move to a more independent level allowing the
students to practise the new input with little or no teacher guidance.

The following table illustrates the phases in direct instruction as mentioned in the
previous section.

Table 7.1: Syntax/Phases in Direct Instruction

Phase 1 Orientation
Phase 2 Presentation
Phase 3 Structured Practice
Phase 4 Guided Practice
Phase 5 Independent Practice

Source: Joyce,Weil & Calhoun (2009)

(a)" The first phase is orientation. The teacher establishes the content, lesson
objectives and procedures of the lesson. The teacher can employ the
following techniques in getting students oriented to the lesson.
(i)" Provide activities that stimulate students prior knowledge;
(ii)" Discuss the lesson objectives with the students. This will help the
students get a clear understanding of the direction of the lesson;
(iii)" Provide clear directions or instructions on how the lesson is to be
conducted. This will enable the students to gain idea on what they are
required to do during the lesson;
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(iv)" Explain the learning materials that will be used during the lesson.
This is helpful especially if the students are not familiar with some
learning resources; and
(v)" Present an overview of the lesson. Providing an overview is liken to
giving a map to the students to view the general aspects or areas of
learning. This will further help these students gain a better
perspective on the lesson and heightened their readiness towards
learning the new material.

(b)" The second phase is presentation. In this stage, the teacher explains or
demonstrates the new concepts or skills. This is a pertinent stage as new
learning starts at this point. The teacher must provide clear and explicit
explanation to help the learners gain understanding of the new learning.
Oral and visual forms of the explanation would benefit in this case. At the
initial stage, the learners, for example, could be provided with a visual
representation of the new learning item so that the concepts can be more
explicit and concrete in nature.

According to Rosenshine (1985), to facilitate effective learning, the teacher

must:
(i)" Present materials in small steps so that students can master each new
input gradually. Too much of information provided all at one go can
cause cognitive overload, causing loss of attention and reduction in
learning.
(ii)" Provide many varied examples of new concepts or skills - The
students learn through the examples. It is important that the examples
used convey the key aspects of the learning input and provide a rich
and relevant experience to the learners.
(iii)" Conduct modelling or giving narrated demonstrations of the learning
tasks. Students learn through observations. When the teacher models
or demonstrates the concept or skill, the students gain a better picture
of the concept. This is especially effective when the concepts are
abstract in nature or the skills are too complex.

Apart from providing explanation, the teacher should subsequently check

students understanding of the newly learnt item. This can be carried out
using questions where the teacher can ask students to repeat the key ideas
learnt and recall the steps or procedures in the learning or even recall
information pertaining to item.

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(c)" The third phase is the structured practice. The teacher plays a dominant
role here. She provides practice examples guiding the students all the way.
Students usually can work in groups. The teacher provides feedback as the
students explore the examples. Most importantly, the corrective feedback
based on the practice examples is a crucial feature in this phase. The
feedback helps the students reinforce their learning and use the new
knowledge in the subsequent phase.

(d)" The fourth phase is guided practice. The students are given the opportunity
to work on the learning items with some support from the teacher. The
teacher at this stage gets to assess the students ability to perform the
learning tasks. The teacher monitors and guides the students when
necessary.

(e)" The fifth phase is independent practice. The students are independently
working on the learning items. The main aim of this phase is to reinforce
new learning and ensure retention of the knowledge. The students will also
gain fluency in the learning process. The feedback is provided at the end of
completion of particular learning tasks. The teacher provides more than one
learning task at this stage to enable the students to reinforce and retain
knowledge.

ACTIVITY 7.3

Discuss the importance of each stage in developing learners towards

mastery of content and skills.

7.6 INSTRUCTIONAL AND NURTURANT

EFFECTS IN DIRECT INSTRUCTION
The main aim of the direct instruction model is to maximise academic learning
time by getting the students actively engaged in learning in a focused content
area. In doing so, this model believes that through extensive and organised
practice sessions, students will be able to accurately complete the learning tasks
and achieve success in learning.

Based on the above, there are some instructional and nurturant effects derived
from using the model. The effects are as follows:

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(a)" Instructional Effects

(i)" Mastery of academic content and skills the initial process of learning
itself begins with focusing on academic content. As such, the learners
are constantly guided on achieving the learning goals. The
differentiated levels of practices; guided to independent levels further
help these students to gain their mastery of content and skills.
(ii)" Student motivation feedback is provided at every stage of the lesson.
This is to help the students reflect on their learning process as well as
enhance their motivation. When the teacher provides positive feedback,
students become motivated and engaged in the learning process.
(iii)" Self-paced ability the practice examples sessions are self-paced and
based on the mastery levels. By participating in the practice sessions,
the students are trained to work progressively and develop
academically in a systematic and organised manner.

(b)" Nurturant Effects

Self-esteem this model promotes high self-esteem in students. Students,
once they have achieved the learning goals, would possess the mastery of
skills or content. This will indeed increase their self-esteem as they feel
empowered with a sense of accomplishment.

ACTIVITY 7.4

The sample lesson plan below illustrates teaching the topic Telling
Time using the direct instruction model. Identify the instructional and
nurturant effects derived from the lesson. Discuss and share your ideas
with your peers.

Lesson Plan: Telling Time

Objective
Students will be able to tell time to the hour, half hour and quarter
hour using analogue clocks.

Standard
State Mathematics Standard. Measurement: The student will tell time
to the nearest five-minute interval and to the nearest minute using
analogue and digital clocks.

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Procedures

Clarify Goals and Establish Set

Tell students that they will be working on telling time. Ask if they know
how time is measured (years, months, hours, minutes etc.). Tell
students today you will learn to tell time in minutes and hours.

Demonstration

1." Hold up a clock face. Tell students that in order to tell time they
must understand the parts of a clock. Ask students which hand
shows the hour (short). The short hand moves around the clock in
how many hours? Move the short hand one hour at a time while
students count. Ask how many times the short hand goes around
the clock in one day (twice because there are 24 hours in a day).
Move the hands around the clock twice illustrating day and night.

Ask which hand shows the minutes. Ask how many minutes are
in an hour (60). Ask how long it takes for the short hand to move
from one number to the next (60 minutes, 1 hour). Illustrate and
count as necessary for understanding.

2." On the board, draw two clock faces. Divide one clock into two
equal sections. Divide the other into four equal sections. Guide
students to understand that each of the two sections is half an
hour. Ask how minutes are in a half an hour (30, which is 1/2 of
60). Point out that the half-hour can be referred to in more than
one way. Place the hands on the clock face to 1:30. 1:30 can be
called one-thirty, half past one, or 30 minutes past one. Write the
terms on the board.

Repeat with quarter hours. Show 1:15 on the clock face. 1:15 can
be referred to as one-forty-five, quarter past one, or 15 minutes
past one. Show 1:45 on the clock face. Ask students to give several
ways to refer to 1:45. Tell students that 1:45 can also be referred to
as 15 minutes to two or a quarter to two. Explain the difference
between "past" (after) and "to" (before).

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Guided Practice, Check for Understanding and Provide Feedback

1." Show a variety of times on the clock face (hours, half-hours and
quarter-hours) and ask students to give the time in several different
ways.

2." Ask students for times when they usually do things such as wake
up, leave for school, do their homework, eat meals, go to bed. Write
the times and activity on the board (keep them to whole, half and
quarter hours). Have a student come up and show the time on the
clock face.

3." What time am I? Have a student come up, whisper a time to the
teacher, then illustrate the time using their arms as the long and
short hand; other students must tell the time being illustrated. Check
for understanding and provide feedback and clarification as needed.

4." Give the group a story problem to apply what they have learned.
For example:

Spongebob and Patrick began fishing for jellyfish at 3:00. They

fished until 3:15. They rested for 15 minutes, then fished for 15 more
minutes before going home. What time did the clock show when
they went home? Illustrate using the clock face if necessary.

Check for Understanding and Provide Feedback

Give students the Telling Time worksheets. One group of exercises has
clocks with hands and students must write the time. Another has the
clock and time and students must draw the hands. There are also two or
three story problems. Students work independently on the worksheet
while the teacher checks student work and gives feedback as needed.

Extended Practice
Tell students to finish their Telling Time Worksheets for homework. Ask
students what they learned today (telling time by the hour, half hour and
quarter hour). Tell them that tomorrow they will tell time in minutes and
in 5-minute intervals, and learn to figure out how much time has
"elapsed" (gone by, passed).

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Assessment
The worksheets serve as the assessment.
Give story problems with differentiated levels of difficulty.
Pair students who are having difficulty with students who have
reached understanding.
Work individually with students who are having difficulty
understanding using the clock face to illustrate.

Source: Adapted from a lesson plan by Molly B. F. Walls, George Mason University,
Fairfax, VA/Randolph Elementary School, Arlington, VA, 2002.

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SELF-CHECK 7.2

1." What are the phases involved in the direct instruction model?

2." Discuss the significance of each phase in optimising the learners

academic learning time

7.7 OVERVIEW OF SIMULATION

Simulation refers to playing the roles of persons engaged in real life pursuits in
the classroom. The simulations should be as realistic as possible to help the
students develop the skills and concepts necessary for the performance of a
specified area. Students through the simulation also learn the consequences of
their actions or errors. They will become more aware of the actual results in real
life, hence making them more knowledgeable and skilled in managing the
specified area of study.

7.7.1 Model of Teaching

The following illustrates the key areas pertaining to the model of teaching.

(a)" Syntax (Phases)

There are four phases in this model. The first phase is orientation. Students
are presented with a broad topic on the simulation and the concepts that
need to be incorporated into the simulation activity. The second phase
involves the preparation of the students in the simulation activity. The
students are given adequate training to ensure they understand the rules
and procedures of the activity. The third phase deals with the simulation
operation where the learners experience the simulation and gather feedback
as well as self-assess their performance. The fourth phase is the participant
debriefing. This is an important phase as it explores the participants
learning experiences and obtains feedback from the participants regarding
the effectiveness of the simulation activity in enhancing their learning.

(b)" Social System

The social system refers to the teaching-learning climate whereby it
explores the relationship and level of autonomy of students as well as the
involvement of the teacher. The teachers roles are as follows:

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(i)" To explain the teacher needs to explain the rules and procedures to
make sure that the learners are able to follow the simulation activity
in a systematic and organised manner. This is an important learning
feature as in real life, rules are made to facilitate the implementation
of a process.
(ii)" To referee since simulation is a rule-driven activity, the teacher
would need to act as a referee to ensure the participants follow the
procedure. In addition, the teacher should also monitor and control
learner participation to achieve the intended learning goals. For
example, before the start of the simulation, teacher can assign learners
in teams to maximise and optimise their potentials. This again is
helping the learner to relate to real life situations where one needs to
work in groups or teams and not individually.
(iii)" To coach the simulation activity is considered as practice sessions to
help the learners develop their content knowledge or skills. It is
crucial for the teacher to coach and guide the students, where
possible, in achieving their learning goals. However caution must be
made not to take the role too seriously as the students are allowed to
make mistakes. The key point here is that the participants learn from
their mistakes. This can be accomplished through the teachers
feedback and guidance.

(c)" Support System

The support system involves the learning materials or resources used in the
simulation activity. Most of these simulations are computer-based
simulations. However there are many other resources, namely in social
studies domain, which can be used to project or stimulate real life
situations.

The Table 7.2 illustrates the phases in simulation

Table 7.2: Syntax/Phases in Simulation

Phase One Orientation

Phase Two Participant Training
Phase Three Simulation Operations
Phase Four Participant Debriefing

Source: Joyce, Weil & Calhoun (2009)

In the first phase, the teacher introduces the topic by presenting the key concepts
that will be incorporated in the simulation activity. The teacher will proceed to

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explain the simulation as well as the gaming procedure. Basically at this stage the
teacher is providing students with a brief overview of the simulation activity.

The second phase involves participant training. The participants or the students
take on an active role. Prior to participation in the activity, the students are
presented with the rules, roles procedures, scoring, types of decision as well as
activity goals so that the learner can engage effectively in the simulation activity.
The teacher assigns roles to the participants or students. The students participate
in abbreviated practice sessions.

In the third phase, the simulation operations are conducted. During the activity,
the teacher can provide feedback to help the learners understand the mechanism
of the simulation. There are opportunities for students to clarify their
misconceptions and evaluate their performances.

In the final phase, participants or learners are debriefed. During the debriefing,
the teacher can focus on the following:
(a)" Describing events and learners perceptions and reactions;
(b)" Analysing the process;
(c)" Comparing the simulation to the real world; and
(d)" Appraising and redesigning the simulation.

ACTIVITY 7.2

Elaborate how the fourth phase in simulation can help learners.

7.8 INSTRUCTIONAL AND NURTURANT

EFFECTS
The simulation model provides many benefits to learners. The following presents
the instructional and nurturant effects as stated by Joyce (2009):

(a)" Instructional Effects

(i)" Self-teaching capacity simulation activity provides opportunity for
the learners to self-learn. The experiences gained through the activity
help the learners to identify their mistakes or shortcomings. For
example, when the student is experiencing a simulated driving
experience, the turns of the wheel and the consequences of the
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AND THE SIMULATION MODEL

movements provide input to the learner. This learning experience

makes the student realise his actions and thus provokes the student to
reflect and assess his actions. This becomes a learning point.
(ii)" Curricular knowledge and skills the simulation activity attends to
the focussed content and skills. Hence, by completing the simulation
activities, the students will gain knowledge and master the skills.
(iii)" Self-confidence as learners the simulation activity allows the
learners to experience learning in an independent manner. The
teacher guides when necessary. The learners, through the experience
of completing the simulations, become more confident when they are
able to master the content or the skills.

(b)" Nurturant Effects

(i)" Responsiveness to feedback The simulation activity is based on
actions and responses. As such, the action made and reactions to the
actions are learning opportunities. The participant becomes more
responsive to the feedback given by the simulator or the teacher.
(ii)" Independence as learners the simulation model gives accountability
to the students to experience learning through trial and error. As
such, the students feels empowered and there is a certain degree of
independence generated during these simulation activities.
(iii)" Sensitivity to cause-effect relationships The main aim of the
simulation model is to raise students awareness of real-life
endeavours. Hence, the simulation activity develops the students
sensitivity towards cause and effect relationships. Students become
more alert of the repercussions of their actions in their daily life. For
example in the simulation activity, they are required to drive a car on
a busy street. By attending to the activity, students will become more
aware of the consequences of driving too fast or not complying to the
traffic rules. The simulation activity will make these students realise
the importance of road safety rules.

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ACTIVITY 7.5
Elaborate with specific examples how instructional and nurturant effects
can be created using the simulation model.

ACTIVITY 7.6
Identify and elaborate on the key principles involved in planning and
implementing the simulation model.

Direct instruction model involves meticulous and careful planning as its aims
are to maximise academic learning time.

The practice sessions in direct instruction model must be carefully designed

to meet the learning outcomes. The practice sessions are designed according
to levels of guidance ranging from guided to independent levels.

The principles in designing and implementing practice sessions are crucial in

ensuring optimal learning.

Simulations provide opportunities for learners to anticipate real life

endeavours. This pseudo experience will create awareness on types of
responses and reactions.

The teacher, using the simulation model in the classroom has to guide and
help the learners develop their skills in terms of exploring their responses.

Academic learning time Positive reinforcement

Direct instruction Punishments
Guided practice Reward structures
Negative reinforcement Simulation

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AND THE SIMULATION MODEL

Joyce, B., Weil, M., & Calhoun, E. (2009). Models of teaching. Boston, MA:
Pearson Education, Inc.

Wolfgang, C. H. (2001). Solving discipline and classroom management problems:

Methods and models for todays teachers. New York, NY: John Wiley and
Sons.

Rosenshin, B. V. (1979) Content.., Time and Direct Instruction. In P. L Peterson

and H. J. Walberg, (ed.). Research on teaching: Concepts, findings and
implications. Mc Cutchan, Berkeley, CA.

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