Ethnobotany Manual 14th September 2016

Workshop Manual
on
ETHNOBOTANY
September 16-17, 2016
Department of Botany, Hansraj College

and
Institute of Life Long Learning
University of Delhi
Delhi, INDIA
Editors: Dr Monika Koul

Dr S. Shweta
Legends of images given on cover page
Top-Left : Practicing ethnobotanist filling form during the field visit

Top-Middle : Piper betle leaf with Areca catechu nut
Top-Right : Ethnobotanical practice - preparation of drug for cancer cure
Bottom-Left : Begonia sp.
Bottom-Right : Ocimum sp. growing in field

ETHNOBOTANY WORKSHOP - 2016

Organised by
Hansraj College & ILLL

University of Delhi
Patrons Prof. Shormishtha Panja (Director, ILLL)

Dr Rama (Officiating Principal)
Conveners Dr Amrit Kaur Basra (ILLL)

Dr Monika Koul (Hansraj College)
Dr Romila Rawat Bisht (Hansraj College)
Coordinator Dr S. Shweta (Hansraj College)
O rganizing Committee Dr Manju Mathur

Dr Vijay Rani Rajpal
Dr Anand Sonkar
Dr Ishwar Singh
Dr Satyakam Guha
Dr Shalini Kaushik Love
Dr Sunita Yadav
Mohd. Hanief

Message from Director I L L L
The Institute of Lifelong Learning is pleased to collaborate with Hansraj College,

University of Delhi, to hold the two-day workshop on Ethnobotany, a new field which
has been introduced in the CBCS syllabus. The ILLL has always assisted in all efforts
to enhance pedagogy in the University of Delhi. I am certain that in the course of the
workshop, teachers and students of the University of Delhi will learn how to teach and
study this area with the help of presentations by outstanding experts from across India.
I applaud the vision and hard work of the Principal, Hansraj College, and the Workshop
Committee.
Prof. Shormishtha Panja

University of Delhi
Message from H ead
Department of Botany, University of Delhi
I am delighted to learn that a National Workshop on Ethnobotany is being jointly

organized by the Department of Botany, Hansraj College and the Institute of Lifelong
Learning, University of Delhi at Hansarj College during September 16-17, 2016. The
time chosen by the organizers is quite appropriate, as it would cater to the need of
undergraduate students of Botany who would like to study Ethnobotany which is
being offered under Skill Enhancement Courses by the University of Delhi and
elsewhere. As it is quite evident from the Programme and the level of speakers
identified for this Workshop, the latest advancements made in this important area of
Botany would lead to the understanding of folk medicines comprising medical
aspects of indigenous traditional knowledge of herbal preparations that developed
over generations within diverse communities of the societies before the development
of modern medicines. The participants of the Workshop would be immensely
benefited from the deliberations which would provide knowledge, skills, and
practices, based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences pertaining to maintenance of
health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis, improvement or treatment of physical
and mental illness, using herbal preparations among people from different cultures.
I congratulate the Organizers from both Department of Botany of Hansraj College and
ILLL as well as the Principal of the College and the Director of the Institute for their
joint effort to provide a common platform to the learned scientists who would provide
new knowledge about Ethnobotany and its scope for the benefit of students as well as
faculty.
I wish the Workshop a grand success.
Prof. V ed Pal Singh

University of Delhi

Preface
We are all witness to a change in the course curriculum over the past few years. From
an annual mode the shift was to semester mode and now to the CBCS (Choice Based
Credit System). The CBCS is one spectacular change in academics and has been
brought across all the universities of the country. The CBCS is a common system that
has a uniform framework with variety and choices of subjects that students can
choose from the bouquet. The aim is that it should satisfy both the attitude and
aptitude of the present generation students. E thnobotany is being offered as S K I L L
E N H A N C E M E N T C O U RSE (SEC) to the students of Botany (Hons.) 2nd Y ear
Semester I I I. E thnobotany is the study of the dynamic relationships between people
and plants. This paper provides an overview of various plants used by people, the
traditional knowledge on the use of plants along with an emphasis on how indigenous
people, tribals, and small-scale societies know and utilize plant resources. It is an
interdisciplinary field that requires knowledge of Botany, Anthropology, Linguists,
Ecology and Environment. Since the course is being taught for the first time in the
colleges of Delhi University, a need for guidance by the expert group was felt.
The Workshop on Ethnoboatny is our endeavor to bring together the experts
from all across the country on a common platform to share their knowledge on
various aspects of the subject and update the faculty with recent developments in the
field. As the CBCS framework on Skill Enhancement Courses has emphasized on
internship, dissertation and field based engagement of the students, the lectures will
enlighten the delegates on how to collect data, observe and interpret the data for
research work. The idea of holding this workshop is to help teacher educators prepare
professionals in the field so that we have a trained manpower to explore the resources
and convert the traditional knowledge into more useful resource for various domains
such as medicinal plant industry, food and nutraceutical industry.
The participants will gain a good understanding of concepts and principles in
ethnobotany; will gain appreciation for, the importance of plants and plant based
resources in sustaining human culture and will learn how to properly and ethically
conduct basic ethnobotanical field research.
The workshop manual is a compilation of the summaries of the talks by the
experts who are going to share their views and the protocols/procedures of the hands
on practicals that will be conducted in the laboratories. We also have a list of
suggested readings and glossary of important terms towards the end.
The workshop content has been designed in accordance with the syllabus of
UGC (University Grants Commission). Ralph Waldo Emerson wrote, "Nature tells
every secret once." So let us understand it in totality. It is a worthwhile experience to
understand the ethos of these words and become better prepared to understand the
hidden secrets of nature.
We hope that this workshop will be an interesting learning experience for all
of us.
D r Monika K oul
Acknowledgements
This workshop is possible because of the efforts put forward by many people. We
acknowledge the support extended to us whole heartedly by everyone. We wish to
acknowledge the support and encouragement from Prof. V.P. Singh Head,
Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Prof. K.S. Rao and Prof. Arun. K. Pandey
received for organizing this workshop.
We are indebted to our resource persons Dr S. Natesh, Prof. Arun K. Pandey,
Prof. Dr Ashok Jain, Dr B. Subramaniam, Dr Anil K. Goel and Dr Ishwar Singh who
have contributed the abstracts for the Workshop Manual and also agreed to share their
knowledge and expertise with us.
Prof. Shormistha Panja, Director, ILLL, University of Delhi has guided us all
through. We wish to thank her for her help and support. We also wish to thank Dr
Amrit Kaur Basra, Academic Secretary, ILLL for taking keen interest in organizing
this workshop. Besides we also thank ILLL, University of Delhi for providing
financial support for organizing this workshop.
Dr Rama, Principal, Hansraj College is the brain behind organizing this
workshop. It is because of her support and guidance we have been able to organize
this workshop. We thank her for her advice and support.
We also wish to thank the faculty members, Dr Manju Mathur, Dr Vijay Rani
Rajpal, Dr Anand Sonkar, Dr Ishwar Singh, Dr Satyakam Guha, Dr Shalini Kaushik
Love, Dr Sunita Yadav and Mohd. Hanief for helping us with various things and
extending their cooperation in all respects.
Dr S. Shweta, Coordinator for this workshop has spent lot of time and energy
in coordinating with our resource persons. We acknowledge her help.
The non-teaching staff of Department of Botany is an important pillar of
strength. We thank them for their help in arranging things for laboratory sessions.
We also wish to thank all our delegates who showed their interest in attending
this workshop and to our dear students who wanted to be a part of this academic
endeavor.
Conveners
D r Monika K oul
D r Romila Rawat Bisht
Contents
S.No. T heory/Practical T itle Page Nos.
1 Lead lecture Ancient Knowledge, Modern Medicine: The 1

Ethnobotanical Route to Drug Discovery
2 Technical session I Ethnobotany: Past, Present and Future 2-3
3 Technical session II Prospects of Ethnobiology in India 4
4 Technical session III An insight into the Ethno-medicinal wisdom 5-6

in India
5 Technical session IV Ethnobotany and Intellectual Property 7-9

Rights (IPR)
6 Practical session I Collection of plants from field and processing 10-13

them for herbarium preparation
8 Practical session II Crude extract preparation and its screening 14-24

for various groups of phytochemicals
9 Practical session III Collection of information on ethnobotanical 25-27

uses from traditional healers
10 Practical session IV To carry out a search of international patent 28-36

databases to identify cases of misappropriation
RIFRGLILHG,QGLDVWUDGLWLRQDONQRZOHGJH
11 Suggested Readings Ethnobotany and IPR 37
12 Glossary Some Important Ethnobotanical Terms 38-41

Ethnobotany Workshop - 2016
L ead L ecture
A ncient K nowledge, Modern Medicine:
T he E thnobotanical Route to D rug Discovery
Dr S. Natesh
Centre for Policy Research, IIT Delhi, New Delhi 110016
natesh.dbt@gmail.com
Of the roughly 265,000 plant species inhabiting the earth, less than 0.5 per cent has
been subjected to an exhaustive chemical analysis or medicinal properties. We live in
a world where finances are becoming increasingly scarce, so it would be impossible
to screen each of the remaining species for biological activity. While random
screening of plants has been useful, the results have not been commensurate with
resource input. On the other hand, ethnobotanical route to drug delivery has proved to
be the most productive of plant screening methods as it is a more targeted approach to
drug discovery, depending as it does on traditional knowledge on local plant
resources. While bioprospecting did guide ethnobotanical research in the past, the
primary goal of modern ethnobotany is neither to discover new pharmaceuticals nor
to develop novel bioactive molecules: it is to provide benefits to the study population
DQGWKHDVVRFLDWHGHFRV\VWHPVZKLOHUHFRJQL]LQJLQGLJHQRXVSHRSOHVULJKWVWRFRQWURO
their traditional knowledge. Even so, the definition of ethnobotany namely - the study
of the interrelationship between people and plants includes the investigation of
plants having therapeutic properties. The practice of ethnobotany requires teamwork
with multidisciplinary skill sets involving, inter alia, botany, anthropology,
pharmacology, and social sciences. Added to this, a thorough understanding of ethics,
knowledge of Intellectual property rights, and national and international legal
framework governing access and benefit sharing relating to biodiversity are
necessary. Soon after the Convention on Biological Diversity (1992) was concluded
at Rio de Janeiro, bioprospecting agreements were prophesied to provide a steady
pipeline of revenue from the global north to the global south. Obviously, no such
thing has happened. Will ethnobotany be a frontrunner in drug discovery? Very
unlikely. With the help of well-chosen examples from India and abroad, this lecture
analyses and illustrates the complexities through which ethnobotany has to navigate.
***
1
T echnical Session I
E thnobotany: Past, Present and F uture
Prof. Arun K. Pandey
Professor, Department of Botany, University of Delhi, Delhi and Former President
(Plant Sciences) Indian Science Congress, Kolkatta, West Bengal
arunpandey79@gmail.com
Ethnobotany is the systematic study of the relationships between plants and people.
7KH WHUP HWKQRERWDQ\ ZDV FRLQHG E\ +DUVKEHUJHU LQ WR GHQRWH WKH VWXG\ RI
SODQWVXVHGE\DERULJLQDOSHRSOH6FKXOWHVGHILQHGethQRERWDQ\DVWKHVWXG\
of the relationship which exists between people of primitive societies and their plant
HQYLURQPHQW (WKQRERWDQ\ VWDUWHG DV D UDWKHU QDUURZ DQG OLPLWHG ILHOG RI VWXG\
comprised initially of inventories of useful plants and their corresponding uses among
native people. Over the years, ethnobotany has evolved as a scientific discipline that
focuses on the people-plant relationship incorporating not only collection and
documentation of indigenous uses but also ecology, pharmacology, public health,
biodiversity conservation and other disciplines. Ethnobotany is regarded as the sum
total of the knowledge, wisdom and practices of traditional societies about their
ambient vegetation. The tribal communities in India have accumulated knowledge and
wisdom about the management and utilization of different plants around them. The
traditional knowledge among these tribes is passed on from generation to generation
through practice and oral folklore.
The Indian subcontinent is inhabited by approximately 550 tribal
communities. The traditional knowledge about plants remains fundamental to the
tribal communities and they substantially depend on traditional hunting, gathering,
fishing, herding and primitive farming for their livelihood. It has been estimated that
about 9,500 wild plant species are used by the tribals for various purposes. Many rare
and primitive cultivars and landraces of cereals, millets, pseudocereals, pulses and
vegetables which probably have almost disappeared, are still being grown by some
tribal communities, especially those living in remote forests or inaccessible areas of
the high hills of the Himalayas, Eastern and Western Ghats and other tribal inhabited
regions of India. These primitive cultivars and wild relatives of crop plants, preserved
by the tribals, are some of the very rare and precious genepool which hold genetic key
of many valuable characters. The breeders and biotechnologists may need wild
genepool for traditional and molecular breeding and developing new transgenic crops.
In India, there are approximately 8000 species of medicinal plants, which are
used for treatment of various ailments. Traditional medicine, in general, is a powerful
source of biologically active compounds. The traditional knowledge accumulated
over thousands of years can provide new functional leads to reduce time, money and
toxicity- the three main hurdled in drug development. Use of a particular species for
the same ailment by different unrelated ethnic groups indicates the efficacy and
potential of these plants for drug development.
Ethnobotany has immense value in bioprospecting of bioresources with the
objective of converting it into economic wealth. In the past, many compounds derived
from plants which are used in the preparation of modern medicines, were first
2
discovered through ethnobotanical investigations. Ethnobotanical knowledge has been

considered as a very cost effective means of locating alternative food sources and
leads for useful compounds/drugs, natural dyes, gums and resins. The rosy periwinkle
( Catharanthus roseus), quinine (Cinchona spp.), ginseng (Panax spp.) represent some
classical examples of the importance of ethnobotanical investigations in the discovery
of new bioactive compounds. The discovery and development of the herbal drug
-HHYDQL IURP Trichopus zeylanicus, by the Kani tribe of Kerala is yet another
example. Approximately 130 compounds extracted from higher plants are currently
being used in pharmaceutical preparations and 74% of these have been discovered
through follow up research works on ethnomedical uses of plants.
The traditional knowledge on the utilization of the biological resources is of
immense value to biodiversity planners and scientists in developing strategies in
conservation, utilization and generation of wealth from bioresources. Traditional
human societies have always been dependent upon the forest resources for their day to
day requirements. In India, much of the biodiversity is linked with regions which are
inhabited by traditional societies. These societies have been credited as the real
custodians of biodiversity. The protection of an entire patch of forest as sacred grove
is one such example of biodiversity conservation. Several tree species like Aegle
marmelos, F icus religiosa, Shorea robusta, Mangifera indica, Saraca asoca,
Anthocephalus cadamba, Azadirachta indica and Terminalia species are considered
sacred and hence protected.
In recent years, ethanopharmacology has become a scientific backbone for the
development of active therapeutics based upon traditional medicine of various ethnic
groups. EthnophaUPDFRORJ\ KDV EHHQ GHILQHG DV WKH LQWHUGLVFLSOLQDU\ VFLHQWLILF
H[SORUDWLRQRIELRORJLFDOO\DFWLYHDJHQWVWUDGLWLRQDOO\HPSOR\HGRUREVHUYHGE\PDQ
It is a multidisciplinary area of research concerned with observation, description and
experimental investigation of indigenous drugs and their biological activities.
In recent years, the knowledge of tribal communities is now recognized as an
importance resource that can be utilized for rural development, health care and
HQYLURQPHQWDO FRQVHUYDWLRQ VWUDWHJLHV 7KHUH LV QHHG WR GHYHORS D WUDGLWLRQDO
NQRZOHGJH GDWDEDVH QRW RQO\ IRU VKDULQJ profits but also for rewarding the ethnic
tribes. Systematic surveys and comparative studies on different ethnic groups may
yield valuable information about medicinal and other economically important plants.
Collaborative research programmes involving taxonomist, phytochemists, molecular
biologists, anthropologists and pharmacologists need to be encouraged. The intensive
phytochemical screening is needed on tropical plant species for identifying active
compounds from all ethnobotanical leads. The role of practicing taxonomist in
identification of plant species used by the tribal people is indispensable. Also, there is
need to develop strategies to help the traditional societies to protect the intellectual
Property Rights (IPR) of the unique knowledge they possess as well as to add value to
their traditional knowledge so as to improve the quality of their life.
***
3
T echnical Session I I
Prospects of E thnobiology in India
Prof. Ashok K. Jain
Honorary Director, Institute of Ethnobiology
Jiwaji University, Gwalior- 474011
asokjain2003@yahoo.co.in
Ethnobiology is an interdisciplinary subject of science and requires approach from

different fields. There is more interest in ethnobiology today, than at any time in the
GLVFLSOLQHVKLVWRU\+XJHGDWDRQYDULRXVHthnobiological aspects have been collected
in India and abroad. Looking to the scope of the subject now many developed
countries are promoting education and research in ethnobiology. Several fields of
ethnobiology have broad prospects and attracted the attention of researchers e.g.,
discovery of new herbal drugs and bioactive compounds, biodiversity: its loss and
reassessment, threatened species, nutraceutics, germplasm collection and
conservation, molecular and cellular biology, cottage and craft industries, NWFPs,
loss of cultural heritage, IPR issues etc. In spite of all these avenues, ethnobiology is
suffering from many deficiencies, especially the lack of theoretical basis and its real
concept among many researchers, educational opportunities, and research support. To
be a good ethnobotanist a thorough knowledge of plant taxonomy is necessary, but
this aspect is lacking in many countries including India. An overview of taxonomy
shows that it has never been more relevant than in the present time of environmental
concerns and species loss. Being a treasure of rich flora and fauna, a large population
of tribals and other folk people, immense traditions and cultural heritage, India has
more prospects through ethnobiological knowledge. Some case studies from India
indicate that ethnobiological knowledge has helped in conservation of culture,
traditions, biodiversity and other resources and generation of employment. In Madhya
Pradesh 7KUHDWHQHG 6WDWXV RI VRPH SODQW VSHFLHV FRXOG EH DVVHVVHG RQO\ DIWHU
ethnobotanical survey and now steps are taken for their conservation, e.g.,
Commiphora wightii, Ficus krishnae, Manilkara hexendra, Pterocarpus marsupium
etc. Organization of folk festivals in this state has also made people aware about man-
plant relationship. Some plants based cottage industries are providing employment
opportunities to folk people. Local farmers are now cultivating many medicinally
important plant species like, Withania somnifera, Chlorophytum vorivillianum,
Gloriosa superba, Asparagus racemosus, Andrographis paniculata, Gymnema
sylvestre, Cissus quadrangularis, Plumbago zeylanica etc. It has certainly helped in
raising their economy. All these efforts have good prospects for next two to three
decades.

***
4
T echnical Session I I I
A n Insight into the E thno-medicinal W isdom in India
Dr Anil K. Goel
Former Chief Scientist and Head, Botanic Garden and Floriculture
CSIR- Botanical Research Institute, Lucknow 226 001 (India)
Present Address: Flat No. 2-C, Silver Edge Apartments, B-58,
Sector-A, Mahanagar, Lucknow 226006
akgoelofcsirnbri@gmail.com
Man has been using the plants for various day-to-day utilitarian aspects through
continuous trial and error methods. Several leads of the modern medicine lie in the
plant species used by the tribal communities since the time immemorial throughout
the world,WLVHVWLPDWHGWKDWQHDUO\ELOOLRQSHRSOHFRPSULVLQJRIWKHZRUOGV
population rely on the plants as their primary source of medicine. A treasure trove of
such knowledge still remains untapped inside the forests throughout the world.
Presently there are about 700 plant species, which are being utilized for the
development of modern drugs. In the present era of medical engineering, plants play
equally an important role in the discovery and development of several lifesaving
drugs. Over the counter, cost of herbal drugs is roughly estimated to be US$ 500
billion all over the world. It is constantly growing rapidly @ 10 15 % annually and
likely to touch US $ 5-6 trillion during the next 20 years.
Indian subcontinent is also among the top nations having the richest source of
Traditional Knowledge since the time immemorial. Over 550 tribal communities
belonging to 227 ethnic groups constituting 7.7 % of entire population inhabit our
country. About 4500 plant species are used traditionally all over the country for
healthcare, food and other day-to-day material requirements. Therefore, it is
considered as a heritage of traditional system of medicine dating back to 5000 BC.
Traditional Knowledge in our country has survived due to its strength, efficacy in the
treatment and drug formulations taking care of health requirements of the people.
Azadirachta indica, Cannabis sativa, Coptis teeta, Gymnema sylvestre, Papaver
somniferum, Picrorrhiza kurrooa and Rauvolfia serpentina etc. are few notable
examples from the traditional and ethnic leads verifying their efficacies based on
modern pharmacological evaluations. Presently Indian herbal drug industry has
annual turnover of approximately Rs. 4000 crore with a meager export of Rs. 400
crore. It has tremendous scope and potential to expand further and serve the mankind.
Knowledge generated from such sources has played most significant role in
the discovery of novel products as well the ideas about conservation of natural
resources. With the application of modern standard technologies, discovery of new
miracle herbal drugs have saved millions of lives in the twentieth century. First
successful multidisciplinary study on ethno-pharmacological problem was that of an
arrowhead SRLVRQ GHULYHG IURP D SODQW NQRZQ DV 1X[YRPLFD Strychnos nux-
5
vomica). Several important and well known mind altering drug plants in the world
reveal documented records of their traditional ancient uses. Examples of these plants
are: Papaver somniferum (Opium Poppy), Cannabis sativa (Marijuana),
Erythroxylum coca (Coca), Lophophora williamsii (pey-ote) etc. Widespread
distribution and antiquity of the use of these taxa and many other psychoactive drug
plants is indicative of their relative importance throughout the development of human
society through value addition.
The hints of pharmaceuticals lie in the traditional as well as ethnomedicinal

claims, which possess tremendous potential towards the discovery of new medicines
and novel molecules. Recently it has also been proved through experimental
evidences that a seventeen fold increase in activity of plant extracts pre-selected for
medicinal use based on these leads was observed when compared to the screening of
plants selected randomly. Researchers should also keep in mind about the
implementation of Article 8(j) of Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in
principle by giving equitable sharing of the benefits to the tribal and rural
communities arising out of such knowledge. Traditional and ethnic leads should be
handled with utmost care, positivity and faith in the claims.
In order to protect the Indian traditional knowledge a collaborative project on

the T raditional K nowledge Digital L ibrary (T K D L) was launched by NISCAIR,
Department of AYUSH and Department of Industrial Policy and Promotions which is
being implemented at NISCAIR, New Delhi. This project has integrated a huge
amount of generated knowledge based information on Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha
into a unified code to protect the valuable knowledge from bio-piracy, use in
discoveries of new drugs and equitable sharing of benefits. Twenty first century
belongs to the herbal pharmaceuticals but the studies in medicinal plants are posed
with complex challenges and demand integrated approach towards the development
of health care products, their sustainable utilization and conservation.
***
6
T echnical Session I V
Ethnobotany and Intellectual Property Rights (IPR)
Dr B. Subramaniam
Retd. Chief Scientist (Scientist G), CSIR-NISCAIR and The-Then Co-ordinator,
Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL), CSIR, New Delhi
balasubramaniam1952@gmail.com
Ethnobotany is the relationship of human beings with plants right from the time when
human beings started using plants for food, medicine, shelter, and other purposes. The
utilization of plants by human beings was carried out in two ways: (i) hit and trial
methods, and more so by (ii) observing the animals what they eat when they are sick
(zoopharmacognosy) or hungry (regularly consumed plants). Ethnobotanical knowledge
has evolved at the grass root level and is dynamic, changing according to the needs of the
communities. It is passed on from generation to generation as an oral knowledge or can
be codified.
Ethnomedical knowledge has led to the development of several important

medicines, which are at present part of the prescription drugs in allopathic system of
medicines. For example, discovery of the drug for curing malaria which dramatically
inhibits Plasmodium growth from the extracts from qinghao ( Artemisia annua , sweet
wormwood). Tu Youyou from China got Nobel Prize for this work in Medicine in
October, 2015.
Ethnobotanical knowledge in using Rauvolfia serpentina for treating mental

illness and insomnia in India led to the discovery of reserpine alkaloid. Sutherlandia
frutescens is a shrub indigenous to South Africa, commonly known as cancer bush. It
has a traditional African folklore history i.e., it is used by inhabitants of Cape, the
Khoi San and Nama people and has a strong reputation as a cure of cancer and TB. It
is now increasingly used as an immune booster in the treatment of AIDS. Similarly,
aspirin from F ilipendula ulmaria is used for reducing pain and inflammation, codeine
from Papaver somniferum for easing pain and suppressing coughing, ipecac from
Cephaelis ipecacuanha for inducing vomiting, pilocarpine from Pilocarpus jaborandi
for reducing pressure on eyes, pseudoephedrine from Ephedra sinica for reducing
nasal congestion, quinine from Cinchona pubescens to combat malaria, scopolamine
from Datura stramonium for easing motion sickness, theophylline from Camellia
sinensis which opens bronchial passage, vinblastine from Catharanthus roseus which
FRPEDWV +RGJNLQV GLVHDVH WR QDPH D IHZ have been developed through the
ethnobotanical leads and are now being administered as prescription drugs.
The discovery of the sweetener Thaumatin (protein low calorie sweetener)

from the aril of Thaumatococcus danielli which is 2500 times sweeter than sugar was
discovered through ethnobotanical knowledge of the indigenous communities of West
Africa. The aril is 2500 times sweeter than sugar and is used in beverage,
7
confectionery and pharmaceutical industries. Thaumatin has an international value of

Rs. 2 lakh per kg.
There are several cases of misappropriation of oral traditional knowledge. For

example, Kava ( Piper methysticum) is an important cash crop in the Pacific. It is
valued as a source of ceremonial beverage. Over 100 varieties of Kava are grown in
the Pacific, especially in Fiji and Vanuatu. In North America and Europe, Kava is
now promoted for a variety of uses. French company /2UHDOKDV patented the use of
Kava to reduce hair loss and stimulate hair growth.
Similarly, Shamans, of Amazon basin processed bark of Banisteriopsis caapi

to produce a ceremoQLDO GULQN NQRZQ DV $\DKXDVFD. Shamans use Ayahuasca
ZKLFKPHDQVZLQHRIWKHVRXOLQUHOLJLRXVDQGKHDOLQJFHUHPRQLHVWRGLDJQRVHDQG
treat illness. Loren Miller obtained US Plant Patent (no.5, 751 issued in 1986),
granting him rights over an alleged variety FDOOHG'D9LQH&RRUGLQDWLQJ%ody of
Indigenous Organizations of the Amazon Basin (COICA) protested about a wrong
patent. USPTO revoked the patent on November 3, 1999. However, on April 17,
2001, the original claims were restored to the innovator based on his appeal.
The ethnobotanical information given by the communities need to follow the

`2&$3 SULQFLSOHV ZKLFK LQFOXGHV: (i) Community owns information collectively
similar to personal information, (ii) Communities within their rights control all
aspects of research and information management that impact them, (iii) Communities
have access to information regardless of where it is actually held, and (iv) Should
have possession or physical control of data.
While getting the information from the knowledge holders it is also essential
to take the Prior Informed Consent (PIC) from them as has been given in Article 15 of
CBD (Convention on Biological Diversity) and Bonn Guidelines (2002): Access to
Genetic Resources, and Fair and equitable sharing of benefits. PIC is required from
communities for access and use of Traditional Knowledge, innovations and practices.
Written consent and authorization from innovators/knowledge holders are required.
Extent of disclosure may be summary/partial/full. It is also required for carrying out
further research on the Traditional Knowledge.
There are several issues and concerns in documenting the oral traditional
knowledge. These include issues of culture, property, access etc. What is important is
to note whether the community will be benefited or prejudicial and whether it protects
the interests and knowledge if the latter is published, since the knowledge will lose its
novelty and can be exploited by any of the pharmaceutical companies without giving
any fair and equitable benefit to the knowledge holders. There is also a need to
consider the National Intellectual Property (IP) laws and regulations.
There are some examples of benefit sharing models with the knowledge
holders based on Ethnobotanical Knowledge. For example, the leaves, fruits and
seeds of Trichopus zeylanicus (Trichopodaceae) are restorative, immune-enhancing,
8
anti-stress and anti-fatigue agent. The knowledge on this plant commonly called
Arogyapacha existed with Kani tribals of Agastyar hills, Kerala who used to
consume fruits of this plant and did not get tired. Kani tribals passed this information
to P. Pushpangadan of TBGRI (Kerala) LQV7ZHOYHELRDFWLYHFRPSRXQGVKDYH
been isolated from Arogyapacha such as glycolipids and polysaccharides. TBGRI
secured a process patent for Jeevani in 1995. Drug `Jeevani ZDVGHYHORSHGE\$U\D
Vaidya Pharmacy, Coimbatore and marketed. Kani tribesmen got Rs 5 lakh as license
fee and Rs 2.25 lakh as royalty, and formed a trust to manage the fund.
Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi and Department of

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codified traditional knowledge. A database has been created on traditional medicinal
knowledge called Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL) existing in
Ayurveda, Unani, Siddha and Yoga postures. This database containing 2.95 lakh
formulations has been created by breaking the language and format barriers and is
available in five international languages, which are English, French, German, Spanish
and Japanese respectively. This tool is made available to International Patent Offices
under non-GLVFORVXUHDJUHHPHQWIRUSUHYHQWLQJWKHJUDQWRIZURQJSDWHQWVRQ,QGLDV
codified medicinal knowledge such as turmeric for wound healing properties, etc. So
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been either rejected, modified, withdrawn or declared dead. TKDL, a maiden attempt
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knowledge by establishing prior art of the knowledge. The wrong patent claimed on
the said invention gets rejected as TKDL proves that there is no novelty step in it and
has been taken from the traditional knowledge texts existing in India.
***
9
Practical - I
Dr S. Shweta
Department of Botany
Hansraj College, University of Delhi
Aim
Collection of plants from field and processing them for herbarium preparation.
Requirements
Plant Collection Tools : Plant cutter/secadior, polythene bags, knife, vasculum, field
record/collection note book, number tags, a stick with a hook for collection of parts of
tall trees, Global Positioning System (GPS) instrument
Laboratory Requirements : Blotting sheets or newspapers, plant press, mercuric
chloride, herbarium sheets (size 41 x 29 cm), species folders, genus folders, labels (12
x 7 cm), formalin (4%) or FAA (alcohol 90: formalin 5: glacial acetic acid 5)
T heory
Herbarium is a repository of dried, pressed and preserved plant specimens on sheets

and is arranged according to an accepted system of classification for future use.
Herbaria serve a valuable resource for identification of plants, for floristic and
monographic works, for understanding biodiversity, for identifying plant species
which are threatened, for evolving conservation strategies, for phenological studies,
for study of climate change, for carrying out anatomical studies, for study of pollen
features, for studying the chemical constituents, for identifying plants which are the
hyper accumulators of minerals, for study of medicinal plants, tools for preserving
local plant information, for molecular biology studies, etc. In fact, there are over 100
uses of herbarium (Funk, 2004, Subramaniam et al. unpublished). The discovery of
the sweetening property of the leaves of Stevia rebaudiana was through herbarium
specimens only. Notes given on the herbarium sheets on the local uses of plants are
sometimes very useful for future research activities and for identifying new utilities of
plants which are as yet undocumented. Many of the ethnobotanical studies have been
carried out based on the notes given on the herbarium sheets. Interestingly, the
misappropriation of traditional knowledge on the plant, Ayahuasca ( Banisteriopsis
caapi) was prevented based on the herbarium specimen, which was considered as a
prior art legally. Therefore, herbaria are indispensible tools for carrying out botanical
research work, more so for the ethnobotanical studies.
Procedure
Collection of Plant Specimens from the F ield
Sampling sites: For collection of plant material from the field, there is need to: (i)
identify the place from where to collect the plant, (ii) time of flowering and fruiting of
the plant during which the visits could be undertaken. For identification of the place
10
of collection of the plant specimens, one has to consult the flora of that region or
study the existing herbarium specimens. This will also enable easy identification of
the plants in the field. Also required is to note the flowering and fruiting time so as to
schedule the field visits during that period, though periodic visits would enable the
understanding of the changing flora over a period of time.
Data to be recorded at the plant-sampling site: After reaching the field, the plants are
first identified based on the characteristic features so that only the required plants are
collected. Only the required number of branches are to be collected and these should be
numbered using the numbered tags. Data such as date of collection, time of collection,
flower colour, height of the plant, associated plants, soil features, and other features
which may include plant, animal or insect interactions are to be recorded in the field
note book. What is also essential is to record the GPS data so that during the subsequent
visits or visit by any other collector, this will act as a guide for reaching the exact spot
where the plant exists. It is also desirable to discuss with the local people to understand
any local uses of the plant which may enhance the ethnobotanical understanding. Local
healers sometimes are able to provide information on therapeutic uses of the plant.
Collection of plant specimen: The specimen to be collected should be healthy. The

specimens should have ample leaves, flowers and fruits so that these characters could
be used for identification by students in future. If one twig has flowers and other has
fruits, both twigs may be taken. Specimens with only vegetative characters are not
desirable for making herbarium sheets. The size of the specimens should be about 25
to 40 cm, even larger specimens can be accommodated on herbarium sheets by
folding them (V or N or W shape). If specimens are smaller, more specimens could be
accommodated on a single herbarium sheet. Plants should be kept in polythene bags
which contains holes. Sprinkling keeps the specimens fresh. Plants can also be
transported in vasculum.
Laboratory procedure: Plants are carefully taken out in laboratory without damaging
any part. These are spread between the blotting sheets or newspapers. As far as
possible there should not be any overlapping of leaves, flowers and fruits. Some
leaves should have their lower surface visible to study the under surface features.
Flowers should be pressed in spread fashion. If some fruits or seeds or bark is
collected these can be kept in small fragment packets so as to stick the packets along
with the specimens on the herbarium sheets. The blotting sheets or newspapers
containing specimens should be kept in plant press and tightened. After every 24
hours, the blotting sheets or the newspaper needs to be changed since these become
moist. This process needs to be continued till the plant specimens become dry.
Succulent plants are not mounted on herbarium sheets but are collected in 4%
formalin or FAA (formalin acetic alcohol).
Poisoning, mounting and labeling: Poisoning is done before mounting of the

specimens on the herbarium sheets. The specimens are poisoned using 2% mercuric
11
chloride solution. Brush may also be used to apply the mercuric chloride solution on
the plants. This is done to prevent the specimens getting damaged from insects and
fungi. Since mercuric chloride is extremely poisonous, gloves should be used while
poisoning. The specimens are dried and mounted on the herbarium sheets (standard
size 41 x 29 cm) with glue. A label (12 x 7 cm) is fixed at the right bottom corner.
The label contains information on the plant tag number, botanical name, common
name, plant family, date of collection, place of collection, GPS data , Collector,
identifier, notes (to be taken from the field record note book). Any ethnobotanical
details collected also may be included in the label.
Deposition: Herbarium sheets, which have same species, are placed in species folders.
The species folders are placed in genus folders. The genus folders are deposited in the
respective families in a recognized herbaria where the specimens are arranged
according to an accepted system of classification.
Precautions
1. Never uproot the plants, only take branches. Also take the minimum number of
samples that are required. Do not break all the branches and leaves from the same
plant. This is required to prevent the extinction of plants from the wild. Leave the
plants in a state in which these are able to self propagate themselves.
2. Whatever branches are taken should be preserved. Nothing should be wasted to
make use of complete collection.
3. Do not damage or spoil the habitat from which the plants are collected, since the
associated flora, fauna and microbiota is essential for the very existence of the plants.
4. Mercuric chloride is highly poisonous and needs to be handled carefully using
gloves.
F urther Reading
1. Funk, V. (2004). 100 Uses for a Herbarium (well at least 72). The Yale University
Herbarium, http://www.peabody.yale.edu, pp. 1-4.
2. HAS Guide (2005). The use and methods of making Herbarium/Plant Specimens.
Herb Society of America Guide. Herb Society of America, Kirtland, USA, Revised
Edition, http://herbarium.desu.edu/pfk/page23/page24/files/herbariummaking.pdf
3. RBG, Preparing herbarium specimens. https://www.rbg.vic.gov.au/science/
herbarium-and-resources/national-herbarium-of-victoria/preparing-herbarium-
specimens. Royal Botanical Gardens, Victoria.
4. Methods of preparation of Herbarium Specimens (With Diagram),
http://www.biologydiscussion.com/angiosperm/methods-of-preparation-of-
herbarium-specimens-with-diagram/6532
5. Preparation of plant specimens for depositing as herbarium vouchers. University
of Florida Herbarium, http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/herbarium/voucher.htm
12
T he H erbarium C atalogue, Royal Botanic G ardens, K ew

http://specimens.kew.org/herbarium/K001096490
13
Practical I I
Dr Ishwar Singh
Assistant Professor
Department of Botany
Hansraj College, University of Delhi
Aim
Crude extract preparation and its screening for various groups of phytochemicals.
Introduction
Plants are known to be the natural factories where a plethora of chemicals are synthesized
having plenty of uses in day to day life. Some fields such as medicine always demand
novel chemicals to cope up both upcoming and undergoing problems of health concern of
society in effective and efficient ways. The plants are the important sources of novel
chemical compounds having potential applications in medicine and other fields. The
phytochemicals of therapeutic values are synthesized as a part of the secondary
metabolism and belong to various chemical groups such as alkaloids, steroids, tannins,
glycosides, volatile oils, fixed oils, resins, phenols and flavonoids. These compounds are
synthesized and occur in different parts of the plant such as leaves, flowers, bark, seeds,
fruits and roots.
The phytochemical investigation of a plant involves a number of steps namely,

authentication and extraction of the plant material, separation and isolation of the
constituent of interest, characterization of the isolated compounds, and quantitative
evaluation. Among these the extraction process is considered to be the basic but is of
paramount importance. Extraction is the process of separation of medicinally active
portions of plant or animal tissues from the inactive or inert components by using
selective solvents in standard extraction procedures. The products so obtained from plants
are relatively impure liquids, semisolids or powders intended only for oral or external use
and are popularly called galenicals, named after Galen, the second century Greek
physician.
General Methods of Extraction

Maceration: In this process, the whole or coarsely powdered crude drug is soaked in the
solvent at room temperature for a period of at least 3 days with intermittent agitation until
the soluble matter is dissolved. The mixture then is strained and the residue, a damp solid
material called marc, is pressed to release liquid left. All the liquids are pooled together
and clarified by filtration or decantation after standing.
14
Infusion: When maceration of the crude drug is done for short period of time with cold or
boiling water it is called infusion which is a dilute solution of the readily soluble
constituents of the crude drug.
Digestion: This is another form of maceration in which gentle heat is used during the
extraction. It is used to increase the extraction efficiency of the solvent (menstruum)
when moderately elevated temperature does not affect the active component of the drug.
Decoction: In this process, the crude drug is boiled in a specified volume of water for a
defined time; it is then cooled and strained or filtered. This procedure is suitable for
extracting water-soluble and heat-stable constituents. The Ayurvedic preparations such as
quath or kawath are the examples of decoction where the starting ratio of crude drug to
water is often fixed, either 1:4 or 1:8 or 1:16 depending upon the nature of the plant
material. The volume is then brought down to one-fourth its original volume by boiling
process. The concentrated extract is filtered and used as such or processed further.
Percolation: This procedure is often used in the preparation of tinctures and fluid extracts.
For this, a cone-shaped vessel open at both ends called, percolator is generally used. The
solid ingredients are moistened with an appropriate amount of the specified menstruum
and allowed to stand for approximately 4 h in a well closed container. The moistened
mass is packed in the percolator and its top is closed. Additional menstruum is added to
form a shallow layer above the mass, and the mixture is allowed to macerate in the closed
percolator for 24 h. The outlet of the percolator then is opened and the liquid contained
therein is allowed to drip slowly. Additional menstruum is added as required, until the
percolate measures about three-quarters of the required volume of the finished product.
The marc is then pressed and the expressed liquid is added to the percolate. Sufficient
menstruum is added to produce the required volume, and the mixed liquid is clarified by
filtration or by standing followed by decanting.
Hot continuous extraction (Soxhlet): In this method, the finely ground crude drug is
SODFHG LQ D SRURXV EDJ RU WKLPEOH PDGH RI VWURQJ ILOWHU SDSHU ZKLFK LV SODFHG LQ
chamber E of the Soxhlet apparatus (Figure 1). The extracting solvent in flask A is
heated, and its vapors condense in condenser D. The condensed extractant drips into the
thimble containing the crude drug, and extracts it by contact. When the level of liquid in
chamber E rises to the top of siphon tube C, the liquid contents of chamber E siphon into
flask A. This process is continuous and is carried out until a drop of solvent from the
siphon tube does not leave residue when evaporated. The advantage of this method,
compared to previously described methods, is that large amounts of drug can be extracted
with a much smaller quantity of solvent. This affects tremendous economy in terms of
time, energy and consequently financial inputs. At small scale, it is employed as a batch
process only, but it becomes much more economical and viable when converted into a
continuous extraction procedure on medium or large scale.
15
F igure 1: Soxhlet apparatus
Aqueous alcoholic extraction by fermentation: Some of the Ayurvedic preparations like

asava and arista make use of fermentation for extraction. The extraction procedure
involves soaking the crude drug, in the form of either a powder or a decoction (kasaya),
for a specified period of time, during which it undergoes fermentation and generates
alcohol in situ that not only facilitates the extraction of the active constituents occurring in
the plant material but also preserves the extract.
Counter-current extraction: In this method, wet raw material is pulverized into fine
slurry. The slurry so formed is moved in one direction within a cylindrical extractor
where it comes in contact with extraction solvent. As starting material moves further and
further inside the extractor, the extract becomes more and more concentrated. Complete
extraction is thus possible when the quantities of solvent and material and their flow rates
are optimized. The process is highly efficient as it requires little time and smaller volume
of solvent in comparison to other methods like maceration, decoction and percolation,
and possess no risk from high temperature therefore, suitable for thermo-labile
components. Finally, sufficiently concentrated extract comes out at one end of the
extractor while the marc (practically free of visible solvent) falls out from the other end.
Ultrasound extraction (sonication): The procedure involves the subjection of the mixture
of crude drug and solvent to ultrasound waves, ranging from 20 kHz to 2000 kHz in
frequencies. This increases the efficiency of the extraction due to increased permeability
of cell walls and cavitation process. Although the process is useful but, its large-scale
application is limited due to the higher cost and the occasional but known deleterious
effect (formation of free radicals and consequently undesirable changes in the drug
molecules) of ultrasound energy (above 20 kHz) on the active constituents of medicinal
plants.
16
Major Steps of Extraction Process
In order to get high yield and high potency (magnitude of bioactivity / the capacity to
produce an effect) of the desired component of the plant material, the extraction is done in
a step wise manner which can be described under following general headings:
1. Collection and authentication of plant material and drying

2. Size reduction
3. Extraction
4. Filtration
5. Concentration
6. Drying and reconstitution
Collection and authentication of plant material and drying: The plant material possessing
therapeutic property is procured from either market or collected directly from wild.
Before starting the extraction its correct identity is confirmed and material is checked for
presence of any foreign matter or any adulteration. In order to have quality control
various information such as age of the plant and time, season and place of collection etc.
are recorded. The plant material is often dried depending upon the nature of active
constituents either in open under solar energy or under shade.
Size reduction: The dried plant material is pulverized into a powder of required particle
size which is done in order to rapture its organ, tissue and cell structures so that the
extraction solvent can have better penetration. Furthermore, size reduction enhances the
mass transfer of active principle from plant material to the solvent as it maximizes the
surface area. The 30-40 mesh size is considered optimal as particles smaller then optimal
size tends to become slimy during extraction and create difficulty during filtration.
Extraction : Extraction of the plant material is carried out by any one of the methods
mentioned. During this process the solid plant material comes in contact with a
solvent and as a result the soluble components including active principle in the solid
material move to the solvent against a concentration gradient. The rate of mass
transfer decreases as the concentration of active principle in the solvent increases, and
a stage of equilibrium comes when there is no any further mass transfer of the active
principle from plant material to the solvent. The transfer of the active principle can be
increased by first, selecting a proper solvent second, increasing the temperature of the
solvent and third, replacing the solvent with fresh solvent to maintain the
concentration gradient. It should be noted that choice of appropriate solvent is of
essential importance along with application of a compatible extraction method. The
appropriate solvent is selected on the basis of the principle OLNHGLVVROYHVOLNH. Thus,
polar solvents will extract out polar substances and non-polar material will be
extracted out by non-polar solvents. Polarity indexes and boiling points of some
commonly employed solvents are given in Table 1.
17
Table 1: Common solvents used for extraction of plant materials.
Solvent Polarity Index Boiling Point (0 C)

Water 10.2 100
Ethylene glycol 6.9 182
Acetone 5.1 56.53
Methanol 5.1 64.6
Ethyl acetate 4.4 77
Ethanol 4.3 78.5
Chloroform 4.1 61.2
Dichloromethane 3.1 40
Diethyl ether 2.8 35
Chlorobenzene 2.7 132
n- hexane 0.1 69
Petroleum ether 0.1 -
Filtration: During this step, the extract (solvent containing active substance) is separated
out from the marc (exhausted plant material) by filtration or by allowing the mixture to
stand for some time and subsequently decanting the extract.
Concentration: The different aliquots of the extract are pooled together and the
concentration of active constituents in the final volume is brought to a desired level. This
is done, if the active chemical is heat stable, by heating the extract to boiling temperature
of the solvent otherwise, in case of heat sensitive active principles, the evaporation of the
solvent is done under vacuum.
Drying: If the extractant is not required then solvent is completely removed from the
extract and consequently a plant residue, depending upon chemical composition that may
be semi-solid or powder in form is obtained. During this step the filtered extract is
subjected to spray drying with a high pressure pump at a controlled feed rate and
temperature, to get dry powder. The particle size of the product is regulated by controlling
the inside temperature of the chamber and by varying the pressure of the pump. The dry
powder is mixed with suitable diluents or excipients and blended in a double cone mixer
to obtain a homogeneous powder that can be straight away used, for example, for filling
in capsules or making tablets.
Neem
Azadirachta indica (neem), Meliaceae is a plant of economic importance. Considering
multiple uses of the neem 8QLWHG 1DWLRQV KDV GHFODUHG LW DV WKH 7UHH RI WKH VW
FHQWXU\7KHPHGLFLQDOLPSRUWDQFHRIQHHPLVZHOOGRFXPHQWHGDQGLWLVZLGHO\XVHG
in Indian system of medicine for the treatment of various human ailments. The neem
extracts have been reported to exhibit different biological and therapeutic properties
such as antiviral, antibacterial, antifungal, antiseptic, anti-plasmodial, anti-
inflammatory, anti-ulcer, antidiabetic, antipyretic and antiparalitic properties.
However, the current worldwide interest in plant is because of its insecticidal
18
properties. More than three hundred secondary compounds such as azadirachtin,

nimbin, nimbanene, 6-desacetylnimbinene, nimban-diol, nimbolide, ascorbic acid, n-
hexacosanol, 7-desacetyl-7-benzoylazadiradione, 7-desacetyl-7-benzoylgedunin, 17-
hydroxyazadiradione and nimbiol have been identified in various crude extracts
belonging to classes of phenolics, terpeniods, alkaloids and glycosides. The most
thoroughly studied active compound, azadirachtin is a type of tetranortriterpenoid
(limonoids) possessing insecticidal properties.
Requirements
Plant material : Fresh leaves of Azadirachta indica (neem).
Chemicals : Ethanol, methanol, chloroform 0D\HUV UHDJHQW :DJQHUV UHDJHQW
+DJHUV UHDJHQW vanillin solution, ferric chloride, lead acetate, sodium hydroxide,
concentrated sulphuric acid, glacial acetic acid, distilled water.
Glassware : Separating funnel, conical funnel, beaker (100 and 500 ml), test tubes,
measuring cylinder, pipettes.
Miscellaneous : Sieve (mesh size 40), mixture-grinder, cotton/glass wool, Whatman
No. 1 filter paper, water-bath, separating funnel stand.
Procedure
Preparation of Chemicals
0D\HUV reagent: Dissolve 1.36 g of mercuric chloride in 60 ml distilled water and
pour into a solution of 5 g of potassium iodide in 10 ml of distilled water. Raise final
volume to 100 ml using distilled water.
:DJQHUVreagent: Dissolve 1.27 g of iodine and 2 g of potassium iodide in 5 ml of
distilled water and dilute the solution to 100 ml with distilled water.
+DJHUVreagent: Dissolve 1 g of picric acid in 100 ml of distilled water.
Vanillin solution: Dissolve 20 mg of vanillin in small volume of methanol and raise
final volume to 100 ml with methanol.
Neem Leaf E xtract Preparation
1. Collect mature and healthy leaves of Azadirachta indica and wash these
thoroughly 2-3 times with distilled water in order to remove soil particles and dirt.
2. Air-dry the leaves under shade for at least 5-7 days to reduce the moisture content
of the material.
3. Grind the dried material in a mixture-grinder for one minute.
4. Pass the ground leaf material through sieve of mess size 40 to get particles of
uniform size.
5. Take a separating funnel and insert a pad of cotton or glass wool in its outlet.
6. Transfer 10g of leaf powder in the separating funnel and add 50 ml of methanol.
7. Swirl the separating funnel to mix the plant material and solvent.
8. Leave it for 20 minutes with intermittent swirling.
19
9. Collect the menstruum in a beaker of 100 ml capacity by opening the outlet of

funnel gently.
10. Extract the plant material thrice, each time with 50 ml of methanol using same
starting plant material as stated above in steps 6-9.
11. Pool all the menstruums together in a beaker of 500 ml capacity and filter through
WhatmanNo.1 filter paper if, there is any insoluble constituent.
12. Concentrate the extract on water bath maintained at 650C until it reduces to of
the initial volume.
Phytochemical T ests
Tests for Alkaloids
Take 5 ml of the extract in a test tube containing 5 ml of 1.5 % HCl (v/v); shake and if
required, filter. Use filtrate for alkaloid detection by following methods:
1. 0D\HUVUHDJHQWWHVW: 7RPORIILOWUDWHDGGIHZGURSVRI0D\HUVUHDJHQWDORQJ
sides of tube. Formation of creamy precipitate indicates the presence of alkaloids.
2. :DJQHUV WHVW: 7R PO RI ILOWUDWH DGG IHZ GURSV RI :DJQHUV UHDJHQW LQ D WHVW
tube. Formation of reddish brown precipitate indicates the presence of alkaloids.
3. +DJHUVWHVW: 7RPORIILOWUDWHDGGIHZGURSVRI+DJHUVUHDJHQWLQDWHVWWXEH
Formation of yellow colour precipitate indicates the presence of alkaloids.
Test for Saponins

Foam test: Take 2 ml of extract and 10 ml of distilled water in a test tube, and shake
vigorously. Formation of foam indicates saponin.
Tests for Triterpenes and Terpenoids
1. 6DONRZVNLVWHVW: Evaporate 2 ml of extract to dryness and dissolve the residue in 2

ml of chloroform. Add 2 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid from the side of the
test tube. Shake and allowed to stand for few minutes. Presence of golden yellow
layer at the bottom indicates the presence of triterpenes
2. Terpenoid test: Dissolve 2 ml of the extract in 2 ml of chloroform and evaporate
to dryness. Add 2 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid and heat for about 2 minutes.
Development of a grayish colour indicates the presence of terpenoids
3. Azadirachtin-related liminoids test: Take 2 ml of the extract in a test tube and add
1ml of vanillin solution to it. Add 0.5 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid from the side
of test tube and shake it. Appearance of blue-green color indicates the presence.
Test for Tannins

Ferric Chloride test: Take 2 ml of the extract and 2ml of distilled water in a test tube.
Add few drops of 5% ferric chloride (FeCl3) solution (in 90% alcohol). Formation of
green precipitate is the indication of the presence of tannins.
20
Test for F lavonoids

1. Alkaline reagent test: To 1 ml of extract, add few drops of 10% sodium hydroxide
solution separately in a test tube. Formation of intense yellow colour, which
disappears on addition of few drops of dilute acid, indicates the presence of
flavonoids.
2. Lead acetate test: To 1 ml of extract, add 1ml of 10% lead acetate solution. The
formation of a yellow precipitate indicates presence of flavonoids.
Test for Sterols

Salkowski test: Evaporate 2 ml of extract to dryness and dissolve the residue in 2 ml
of chloroform. Add 2 ml of concentrated sulphuric acid from the side of the test tube.
Shake and allowed to stand for few minutes. The development of red color in the
chloroform layer indicates the presence of sterols.
Test for Glycosides

Keller-Killiani test: To 2 ml of test solution, add 3 ml of glacial acetic acid and 1 drop
of 5% ferric chloride in a test tube. Carefully add 0.5 ml of concentrated sulphuric
acid by the sides of the test tube. Formation of blue colour in the acetic acid layer
indicates the presence of cardiac glycosides.
O bservation
Record the observations of the phytochemical tests to be conducted in terms of
presence or absence.
S.No. Phytochemical class Result
1 Alkaloids 0D\HUVWHVW
:DJQHUVWHVW
+DJHUVWHVW
2 Terpenes Triterpenes
Terpenoids
Azadirachtin-related compounds
3 Flavonoids Alkaline test
Lead acetate test
4 Tannins
5 Saponins
6 Sterols
7 Glycosides
21
E xpected Results and Interpretation

Discuss the results in relation to the crude extract and occurrence of various groups of
phytochemicals. Interpret the results with the help of reported literature. Discuss
unusual outcomes and all probable reasons for such results.
F urther A pplications
The experience gained through the experiment conducted can be utilized further in
application based activities such as project work, redesigning of the protocol or for
undertaking some other parameter of the same experiment, etc. Some of activities
related to this experiment that may be assigned as a part of project work to students,
are mentioned below:
1. Instead of leaf, other parts such as root, stem, inflorescence and seeds of neem
may be asked to use for extract preparation and there phytochemical analysis.
2. Samples of plants may be collected from different places and at different months
for comparative analysis.
3. Different methods of extraction may be used to do comparative analysis.
4. Different solvents such as water and polar and non-polar organic solvents may be
used for extract preparation to see their effects on extraction of various
phytochemicals.
5. Other plants, prescribed in syllabus or easily available in market or wild may be
used for extraction and phytochemical analysis.
Precautionary Measures during Extraction

1. Authentication of plant material should be done before performing extraction. Any
foreign matter should be completely removed.
2. Use the right plant part, and for quality control purposes, record the age of plant and
the time, season and place of collection.
3. Depending upon the nature of chemical constituents the suitable drying method of
plant material should be selected. Hot or cold blowing air flow for drying is generally
preferred. If a crude drug with high moisture content is to be used for extraction,
suitable weight corrections should be incorporated.
4. Grinding methods should be specified and techniques that generate heat should be
avoided as much as possible.
5. Powdered plant material should be passed through suitable sieves to get the required
particles of uniform size.
6. Nature of constituents should be taken in consideration while selecting the solvent
and the method of extraction.
7. Standardization of time of extraction is important, as insufficient time means
incomplete extraction and longer duration of extraction means unwanted constituents
in the extract.
8. The number of extractions required to be done for complete extraction is as important
as the duration of each extraction.
9. The quality of water or menstruum used should be specified and controlled.
22
10. Concentration and drying procedures should ensure the safety and stability of the
active constituents.
11. The design and material of fabrication of the extractor is also an important factor to
be taken into consideration.
12. Chemical analyses such as TLC and HPLC fingerprints, of the final extract should be
documented to monitor the quality of different batches of the extracts.
Precautionary Measures to be taken during Phytochemical Analysis

1. Wear proper laboratory apparel in the lab.
2. To avoid possible ingestion of chemicals, eating in the laboratory is not permitted.
Also, for personal safety never taste chemicals or solutions.
3. To avoid problems in the laboratory always read the label on chemical bottles before
use.
4. Keep your work area clean and free of extra glassware and apparatus.
5. To avoid probable injury from the use of cracked or broken glassware, replace any
cracked or broken glassware.
6. Do not pipette by mouth. Use pipette fillers or dispensors for pipetting any fluid.
Whenever working with acids or bases, have the chemicals available at your work
station, do not carry pipettes with fluid across the room.
7. Carry out all procedures that produce toxic or foul smelling fumes in a fume hood
with the exhaust fan on.
8. Use heat-resistant gloves and/or tongs when handling hot glassware, chinaware,
etc.
9. Never heat flammable substances with an open flame. Preferred heat sources
include steam baths, water baths, and heating mantles.
10. Always add the concentrated acid or base to water, never the reverse as this may
cause spattering out of the container. The dilution of concentrated sulfuric acid is
extremely exothermic (generates heat), therefore be very careful during the dilution of
this acid.
11. If corrosive chemicals come in contact with your skin, wash the area quickly with
plenty of water.
12. Spilled chemicals should be wiped up immediately; spilled acid or base should be
rinsed with plenty of water and wiped up with a sponge and the sponge rinsed after.
13. To reduce wastage of chemicals avoid taking an excess of reagent and in order to
ensure the purity of chemical reagents never pour excess reagents back into the
bottles.
14. Keep the mouth of the test tube during heating or shaking away from your face
and also from other classmates.
23
Suggested Readings
1. Handa SS, Khanja SPS, Longo G, Rakesh DD. Extraction Technologies for
medicinal and Aromatic plants, International Centre for Science and High
Technology, Trieste, 2008, 21-25.
2. Prashanth GK, Krishnaiah GM. Chemical composition of the leaves of
Azadirachta indica Linn (Neem), Int J Adv Engineer Tech Manag Appl Sci 2014,
1(5): 21-31.
3. Savithramma N, Linga Rao M, Suhrulatha D. Screening of Medicinal Plants for
Secondary Metabolites, Middle-East J Sci Res, 2011, 8(3): 579-584.
4. Singh I, Singh VP. Antifungal properties of aqueous and organic solution extracts
of seed plants against Aspergillus flavus and A. niger, Phytomorphology 2000,
50(2): 151-157.
24
Practical - I I I
Dr B. Subramaniam
Retd. Chief Scientist (Scientist G), CSIR-NISCAIR and
The-Then Co-ordinator, Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TKDL),
CSIR, New Delhi
A im
Collection of information on ethnobotanical uses from traditional healers.
Requirements
Proforma for data collection, audio recorder, video recorder, camera, prior informed
consent (PIC) proforma
T heory
Documentation of ethnobotanical knowledge/oral traditional knowledge is essential
for the following reasons:
1. Threat of loss of knowledge which can be due to: (i) death of the knowledge
holder, (ii) weakening of these practices using these knowledge (iii) rapid social
change and development, (iv) introduction of modern practices and products
2. Protection of this knowledge from unjust enrichment or from unauthorized use
3. For access and benefit sharing
4. Raising awareness of communities with respect to values of TK
5. Revitalization of traditional practices
6. Support and Input for Govt. planning
7. Management of knowledge
Procedure and Discussion

Identification of the Knowledge Holder
Identify the knowledge holder by finding out the person who has been practicing
ethnobotany for the past say 20 years and authenticated by the village/community
head. If the person is practicing traditional medicine system, then the number of
patients who visit him/her on daily basis can also be used as a criterion. If he gets a
minimum of 10 patients per day, he/she can be considered as a knowledge holder.
Collection of Data
Collection of data is carried out by video recording the conversation and also by
taking the audio recordings. Based on the information gathered, the proforma for data
collection (Annex. 1) may be filled. The photograph of the knowledge holder is taken.
After filling the proforma the signature of the knowledge holder or thumb impression
is taken.
25
Getting PI C Signed by the Knowledge Holder

It is essential to inform the knowledge holder(s) the purpose of collection of the
information. PIC required from knowledge holder(s) to and use of ethnobotanical
knowledge, innovations and practices. Written consent and authorization from
innovators/knowledge holders is required. Also it is essential to find out that how
much disclosure on the information can be made. It may be summary or partial or
complete. In case the data is collected for carrying out further research, the knowledge
holder should be appraised periodically on the outcome of the results and the
significance of the results obtained.
E xamination of the Information Collected in the Patent Databases and other

Literature to identify Novelty
The information collected from the knowledge holder needs to examined in the
literature and patent databases to identify if there is any novelty in the information
collected. In case, there is no novelty in the information collected, it can be published,
if desired, giving the details of the knowledge holder so that it will act as a reference
point for any ethnobotanists working in future.
E xplore Possibility of Getting Patent Rights on any New Knowledge

In case novelty is observed in the data collected, such information should not be
published nor the information should get disclosed. Possibility of getting patent right
on this information need to be explored so that the knowledge holder gets benefit
from the knowledge if it has commercial value.
Agreements on Benefit Sharing Arrangements can be entered into between the

Pharmaceutical Company and the Knowledge Holder
In case, any pharmaceutical company is interested in commercializing this
knowledge, agreements for benefit sharing arrangement could be entered into on
mutual interests between the knowledge holder and the pharmaceutical firm. This will
be advantageous to the : (i) pharmaceutical company since they will launch a new
product in market and get more revenue, (ii) knowledge holder since a share of the
benefits will pass on to him, (iii) country as the product may find international market
and export earnings may increase.
It has to be ensured that the knowledge holder(s) gets the benefits for the
knowledge he possesses and there is appropriate usage of the ethnobotanical
knowledge for the benefit of the mankind. Discovery of new drugs through
ethnobotanical knowledge route is a fast track mode of development of new drugs and
is time tested since this has been used by the knowledge holders for treatment of
patients for several years.
26
Questionnaire for collecting information on Ethnobotany

Identification No.____________ Date: _______________
Name of the Informant: ________________FatheUs Name: _________________
Sex: M F Age:_______Tribe Type:________Language:____________
Village: ____________ District: _______________State: ___________________
Number of persons treated (by Tribal Healer): _________per month
Raw material used for the drug: Plant family _______________________
Plant Name: Local___________________Botanical_______________________
Plant Parts Used: Root /Rhizome Stem Leaf Flower Fruits Whole
Methods of Preparation: Paste Decoction Juice Infusion: Hot / Cold
Mode of Administration: Oral Local Smoke Wearing
Time of Administration: _____Vehicle of Administration:_______Duration______
Type of Knowledge: Original Acquired; Drug Type: Single Compound
Usage: Medicinal Household Preventive Socio-cultural Any Other
Ailments / Disease / Symptoms:_______________________________________
Prior Art: Photograph Video Clipping
Photograph of the knowledge holder
Any Other Information:______________________________________________
Remarks:_________________________________________________________
(Signature/Thumb Impression of Knowledge Holder)
Information Recorded by: Information Verified by:
(Signature, Name, Designation, Date) (Signature, Name, Designation, Date)
27
Practical - I V
Dr B. Subramaniam
Retd. Chief Scientist (Scientist G), C SIR-NIS CAIR and
The-Then Co-ordinator, Traditional Knowledge Digital Library (TK DL),
C SIR, New Delhi
A im
To carry out a search of international patent databases to identify cases of
PLVDSSURSULDWLRQRIFRGLILHG,QGLDVWUDGLWLRQDONQRZOHGJH.
Requirements
Computer system, Internet access, TK information, Prior art
T heory
The grant of patent on any invention is based on: (i) novelty, (ii) non-obviousness and
(iii) industrial application. Codified traditional knowledge, which exists in Ayurveda,
Unani and Siddha systems of medicine are in local languages such as Sanskrit, Urdu,
Arabic and Tamil. This information is neither available to patent examiners at the
international patent offices and even if it is available can not be understood due to
language and format barriers. Taking advantage of this, patent infringers get the
books on Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha systems of medicine, translate the information,
convert it into patent application format and submit as an invention at the
international patent office for getting patent rights. Since the patent offices do not
have this information, they grant the patent though there is no novelty step in the
above said invention.
Procedure and O bservations

Two cases of misappropriation are being demonstrated at the International Patent
Office of United States Patent and Trademark Office:
1. The first is turmeric and its wound healing SURSHUWLHVZKLFK India had to fight
to revoke the patent and that was one such case that led to the beginning of the
TKDL project.
2. The second case of misappropriation is a herbal composition for their use as
hypoglycaemic agents.
Case I: Turmeric and Wound Healing Properties

Steps followed:
Step 1. Open Google and Type USPTO
28
Step 2. Click on USPTO. The following screen will be observed
Step 3. Under Patents click search for patents. The following screen will appear
29
Step 4. Under Search Full Text Patents (since 1976) click on Quick Search. The
following screen will appear.
Step 5. In Term 1 box type turmeric and Term 2 box type wound healing and then
click on search, the following screen will appear
30
Step 6. SDWHQWV DUH OLVWHG ZKLFK PD\ EH H[DPLQHG 7\SH LQ ER[ -XPS WR
The following screen will appear.
Step 7. Click on S. No. 256, Patent No. 5401504, Use of turmeric in wound healing.
The following screen appears.
31
This is a United States Patent filed by Das et al., on March 28, 1995 with the patent
QR IRU 8se of turmeric in wound healing. The abstract of the patent is
Method of promoting healing of a wound by administering turmeric to a patient
affected with wound.
Inventors are Das, Suman K. Cohly and Hari Har P.
The claims in this patent application are:
1. A method of promoting healing of a wound in a patient, which consists essentially

of administering a wound-healing agent consisting of an effective amount
of turmeric powder to said patient.
2. The method according to claim 1, wherein said turmeric is orally administered to
said patient.
3. The method according to claim 1, wherein said turmeric is topically administered
to said patient.
4. The method according to claim 1, wherein said turmeric is both orally and
topically administered to said patient.
5. The method according to claim 1, wherein said wound is a surgical wound.
6. The method according to claim 1, wherein said wound is a body ulcer.
Discussion
India cited 32 references some as old as 100 years to establish that this information is
H[LVWLQJLQ,QGLDVWUDGLWLRQDONQRZOHGJH:HDOWKRI,QGLD, Raw Materials Series was
also cited as one of the references. In India it is a home remedy to treat wounds with
turmeric paste, 32 references provided to USPTO justified that there was no novelty
step in the invention and the patent was revoked.
32
Case I I: Herbal composition and their use as hypoglycemic agents
Steps 1-4. Same as in Case I
Step 5. In Term 1 type jamun and Term 2 W\SH'iabetes, and ENTER
Step 6. The following screen appears. Click on the S.No. 11, patent no. 5900240,
Herbal composition and their use as hypoglycemic agents
33
The following screen appears:
Claims are:
34
What is claimed is as follows:
1. An edible composition for use as a hyperglycemic agent in mammals comprising

300-600 mg of a mixture of at least three herbs selected from the group consisting
of Syzygium cumini , Gymnema sylvestre, Momordica charantia and Solanum
melongena, each of the foregoing herbs being present in approximately equal
amounts.
2. The composition of claim 1 comprising a mixture of Syzygium cumini, Gymnema
sylvestre and Momordica charantia.
3. A method for reducing the blood glucose level of a host comprising ingestion by
the host of a therapeutically effective amount of the composition of claim 2.
4. The method of claim 3 wherein the host is a non-human animal.
5. The method of claim 3 wherein the host is a human.
6. A method for treatment of diabetes mellitus in a mammal, comprising ingestion by
the mammal of a therapeutically effective amount of the composition of claim 2.
7. The method of claim 6 wherein the mammal ingests 2-12 hard gelatin capsules of
size 0 or 00 per day, each such capsule containing 300-600 mg of the composition
of claim 2.
8. A method for reducing the blood glucose level of a host comprising ingestion by
the host of a therapeutically effective amount of the composition of claim 1.
9. The method of claim 8 wherein the host is a non-human animal.
10. The method of claim 8 wherein the host is a human.
11. A method for treatment of diabetes mellitus in a mammal, comprising ingestion by
the mammal of a therapeutically effective amount of the composition of claim 1.
12. The method of claim 11 wherein the mammal ingests 2-12 hard gelatin capsules
per day, each such capsule containing 300-600 mg of the composition of claim 1.
Discussion
All the claims are taken from the Ayurvedic texts. These references are:
1. Susrutasamhita, Ci. 11.10
Citation In this reference Jamun is described in treatment of diabetes
2. Bhavaprakasanighantu, sakavarga, 43, page 683.
Citation In this reference Karela is described to be used for treatment of
GLDEHWHV
3. Susrutasamhita, Su. 15.19-20.
Citation In this reference Gurmara is described to be used for treatment of
GLDEHWHV
These have been established. Therefore, the said patent does not qualify for getting
patent right since it does not have the novelty clause for getting patent.
35
A dvanced Search
One can carry out advanced search by using Boolean Search Expressions. If you use
Turmeric or turmeric the search results will be the same.
Some common Boolean search expressions that can be used are given below:
1. turmeric AND (cough OR cold)

In the above case the search will be for use of turmeric either in cough or cold.
2. turmeric OR (haldi OR curcuma)

In the above case all patents on turmeric, haldi or curcuma will get displayed,
since some persons might have filed patent using any of the above three terms.
3. turmeric ANDNOT ((haldi OR curcuma) OR rhizome)

In the above only patents on turmeric will be displayed and not on haldi or
curcuma or rhizome.
For carrying out effective search there is a need to use effective Boolean Search
Expressions.
36
Suggested Readings
1. Anderson, E. et al. (eds) 2011. Ethnobiology. Wiley-Blackwell.

2. Dowie, M. 2009. Conservation Refugees: The Hundred Year Conflict between
Global Conservation and Native Peoples. MIT Press.
3. Stevens, S. (ed.) 2014. Indigenous Peoples, National Parks, and Protected Areas:
A New Paradigm Linking Conservation, Culture, and Rights. U Arizona Press.
4. Paul E. Minnis (ed.) 2000. Ethnobotany: A Reader Paperback, 384 pages.
University of Oklahoma Press.
5. Cotton C. M. 1996. Ethnobotany: Principles and Applications 1st Edition.
6. Sood, S.K. Anjna Kharwal, T.N. Lakhanpal and A.K. Bhatnagar 2014. Ethnobotany
Himalayan Region I K International Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.
7. Sood, S.K., Nath, R. and Kalia, D.C. 2001. Ethnobotany of Cold Desert Tribes of
Lahoul-Spiti (N.W. Himalaya). Deep Publications, New Delhi.
8. Jain S.K., Rao R.R. 1976. A Handbook of Field and Herbarium Methods. Today
DQG7RPRUURZV3ULQWHUVDQG Publ. New Delhi 1-157
9. Jain S.K. 2002. Bibliography of Indian Ethnobotany. Scientific Publishers. Jodhpur
1-144.
10. Jain S.K. 2004. Manual of Ethnobotany. Scientific Publishers. 1-193.
Important Journals in E thnobotany
1. Economic Botany
2. Indian Journal of Traditional Knowledge
3. Latin American and Caribbean Bulletin of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants
4. Journal of Ethnobiology
5. Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine
6. Journal of Ethnopharmacology
7. Economic Botany
8. Journal of Ethnobotany Research and Applications
Societies that Promote E thnobotany
1. Society for Economic Botany

2. International Society of Ethnobiology
3. Society of Ethnobiology
4. Institute for Ethnomedicine
37
G lossary to some important E thnobotanical T erms
A ccess To obtain biological resources or knowledge associated thereto

within national jurisdiction for the purpose of research, or for
commercial utilization, or for bio-survey and bio-utilization
Agropastoral Relating to a practice of agriculture that includes both the growing

of crops and the raising of livestock
A limentary Relating to nourishment or nutrition; furnishing sustenance or

maintenance
Biodiversity Variability among living organisms from all sources and the
ecological complexes of which they are part; and includes
diversity within species or between species and of eco systems
Biopiracy The appropriation of biological resources without prior informed

consent (PIC) of owners or local people or government
Bioprospecting Bioprospecting or prospecting refers to collection, research and

use of biological and/or genetic material for purposes of applying
the knowledge derived there from for scientific and/or commercial
purposes. Bioprospecting entails the search for economically
valuable genetic and biochemical resources from nature
Codified K nowledge It refers to Traditional Knowledge (TK) which is in some

systematic and structured form, in which the knowledge is
ordered, organized, classified and categorized in some manner.
The knowledge is a disclosed knowledge.
Community A community is commonly considered a social unit (a group of three

or more people) who share something in common, such as norms,
values, identity, and often a sense of place that is situated in a given
geographical area (e.g. a village, town, or neighborhood).
C ustodian It refers to those communities, peoples, individuals and other

entities which, according to customary laws and other practices,
maintain, use and develop the traditional knowledge
Documentation The accumulation, classification and dissemination of information;

the material as collected. Documenting ethnobotanical knowledge
may include recording them, writing them down, taking pictures of
them or filming themanything that involves recording them in a
way that preserves them and could make them available for others
Domestic Plant One that has had its wild, native characteristics altered such that it
cannot grow and reproduce without human intervention
E thnic G roup A category of people who identify with each other based on common
language, ancestral, social, cultural, or national experiences
E thnobotany The scientific study of the relationships that exist between peoples
and plants
38
E thnobiology Ethnobiology is the scientific study of the way living things are
treated or used by different human cultures. It studies the dynamic
relationships between peoples, biota, and environments, from the
distant past to the immediate present.
E thnocentrism Evaluation of other cultures according to preconceptions
RULJLQDWLQJLQWKHVWDQGDUGVDQGFXVWRPVRIRQHVRZQFXOWXUH
E thnoecology Ethnoecology is the cross-cultural study of how people perceive
and manipulate their environments. It has traditionally focused on
linguistic analyses of terms for plants, animals, habitats, and other
ecological phenomena in attempts to reveal underlying structures
of the human mind that influence human behavior
E thnography The scientific description of peoples and cultures with their
customs, habits, and mutual differences
E thnomedicine A study or comparison of the traditional medicine practiced by
various ethnic groups, and especially by indigenous peoples
E thnopharmacology Ethnopharmacology is a related study of ethnic groups and their
use of drugs. Ethnopharmacology is distinctly linked to plant use,
ethnobotany, as this is the main delivery of pharmaceuticals
E thnopharmacy Ethnopharmacy is the interdisciplinary science that investigates the
perception and use of pharmaceuticals within a given human society
E thnospecies Medicinal plants are traded as products with vernacular names, but
these folk taxonomies do not always correspond one-to-one with
scientific plant names. These local species entities can be defined
as ethnospecies and can match, under-differentiate or over-
differentiate as compared to scientific species
Folklore The traditional beliefs, customs, and stories of a community,
passed through the generations by word of mouth
G enetic Resources Genetic resources (GRs) refer to genetic material of actual or
potential value. Genetic material is any material of plant, animal,
microbial or other origin containing functional units of heredity
H erbarium A herbarium (plural: herbaria ) is a collection of preserved plant
specimens and associated data used for scientific study.
Indigenous Originating or occurring naturally (in a country, region etc.);
native; innate; inherent
Intellectual Property Intellectual property (IP) refers to creations of the intellect for
which a monopoly is assigned to designated owners by law.
Intellectual property rights (IPRs) are the protections granted to
the creators of IP, and include trademarks, copyright, patents,
industrial design rights, and in some jurisdictions trade secrets.
International Patent The International Patent Classification (IPC), established by
C lassification the Strasbourg Agreement 1971, provides for a hierarchical system
of language independent symbols for the classification of
patents and utility models according to the different areas of
technology to which they pertain.
39
M agical/M edicinal A plant that has similar properties as conventional pharmaceutical

Plants drugs
M isappropriation The act of accessing/using resources without free and prior
informed consent or turning to a wrong purpose
Non-codified Remains undisclosed by TK holders, is passed on in oral tradition
K nowledge from generation to generation
O ral K nowledge A form of human communication wherein knowledge, art, ideas
and cultural material is received, preserved and transmitted orally
from one generation to another
Patent An exclusive right granted for an invention a product or process
that provides a new way of doing something, or that offers a new
technical solution to a problem
Prior A rt Prior art is, in general, all the knowledge that existed prior to the
relevant filing or priority date of a patent application, whether it
existed by way of written and oral disclosure
Protection It refers to protection of TK and Traditional Cultural Expressions
(TCEs) against some form of unauthorized use by third parties.
Two forms like positive and defensive protection have been
developed and applied
Religious Plants Plants mentioned and used in connection with customs, traditions,
beliefs and religious practices
Royalties Sources of payment for an inventor who holds the patent for a
particular product or process. Royalties accrue when someone uses
the patented product or process
Sacred Any expression of traditional knowledge that symbolizes or
pertains to religious and spiritual beliefs, practices or customs
Sacred G roves A sacred grove or sacred woods are any grove of trees of special
religious importance to a particular culture and are communally
protected.
Sui G eneris $ /DWLQ SKUDVH PHDQV RI LWV RZQ NLQG RU FODVV XQLTXH RU
peculiar. It is a system specifically designed to address the needs
DQGFRQFHUQVRIDSDUWLFXODULVVXH&DOOVIRUDsui generis V\VWHP
for TK protection are sometimes heard. This could mean a system
entirely separate from and different from the current IP system
T raditional H ealers Someone who uses traditional medicine to cure people who are ill
or injured.
T raditional Ecological Traditional ecological knowledge (TEK) describes aboriginal,
K nowledge (T E K ) indigenous, or other forms of traditional knowledge regarding
sustainability of local resources
T raditional 7UDGLWLRQDO NQRZOHGJH KDV EHHQ GHILQHG DV WKH FXPXODWLYH DQG
K nowledge dynamic body of knowledge, know-how and representations
possessed by peoples with long histories of interaction with their
natural milieu. It is intimately tied to language, social relations,
spirituality and worldview, and is generally held collectively
40
T raditional All persons who create, originate, develop and practice traditional
K nowledge Holders knowledge in a traditional setting and context. Indigenous
communities, peoples and nations are traditional knowledge
holders, but not all traditional knowledge holders are indigenous
T raditional M edicines Traditional medicine is the sum total of the knowledge, skills, and
practices based on the theories, beliefs, and experiences
indigenous to different cultures, whether explicable or not, used in
the maintenance of health as well as in the prevention, diagnosis,
improvement or treatment of physical and mental illness
T ribe/T ribal A tribe is a group of distinct people, dependent on their land for
their livelihood, who are largely self-sufficient, and not integrated
into the national society
41
Notes
42
Notes
43
Notes
44
Notes
45

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Workshop Manual

Department of Botany, Hansraj College

Editors: Dr Monika Koul

Top-Left : Practicing ethnobotanist filling form during the field visit

Hansraj College & ILLL

Patrons Prof. Shormishtha Panja (Director, ILLL)

Conveners Dr Amrit Kaur Basra (ILLL)

Coordinator Dr S. Shweta (Hansraj College)

O rganizing Committee Dr Manju Mathur

Message from Director I L L L

The Institute of Lifelong Learning is pleased to collaborate with Hansraj College,

Prof. Shormishtha Panja

I am delighted to learn that a National Workshop on Ethnobotany is being jointly

I wish the Workshop a grand success.

Prof. V ed Pal Singh

S.No. T heory/Practical T itle Page Nos.

1 Lead lecture Ancient Knowledge, Modern Medicine: The 1

2 Technical session I Ethnobotany: Past, Present and Future 2-3

3 Technical session II Prospects of Ethnobiology in India 4

4 Technical session III An insight into the Ethno-medicinal wisdom 5-6

5 Technical session IV Ethnobotany and Intellectual Property 7-9

6 Practical session I Collection of plants from field and processing 10-13

8 Practical session II Crude extract preparation and its screening 14-24

9 Practical session III Collection of information on ethnobotanical 25-27

10 Practical session IV To carry out a search of international patent 28-36

11 Suggested Readings Ethnobotany and IPR 37

12 Glossary Some Important Ethnobotanical Terms 38-41

discovered through ethnobotanical investigations. Ethnobotanical knowledge has been

Ethnobiology is an interdisciplinary subject of science and requires approach from

The hints of pharmaceuticals lie in the traditional as well as ethnomedicinal

In order to protect the Indian traditional knowledge a collaborative project on

Ethnomedical knowledge has led to the development of several important

Ethnobotanical knowledge in using Rauvolfia serpentina for treating mental

The discovery of the sweetener Thaumatin (protein low calorie sweetener)

confectionery and pharmaceutical industries. Thaumatin has an international value of

There are several cases of misappropriation of oral traditional knowledge. For

Similarly, Shamans, of Amazon basin processed bark of Banisteriopsis caapi

The ethnobotanical information given by the communities need to follow the

Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi and Department of

Herbarium is a repository of dried, pressed and preserved plant specimens on sheets

Collection of plant specimen: The specimen to be collected should be healthy. The

Poisoning, mounting and labeling: Poisoning is done before mounting of the

T he H erbarium C atalogue, Royal Botanic G ardens, K ew

The phytochemical investigation of a plant involves a number of steps namely,

General Methods of Extraction

F igure 1: Soxhlet apparatus

Aqueous alcoholic extraction by fermentation: Some of the Ayurvedic preparations like

Major Steps of Extraction Process

1. Collection and authentication of plant material and drying

Table 1: Common solvents used for extraction of plant materials.

Solvent Polarity Index Boiling Point (0 C)

properties. More than three hundred secondary compounds such as azadirachtin,

Neem Leaf E xtract Preparation

9. Collect the menstruum in a beaker of 100 ml capacity by opening the outlet of

Test for Saponins

Tests for Triterpenes and Terpenoids

1. 6DONRZVNLVWHVW: Evaporate 2 ml of extract to dryness and dissolve the residue in 2

Test for Tannins

Test for F lavonoids

Test for Sterols

Test for Glycosides

S.No. Phytochemical class Result

3 Flavonoids Alkaline test

Lead acetate test

Name of the Informant: FatheUs Name: _

Sex: M F Age:_Tribe Type:Language:______

Village: ____ District: _State: _____________

Plant Name: Local_Botanical_____

Time of Administration: _Vehicle of Administration:_Duration____