CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 INTRODUCTION

A wind turbine is a device that converts kinetic energy from the wind, also
called wind energy, into mechanical energy; a process known as wind power. If the
mechanical energy is used to produce electricity, the device may be called a wind
turbine or wind power plant. If the mechanical energy is used to drive machinery, such
as for grinding grain or pumping water, the device is called a windmill or wind pump.
Similarly, it may be referred to as a wind charger when used for charging batteries.

Fig: 1.1: Conversion of Wind Energy

The result of over a millennium of windmill development and modern
engineering, today's wind turbines are manufactured in a wide range of vertical and
horizontal axis types. The smallest turbines are used for applications such as battery
charging or auxiliary power on boats; while large grid-connected arrays of turbines are
becoming an increasingly important source of wind power-produced commercial
electricity.

1
1.2 HISTORY OF WIND TURBINE

Windmills were used in Persia (present-day Iran) as early as 200 B.C. The
wind wheel of Heron of Alexandria marks one of the first known instances of wind
powering a machine in history. However, the first known practical windmills were built
in Sistan, a region between Afghanistan and Iran, from the 7th century. These
"Panemone" were vertical axle windmills, which had long vertical drive shafts with
rectangular blades. Made of six to twelve sails covered in reed matting or cloth
material, these windmills were used to grind grain or draw up water, and were used in
the gristmilling and sugarcane industries.

Windmills first appeared in Europe during the middle ages. The first historical
records of their use in England date to the 11th or 12th centuries and there are
reports of German crusaders taking their windmill-making skills to Syria around
1190. By the 14th century, Dutch windmills were in use to drain areas of
the Rhine delta.

Fig: 1.2: Various types of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

The first electricity-generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine
installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday home
in Marykirk, Scotland. Some months later American inventor Charles F Brush built the
first automatically operated wind turbine for electricity production in Cleveland, Ohio.
Although Blyth's turbine was considered uneconomical in the United
Kingdom electricity generation by wind turbines was more cost effective in countries
with widely scattered populations.

2
 In Denmark by 1900, there were about 2500 windmills for mechanical loads
such as pumps and mills, producing an estimated combined peak power of about 30
MW. The largest machines were on 24-metre (79 ft) towers with four-bladed 23-metre
(75 ft) diameter rotors. By 1908 there were 72 wind-driven electric generators
operating in the US from 5 kW to 25 kW. Around the time of World War I, American
windmill makers were producing 100,000 farm windmills each year, mostly for water-
pumping. By the 1930s, wind generators for electricity were common on farms, mostly
in the United States where distribution systems had not yet been installed. In this
period, high-tensile steel was cheap, and the generators were placed atop
prefabricated open steel lattice towers.
A forerunner of modern horizontal-axis wind generators was in service
at Yalta, Soviet Ukraine in the USSR in 1931. This was a 100 kW generator on a 30-
metre (98 ft) tower, connected to the local 6.3 kV distribution system. It was reported
to have an annual capacity factor of 32 per cent, not much different from current wind
machines. In the fall of 1941, the first megawatt-class wind turbine was synchronized
to a utility grid in Vermont. The Smith-Putnam wind turbine only ran for 1,100 hours
before suffering a critical failure. The unit was not repaired because of shortage of
materials during the war.
The first utility grid-connected wind turbine to operate in the UK was built
by John Brown & Company in 1951 in the Orkney Islands. As of 2012, Danish
company Vestas is the world's biggest wind-turbine manufacturer.

1.3 TYPES OF WIND TURBINE

Wind turbines can rotate about either a horizontal or a vertical axis, the former
being both older and more common.

1.3.1 Vertical axis wind turbine

Vertical-axis wind turbines (or VAWTs) have the main rotor shaft arranged
vertically. Key advantages of this arrangement are that the turbine does not need to
be pointed into the wind to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind

3
direction is highly variable, for example when integrated into buildings. The key
disadvantages include the low rotational speed with the consequential
higher torque and hence higher cost of the drive train, the inherently lower power
coefficient, the 360 degree rotation of the aerofoil within the wind flow during each
cycle and hence the highly dynamic loading on the blade, the pulsating torque
generated by some rotor designs on the drive train, and the difficulty of modelling the
wind flow accurately and hence the challenges of analysing and designing the rotor
prior to fabricating a prototype.

Fig: 1.3: Vertical Axis Wind Turbine

With a vertical axis, the generator and gearbox can be placed near the ground, using
a direct drive from the rotor assembly to the ground-based gearbox, hence improving
accessibility for maintenance.
When a turbine is mounted on a rooftop, the building generally redirects wind
over the roof and this can double the wind speed at the turbine.
If the height of the rooftop mounted turbine tower is approximately 50% of the
building height, this is near the optimum for maximum wind energy and minimum wind
turbulence. It should be borne in mind that wind speeds within the built environment
are generally much lower than at exposed rural sites, [20][21] noise may be a concern
and an existing structure may not adequately resist the additional stress.

4
 Fig: 1.4: Aerodynamics of Vertical Axis Turbine
As the aerofoil moves around the back of the apparatus, the angle of attack
changes to the opposite sign, but the generated force is still obliquely in the direction
of rotation, because the wings are symmetrical and the rigging angle is zero. The
rotor spins at a rate unrelated to the wind speed, and usually many times faster. The
energy arising from the torque and speed may be extracted and converted into useful
power by using an electric generator. Another type of vertical axis is the Parallel
turbine similar to the crossflow fan or centrifugal fan it uses the ground effect.
Vertical axis turbines of this type have been tried for many years: a large unit
producing up to 10 kW was built by Israeli wind pioneer Bruce Brill in 1980s: [22] the
device is mentioned in Dr. Moshe Dan Hirsch's 1990 report, which decided the Israeli
energy department investments and support in the next 20 years. The Magenn
WindKite blimp uses this configuration as well, chosen because of the ease of running

5
1.3.1.1 Advantages of vertical axis wind turbine

They can produce electricity in any wind direction

Strong supporting tower in not needed because generator, gearbox and other
components are placed on the ground.
Low production cost as compared to horizontal axis wind turbine
As there is no need of pointing turbine in wind direction to be efficient so yaw
drive and pitch mechanism is not needed
Easy installation as compared to other wind turbine
Easy to transport from one place to other
Low maintenance cost
They can be install in urban area
Low risk for human and birds because blades moves at relatively low speed
They are particularly suitable for areas with extreme weather conditions, like in
the mountains where they can supply electricity to mountain huts.

1.3.1.2 Disadvantages of vertical axis wind turbine

As only one blade of wind turbine work at a time so efficiency is very low
They need a initial push to start, this action use few of its own produce
electricity
When compared to horizontal axis wind turbine they are very less efficient with
respect to them. this is because they have an additional drag when their
blades rotates.
They have relative high vibration because the air flow near the ground creates
turbulent flow
Because of vibration bearing wear increase which result in the increase of
maintenance cost
They create noise pollution
Guy wires which hold up the machine, need some are to install

6
1.3.2 Horizontal axis wind turbine

Horizontal-axis wind turbines (HAWT) have the main rotor shaft and electrical
generator at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are
pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor
coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the
blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.

Fig: 1.5: Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine

Since a tower produces turbulence behind it, the turbine is usually positioned upwind
of its supporting tower. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being
pushed into the tower by high winds. Additionally, the blades are placed a
considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted forward into the
wind a small amount.
Downwind machines have been built, despite the problem of turbulence (mast wake),
because they don't need an additional mechanism for keeping them in line with the
wind, and because in high winds the blades can be allowed to bend which reduces

7
their swept area and thus their wind resistance. Since cyclical (that is repetitive)
turbulence may lead to fatigue failures, most HAWTs are of upwind design.

Fig: 1.6: Principles of wind turbine Aerodynamics lift

Turbines used in wind farms for commercial production of electric power are usually
three-bladed and pointed into the wind by computer-controlled motors. These have
high tip speeds of over 320 km/h (200 mph), high efficiency, and low torque ripple,
which contribute to good reliability. The blades are usually colored white for daytime
visibility by aircraft and range in length from 20 to 40 metres (66 to 130 ft) or more.
The tubular steel towers range from 60 to 90 metres (200 to 300 ft) tall. The blades
rotate at 10 to 22 revolutions per minute. At 22 rotations per minute the tip speed
exceeds 90 meter per second (300 ft/s).
A gear box is commonly used for stepping up the speed of the generator, although
designs may also use direct drive of an annular generator. Some models operate at
constant speed, but more energy can be collected by variable-speed turbines which

8
use a solid-state power converter to interface to the transmission system. All turbines
are equipped with protective features to avoid damage at high wind speeds,
by featheringthe blades into the wind which ceases their rotation, supplemented
by brakes.

1.3.2.1 Advantages of horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT)

Blades are to the side of the turbine's center of gravity, helping stability.
Ability to wing warp, which gives the turbine blades the best angle of attack. so
the turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy for the time of day
and season.
Ability to pitch the rotor blades in a storm, to minimize damage.
Tall tower allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind
shear sites, every ten meters up, the wind speed can increase by 20% and the
power output by 34% .
Tall tower allows placement on uneven land or in offshore locations.
Can be sited in forests above the tree line.
Most are self-starting.
Can be cheaper because of higher production volume, larger sizes and, in
general higher capacity factors and efficiencies.

1.3.2.2 Disadvantages of horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT)

Have difficulty operating in near ground, turbulent winds because their yaw and
blade bearing need smoother, more laminar wind flows.
The tall towers and long blades (up to 180 feet long) are difficult to transport on
the sea and on land. Transportation can now cost 20% of equipment costs.
Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very tall and expensive cranes and
skilled operators.
Their height can create local opposition based on impacts to view sheds.
Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by
turbulence.

9
1.4 WORKING OF WIND TURBINE

Fig: 1.7: Working of a wind turbine

Wind (moving air that contains kinetic energy) blows toward the turbine's rotor
blades.

The rotors spin around slowly, capturing some of the kinetic energy from the
wind, and turning the central drive shaft that supports them.

The rotor blades can swivel on the hub at the front so they meet the wind at
the best angle for harvesting energy.

Inside the nacelle (the main body of the turbine sitting on top of the tower and
behind the blades), the gearbox converts the low-speed rotation of the drive
shaft (about 16 revolutions per minute, rpm) into high-speed (1600 rpm)
rotation fast enough to drive the generator efficiently.

10
 The generator, immediately behind the gearbox, takes kinetic energy from the
spinning drive shaft and turns it into electrical energy

Anemometers (wind-speed monitors) and wind vanes on the back of the

nacelle provide measurements about the wind speed and direction.

Using these measurements, the entire top part of the turbine (the rotors and
nacelle) can be rotated by a yaw motor, mounted between the nacelle and the
tower, so it faces directly into the oncoming wind and captures the maximum
amount of energy. If the wind speed rises too much, brakes are applied to stop
the rotors from turning (for safety reasons).

The electric current produced by the generator flows through a cable running
down through the inside of the turbine tower.

A substation transforms the voltage of the electricity so it can be transmitted

efficiently to nearby communities.

Homes enjoy clean, green energy.

1.5 COMPONENTS OF WIND TURBINE

11
 Fig: 1.8: Components of Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
Anemometer:
Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller.
Blades:
Lifts and rotates when wind is blown over them, causing the rotor to spin. Most
turbines have either two or three blades.
Brake:
Stops the rotor mechanically, electrically or hydraulically, in emergencies.
Controller:
Starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph)
and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind
speeds above about 55 mph because they may be damaged by the high
winds.
Gear box:
Connects the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increases the
rotational speeds from about 30-60 rotations per minute (rpm), to about 1,000-
1,800 rpm; this is the rotational speed required by most generators to produce
electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and
engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower
rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes.
Generator:
Produces 60-cycle AC electricity; it is usually an off-the-shelf induction
generator.
High-speed shaft:
Drives the generator.
Low-speed shaft:
Turns the low-speed shaft at about 30-60 rpm.
Nacelle:
Sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts,
generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a
helicopter to land on.
Pitch:

12
 Turns (or pitches) blades out of the wind to control the rotor speed, and to keep
the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity.
Rotor:
Blades and hub together form the rotor.

Tower:
Made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice. Supports the
structure of the turbine. Because wind speed increases with height, taller
towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity.
Wind direction:
Determines the design of the turbine. Upwind turbineslike the one shown
hereface into the wind while downwind turbines face away.
Wind vane:
Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the
turbine properly with respect to the wind.
Yaw drive:
Orients upwind turbines to keep them facing the wind when the direction
changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive because the wind
manually blows the rotor away from it.
Yaw motor:
Powers the yaw drive.

1.6 DIFFERENT TYPES OF HUBS

13
 Side view Front view
Fig: 1.9: Tri-cylindrical Hub

Fig: 1.10: Spherical Hub

Two distinct shapes of hub for three-bladed machines can be identified: tri-cylindrical
or spherical. The former consists of three cylindrical shells concentricROTOR HUB
with the blade axes, which flare into each other where they meet, while the latter
consists simply of a spherical shell with cut-outs at the three-blade mounting
positions.

1.7 ROTOR HUB

The rotor hub is the first component of the mechanical drive train. The blades and the
drive train are connected through the hub. Made of Very High Quality Cast Iron. In

14
pitch controlled wind turbines, the hub includes the components of the blade pitch
mechanism.
In order to produce lift, an airfoil shape must be oriented so that its rounded leading
edge is facing approximately into the airflow direction. But, the airflow direction for a
wind turbine is actually a vector sum of the wind itself and the relative wind caused by
the rotation of the blade through the air. (If you flap your arms up and down, you can
feel the relative wind on your hands). This effect is described using the tip-speed-ratio
(TSR):
TSR= R/V
Where is the angular velocity of the rotor, R is the distance between the axis of
rotationand the tip of the blade, and V is the wind speed.

Fig: 1.11: Motion of the rotor

Since the speed of a rotating blade varies from the center to the tip, the angle with
which the airflow encounters the airfoil varies along the blade. To account for this, the
rotor blades must be twisted. For any tip speed ratio, an optimum blade twist can be
found that maximizes the power generated.

15
 Fig: 1.12: Rotor hub
But, as the wind speed changes, the twist is no longer optimum. There are several
ways to deal with this, including variable pitch operation (rotating the entire blade
along its axis as the wind speed varies) or variable rotation speeds.

16
 Fig: 1.13: Shaft bending moment, with rotating axis system
The shaft moments due to out-of-plane loads on the three-bladed rotor can be
expressed as follows:-
MYS = MY1 - ( MY2 + MY3) Eq-1
MZS = {3(1/2)}/2*( MY3 - MY2) Eq-2
Here MY1, MY2 and MY3 are the fluctuations of the blade out-of-plane moments
about the hub center (MY1, MY2 and MY3).

Where:-
MX= blade in-plane moment (i.e., moment causing bending in plane of
Rotation); tower side-to-side moment
MY= blade out-of-plane moment (i.e., moment causing bending out of
Plane of rotation); tower fore-aft moment
MZ= blade torsional moment; tower torsional moment.
MYS= low-speed shaft moment about rotating axis perpendicular to axis of
Blade 1
MZS= low-speed shaft moment about rotating axis parallel to axis of blade 1

1.8 HUB LOADINGS

The structural action of HUB in resisting the three main HUB loadings is as
follows:

1.8.1 Symmetric rotor thrust loading

The blade root bending moments due to symmetric rotor thrust loading put the
front of the hub in bi-axial tension near the rotor axis and the rear in bi-axial
compression, while the thrust itself generates out-of-plane bending stresses in the
hub shell adjacent to the low speed shaft flange connection.

17
Fig: 1.14: Symmetric rotor thrust loading in rotor hub

Fig: 1.15: Symmetric rotor thrust loading in rotor

18
1.8.2 Thrust loading on a single blade

Fig: 1.16: Thrust loading on a single blade

This generates out-of-plane bending stresses in the hub shell at the rear, and in-plane
tensile stresses around a curved load path between the upwind side of the blade
bearing and the portion of the low-speed shaft flange connection remote from the
blade (see dashed line in Figure (b).The resultant lateral loads will result in out-of-
plane bending.

1.8.3 Blade gravity moments

On tri-cylindrical hub, equal and opposite blade gravity moments are

communicated via the cylindrical shells to areas near theRotor axis at front and rear
where they cancel each other. It is less straight forward to visualize the
corresponding load paths on the spherical Hub (ours case).The complexity of the
stress states arising from the latter two types of loading renders finite-element
analysis of rotor hubs more or less mandatory. At the most, six load cases need to be
analyzed, corresponding to the separate application of moments about the three axes
and forces along the three axes at a single hub/blade interface.

The pitching moment M zb = M zh is not carried by the hub and is related to Blade
design.
Mxh= -{ cos *(-Mxb)+ sin *M yb} Eq-3

19
Mxh= -sin *(-Mxb) + sin *M yb} Eq-4
Fxh = cos*F xb+ sin*F yb Eq-5
Fyh = - sin*F xb+cos *F yb Eq-6
F zh = F zb Eq-7

1.9LOADS ON THE ROTOR

The most important rotor loads on the wind turbine are those associated with thrust
on the blades and torque to drive the motor.
THRUST:-
T= Ct *1/2***R2U2
Ct = thrust coefficient =8/9 for ideal cases
= density of air
R= radius of Rotor
U= free stream velocity
1.10 BENDING MOMENTS AND STRESSES IN THE BLADE

Blade bending moments are either flap wise M or edge wise M.

Flap wise M Bending moments cause blade to bend upwind or down wind as
follows:
= flapping angle in radians
R= radius of the rotor
I b = Area Mass moment of inertia of blade root.
Causing the root to be made up of series of concentric annuli of width dr, the root flap
wise bending moments, M for a turbine is as follows:
M = 1/B * o r *r{1/2***8/9*U2*2r*dr}
Upon integration
M = T/ *2/3*R
Max flap wise stress *max due to bending at root is
*max = M *c/ Ib
where, Ib = o R r2 dm = Mb*R2/3

20
Ib = mass moment of inertia of blade
Mb = blade moment
R= radius of the blade from its root
R= distance along the radial direction.
Shear force, S in root of blade is S=T/B.
The bending moment in the edge wise direction at root of simple blade, M is
M = Q/B
Q= toruqe
B= no.of blades
The edge wise shear force, S = o RFt

1.11 LITERATURE REVIEW

1.11.1 Design and analysis of horizontal axis wind turbine

Arvind singh rathore discussed about an optimization model for rotor design of 750
kW horizontal axis wind turbine. The windturbine blade is a very important part of the
rotor. In this work a blade of length 21.0 m is taken and airfoil for the blade is S809.
The airfoil taken is same from root to tip. The model refers to a design method based
on type Approval Provision Scheme TAPS-2000. All the loads caused by wind and
inertia on the blades are transferred to the hub. The stress and deflection were
calculated on blades and hub by Finite element analysis method. Result obtained
from ANSYS is compared with the existing design.

The stresses and deflections obtained by modeling in blade are shown in Figure 1
and 2. The stresses anddeflections obtained by modeling in hub are shown in Figure
3 and 4.The maximum deflection is 0.69433mm and maximum deflection occurs at
roots of blades. The deflection is less than the deflection obtainedby hexagonal rotor
as 2.2 mm. The maximum stress is 81.13 MPa. The maximum stress is less than
21
thestress obtained by hexagonal rotor as 98.5 MPa and occurs at the intersection of
blade flange and hub. The maximum stress in the model is less than maximum
allowable stress.

1.11.2 International Standard, DIN 1693

Its an international standard that gives all the detailed information of some standards
and grades of the different material and their properties. It also gives the information
about casting quality of materials. The intention of this standard is to enable the
process of sampling and testing to be unified, will allow experience to be acquired
which will facilitate future standardization on a more comprehensive scale.

1.11.3 Finite element analysis of aluminium alloy for their vibration

characterstics

Vinay V. Kuppast1, Vijay Kumar N. Chalwa2, S. N. Kurbet3, Aravind M. Yadawad4,

explained about Aluminium alloys are being extensively used in many applications
due to their excellent weight to strength properties. Many research works have been
carried out to study and improve the mechanical properties of aluminium alloys. The
composition of alloying elements plays an important role in deciding the properties of
an alloy. The results of numerical methods have been accepted widely as they closely
match with the experimental results. In the present study a numerical analysis tool
i.e., finite element analysis (FEA) is used. The work presented in this paper is aimed
at the study of effect of vibration characteristics of aluminium alloys of different
compositions. The modeling and analysis is carried out using ANSYS software.

The work presented in this paper is aimed at the study of effect of vibration
characteristics of alloys. The presentation and discussion of the results of effects of
vibration on the alloys. From the analysis it is concluded that as the increase of
copper and silicon content in the alloys decreases deformation inversely. The
boundary conditions, material properties and load are added interactively.Youngs
Modulus and the ultimate tensile strength of the 380 alloys increase with the increase

22
in copper and silicon content. Deformation is least in the case of 380 alloys. ANSYS
results confirm the least deformation in case of 380 alloys. Hence it is recommended
for low vibration applications.

1.11.4 Fatigue life of wind turbine structural components

Ali Muhammad, Milan Ristow,explained about Modern mega watt class wind turbines
are exposed to high and complex loads. At the same time theaim is to realize light
weight and optimized structures. Compared to other industries the design lifetime of a
wind turbine is very long. Applying simulation tools for the predictions of fatigue life is
therefore essential. This paper presents the approaches for fatigue anaylses used in
the wind industry and highlights the particular conditions for the design of these
dynamically loaded components. At the same time the possibilities and limits of the
simulation concepts are discussed.

Much effort is put into a reliable prediction of the fatigue life of wind turbine structures.
Today it is possible to build complex simulation models and computation time is not
an issue any longer. Still certain conservative assumptions and simplifications are
inevitable in order to realize a safe design. In a current research project the influence
of the manufacturing process on material properties is investigated and the aim is to
include the gained knowledge in the simulation of fatigue life. The results will probably
help to refine the existing material models which again will lead to a more efficient
utilization of the material.

1.11.5 2014-IEC 61400-1 EDITION 3.1 Design requirements

IEC 61400 is an International Standard published by the International Electrotechnical

Commission regarding wind turbines. The 61400 is a set of design requirements
made to ensure that wind turbines are appropriately engineered against damage from
hazards within the planned lifetime. The standard concerns most aspects of the
turbine life from site conditions before construction, to turbine components being

23
tested, assembled and operated.Wind turbines are capital intensive, and are usually
purchased before they are being erected and commissioned Some of these standards
provide technical conditions verifiable by an independent, third party and as such are
necessary in order to make business agreements so wind turbines can be financed
and erected.

Wind turbines are designed for specific conditions. During the construction and design
phase assumptions are made about the wind climate that the wind turbines will be
exposed to. Turbine wind class is just one of the factors needing consideration during
the complex process of planning a wind power plant. Wind classes determine which
turbine is suitable for the normal wind conditions of a particular site. Turbine classes
are determined by three parameters - the average wind speed, extreme 50-year gust,
and turbulence.

1.11.6 Wind energy hand book

Its a book written by Tony Burton, David Sharpe, Nick Jenkins, Ervin Bossanyi gives
the whole information about wind turbines. The book consists of historic development
and modern wind turbines describes the information regarding wind turbines. It
consists of information about wind resources, various theories, co-ordinates,
performances related to wind turbine. It also describes about various type of
geometries of turbine, different loads acting on the wind turbine and all the
fundamentals of wind turbine.

24
 CHAPTER 2

SOFTWARES AND METHODOLGY USED

2.1 INTRODUCTION TO PRO-ENGINEER

Pro/ENGINEER (Pro/E for short) is a commercial CAD/CAM package that is

widely used in industry for CAD/CAM applications. It is one of the new generation of
systems that not only over a full 3-D solid modeler, in contrast to purely 2-D and
surface modelers, but also parametric functionality and full associatively. This means
that explicit relationships can be established between design variables and changes
can be made at any point in the modeling process and the whole model is updated.
The method of constructing a model of an object is very similar to that followed
in the production of a physical component. For example the manufacture of the
25
shaped block in Figure 1 would start with the choice of construction environment, the
selection of a piece of stock material followed by a series of manufacturing processes,
e.g. milling, drilling, welding/sticking. Pro/E has direct analogues for most of these
operations as various types of FEATURES which can be combined to generate a
complete representation of a PART, Pro/E's terminology for a single component.
Features fall into three main categories, Construction, Sketched and Pick/Placed.

2.1.1 Features

2.1.1.1 Construction Features

These features are purely used as an aid to the construction of the part, a
number of various forms are available the most commonly used are the: Csys
Coordinate systems which aid in the orientation of additional features and the
assembly of the part in to subsequent assemblies.

CSYS feature is normally the rest feature in a part definition and is used as the
basis for the placement of all subsequent features.

Datums These are an extension of the idea of construction lines as used on a

traditional drawing. The most used type is a DATUM PLANE which allows a 2-D
reference plane to be defined in space. Additional forms include DATUM AXES,
DATUM POINTS and DATUM CURVES. It is normal to add three DEFAULT datum
planes, immediately after the initial coordinate system, to effectively generate default
x-y, x-z and y-z planes.

2.1.1.2Sketch Features

These features are so named because they all involve the use of the
SKETCHER mode within Pro/E, (see below for more details on its use). The main
features that use this functionality are:

Protrusion Using this feature material can be added to/removed from a part by
sketching a cross-section and then extruding/revolving/sweeping the section to
produce a 3-D solid/cut. A solid protrusion is normally the _rst non-constructional
26
feature in a part, and is used to produce the base solid entity of the part. In the
material removal mode the action is similar to a turning, saw or milling cut.

Rib this allows the user to produce a thin rib or web. This is a limited version of
the protrusion function.

2.1.1.3 Pick and Place Features

Pick and place features tend to refer to simple or standard operations, e.g. the
production of HOLES, ROUNDS and CHAMFERS. The action to produce the required
effect has been preprogrammed into ProE, thus requiring the user to indicate the
position of the operation on the existing model.

2.1.1.4 Modification of features

The parametric nature of Pro/E means that the modification of features is
relatively easy, individual features can be selected and the associated
parameters/dimensions changed. However, it should be noted that ProE produces a
HISTORY based model in which features can be dependent on one or more previous
features for their definition, e.g. a chamfer on an edge generated by a cut or
protrusion. These PARENT-CHILD dependencies mean that when a parent feature is
modified its children are automatically revised to react the changes. N.B. Care should
be taken not to remove references used by child features.

2.1.2 Part & assembly menus and model tree

As soon as a part (or assembly) in loaded, or a new entity started additional
information will appear on the screen, notably

Additional icons in the top and right hand icon areas associated with image
control and feature construction.
In main cases clicking on a top level icon will initiate a series of sub menus/icons. In
many cases Pro/E will make educated guesses as to the users selection in these
menus, to save time moving the mouse the

The Model Tree window gives a graphical representation of the method of the
part construction, i.e. the order of Features. The tree can also be used to
27
 select individual or groups of features as a alternative to selection in the
drawing window. This functionality becomes increasingly useful as the model
complexity increases. Features can also be moved in the tree with a simple
drag and drop operation provided there are no parent-child connects.
N.B. Quick access to feature modifying functions can be gained viathe RMB whilst
over the Model Tree.The layout and information displayed is user definable via the
icons and pull down menus at the top of the window.

You should bear in mind that Pro/E is a specialist package, and the designers who
use it would normally do so full time, after an extended training period: so don't be
surprised if you find it more difficult to use than other CAD software that you may
already know.

Central to the use of the package is the ability to obtain the best view of the
object you are constructing, e.g. the orientation and the display mode. Access to
commands affecting the display is concentrated under the View pull down menu and
the top icon bar. In addition the orientation can be manipulated with a combination of
the Ctrl/Shift keys and the mouse.

Key/Mouse Action

(N.B. The Ctrl key can normally be released once the action has been initiated.)

Ctrl - Middle Mouse Button Zoom in/out

Middle Mouse Button Spin
Shift - Right Mouse Button Translate

2.1.3 Sketcher
Central to the use of the `sketched' features is the use of the sketcher or
sketch mode. This is basically a 2-D drawing program which allows profiles to be
drawn that are subsequently extruded/revolved/swept etc through 3-D space to
modify the item being constructed.

28
Built into the package is knowledge of how things are typically constructed, e.g. lines
are often parallel, similarly sized sketched entities are likely to be identical.

The system uses these `Assumptions' to apply overidable `Constraints' to the sketch,
e.g. vertical/horizontal line, to simplify the drawing the profile. It should be noted that
the assumptions taken by the system are partial dependent on the screen scale.

2.1.4 Mapkeys-Hotkeys/Keyboard shorts

The complexity of a full function CAD package means that it can be

difficult/time consuming to access a particular command/set of commands. Pro/E
offers a hot key functionality in addition to the pull down menus/icons and floating
menus to aid efficiency. There are a set of CUED standard hot key sequences that
should be available on all systems. Most are two character commands that can be
most easily accessed assuming a right hand mouse operation and a left hand on the
keyboard. (See the table at the end of this document)

2.2 INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS

ANSYS is a general purpose finite element modeling package for numerically

solving a wide variety of mechanical problems. These problems include:
static/dynamic structural analysis (both linear and non-linear), heat transfer and fluid
problems, as well as acoustic and electro-magnetic problems.

ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package.

Finite Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system
into very small pieces (of user-designated size) called elements. The software
implements equations that govern the behavior of these elements and solves them
all, creating a comprehensive explanation of how the system acts as a whole. These
results then can be presented in tabulated or graphical forms. This type of analysis is
typically used for the design and optimization of a system far too complex to analyze

29
by hand. Systems that may fit into this category are too complex due to their
geometry, scale, or governing equations.

ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical Engineering
Department at many colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and Electrical Engineering,
as well as the Physics and Chemistry departments.

2.2.1 Need to Ansys

ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of products

or processes in a virtual environment. This type of product development is termed
virtual prototyping. With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various
scenarios to optimize the product long before the manufacturing is started. This
enables a reduction in the level of risk, and in the cost of ineffective designs.
The multifaceted nature of ANSYS also provides a means to ensure that users
are able to see the effect of a design on the whole behavior of the product, be it
electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.
In general, a finite element solution may be broken into the following three stages.
This is a general guideline that can be used for setting up any finite element analysis.

2.2.2 Generic steps to solving any problem in ansys

Like solving any problem analytically, you need to define (1) your solution
domain, (2) the physical model, (3) boundary conditions and (4) the physical
properties. You then solve the problem and present the results. In numerical methods,
the main difference is an extra step called mesh generation. This is the step that
divides the complex model into small elements that become solvable in an otherwise
too complex situation. Below describes the processes in terminology slightly more
attune to the software.

2.2.3 Pre-processing: Defining the problem

The major steps in preprocessing are given below:

30
 Define key points/lines/areas/volumes
Define element type and material/geometric properties
Mesh lines/areas/volumes as required

2.2.3.1Build geometry

Construct a two or three dimensional representation of the object to be

modeled and tested using the work plane coordinates system within ANSYS.The
amount of detail required will depend on the dimensionality of the analysis (i.e. 1D,
2D, axi-symmetric, 3D).

2.2.3.2 Define Material Properties:

Now that the part exists, define a library of the necessary materials that
compose the object (or project) being modeled. This includes thermal and
mechanical properties.

2.2.3.3 General Mesh:

At this point ANSYS understands the makeup of the part. Now define how the
modeled system should be broken down into finite pieces.

2.2.3.4 Apply Loads:

Once the system is fully designed, the last task is to burden the system with
constraints,
Such as physical loadings or boundary conditions

2.2.3.5 Solution: Assigning loads, Constraints And Solving:

Here we specify the loads (point or pressure), constraints (translational and rotational)
and finally solve the resulting set of equations.

31
2.2.4 Obtain Solution

This is actually a step, because ANSYS needs to understand within what state
(steady state, transient etc.) the problem must be solved.

2.2.5 Present the Results

After the solution has been obtained, there are many ways to present ANSYS
results, choose from many options such as tables, graphs, and contour plots

2.2.5.1 Post Processing-Further Processing And Viewing Of The Result:

In this stage one may wish to see:

Lists of nodal displacements

Element forces and moments
Deflection plots
Stress contour diagrams.

2.3FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

The finite element method is a numerical method for solving problem of

engineering and mathematical physics. Typical problem areas of interest in
engineering and mathematical physics that are solvable by use of Finite element
method include structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, mass transport and
electromagnetic potential.
For problems involving complicated geometries, loading and material
properties, it is generally not possible to obtain analytical and mathematical solutions.
Analytical solutions are given by a location in a body. This analytical solution
generally requires the solutions of ordinary or partial differential equations, which are
not usually obtainable. Hence we have to relay on numerical methods, such as finite
element methods for acceptable solutions.

32
2.3.1 Need to study Finite Element Method

Most practical problems involve complicated domains (both material and

material constitution), loads and non-linearities that forbid the development of
analytical solutions using numerical methods.
A numerical method, with the advent of a computer, can be used to investigate
the effects of various parameters of the system on analyzed. It is cost effective
and saves time and material resources compared to the multitude of physical
experiments needed to gain the same level of the understanding.
Because of the power of numerical methods and electronic computation, it is
possible to include all relevant features in a Mathematical model of a physical
process without worrying about its solutions by exact means.
Those who are quick to use a computer program rather than think about the
problem to be analyzed may find it difficult to interpret input data to the
computer program, a good understanding of the underlying theory of the
problem as well as numerical method is required.

2.3.2 Interfaces to cad

33
 Fig: 2.1:Interfaces to CAD

The CAD system may interface to a dedicated finite element pre-processor,

which must be capable of receiving geometric data from the cad system.
The CAD system may itself incorporate a mesh generator, such that finite
element models can be generated from the component geometry.

2.3.3 General steps of Finite Element Method

A typical finite element program consists of three basic units.

PREPROCESSOR
Read geometry and material data and boundary
Conditions of the problem.
34
 PROCESSOR
Generate finite element mesh
Calculate element matrices
Assemble element equations
Solve the equation

POSTPROCESSOR
Compute the solution and its derivatives at desired points of the domains and plot results.

Fig: 2.2: Steps of finite element method

2.3.3.1 Preprocessor

In pre-processor part of the program, the input data of the problem are read in
and/or generated. This includes the geometry (e.g., length of the domain and the
boundary conditions), the data of the problem (e.g., coefficients in the differential
equations), finite element mesh information (e.g., element type, number of elements,
element length, coordinates of the nodes and connectivity matrix) and indicators of
various options (e.g., print, no print, type of field problem analyzed).
2.3.3.2 Solver

35
 In the processor part, all the steps in the finite element method discussed in
the preceding chapter, except for post processing are performed. The major steps of
processor are,
Generation of the element matrices using numerical integration.
Assembly of element equations.
Imposition of the boundary conditions.
Solution of the algebraic equations for the nodal values of the primary
variables.

2.3.3.3 Postprocessor

In the postprocessor part of the program the solution is computed by

interpolation at points other than nodes, secondary variables that are derivate from
the solutions are computed and the output data are processed in a desired format for
print put/plotting.

2.4 STATICSTRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

The seven types of structural analysis available in the ANSYS family of products are
explained below. The primary unknowns calculated in a structural analysis are
displacements.other quantities such as strains and reaction forces, are then derived
from the nodal displacements.structural analysis are available in the ansys
multiphysics,ansys mechanical,ansys structural, and anasys professional program
only. You can perform the following types of structural analysis. Each of these
analysis types are discussed in the detail

Static analysis
Used to determine displacements, stresses,etc. Static loading condition both linear
and nonlinear static analyses. Nonlinearities can include plasticity,stress stiffening,
large, deflection, large strain,hyper elasticity, contact surfaces and creep.

Model Analysis

36
Used to calculate the natural frequencies and mode shapes of a structure. Different
mode extraction methods are available.

Harmonic Analysis
Used to determine the response of a structure to harmonically time varying loads

Transient Dynamic Analysis

Used to determine the response of a structure to arbitrarily time varying loads.
All nonlinearities mentioned under static analysis above are allowed

Spectrum Analysis
An extension of modal analysis, used go calculate stresses and strains due to a
response spectrum or a PSD input

Buckling Analysis
Used to calculate the buckling loads and determine the buckling load shape. Both
linear and nonlinear buckling analyses are possible.

Explicit Dynamic Analysis

This type of structural analysis is only available in the ANASYS LSDYNA
program. ANSYS LSDYNA provided interface to the LSDYNA explicit finite element
program. Explicit dynamic analysis is used to calculate fast solution for large
deformation dynamics and complex contact problems. Explicit dynamic analysis is
described in the ANSYS LSDYNA users guide.

2.4.1 Static structural analysis

The Static structural analysis is one of the most basic types of analysis. It is available
as static structural analysis system under the analysis system toolbox window. Static
structural analysis is the determination of effects of loads on physical structures and
their components.This system analyses the structural components for stresses,

37
strains, displacements and forces under different loading conditions.The results of the
analysis used to verify a structures fitness for use, often saving physical tests.

Analysis will be carried out in three major steps: pre-processing, solution and post-
processing.

Pre-processing:
The pre-processing of an analysis system involves specifying the material, generating
a mesh and defining boundary conditions.

Solution:
In an analysis after pre-processing is done, the next step is to solve the analysis. In
ansys workbench, you will use the solve tool from the standard toolbar to run the
solver. The solver runs in the background of software and acquires results of an
analysis, based on the specified boundary conditions.

Post processing:
After the analysis is complete, you need to generate the report in the mechanical
window. To do so, choose the report preview tab from the bottom of the graphics
screen.

2.4.2 Loads in a Static Analysis

Static analysis is used to determine the displacements, stresses, strains, and forces
in structures or components caused by loads that do not induce significant inertia and
damping effects. Steady loading and response conditions are assumed; that is, the
loads and the structure's response are assumed to vary slowly with respect to time.
The kinds of loading that can be applied in a static analysis include:

Externally applied forces and pressures

Steady-state inertial forces (such as gravity or rotational velocity)

38
 Imposed (non-zero) displacements

Temperatures (for thermal strain)

Fluences (for nuclear swelling)

2.4.3 Linear vs. Nonlinear Static Analyses

A static analysis can be either linear or nonlinear. All types of nonlinearities are
allowed- large deformations, plasticity, creep, stress stiffening, contact (gap)
elements, hyper elastic elements, etc. This chapter focuses on linear static analyses,
with brief references to nonlinearities.

2.4.4 Overview of Steps in a Static Analysis

The procedure for a static analysis consists of three main steps:

Build the model.

Apply loads and obtain the solution.

Review the results.

2.5 ELEMENT FORMULATION

2.5.1 Solid 187 Element description

SOLID187 element is a higher order 3-D, 10-node element. SOLID187 has a

quadratic displacement behavior and is well suited to modeling irregular meshes
(such as those produced from various CAD/CAM systems).

The element is defined by 10 nodes having three degrees of freedom at each

node: translations in the nodal x, y, and z directions. The element has plasticity,
hyperelasticity, creep, stress stiffening, large deflection, and large strain capabilities. It
also has mixed formulation capability for simulating deformations of nearly
39
incompressible elastoplastic materials, and fully incompressible hyperelastic
materials.

Fig: 2.3:Solid 187 Geometry

2.5.2 Solid 187 Input data

The geometry, node locations, and the coordinate system for this element are
shown in Fig: 13 "SOLID187 Geometry".

In addition to the nodes, the element input data includes the orthotropic or
anisotropic material properties. Orthotropic and anisotropic material directions
correspond to the element coordinate directions. The element coordinate system
orientation is as described in Linear Material Properties.

Element loads are described in Node and Element Loads. Pressures may be
input as surface loads on the element faces as shown by the circled numbers on
Figure 187.1: "SOLID187 Geometry". Positive pressures act into the element.
Temperatures may be input as element body loads at the nodes. The node I
temperature T (I) defaults to TUNIF. If all other temperatures are unspecified, they
default to T (I). If all corner node temperatures are specified, each midside node
temperature defaults to the average temperature of its adjacent corner nodes. For any
other input temperature pattern, unspecified temperatures default to TUNIF.

40
 As described in Coordinate Systems, you can use ESYS to orient the material
properties and strain/stress output. Use RSYS to choose output that follows the
material coordinate system or the global coordinate system. For the case of
hyperelastic materials, the output of stress and strain is always with respect to the
global Cartesian coordinate system rather than following the material/element
coordinate system.

KEYOPT (6) = 1 or 2 sets the element for using mixed formulation. For details
on the use of mixed formulation, see Applications of Mixed u-P Formulations in the
ANSYS Elements Reference.

You can apply an initial stress state to this element through the ISTRESS or
ISFILE command. For more information, see Initial Stress Loading in the ANSYS
Basic Analysis Guide. Alternately, you can set KEYOPT (10) = 1 to read initial
stresses from the user subroutine USTRESS. For details on user subroutines, see the
Guide to ANSYS User Programmable Features.

The effects of pressure load stiffness are automatically included for this
element. If an unsymmetric matrix is needed for pressure load stiffness effects, use
NROPT, UNSYM. The next table summarizes the element input. Element Input gives
a general description of element input.

2.5.3 Solid 187 Input Summary

Nodes:

I, J, K, L, M, N, O, P, Q, R

Degrees Of Freedom:

UX, UY, UZ

Real Constants:

None

41
Material Properties:

EX, EY, EZ, ALPX, ALPY, ALPZ (or CTEX, CTEY, CTEZ or THSX, THSY, THSZ),
PRXY, PRYZ, PRXZ (or NUXY, NUYZ, NUXZ),
DENS, GXY, GYZ, GXZ, DAMP
Surface loads pressure:

Face 1 (J-I-K), face 2 (I-J-L), face 3 (J-K-L), face 4 (K-I-L)

Body loads temperatures:

T(I), T(J), T(K), T(L), T(M), T(N), T(O), T(P), T(Q), T(R)

2.5.4 Special features

Plasticity

Hyperelasticity

Viscoelasticity

Viscoplasticity

Creep

Stress stiffening

Large deflection

Large strain

Initial stress import

Automatic selection of element technology

Birth and death

42
 Supports the following types of data tables associated with the TB command:
AHYPER, ANEL, BISO, MISO, NLISO, BKIN, MKIN, KINH, CHABOCHE, HILL,
RATE, CREEP, HYPER, PRONY, SHIFT, CAST, SMA, ELASTIC, SDAMP,
PLASTIC, and USER.

NOTE:

See the ANSYS, Inc. Theory Reference for details on the material models.See
Automatic Selection of Element Technologies and ETCONTROL for more information
on selection of element technologies.

KEYOPT (6)

2.5.5 Element Formulation

Use pure displacement formulation (default)

Use mixed formulation, hydrostatic pressure is constant in an element

(recommended for hyperelastic materials)

Use mixed formulation, hydrostatic pressure is interpolated linearly in an

element (recommended for nearly incompressible elastoplastic materials)

KEYOPT (10)

2.5.6 User defined initial stress

No user subroutine to provide initial stresses (default).

Read initial stress data from user subroutine USTRESS (see the Guide to
ANSYS User Programmable Features for user written subroutines)

2.5.7 Solid 187 output data

43
The solution output associated with the element is in two forms:

Nodal displacements included in the overall nodal solution

Additional element output as shown in "SOLID187 Element Output Definitions"

The element stress directions are parallel to the element coordinate system.
The surface stress outputs are in the surface coordinate system and are available for
any face (KEYOPT (6)). The coordinate system for face JIK is shown in Figure 187.2:
"SOLID187 Stress Output". The other surface coordinate systems follow similar
orientations as indicated by the pressure face node description. Surface stress
printout is valid only if the conditions described in Element Solution are met.

Fig: 2.4:Solid187 Stress Output

2.5.8 Solid 187 assumptions and restriction

The element must not have a zero volume.

Elements may be numbered either as shown in Figure 14: "SOLID187

Geometry" or may have node L below the I, J, K plane.

44
 An edge with a removed midside node implies that the displacement varies
linearly, rather than parabolically, along that edge. See Quadratic Elements
(Midside Nodes) in the ANSYS Modeling and Meshing Guide for information
about using midside nodes.

When mixed formulation is used (KEYOPT (6) = 1 or 2), no midside nodes can
be missed.

If you use the mixed formulation (KEYOPT (6) = 1 or 2), you must use either
the sparse solver (default) or the frontal solver.

Stress stiffening is always included in geometrically nonlinear analyses

(NLGEOM, ON). It is ignored in geometrically linear analyses (NLGEOM, OFF)
when specified by SSTIF, ON. Prestress effects can be activated by the
PSTRES command.

2.5.9 Solid 187 product restrictions

When used in the product(s) listed below, the stated product-specific

restrictions apply to this element in addition to the general assumptions and
restrictions given in the previous section. The only special feature allowed is stress
stiffening.

2.6 METHODOLGY

Design of 3D model
hub using pro-e

Analysis of existing
material hub in ansys

45
 Analysis of proposed
material hub in ansys

A
A

Comparision of existing
and proposed material
using ansys results

Fatigue analysis of
proposed material

Fig: 2.5: Methodology

46
 CHAPTER 3

MODELLING AND ANALYSIS OF WIND TURBINE BLADE HUB

3.1 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE

The aim of the project is to reduce strength-weight ratio and decrease in cost by
changing material of hub. So a 3D model is designed in pro-e and it analysed in
ansys for both existing and aluminium alloy. After analyzing both the results are
compared and fatigue analysis is made for aluminium alloy in order to determine
weather it is capable in environmental conditions.

3.2DESIGN OF HUB
This dimensions of Horizontal axis wind turbine blade hub are taken from a
600KW wind turbine which is manufactured by suzlon Energy.

47
 Fig: 3.1: 2 D Dimensions of 600KW Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine
3.3 3D MODEL OF HUB

The 3D model of the hub is modelled using the software PRO/E. PRO/E is widely
used software to model the three dimensional model due to its user friendly options
compared to other similar software's. The 3D model is imported to Ansys for analysis.
In order to import the model is converted into global file format namely .stp format.
After converting the file into .stp format the file is imported into ansys.

48
 Fig: 3.2: 3D Model of Rotor Hub

3.4 PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS

Table: 3.1: Mechanical properties of cast iron

Density 7100 Kg/m

Tensile Strength 370Mpa
Yield Strength 250Mpa
49
 Poissons Ratio 0.27
Youngs Modulus 169000Mpa

Table: 3.2: Chemical composition of cast iron

C P Mn Ni Mg
Cast iron 3.4 0.1 0.4 1.0 0.06

Table: 3.3: Mechanical properties of aluminium alloy

Density 2700kg/m

Tensile Strength 310Mpa

Yield Strength 218Mpa
Poissons Ratio 0.32

Youngs Modulus 69000Mpa

Table:3.4: Chemical composition of aluminium alloy

Al Mg Si Fe
98.096 0.937 0.535 0.139

Aluminium alloy Ti Mn Zn Cr
0.012 0.022 0.0983 0.022
Ni
0.005

50
3.5 MESHING IN ANSYS

Fig: 3.3: Meshing of Wind Turbine Rotor Hub(Tetrahedron)

3.6 EXTREME LOAD CASES ON HUB FROM IEC 61400-1

Moments and forces on the hub can then be determined from the blade
forces.For a rigid rotor turbine, both flapping and lead lag moments are transmitted to
hub, usually flapping is the predominant one.
The blade root bending moment for each blade is

M = K *

Table: 3.5: Extreme loads on hub from IEC 61400-1 table

51
 B.M & Forces Load Case-1 Load Case-2

301 Hub1 Mx KNm 118 -318

302 Hub1 My KNm 151 267

303 Hub1 Fx KN 25.6 31.8

304 Hub1 Fy KN 16.8 27.2

305 Hub1 Fz KN 97.9 114

The above loads are taken from IEC 61400-1(International Standard). It is

published by the International Electrotechnical Commission regarding wind turbines.
The 61400 is a set of design requirements made to ensure that wind turbines are
appropriately engineered against damage from hazards within the planned lifetime.

3.7 ANALYSIS OF EXISTING MATERIAL (CAST IRON GGG 40.3)

3.7.1 Load case 1 (ggg40.3)

52
 Fig: 3.4: Boundary Condition of Extreme loads case 1 condition for Existing
Hub

The above figure 3.4 represents moments and forces applied on the existing
material cast iron ggg 40.3 with a fixed support of load case 1.

3.7.2 LOAD CASE 2(GGG40.3):

53
 Fig: 3.5: Boundary Condition of Extreme loads case 2 conditions for Existing
Hub

The above figure 3.5 represents moments and forces applied on the existing
material cast iron ggg 40.3 with a fixed support of load case 2.

3.8 ANALYSIS OF PROPOSED MATERIAL (ALUMINIUM ALLOY 6061-T6)

3.8.1 Load case 1(Al alloy)

54
Fig: 3.6: Boundary Condition of Extreme loads case 1 for Aluminum Alloy Hub

The above figure 3.6 represents moments and forces applied on the proposed
material aluminium alloy with a fixed support of load case 1.

55
3.8.2 Load case 2 (Al alloy)

Fig: 3.7: Boundary Condition of Extreme loads case 2 for Aluminum Alloy Hub

The above figure 3.7 represents moments and forces applied on the proposed
material aluminium alloy with a fixed support of load case 2.

56
 CHAPTER 4
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
4.1 RESULTS FOR CAST IRON(GGG 40.3)
4.1.1 Load case 1

Fig: 4.1: Deformation plot for Extreme loads case1 condition for Existing Hub

Fig: 4.2: Stress Plot for Extreme loads case1 condition for Existing Hub
57
4.1.2 Load case 2

Fig: 4.3: Deformation plot for Extreme loads case 2 condition for Existing Hub

Fig: 4.4: Stress Plot for Extreme loads case 2 condition for Existing Hub
58
4.1.3 Discussion on Total deformation and Equivalent stress of cast iron
ggg 40.3

Cast iron GGG 40.3

GGG 40.3 is a german standard from DIN 1693 which is also called spheroidal
graphite cast iron.

Due to the spherical formation of the graphite, The ductile cast iron acquires
special properties compared to the flake graphite; tensile strength, yield strength and
e module are improved, expansion and impact strast strength are increased.

Total Deformation:

Deformation describes the transformation from initial to final geometry. The

collective displacement of points in a body relative to an external reference frame is
known as deformation.

Fig4.1 represents the total deformation change in the existing material i.e cast
iron ggg40.3 for 1 sec. The blue indicates the minimum value of 0m and red indicates
the maximum value of 0.00043186m. Fig 4.3 represents the total deformation change
in the existing material i.e cast iron ggg40.3 for 1 sec. The blue indicates the
minimum value of 0m and red indicates the maximum value of 0.00053065m.

Equivalent Stress:

The von-mises stress is often used in determining whether an isotropic

and ductile metal will yield when subjected to a complex loading condition.

Fig 4.2 represents the equivalent stress change in the existing material i.e cast
iron ggg40.3 for 1 sec. The blue indicates the minimum value of 29092 Pa and the red
indicates the maximum value of 2.7677e7 Pa. Fig 4.4 represents the equivalent stress
change in the existing material i.e cast iron ggg40.3 for 1 sec. The blue indicates the
minimum value of 27923 Pa and the red indicates the maximum value of 3.3666e7
Pa.

4.2 RESULTS FOR ALUMINIUM ALLOY(6061-T6)

59
4.2.1 Load case 1

Fig: 4.5: Deformation Plot of Extreme loads case 1 for Aluminum Alloy Hub

Fig: 4.6: Stress Plot of Extreme loads case 1 for Aluminum Alloy Hub

4.2.2 Load case 2

60
Fig: 4.7: Deformation Plot of Extreme loads case 2 for Aluminum Alloy Hub

Fig: 4.8: Stress Plot of Extreme loads case 2 for Aluminum Alloy Hub

61
4.2.3 Discussion on Total deformation and Equivalent stress on aluminium
alloy aa6061 t-6

Aluminium alloy AA6061-t6:

6061 is a precipation hardened aluminium alloy, containing magnesium and

silicon as its major alloying elements. Originally called Alloy 61s it was developed in
1953. It is has good mechanical properties.

T6 temper 6061 has an ultimate tensile strength of atleast 3000 MPa and yield
strength

Total Deformation:

Change in the shape of a body caused by the application of a force (stress).

Deformation is proportional to the stress applied within the elastic limits ofthe material.

A deformation may be caused by external loads, body forces (such

as gravity or electromagnetic forces), or changes in temperature, moisture content, or
chemical reactions, etc..

Fig 4.5 represents the total deformation change in the existing material i.e
Aluminium alloy 6061 t-6 for 1 sec. The blue indicates the minimum value of 0m and
red indicates the maximum value of 0.0010323m. Fig 4.7 represents the total
deformation change in the existing material i.e Aluminium alloy 6061 t-6 for 1 sec. The
blue indicates the minimum value of 0m and red indicates the maximum value of
0.001268m

Equivalent Stress:

Equivalent stress is used to predict yielding of materials under multiaxial

loading conditions using results from simple uniaxial tensile tests.

Fig 4.6 represents the equivalent stress change in the existing material i.e
Aluminium alloy 6061 t-6 for 1 sec. The blue indicates the minimum value of 24351
Pa and the red indicates the maximum value of 2.699e7 Pa. Fig 4.8 represents the
equivalent stress change in the existing material i.e Aluminium alloy 6061 t-6 for 1
sec. The blue indicates the minimum value of 25556 Pa and the red indicates the
maximum value of 3.1852e7 Pa.
62
4.3 FATIGUE ANALYSIS OF ALUMINIUM ALLOY

4.3.1 Safety factor

Factor of safety (FOS), also known as (and used interchangeably with) safety
factor (SF), is a term describing the capacity of a system beyond the expected loads
or actual loads.

Fig: 4.9: Safety Factor for Aluminum Alloy Hub

63
4.3.2 Fatigue life

Nf, as the number of stress cycles of a specified character that a specimen

sustains before failure of a specified nature occurs. For some materials,
notably steel and titanium, there is a theoretical value for stress amplitude below
which the material will not fail for any number of cycles, called a fatigue limit,
endurance limit or fatigue strength.

Fig: 4.10: Fatigue Life for Aluminum Alloy Hub

64
4.3.3 Biaxiality indication

Fig: 4.11: Bi-Axial Indication for Aluminum Alloy Hub

4.3.4 Equivalent alternating stress

Fig: 4.12: Equivalent Alternating Stress for Aluminium hub

65
 Table: 4.1: Comparison Of Cast Iron and Aluminium Alloy Analysis

Total
Equivalent stress
Material Lad cases deformation in
in pascals
meter

0.00043186 Max 2.7677e7 Max

Cast Iron Case-1
0 Min 29092 Min

0.00053065 Max 3.3666e7 Max

Cast Iron Case-2
0Min 27923 Min

0.0010323 Max 2.6119e7 Max

Aluminium alloy Case-1
0 Min 24351 Min

0.0012684 Max 3.1852e7 Max

Aluminium alloy Case-2
0 Min 25556 Min

Table: 4.2: Fatigue Analysis Results

Equivalent
Safety Biaxiality
Material alternating Life
factor indication
stress
2e7 Max
15 Max 0.99136 Max 1.0324e8 Max
Aluminium alloy 7.0806e6
0 Min -1 Min 3.6856 Min
Min

CHAPTER 5

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

5.1 SUMMARY

66
 An alternative has to be used for the wind turbine hub in order to reduce the
strength-weight ratio and gradual decrease in cost of production. So a material
aluminium alloy 6061-t6 is choosen as a alternative.

In order to satisfy the conditions the material has to be analyzed by finite

element analysis using ansys software. For analysis 3D model is modelled
using Pro-e designing software. The 3D model is converted into .stp file to
import in ansys.

In ansys both the materials existing and proposed material is analysed under
IEC 61400-1 load cases and the results of total deformation and equivalent
stress is taken for comparision.

The results of aluminium alloy material is compared with cast iron and
determine weather the material is capable by Fatigue analysis.

5.2 CONCLUSION

Wind turbine Rotor Hub has been analyzed for two extreme load conditions as
per the most important load cases according to IEC 61400-1 (wind turbine
loads)
Existing material is used for analysis (GGG40.3). Stress levels are high.
Factor of safety of the analysis shows 7.6 and required is 3. This shows that
the current design is much higher in safety.
So we can use aluminum alloy for reducing material cost and total weight
reduction. The stress (32MPa) and deflection (1.2mm) a value from the
analysis. Further Fatigue analysis is carried out and alternating stress for the
aluminum alloy is 103.2MPa which is less than the allowable yield
limit(170MPa).
The fatigue life of aluminum alloy rotor hub is safe for 20 years time of wind
turbine life time. Hence using aluminum alloy rotor hub will be beneficial to the
industries in cost wise.

67
 REFERENCES

Ali Muhammad, Milan Ristow, Fatigue Life of Wind Turbine Structural

Components,NAFEMS Seminar, Simulation-based Fatigue and Lifetime
Predictions November 10 - 11, 2010 Wiesbaden, Germany.

68
 Arvind Singh Rathore, Siraj Ahmed, Design and Analysis of Horizontal Axis
Wind Turbine Rotor, International Journal of Engineering Science and
Technology (IJEST), ISSN : 0975-5462 , Vol. 3 No.11 November (2011),page
no:7975 7980.

Fundamentals of wind energy from wind energy hand book.

Picture courtesy Wikipedia and Google.

Qingdao Casting Quality Industrial Co., Ltd. International Standard, UDC

669.131.7 october 1973.

Vinay V. Kuppast1, Vijay Kumar N. Chalwa2, S. N. Kurbet3, Aravind M.

Yadawad4 , Finite element analysis of aluminium alloys for their vibration
characterstics, IJRET: International Journal of Research in Engineering and
Technology , Volume: 03 Special Issue: 03 | May-2014 | NCRIET-2014,
Available @ http://www.ijret.org.

2014-IEC 61400-1 Edition 3.1 Design requirements, SUPPLIED BY BSB

UNDER LICENCE FROM IEC FOR NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF WIND
ENERGY (NIWE) ON 09/12/2014.

69