29 Time

Periods of t i m e
A c e n t u r y = 100 years. A decade = 10 years. A n a n n u a l conference is one tha t happens every
year. A q u a r t e r l y j o u r n a l is one t h a t comes o u r f o u r rimes a year. A n era is a p a r t i c u l a r p e r i o d
n f t i m e tha t is m a r k e d b y special events o r d e v e l o p m e n t s , e.g. the pos t- w ar e ra, an e ra of
y
apid s ocial change .
A phase is any stage i n a series o f events o r process o f d e v e l o p m e n t . A phase oi stage car
he i n i t i a l ( b e g i n n i n g ] , i n t e r m e d i a t e [middleJ o r f i n a l . It m a y also be d e s c r i b e d as preceding
. h a p p e n i n g b e f o r e n o w ] , c u r r e n t [ h a p p e n i n g n o w | , c r i t i c al [ p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t ] o r
t r a n s i t i o n a l [ i n t h e process o f c h a n g e ] .

Adjectives relating t o t i m e
adje ctiv e e x ample meaning

concurrent There were c o n c u r r e n t riots in several northern towns. : occurring at die same time
contemporary 1 studied all die c o n t e m p o r a r y accounts of the bsrcfe 1 dating from the same period
could find. existing now
Jo is researching c o n t e m p o r a r y music.
eventua The eventual cost of the project is likely to exceed happening or existing beer,
IOmillion. j after effort or problems
forthcoming My article will be published in the forthcoming issue of happening soon
the New Scientist.
ongoing Helen lias a number ol ongoin g projects- happening now
simultaneou: There were simultaneous concerts in several cities. happening at the same time
subsequent The book examines the war and the subsequent changes happening after something
in society. else
successive Successive governments would lace slmifar problems. happening immediately after
something else
temporary Georgia got a t e m p o r a r y position at the university. not for a long period; not
permanent

How t i m e s change

In recent tunes - p a r t i c u l a r l y the last 2 0 years - society has g o n e

t h r o u g h a p e r i o d o f considerable change. P r i o r t o the 1990? v e r y
few people had access to a h o m e c o i n purer. N o w a d a y s the m a j o r i t y 1

n f homes have at least o n e c o m p u t e r . T h i s e x p a n s i o n in h o m e

c o m p u t i n g has c o i n c i d e d w i t h the e m e r g e n c e o f i n t e r n e t t e c h n o l o g y .
7 5

<\l the m o m e n t we arc at a stage w h e r e the s i t u a t i o n is s t i l l e v o l v i n g . 1

Subsequent g e n e r a t i o n s w i l l live i n a very d i f f e r e n t w o r l d a l t h o u g h w ;

Jo n o t k n o w e x a c t l y h o w things w i l l d e v e l o p o v e r the n e x t f e w years,
in the near f u t u r e , or, least o f a l l , in the d i s t a n t f u t u r e .
5 6

i
' ar die present [ i m p [used to compare w i t h fhe past, p a r t i c u l a r l y i n spoken Knglish or more
informal writing) happened at the same time as
2
appearance gradually c h a n g i n g
3
al ;
1 5

rime w h i c h is n o t far away far away in die f u t u r e

fi

Some time words, e^. eariy, late , daily can be both adverbs and adjectives, e.g. a(n) e arly /
(me/doily meeting we met e arly Hale fdally . But nowadays Is only an adverb.We talk about
pre s cKtlpre s e nt- day tcurrcnl proble m s NOT itow ads y s - pre hicm s .

66 Academic V ocabulary fn (Jse

 Exercises

29,1 Read these emails sent o u t t n s t a f f a n d p o s t g r a d u a t e s t u d e n t s f r o m t h e i r u n i v e r s i t y .

C o m p l e t e the t i m e expressions- Y o u are given t h e first letters.

3
The I p of the ^lease report by 23 July 2Q07 all publications
construction of tine new sports centre will begin or for the c... _ academic year, incJudlnc
i ' March. From that date until completion of the
3
r papers and hooks ( w i t h t b t
works, the West Car Park will be closed. A expected date of publication). These are needed
t.. .. car park will be available during the for t h e University's a. _ _ report for 2007.
period at Campus East, and a new, p Include any publication nrum the p
car park will be opened when the f . /ear (2006) which was not published at t h a t time
ilacje of construction of the centre is completed. out which has since appeared

Due tn e technical problems, ernaih This Univai'sity today celebrates a c

with Large attachments may not be accepted by the i f r-esearclv I C O years ago this m o n t h , the
university's server. This is likely to continue during Zentre for Medical Research w a s officially opened.
the t period while a new server is n t h e last d alone, five major new
-esearch c e n t r e s fiave opened, a r e c o r d for =
being installed. This wiLI reach a c.
ten-year period. W e look f o r w a r d t o t h e s t a r t of
stage next week, when problems may be greatest.
a new e of reseerch over the
We apoLogise for the inconvenience.
~\ f years

29.2 C h o o s e the c o r r e c t w o r d s i n i t a l i c s t o c o m p l e t e these sentences.

1 in / A t t h e m o m e n t , I ' m w r i t i n g up m y thesis. I h o p e t o f i n i s h i n the ne dr / ne x t future.

1 O u r research is at I in a n inte rm e diate I ongoing stage - we n o w need to analyse o u r data.
3 T h e e m e rge ncy / e m e rge nce o f i n t e r n e t t e c h n o l o g y has t r a n s f o r m e d the t r a v e l i n d u s t r y .
4 T h e u n i v e r s i t y has gone I got t h r o u g h a p e r i o d o f great change i n the late s t t las t decade.
5 Tn the far / riis tanl f u t u r e , scientists m a y he able to c u r e a l m o s t a l l c o m m o n diseases.
6 A n t i - s o c i a l b e h a v i o u r is a noiv aday s proble m t a proble m now aday s in m a n y big cities.
7 A s e rie s / s e rial o l events o c c u r r e d in 'IJJK6 w h i c h c h a n g e d t h e p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e i n t h e
c o u n t r y . I n cons e que nt is ubs e que nt years, t w o n e w p a r t i e s were l o r m e d w i n c h became
engaged in concurre nt I e v e ntual a t t e m p t s t o w i n over v o t e r s .
H P r i o r of / to 2 0 0 1 , the i n d u s t r y w a s u n r e g u i a c e d . i n re ce n! / the las t y e a r s , h o w e v e r , the
g o v e r n m e n t has i n t r o d u c e d n e w r e g u l a t i o n s .
9 In a m o n e t a r y crisis c o i n c i d e d w ith / to a h u g e b u d g e t d e f i c i t , a n d m o s t
- .onte tnporary I te m porary p o l i t i c a l c o m m e n l a tors w a r n e d t h a t the e v e ntual i forthcom ing
cost t o the n a t i o n w o u l d be e n o r m o u s

29.3 F i l l i n t h e m i s s i n g f o r m s . D o n o t f i l l the shaded b o x e s . Use a d i c t i o n a r y i f necessary.

noun verb frd/ectfve adverb

eventual
successive
evolve
emergence
coincide
period

W r i t e five sentences relevant no your discipline using forms from the table.

Academic V ocabulary in Us e 67
 30
30 Cause a n d effect

M u c h a c a d e m i c s t u d y is c o n c e r n e d w i t h e s t a b l i s h i n g cause a n d effect o r t h e r d a t i o n s h i p
[ h a t exists between events , o b j e c t s , variables o r states o f a f f a i r s . Cause a n d effect is o f t e n
described using c o n j u n c t i o n s l i k e be caus e , p r e p o s i t i o n s l i k e due to a n d be caus e o/and
adverbs like the re fore a n d cons e que ntly * I n t h i s u n i t , h o w e v e r , w e f o c u s o n n o u n s a n d verbs
r e l a t i n g t o cause a n d effect. Pay p a r t i c u l a r a t t e n t i o n t o t h e p r e p o s i t i o n s they are used w i t h .

Verbs relating t o cause and effect

Y o u are p r o b a b l y already f a m i l i a r w i t h these verbs r e l a t i n g t o cause a n d e f f e c t ; m ak e , caus e ,
cre ate , do, produce , force . H e r e are s o m e o t h e r useful verbs.
H e r g r a n d m o t h e r i n f l u e n c e d / h a d a c o n s i d e r a b l e i n f l u e n c e o n Sarah's c h o i c e o f career.
P a r e n t a l a t t i t u d e l a r g e l y d e t e r m i n es h o w w e l l a c h i l d a d a p t s t o s c h o o l , [is t h e m a i n f a c t o r
affecting]
The teacher m o t i v a t e d t h e m t o w o r k h a r d , [made t h e m w a n t t o d o s o m e t h i n g p o s i t i v e ]
The f l o w o f t r a f f i c t h r o u g h t h e t o w n is f a c i l i t a t e d b y t h e one-way s y s t e m , ( m a d e easier
The speech p r o v o k e d an a n g r y response, [caused, u s u a l l y s o m e t h i n g negative]
T h e e x p l o s i o n w a s t r i g g e r e d b y t h e heat, [ s t a r t e d , u s u a l l y s o m e t h i n g sudden a n d negative
T h e t i l t i n g o f t h e earth o n its a x i s accounts f o r t h e c h a n g e i n t h e seasons, [ e x p l a i n s ]
Sid's d e t e r m i n a t i o n springs/stems f r o m his desire t o i m p r o v e t h e w o r l d , [is the r e s u l t o f ]
T h e c o u n t r y ' s v i c t o r y gave rise t o a n e w m o o d i n society.
The m o b i l e p h o n e c o n t r i b u t e d t o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n r e v o l u t i o n , [ w a s o n e f a c t o r i n f l u e n c i n g )
T h e c h i l d w a s g i v e n drugs t o s t i m u l a t e g r o w t h , [cause s o m e t h i n g t o d e v e l o p o r f u n c t i o n ]
The e x h i b i t i o n generated a l o t o f interest , [ a r o u s e d , caused t o e x i s t ]
The drug s m a y i n d u c e nausea, [cause, o f t e n used i n a m e d i c a l c o n t e x t )
T h e teacher's presence i n h i b i t e d t h e teenagers' d i s c u s s i o n, [ p r e v e n t e d i t f r o m being as free as
i t m i g h t o t h e r w i s e have been]
A n u m b e r o f benefits c a n be d e r i v e d f r o m this s i t u a t i o n , [ g a i n e d as a resultj

Nouns relating t o cause and effect

noun example meaning/comment

chain reaction The incident sei off a chain r e a c t i o n which affected set of related events in which
us all. each one causes the ne*t one
consequence The war had major consequences. res ufts
effecr, jmpacE The e f f e c t / i m p a c t of the film o n the audience was. Influence
very powerful.
end Does the e n d justify the mean si note how end here means aim
origin/source The accident was the origin/source o f her later beginning o r cause
problems.
outcome W e hope for a positive o u t c o m e t o die discussions. result o r effect of an action
precedent There are several p r e c e d e n t s f o r taking such a something thai already
decision. happened and provides a
reason for doing the same
reason What was the reason f o r his success / why he note how reason is often
succeeded? followed by for or why

While cause can be both a noun and a verb, e f f e c t is usually a noun.The equivalent verb
Is. a f f e c t . Her fathe r's proble m s , affe cte d her deepy Her fathe rs - proble m s had a profound
effect on he r. Note the formal and infrequent verb e f f e c t [= achieve], mainly used in the
phrase t o e f f e c t a change. (See also Unit 3.)

S3 A de m icV ocabulQry in Us e
 Exercises

30.1 R e p l a c e t h e u n d e r l i n e d w o r d s w i t h a m o r e precise v e r b o f cause o r effect. N o t e t h a t all t h e

sentences b e l o w are a p p r o p r i a t e f o r essays a p a r t p e r h a p s f r o m 6 w i t h its use o f ' g o t ' .

1 Researchers arc i n v e s t i g a t i n g w h y c h o c o l a t e causes headaches in. c e r t a i n p e o p i e .

2 W i l s o n ' s m o s t recent p a p e r has earned, a g r e a t d e a l o f i n t e r e s t a m o n g s o c i o l o g i s t s .
3 T h e d r u g c a u s e d headaches a n d dizziness a m o n g a n u m b e r o f subject s i n the test.
4 H a v i n g a n end-of-term p r i ' C helps students t o d o w e l l i n t h e i r class tests.
5 I n t e n s i ve f a r m i n g has been a s i g n i f i c a n t . f a c t o r i n t h e decline o f b i r d p o p u l a t i o n s .
6 T h e missile rest g o t a n i m m e d i a t e a n d v e r y s t r o n g response f r o m a d j a c e n t g o v e r n m e n t s
a n d f r o m the U n i t e d N a t i o n s .
7 A s t r o l o g i & t s believe t h a t people's lives are l a r g e l y a f f e c t e d b y the planets a n d stars.
S T h e b a r r i e r affects the H o w o f w a t e r i n t o the area t o p r e v e n t f l o o d i n g i n the r a i n y season.
5* A leak i n the t a n k e x p l a i n e d 4 0 % o f the fuel loss, a n d e v a p o r a t i o n t o o k a w a y a n o t h c t 5 % .
10 T h e r e n o v a t e d college b u i l d i n g s have w i d e r d o o r s a n d c o r r i d o r s t o m a k e the use o f
w h e e l c h a i r s easier.
11 T h e M i n i s t e r c u t taxes i n a n a t t e m p t t o affecit the e c o n o m y , w h i c h w a s p e r f o r m i n g p o o r l y .
12 B r i t a i n has r e c e i v e d m a n y e c o n o m i c benefits f r o m m e m b e r s h i p o f t h e E u r o p e a n Union.

30.2 M a t c h the b e g i n n i n g o f each sentence w i t h t h e m o s t a p p r o p r i a t e e n d i n g ,

1 T h e a r t i c l e e x p l o r e s the o r i g i n s
2 O n e s m a l l e x p l o s i o n set o f f a c h a i n
3 The confusion probably stemmed
4 T h e p r o p o s e d n e w t a x c o u l d have
5 T h e d i s a s t r o u s events o f 2 0 0 3 gave
T h e judge explained t h a t there were
m a j o r consequences f o r l a r g e r f a m i l i e s
precedents f o r his d e c i s i o n .
rise t o a w i d e s p r e a d sense o f d i s i l l u s i o n m e n t .
o f the concept of democracy.
r e a c t i o n , c a u s i n g massive d a m a g e .
f r o m a lack o f c o m m u n i c a t i o n .

30-3 C h r i i i s e t h e c o r r e c t w o r d i n i t a l i c s t o c o m p l e t e these sentences.

1 D c R o m a ' s w o r k i n the 1 9 7 0 s i n f l u e n c e d on 1to / - t h e d e v e l o p m e n t o f c o m p u t e r science.

2 T h e a c i d seemed t o have n o affe ct / e ffe ct w h a t s o e v e r o n the p l a s t i c .
3 E v e r y o n e h o p e d f o r a p o s i t i v e o u t c o m e upon I off / to the m e e t i n g b e t w e e n the t w o
governments,
4- T he r e a s o n for I to f o f the f a i l u r e o f t h e p r o j e c t w a s a l a c k o f f u n d i n g .
5 T h e i m p a c t o f g l o b a l w a r m i n g for /on/to the p o l a r ice caps is n o w u n d e r s t o o d m o r e clearly.
6 T h e j o u r n a l i s t w o n d e r e d w h a t p a r t i c u l a r e nding I e nd t h e g o v e r n m e n t h a d i n m i n d w h e n
i t d e c i d e d to b u i l d a n a t i o n a l t e n n i s academy .

30.4 W h a t are t h e n o r m s f r o m t h e same r o o t as these verbs? Use a d i c t i o n a r y i f necessary,

jjjj motivate facilitate influence provoke trigger contribute stimulate induce derive

30.5 N o w r e w r i t e these sentences u s i n g a n o u n i n s t e a d o f the v e r b .

1 B y r o n ' s p o e t r y i n f l u e n c e d R o m a n t i c poets i n a n u m b e r o f Other E u r o p e a n c o u n t r i e s .

2 T r e e p o l l e n c a n t r i g g e r hay fever a t t a c k s i n v u l n e r a b l e p e o p l e .
3 I n o b s t e t r i c s the d r u g c a n be used t o help i n d u c e l a b o u r .
4 T h e n e w e c o n o m i c measures w e r e i n t r o d u c e d to s t i m u l a t e t h e f a l t e r i n g e c o n o m y .
5 T o m o k o is s t u d y i n g w h a t m o t i v a t e s w o r l d - c l a s s athletes.

Find text describing a major event or series of events, (e.g. an accident, a war, a social change)
and note all the verbs and nouns in it relating to causes and effects or results. W r i t e your o w n
example sentences using these words.

Academic V ocabulary rn Use 69