Spread-Spectrum Technique and Its Application To DS/CDMA

Spread-Spectrum Technique and
its Application to DS/CDMA

Bernard H. Fleury
Navigation & Communications Section (NavCom)

Department of Communication Technology, Aalborg University
DK - 9220 Aalborg, Fredrik Bajers Vej 7 C1
e-mail: bfl@es.aau.dk
Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 #1
P RINCIPLES OF SS TECHNIQUE

B LOCK D IAGRAM OF A D IGITAL C OMMUNICATION S YSTEM
Transmitter:
t
TS
Bit stream Waveform d(t) Carrier Modulation &

10011 Modulator Amplification / Filtering
Receiver:
Bit stream
d(t)
Waveform Filtering / Amplification &
10001 Demodulator Baseband Demodulation
t
TS
B LOCK D IAGRAM OF A S PREAD S PECTRUM S YSTEM

SS Transmitter:
t
TS
Bit stream Waveform d(t) Carrier Modulation &

10011 Modulator Amplification / Filtering
c(t)
Pseudo-Noise
Generator
Wideband
noise-like Synchronization
signal
Pseudo-Noise
SS Receiver: Generator
c (t)
Bit stream
d(t)
Waveform Filtering/Amplification &
Demodulator Baseband Demodulation
10001
t
TS

M AIN F EATURES OF THE N OISE -L IKE W IDEBAND S IGNAL c(t)
Usually, the bandwidth W of c(t) is much higher than the bandwidth

B of d(t):
In military applications: G W B 100 . . . 1000
In UMTS/W-CDMA, G = 4 256.
The signal c(t) appears noise-like and random to any unintended
user.
The signal c(t) is easily generated by a device (pseudo-random
generator) the initialization setting of which (key) is known only to
the intended transmitter and receiver.
Synchronization should be easily performed at the intended receiver.
M ULTIPLICATIVE BANDWIDTH E XPANSION
1
0
Power spectrum of d(t)
00
11
0
1
00
11 0
1
0
1
0
1
Power spectrum of d(t)c(t)
1
0
0
1
00
11
0
1 0
1
P
0
1
P0 0
= 2B
0
1
P0
010110
00
11 00000000
11111111
0
1 0
1 P0
00000000
111111110
1

d(t) d(t)c(t) = G
0
1
2W
frequency W + T1 W frequency
s
B T1
s
c(t)
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
00000000
11111111
1
0
1
00000000
11111111
0
1 Power spectrum of c(t) W frequency

Pulse Spectra. Processing Gain = 16
1 BPSK Pulse Spectrum
Chip Spectrum
0.8
2
Normalised |S|
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3
Frequency normalised to the symbol rate
Tranmitted Spectrum. Processing Gain = 16

1 Transmitted Spectrum
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

Chip Spectrum
0.8
2
Normalised |S|
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

The ratio
W
G
= W Ts
B
is called the spreading factor (SF), spreading gain or processing gain of the
SS system.
A DVANTAGES OF SS TECHNIQUE
Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 10

A DVANTAGES OF SS S YSTEMS
The following five items apply for large SF.
1. Privacy.
It is a computational burden for an unintended user to demodulate a
SS signal.
2. Low probability of intercept.
Because of the low level of its power spectrum, a SS-signal can be
hidden in the background noise.
This feature makes a SS signal difficult to be detected by an
unintended user.
3. High tolerance against interference.
Intentional interference (jamming).
Unintentional interference (multiuser interference in a multiuser
communication system).
3. High tolerance against interference (contd).
0
1
1111
0000
0
1
0000
1111
0
1
0000
1111
P 0
1
0000
1111
0
1
11111111
00000000
0000
1111
0B
1
Baseband digital signal
0110
1010 10
f
111
000
Bandwidth expansion
000
111 0
1
000
111
J Baseband spread digital signal
1010 10 00
11
+ interference
000
111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
11111111
00000000
0
1 10
W f
Bandwidth compression
Bandwidth expansion
0000
1111
0000
1111
0000
1111 0
1
0
1
P
0000
1111
Baseband digital signal
0000
1111 0
1
J
+ residual interference
0000
1111
11111111
00000000 0
1 B W f

3. High tolerance against interference (contd).
Signal-to-interference power ratio after bandwidth compression

(also called de-spreading):
P
SIRd = G = SIRi G
J
In dB:
[SIRd ]dB = [SIRi ]dB + [G]dB
SIRi : Input signal-to-interference ratio.
SIRd : Signal-to-interference ratio after despreading.
Interference reduction is proportional to the spreading factor G.
4. Multiple access operation (CDMA).
2B
2B 2B
1 2W
1 1
1 /G
2 /G 2 /G
d1 (t) Lowpass d1 (t)
filter
c1 (t) c
1 (t)
2W
2B
2B 2B
2
2 2W
2 2
2 /G 1 /G 1 /G
d2 (t) Lowpass d2 (t)
filter
c2 (t) c
2 (t)

Chip Spectrum
0.8
2
Normalised |S|
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

Chip Spectrum
0.8
2
Normalised |S|
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
3 2 1 0 1 2 3

5. Diversity processes exploited in SS technique.
M AIN TYPES OF SS TECHNIQUES

D IRECT S EQUENCE (DS) SS S YSTEM
Power spectrum of d(t) c(t)
Power spectrum of d(t) P

/G
Ts f
P W
P
= 2B
f t t
B B d(t) c(t)
B T1 Data waveform d(t)
s
c(t) t
Tc = Ts /N
PN sequence
generator
1
1/2W
f
W T1
c
Power spectrum of c(t)
T IME -F REQUENCY O CCUPANCY OF A DS-SS

S IGNAL
f
2W
f0

F REQUENCY H OPPING (FH) SS S YSTEM
1.5
1
Th
{d(t) c(t)}
0.5
d(t) Ts 0
0.5
1.5
Ts
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
d(t) c(t)
Data waveform d(t)

c(t) = exp{j2fc (t)t}
1.5
Th
PN-Sequence Digital Frequency
1
0.5
{c(t)}
Generator Synthesizer 0
0.5
1.5
Ts
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
T IME -F REQUENCY O CCUPANCY OF A FH-SS S IGNAL
Occupied timefrequency slot
Th
f
2W
f0
2B
t
W
Processing gain, G = B

M ULTI -C ARRIER CDMA
Transmitter Receiver
chip #1 chip #1
fc [1] fc [1]
Combiner
bit stream chip #2 chip #2 bit stream
Modulator Demodulator
fc [2] fc [2]
chip #M chip #M
fc [M ] fc [M ]
Code vector Code vector
PN-Sequence PN-Sequence
Generator Generator
Synchronized
ACCESS TECHNIQUES

ACCESS TECHNIQUES
Code Code Code
User 3
User 2
User 1
Time Time Time
User 1
User 2
User 3 User 1 User 2 User 3
Frequency Frequency Frequency
FDMA TDMA CDMA
D UPLEX TECHNIQUES
frequency
Downlink (DL)
duplex
separation
Uplink (UL)
FDD
TDD frame
DL UL DL UL DL UL
TDD
time

T HEORY AND APPLICATION OF PSEUDO RANDOM
BINARY SEQUENCES
P ROPERTIES OF R ANDOM B INARY S EQUENCES

Let us consider a set S of periodic sequences of same length N .
Example:
S = {(000111101011001), (010011010111100)}
In order for these sequences to be pseudo-random or pseudo-noise

(PN) sequences, they have to satisfy the following properties:
Balance Property
For each sequence in S the relative frequencies of 0 and 1
approximately equal 12 each.
Run Property
. . . 0
For each sequence in S the relative frequencies of runs 0 0
m
1
and 1 1
. . . 1 of length m approximately equal 2m each.
m

P ROPERTIES OF R ANDOM B INARY S EQUENCES ( CONT D )
Shift Property
The numbers of disagreements and agreements between each se-
quence in S and its cyclically shifted versions are approximately the
same.
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1
+ + + + + + +
+ = agreement
- = disagreement
P ROPERTIES OF R ANDOM B INARY S EQUENCES ( CONT D )
Separation Property
The numbers of disagreements and agreements between any two
sequences in S or their cyclically shifted versions are approximately
the same
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0 1
0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
+ + + + + + + + +
+ = agreement
- = disagreement

AUTOCORRELATION OF BINARY SEQUENCES
Let a = (a0 , . . . , aN 1 ), an {1, +1} denote a binary sequence of
length N . Example: a = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1).
Let a(l) denote the l-times cyclicly right-shifted version of a. Example:

a(2) = (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1)
Autocorrelation of a:

N 1
Ra (l) = an a(l)
n
n=0
Example:
l=2 a 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a(2) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
a a(2) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 Ra (2) = 1
AUTOCORRELATION OF BINARY SEQUENCES

Ra (l)
7
l
-1
Ra (l) is a measure of the resemblance between the sequence a and its

l-times cyclicly right-shifted version a(l) .
Ra (l) = # of agreements
- # of disagreements
between a and a(l) .
Properties of Ra (l):
1. Ra (0) = N .
2. |Ra (l)| Ra (0) = N .

C ROSSCORRELATION OF BINARY SEQUENCES
Let a = (a0 , . . . , aN 1 ) and b = (b0 , . . . , bN 1 ) denote two binary
sequences of length N .
Crosscorrelation of a and b:

N 1
Ra,b (l) = an b(l)
n
n=0
(l)
Ra,b (l) is a measure of the resemblance between a and b n .
|Ra,b (l)| = N a = b
Ra,b (l) = 0 a and b are orthogonal
C ROSSCORRELATION OF BINARY SEQUENCES

Example:
a = (1, 1, 1, +1, 1, +1, +1)

b = (1, +1, 1, 1, 1, +1, +1)
Ra,b (l)
3
l
-1
-5

W ELCH BOUND
We consider a set S of binary sequences of length N :
S
S contains M sequences
b of length N
a
Welch bound:

M 1
max {|Ra,a (l)|} , max {|Ra,b (l)|} N = Rc
l=cN l MN 1
For M large
Rc N
The Welch bound gives a lower bound on the minimum resemblance
between any arbitrary shifted, distinct versions of any two selected se-
quences in S.
P SEUDO - NOISE SEQUENCES

L INEAR F EEDBACK S HIFT R EGISTER (LFSR)
Modulo2 adder
1 0 0 0 0 Output
Clock
pulses
Example n = 5-stage LFSR sequence generator.
Output from the LFSR generator:
01011101100011111001101001
00001
init.
L INEAR F EEDBACK S HIFT R EGISTER
am f1 f2 f3 fn
am1 am2 am3 amn Output
Clock
pulses
The coefficients fi equal 0 or 1.

The contents of the shift registers equal 0 or 1.
The LFSR is entirely described by its characteristic polynomial:
f (x) = 1 + f1 x + f2 x2 + + fn xn

P ROPERTIES OF S EQUENCES G ENERATED BY LFSR S
A sequence generated by a LFSR is periodic with length N , where
N 2n 1.
If N = 2n 1, then the sequence is referred to as a maximum-length

(ML) sequence or pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.
A LFSR generates a PN sequence if, and only if, its characteristic

polynomial is primitive.
P ROPERTIES OF PN-S EQUENCES

PN sequence of length N = 2n 1.
Example: n = 5, N = 31 : a = (0000101011101100011111001101001).
Balance property
Number of 1 : 2n1 .
Number of 0 : 2n1 1.
Run property
Number of runs of consecutive 0 or 1 : 2 n1 .
12 of them have length 1.
14 of them have length 2.

2(n2) of them have length n 2.
1 run of length n 1: 0
0 .
n1 times
1 run of length n: 1
1.
n times

P ROPERTIES OF PN-S EQUENCES
Shift property

N, l = 0
Ra (l) = (1)
1, l = 1, . . . , N 1
Example: N = 31.
Ra (l)
31
-1 l
0 31
P ROPERTIES OF PN-S EQUENCES ( CONT D )

Proof of (1):
Given the binary sequence a and the circularly shifted version a (l) , both
with period N , the auto-correlation R a (l) can be written as
Ra (l) = A(a, a(l) ) D(a, a(l) )
where
A(a, a(l) ) # of term-by-term agreements between a and a (l)

D(a, a(l) ) # of term-by-term disagreements between a and a (l)
Notice that
A(a, a(l) ) + D(a, a(l) ) = N.

P ROPERTIES OF PN-S EQUENCES ( CONT D )
Let W (a) be the Hamming weight of a. Then,
D(a, a(l) ) = W (a a(l) ).
Thus,
Ra (l) = N W (a a ) W (a a(l) ).
(l)
For ML sequences,
W (a a(l=iN ) ) = W (a) = (N + 1)/2.
Hence,
Ra (l
= iN ) = N 2W (a a(l) )
= N 2W (a)
= 1.
N UMBER OF P RIMITIVE P OLYNOMIALS
n N = 2n 1 Np (n) n N = 2n 1 Np (n)
2 3 1 11 2047 176
3 7 2 12 4095 144
4 15 2 13 8191 630
5 31 6 14 16383 756
6 63 6 15 32767 1800
7 127 18 16 65535 2048
8 255 16 17 131071 7710
9 511 48 18 262143 8064
10 1023 60 19 524287 27594
p (2n 1)
Np (n) = n , p (m) Euler totient function (number of integers less
than m which are relatively prime to m).

C ORRELATION P ROPERTIES OF PN SEQUENCES
N
l
l
lag l
Example: N = 31, Np (5) = 6 different PN sequences.
P REFERRED PAIRS OF PN SEQUENCES

The crosscorrelation between a preferred pair is three-valued:
Let {a, b} be a preferred pair of length N = 2 n 1, n odd or
n = 2 mod 4.
Then
Ra,b {t(n), 1, t(n) 2}
where n+1
1 + 2 2 , n odd
t(n) = n+2
1 + 2 2 , n = 2 mod 4
Example: n = 5
Ra,b {9, 1, +7}

D EFINITION AND PROPERTIES OF G OLD SEQUENCES
Let {a, b} be a preferred pair of PN sequences of length N = 2 n 1.
Set of Gold sequences:
{a, b, a b, a b(1) , . . . , a b(N 1) }
Number of Gold sequences: N + 2 = 2n + 1.
Let c and c denote two Gold sequences from the above set.
Autocorrelation property:

= N, l=0
Rc (l)
{t(n), 1, t(n) 2} l = 1, . . . , N 1
D EFINITION AND PROPERTIES OF G OLD SEQUENCES
Crosscorrelation property:
Rc,c (l) {t(n), 1, t(n) 2}
Comparison with Welch bound for large N
max |Rc,c (l)| = |t(r)|

l=0, for c=c

2 2n/2 = 2Rc , n odd

2 2n/2 = 2Rc , n = 2 mod 4

G OLD SEQUENCES
A Gold sequence is generated by modulo-2 addition of two preferred pair
sequences.

bm f1 f2 f3 fn
bm1 bm2 bm3 bmn
Clock Output
pulses cm
am1 am2 am3 amn
am f1 f2 f3 fn
G OLD SEQUENCES
1 2 3 4 5
f1 (x) = 1 + x2 + x5
seq1: N = 25 1 = 31 chips
N = 31 chips
f2 (x) = 1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5
seq2: N = 25 1 = 31 chips
1 2 3 4 5
Sequence 1: 1111100011011101010000100101100
Sequence 2: 1111100100110000101101010001110
0 shift combination: 0000000111101101111101110100010
..
.

Cyclic shift of sequence 2 to the left.

G OLD SEQUENCES
35 10
30 8
6
25
4
20
Ra,b (l)
15
Ra (l)
0
10
2
5
4
0
6
5 8
10 10
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
lag l lag l
T HEORY AND APPLICATION

OF
PSEUDO - NOISE (PN)/ MAXIMUM LENGTH (ML)
SEQUENCES

D EFINITION OF A F IELD
Let us consider a set F of elements endowed with two operations:
Addition + and Multiplication .
F is a field if the following properties hold:
F is a commutative group w.r.t. the addition +;
F \{0} is a commutative group w.r.t. the multiplication ;
Distributive law: for a, b, c F , a (b + c) = a b + a c.
Finite field or Galois field (GF): F is finite.

the residue class of any prime integer p forms a GF denoted
by GF (p);
the number of elements in any finite GF equals p m where p is a
prime integer and m is a natural number, i.e. q = p m .
Infinite field : F has infinite elements, e.g. the field of real numbers.
I RREDUCIBLE P OLYNOMIAL OVER GF(2)

A polynomial f (x) = f0 + f1 x + . . . + fn xn over GF (2), i.e. f0 , . . . , fn
GF (2) is irreducible if it has positive degree (i.e. > 0) and it cannot be fac-
torized into the product of other polynomials with lower positive degrees.
Example: Find the irreducible polynomials over GF (2) of degree 4.

a. First write all 24 = 16 polynomials over GF (2) of degree 4;
b. Compute all reducible polynomials by computing all products
(x3 + a1 x2 + a2 x1 + a3 )(x + b1 ) and (x2 + a1 x1 + a2 )(x2 + b1 x + b2 )
with a1 , a2 , a3 , b1 , b2 GF (2);
c. Removing the reducible polynomials from the 16 polynomials yields
the following irreducible polynomials over GF (2) of degree 4:
f1 (x) = x4 + x + 1
f2 (x) = x4 + x3 + 1
f3 (x) = x4 + x3 + x2 + x + 1

F IELD GENERATED BY AN IRREDUCIBLE
POLYNOMIAL
Let f (x) be irreducible with degree n and a root of f (x):
f0 + f1 + . . . + fn1 n1 + n = 0
GF (2n ) = {c0 + c1 + . . . + cn1 n1 ; cl GF (2), l = 1, . . . , n 1}
Let
c1 () = c1,0 () + c1,1 + + c1,n1 n1 GF (2n )
c2 () = c2,0 () + c2,1 + + c2,n1 n1 GF (2n )
Addition
c1 ()+c2 () = (c1,0 c2,0 )+(c1,1 c2,1 )+ +(c1,n1 c2,n1 )n1
Multiplication
c1 () c2 () = (c1,0 + c1,1 + + c1,n1 n1 )
(c2,0 + c2,1 + + c2,n1 n1 )
F IELD GENERATED BY AN IRREDUCIBLE

POLYNOMIAL ( CONT D )
where powers of larger than n are reduced using the identity
n = fn1 n1 + . . . + f1 + f0
Example: Representation of GF (23 ) generated with f (x) = 1 + x2 + x3 .

Let be a root of f (x): 3 = 2 + 1
Elements of GF (23 ) Vector representation
0 000
1 001
010
2 100
2 + 1 101
2 + + 1 111
+1 011
2 + 110
P RIMITIVE ELEMENTS
An element of GF(2n ) is called a primitive element if its generates GF (2 n ),
n
i.e. {0 , 1 , . . . , 2 2 } = GF (2n )\{0}
Example: is a primitive element in GF (23 )
Powers of Elements of GF (23 )\{0}

0 = 1
1 =
2 = 2
3 = 2 + 1
4 = 2 + + 1
5 = +1
6 = 2 +
P RIMITIVE P OLYNOMIAL
Primitive polynomial: An irreducible polynomial f (x) of degree n is said to
be primitive if one of its roots is a primitive element of GF (2 n ).
Example: The irreducible polynomial of degree 3, f (x) = x 3 + x2 + 1, is

used to construct GF (23 ).
Show that f (x) is a primitive polynomial.
a. The roots of f (x) are x = , 2 , 4 ;
b. The order of these roots is 7 according to
2n 1
Order of k = ,
GCD(2n 1, k)
where GCD(n, k) is the greatest common divisor of n and k.

Therefore these elements are primitive elements of GF (2 3 ).
The polynomial f (x) is then a primitive polynomial.
G ENERATION OF ML SEQUENCES
Simple Shift Register Generator (SSRG):
c1 c2 cn1
x1 x2 xn1 xn
D D D
Modular Shift Register Generator (MSRG):
c1 c2 cn1
x1 x2 xn1 xn
D D D
f (x) = 1 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn1 xn1 + xn is primitive.
G ENERATION OF ML SEQUENCES ( CONT D )

Alternative representation of shift register:
X(t + 1) = TX(t),
where X(t) = [xn (t), xn1 (t), . . . , x1 (t)]T is the state vector.
and T is the characteristic matrix calculated as
for SSRG: for MSRG:

0 1 0 0 0 cn1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 cn2 0 1 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0 cn3 0 0 1 0 0

TS = . .. .. .. , TM = . .. .. .. .. ..
.. . . . .. . . . . .

0 0 0 0 1 c1 0 0 0 0 1
1 cn1 cn2 c2 c1 1 0 0 0 0 0

Example:
f (x) = x3 + x2 + 1
SSRG:

0 1 0
D
x1
D
x2
D
x3 TS = 0 0 1
1 1 0
MSRG:

1 1 0
D
x1
D
x2
D
x3 TM = 0 0 1
1 0 0

Let denote a root of f (x) = x3 + x2 + 1, 3 = 2 + 1.
SSRG MSRG
Clock Memory State vectors Memory State vectors
t=0 001 1 001 1
t=1 010 010
t=2 101 3 100 2
t=3 011 5 101 3
t=4 111 4 111 4
t=5 110 6 011 5
t=6 100 2 110 6
A MSRG successively generates the powers of . Thus, the MSRG (and

in fact any LSRG) will generate a ML sequence iff f (x) is primitive.

R ECIPROCAL P OLYNOMIALS
Consider an irreducible polynomial of degree n given by
f (x) = 1 + c1 x + c2 x2 + + cn1 xn1 + xn (2)
Then its reciprocal polynomial f (x) is given by
f (x) = xn + c1 xn1 + c2 xn2 + + cn1 x + 1

= xn f (x1 ) (3)
The sequence generated by an SSRG using f (x) is the same as the

sequence generated by an MSRG using f (x).
PN S EQUENCE P HASE S HIFTS

The output sequence of the SSRG can be formally written as
g(x)
a(x) = , g(x) = g0 + g1 x + . . . + gn xn1 .
f (x)
where gi GF (2), g(x)

0.
There are 2n 1 possible numerator polynomials g(x) that are uniquely
related to the 2n 1 phase shifts of the sequence a(x).
Example: f (x) = 1 + x + x3 and g(x) = 1 + x. By long division we find

1+x
= 1 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x7 + x10 + x11 + x12 + . . .
1 + x + x3
7bit period

1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0...
Initial
conditions
PN S EQUENCE P HASE S HIFTS ( CONT D )
Degree of g(x):
Because the sequence a(x) is periodic with N , it follows
First period

g(x) N 1
= a(x) = a0 + a1 x + . . . + aN 1 x +a0 xN + . . .
f (x)
= (a0 + a1 x + . . . + aN 1 xN 1 ) (1 + xN + x2N + x3N + . . .)
In modulo-2 arithmetic,
1 1
1 + xN + x2N + x3N + . . . = = .
1x N 1 + xN
Thus,
b(x)

N 1
g(x) a0 + a1 x + . . . + aN 1 x
= a(x) = .
f (x) 1 + xN
PN S EQUENCE P HASE S HIFTS ( CONT D )

Relationship among the degrees of f (x), g(x), and b(x):
degree = Dg n1 degree = Db N 1

g(x) b(x)
a(x) = =
f (x) 1 + xN

degree = Df = n degree = N
degree{f (x)} degree{g(x)} = N degree{b(x)} Db = Dg + N n.

Knowing the degee of g(x), we can predict the number of 0s at the end of
the first period, i.e. b(x) ends with
(N 1) Db = n 1 Dg zeros.

BACK TO THE EXAMPLE
f (x) = 1 + x + x3 and g(x) = 1 + x
n=3
Dg = 1
Period: N = 2n 1 = 23 1 = 7
Number of trailing zeros: n 1 Dg = 3 1 1
1+x
= 1 + x3 + x4 + x5 + x7 + x10 + x11 + x12 + . . .
1 + x + x3
7-bit period

1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 0...
Initial
conditions
One trailing zero
S HIFTED SEQUENCES
Let a0 (x) = 1/f (x) denote the reference sequence

gk (x)
and ak (x) = f (x) be the sequence a0 (x) cyclically right-shifted by k
bits
Then it can be shown that
gk (x) = xk mod f (x).

S HIFTED SEQUENCES ( CONT D )
Example: Consider the characteristic polynomial f (x) = 1 + x + x3
Shift, k First period, bk gk (x)

0 1110100 1
1 0111010 x
2 0011101 x2
3 1001110 1+x
4 0100111 x + x2
5 1010011 1 + x + x2
6 1101001 1 + x2
Unique relationships for a particular shift of a PN sequence:
ak (x), shift k gk (x) = xk mod f (x)

degree D g

bk (x), first period, with n 1 Dg zeros at end
SSRG I MPLEMENTATION
n1 zeros

Initial loading: 1 00 . . . 0
c1 c2 c3 cn1
xn1
1 0 0 0 0 f (x)
1 x x2 xn2 xn1
f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x)
n1 zeros

Initial loading: 00 . . . 0 1
c1 c2 c3 cn1
gn(x)
0 0 0 0 1 f (x)
x x2 xn1 gn(x) xn modf (x)
f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x) = f (x)

P HASE S HIFTING U SING M ASKS F OR A SSRG
c1 c2 c3 cn1
xn1
1 0 0 0 0 f (x)
1 x x2 xn2 xn1
f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x) f (x)
Mask
m0 m1 m2 mn2 mn1
m(x)
f (x)
Phase shift network (PSN)
M ASK P OLYNOMIALS FOR SSRG S

There is a one-to-one correspondence between the P = 2 n 1 differ-
ent shifted version of the PN sequence and numerator polynomials
g(x) of degree < n.
A particular sequence a(x) can be written as
g(x) g0 + g1 x + . . . + gn1 xn1

a(x) = =
f (x) f (x)
1 x xn1
= g0 + g1 + . . . + gn1
f (x) f (x) f (x)
Define the mask polynomials
m(x) = m0 + m1 x + . . . + mn1 xn1 (m0 , m1 , . . . , mn1 )
To generate the kth shift relative to 1

f (x) , select the mask polynomials
m(x) = gk (x) = xk mod f (x)

M ASK P OLYNOMIALS FOR MSRG S
1
The kth shift at the output of the MSRG, relative to f (x) , is obtained as
follows:
1. Find the polynomial gk (x) = xk mod f (x);
2. Calculate the sequence:
gk (x) xk mod f (x)

= = a0 + a1 x + . . . + an1 + . . .
f (x) f (x)
3. Select the mask polynomial to be:
m(x) = m0 + m1 x + . . . + mn1 xn1

= a0 + a1 x + . . . + an1 xn1 .
The formula for the mask can also be written

k
x mod f (x)
m(x) =
f (x) deg<n
E XAMPLE : SSRG AND MSRG M ASKS

Primitive polynomial: f (x) = 1 + x + x3
loading vector: 100
Delay, k SSRG mask MSRG mask

0 g0 (x) = 1 100 {g0 (x)/f (x)}3 bits = 111
1 g1 (x) = x 010 {g1 (x)/f (x)}3 bits = 011
2 g2 (x) = x2 001 {g2 (x)/f (x)}3 bits = 001
3 g3 (x) = 1 + x 110 {g3 (x)/f (x)}3 bits = 100
4 g4 (x) = x + x2 011 {g4 (x)/f (x)}3 bits = 010
5 g5 (x) = 1 + x + x2 111 {g5 (x)/f (x)}3 bits = 101
6 g6 (x) = 1 + x2 101 {g6 (x)/f (x)}3 bits = 110

S YNCHRONISATION ISSUES
S YNCHRONISATION
Signal model Channel noise
w(t)
Received signal
{b(l)}l=0
L1
s(t)
Delay y(t)
+
+
1
Amplification
cos(0 t + 1 )
2P

L1

y(t) = P Ts b(l) s(t lTs 1 ) 2 cos (0 t + 1 ) + w(t).

l=0
sl (t;1 ,1 )

s(t;,,b)
We assume that s(t) has support [0, Ts ) and

Ts
s2 (t) dt = 1.
0
The DS-SS receiver needs to estimate 1 and 1 .

ML SYNCHRONISATION
Likelihood function for (, , b) [b = [b(0), . . . , b(L 1)]]

LTs +
(, , b) exp y(t)s(t; , , b) dt

L1
(l+1)Ts +
exp b(l) y(t) sl (t; , ) dt
l=0 lTs +

L1 (l+1)Ts +
exp b(l) y(t) sl (t; , ) dt.
l=0 lTs +

L1
exp {b(l) z1 (l; , )}
l=0
with the definition

(l+1)Ts +
z1 (l; , ) = y(t) sl (t; , ) dt.
lTs +
ML SYNCHRONIZATION ( CONT D )
Likelihood function for (, )
By averaging over the unknown binary symbols b, while assuming that

they are i.i.d. we get

(, ) = (, , b) db
b

L1
= cosh {z1 (l; , )}
l=0
Log-likelihood function for (, )

L1
log (, ) = log cosh {z1 (l; , )} .
l=0

N ON - DECISION DIRECTED LOOP
Derivative of the log-likelihood function:
d log (, ) L1
= z2 (l; , ) tanh{z1 (l; , )}
d
l=0
with
d
z2 (l; , ) = z1 (l; , )
d
(l+1)Ts +
d
= sl (t; , ) dt
y(t)
lTs + d
(l+1)Ts +
= y(t) s(t lTs ) 2 sin (0 t + ) dt
lTs +
Equating the derivative of the log-likelihood function to zero yields

L1
z2 (l; , 1 ) tanh{z1 (l; , 1 )} = 0
l=0
N ON - DECISION DIRECTED LOOP ( CONT D )

Derived receiver architecture [known delay]:
lTs + 1
s(t) tanh()
cos(w0 t + 1 )
90o tanh(z1 (l; 1 , 1 ))
y(t)
L1
VCO l=0
sin(w0 t + 1 ) z2 (l; 1 , 1 ))
lTs + 1
s(t)

Using the approximation tanh(x) x yields
lTs + 1
s(t)
sin(w0 t + 1 )
90o z1 (l; 1 , 1 )
y(t)
L1
VCO l=0
cos(w0 t + 1 ) z2 (l; 1 , 1 )
lTs + 1
s(t)

Costas loop:
z1 (t)
Filter
s(t)
90o
y(t) (t)
VCO F (p)
z2 (t)
Filter
s(t)

S QUARING LOOP
Block diagram:
Phase
Loop Locked
y(t) Square y(t) 2 Band z(t) (t) Filter Loop (PLL)
Law Pass
Device Filter F (p)
To next
synchronization
stage Frequency
Scaling rVCO(t)
VCO
f
2
S QUARING LOOP ( CONT D )

Remember,

L1

y(t) = P Ts b(l)s(t lTs 1 ) 2 cos (0 t + 1 ) + w(t)
l=0
This time, we square and bandpass filter the received signal

L1 2

z(t) = P Ts s(t lTs 1 ) cos[2(0 t + 1 )] + n(t),
l=0
The PLL recovers the carrier phase at 2 0 .

VCO output of the PLL:
rVCO (t) sin 2(0 t + 1 )
Hence it follows for the error signal at the input of the loop filter:
(t) = z(t) rVCO (t)

L1

= P Ts s(t lTs 1 )2 cos 2(0 t + 1 ) sin 2(0 t + 1 ) + n
(t, )
l=0
L1
P Ts
= s(t lTs 1 )2 sin 2 + O(20 t) + n
(t, )
2
l=0
where 1 1 .
The loop filter suppresses the terms at 2 0 .

Transfer function of the VCO in operator form
1
21 = F (p){(t)}
p
L1
1 P Ts
= F (p) s(t lTs 1 )2 sin 2 + n
(t, ) .
p 2
l=0
Phase diagram

2 2
2

T IMING SYNCHRONISATION
T IMING SYNCHRONISATION
Pilot sequence with larger SNR
Pilot chip sequence (unmodulated)
data data
time
Next the DS-SS receiver needs to estimate .
Back to our one-path channel:

Channel noise
w(t)
Received signal
s(t) 1 s(t 1 )
Delay y(t)
+
+

T IMING SYNCHRONISATION ( CONT D )
We distinguish between
Acquisition: coarse estimate 1c of 1
Tracking: maintaining fine estimate 1 of 1 , i.e.

Tc
|
1 1 | < =
Q
ACQUISITION
Correlation method
s(t) = c(t) is the pilot signal (no data modulation)

2
TD

1c = arg max y(t)c(t )dt
[0,N Tc ] 0

( )
where TD is the dwell-time.

ACQUISITION ( CONT D )
Correlation method
2
y(t) = 1 c(t 1 ) + w(t) 2

Choose
largest Output
input
signal
Number of performed correlation operations: 2N (Q = 2, T D = TC )
Serial Search
Z 2 Yes
y(t) = 1 c(t 1 ) + w(t)
Threshold Tracking
()dt
T Detector
D No
1 )
c(t
1

PN Adjust delay
Generator

Serial Search: Straight Line
threshold
Uncertainty interval
Serial Search Strategies

Single dwell serial acquisition
t Yes
Bandpass Square law Signal above Tracking
() dt
+
filter detector tTD threshold ?

n TD No
PN code Adjust timing

generator
Probability of Detection and False Alarm
1
= 1
1 = 1
Output of
the correlator
Threshold h

Dual dwell serial acquisition
No
Next hypothesis Initial State:

Output above
(delay) Integration time
TD1 threshold ?
Yes
No Verification State:
Output above Integration time
threshold ? TD2 > TD1
Yes
Hypothesis accepted
Acquisition completed
T RACKING
Early-late gate tracking (coherent)
The correlation estimate of the delay can be expressed as

1 = arg max y(t)c(t ) dt
TD

( )
This is equivalent to

d
1 = arg zero ( ) arg zero{( + ) ( )}
d

arg zero y(t)c(t ( + )) dt y(t)c(t ( )) dt
TD TD

T RACKING ( CONT D )
Early-late gate tracking (coherent)
The early-late gate algorithm attempts to maximize the autocorre-

lation between the received and the locally generated PN-sequence.
The tracking algorithm is a simple gradient search algorithm.

Received power
Current Late
operating
point ( 1 )
Early
Timing offset [relative to 1 ]

1 1
A non-coherent delay-locked loop
+ (t) y+ (t) Square-law y+ (t)2

Bandpass
H(p) envelope detector
+
- (t)
y(t) c(t 1 + ) +
(t) y (t) Square-law y (t)2

Bandpass
H(p) envelope detector
+
c(t 1 )
PN code generator Voltage controlled Loop filter

clock (VCC) F (p)
Delay c(t 1 )


Output of the bandpass filter:
t
y (t) = CV c(t 1 )c(t 1 ) dt +n(t)
tTD

P Ts Rc (1
1 )+n (t,)
where n(t, ) is the so-called self-noise.
Squaring and subtracting the signals from both arms yields
(t) = y (t)2 y+ (t)2

2
= P Ts (CV Rc2 (1 1 ) CV+
2
Rc2 (1 1 + )) + ntotal (t, )
Transfer function of the VCC in operator notation
1 F (p)
= {(t)}
Tc p
Provided both multipliers have exactly the same gain,

i.e. CV = CV = CV+
2
1 P Ts CV F (p) 2
= {Rc (1 1 ) Rc2 (1 1 + )) + ntotal (t, )}
Tc p

Linearized model for a delay-locked loop
ntotal
.
1
Tc = 1T
c
1
+ D( ) + P Ts CV F (p)
1 loop filter
Tc
1
p
VCC
Discriminator characteristic
D( ) = Rc ([ 1
Q ]Tc )
2
Rc ([ + 1
Q ]Tc )
2
+1
1 1
Q 1 + 1
Q Q
1

1
Q
1 1
Q 1+ 1
Q
1 = Tc
Q

Autocorrelation functions of the advanced and retarded PN code
Rc ([ + 1
Q ]Tc ) Rc ([ 1
Q ]Tc )
+1

1 1
Q Q
1
1 1
Q 1 + 1
Q
1
Q
1+ 1
Q
D IVERSITY TECHNIQUES AND RAKE PROCESSING

D IVERSITY TECHNIQUES
Frequency diversity, transmitting or receiving the signal at difference
frequencies:
Especially used in FH-CDMA.
Path diversity, resolving multipath components and coherently com-

bining them:
Rake receiver.
Time diversity, transmitting or receiving the signal at different times:

FEC, interleaving.
Space diversity, transmitting or receiving the signal at different loca-

tions:
multiple antenna transmission/reception.
Polarization diversity, transmitting or receiving the signal with different

polarizations:
antennas need to support dual polarization modes.
PATH DIVERSITY
Selection diversity(SD): take the signal diversity component with the
highest SNR.
Maximum ratio combining(MRC): all signal diversity components

are combined such that the SNR is maximized.
Equal gain combining(EGC): all signal diversity components are

phase compensated and combined.

S ELECTION DIVERSITY ( CONT D )
Receiver architecture:
Select largest SNR channel

Z1
Diversity channel #1 MF1
c,1
Transmitted User
signal Zl data
Diversity channel #l MFl
c,l
ZL
Diversity channel #L MFL
c,L
Zl : Signal at the output of the MF of Branch l;

c,l : Instantaneous SNR at the output of MFl .
S ELECTION DIVERSITY
Let the average SNR of any diversity channel (path) be
Eb
c = c,1 = c,2 = . . . = c,L = E 2
LN0
For Rayleigh distributed , c is 2 distributed with 2 degrees of freedom

1
pc,l () = e c
c
The probability that SNRs at all L receivers are below the value

L L

P {c,1 , c,2 , . . . , c,L < } = P {c,l < } = pc,l () d
l=1 l=1 0

L
c
= 1e

Pdf for the maximum SNR max = max{c,1 , . . . , c,L }
d
pmax () = P {c,1 , c,2 , . . . , c,L < }
d
L
= (1 e c )L1 e c
c
For BPSK,

Eb 1 2
Pb = Q 2 , Q(x) = ex /2
dx
N0 2 x
and hence,
Pb = Q 2 pmax () d
0
L1 ! "
L L1 (1)k c
= 1 .
2 k k+1 k + 1 + c
k

0
10
1
10
Probability of biterror
2
10 L=1
L=2
3
10
AWGN
L=3
L=4
4
10
0 5 10 15 20
SNR per bit (dB)

M AXIMUM RATIO COMBINING
Receiver architecture:
g1
n1 (t)
Diversity Z1
channel #1 MF1
(1 , 1 )
Combiner
gl
Transmitted nl (t)
Diversity Zl X
L
Z
signal
channel #l MFl
(l , l ) l=1 User
data
gL
nL (t)
Diversity ZL
channel #L MFL
(L , L )
Maximizing the output SNR: g = arg maxg c (g), g = [g1 , . . . , gL ].
M AXIMUM RATIO COMBINING ( CONT D )

Instantaneous SNR of the output of the combiner

Eb | i i gi |2
c =
LN0 i |gi |2
Invoking Schwarz inequality

2

2 2
i gi |i | |gj |

i i j
with equality, if and only if gi = ai ,i = 1, . . . , L. In this case,

# $
2
Eb l |l |
c =
LN0

For Rayleigh distributed , c is 2 distributed with 2L degrees of freedom

L1
pc () = L e c , (x) = tx1 ex dx.
c (L) 0
and hence

! L+l1 "
L1
Pb = Q 2 pc () d = pL (1 p)l
0 l
l
! "
1 c
p 1 .
2 1 + c

0
10
1
10
Probability of biterror
2
10
L=1
3
10 L=2
AWGN
L=3
L=4
4
10
0 5 10 15 20
SNR per bit (dB)

RAKE R ECEIVER CONCEPT
DS-SS receiver for the one path channel
y(t) = 1 c(t 1 ) + w(t) Z (n+1)T + Z1 (n)

s 1 Detection
()dt Decoding
nTs +
1
nTs +
1
c(t
1 )
PN c(t)
1
Delay
Generator
1

|h( )|
|1 |( 1 )
RAKE RECEIVER CONCEPT ( CONT D )

Estimation of the path gain 1 :
(n+1)Ts +
1
Z1 (n) = y(t)c(t 1 ) dt
nTs +
1
1 1 ) + W1 (n)
= 1 Rc (
Hence,
Z1 (n)
1 =
.
Rc (0)

RAKE R ECEIVER CONCEPT ( CONT D )
nTs +
1
Z (n+1)T +
s 1
()dt
nTs +
1
1
PL nTs +
2
y(t) = =1 c(t ) + w(t) Z (n+1)T +
s 2 Detection
()dt Decoding
nTs +
2
2
nTs +
L
Z (n+1)T +
s L
()dt
nTs +
L

c(t
1 )c(t
2 )c(t
L )
L
PN c(t) 1
L
2
Generator Delay line
|h( )| |1 |(t 1 )
|L |(t L )

|2 |(t 2 )
1 2 L
RAKE R ECEIVER CONCEPT ( CONT D )
Maximum ratio combining:
l ,
l = l = 1, . . . , L
Equal gain combining:
l )) ,
l = exp (j arg( l = 1, . . . , L

M ULTIPLE ACCESS I NTERFERENCE
Near-far scenario:
k

K
User of interest

2
Base station
strong
1 Interferer
weak
Remedy: either power control or multiuser detection
P OWER CONTROL

O PEN L OOP P OWER C ONTROL
Pt1
d
Pr1
Duplexer AGC
BTS Pr2
Measure Rx
Pt2 power
PA
Adjust Tx power
Mobile station
Pt2 = (Pr1 )nominal + Pt1 Pr2 [dB]

loss
O PEN L OOP P OWER C ONTROL
Open loop power control relies on the assumption that the power-
loss in the uplink and downlink channels are identical.
The uplink and downlink channels are separated by 130 MHz in the
UMTS system, which far exceeds the coherence bandwidth.
Consequently, fluctuation of the channel coefficients in the two
bands are uncorrelated and open loop power control fails in com-
pensating for fast fading!

C LOSED L OOP P OWER C ONTROL
User data
MUX Demultiplexer Decoding
AGC
PC (n) Power control

commands
adjust Eb/No
target Eb/No, SNR
measurement Power control
commands
Measure Quality
Pt (n) user data

Decoding Despreading PA
& RAKE
Base station closed loop power control functions Mobile station closed loop power control functions
Pt (n) = Pt (n 1) + PC (n)
P OWER C ONTROL FOR THE U PLINK
Closed-loop power control in IS-95:

Standard deviation of the residual power adjustment error: 1.1 1.5 dB.

S TREET CORNER EFFECT
MS1
BTS1
MS2
MS3
BTS2
We expect a system crash in DS/CDMA.
H ANDOVER
Interfrequency Handover
Intrafrequency Handover
f1 f1
f3
f2 f2
f1 f1
f2
f2 f1
f1 f1
a) b)
Hierarchical cell structure Hot spot cells with several carriers

I NTRAFREQUENCY H ANDOVER
The MS is connected to two BS at the same time.
Separate pilot channel used for signal strength measurements.
Handover is initiated if signal becomes smaller than a certain

threshold.
Drawback: This 2nd BS causes additional interference, because dif-

ferent cells use different scrambling codes.
I NTERFREQUENCY H ANDOVER
Using slotted downlink transmission, the MS can perform measure-

ments on other frequencies.
The regular 10 ms-frame is compressed in time, either by puncturing
or by reducing the spreading factor with a factor of 2. During the
remaining idle time of 5 ms, the MS can carry out interfrequency
measurements.
Instantaneous power
Idle time
Time
Normal transmission Slotted Transmission

UMTS W-CDMA
M AIN R EQUIREMENTS FOR UMTS R ADIO ACCESS

PART
Delay Constrained Delay Unconstrained
Operating Envi- Maximum Max BER, Max Delay Maximum BER
ronment User Bit User Bit
Rate Rate
Rural Outdoor 144 kb/s BER=10 3 , D=30 ms 144 kb/s 103 108
BER=106 , D=100 ms
BER=107 , D=300 ms
Urban/Suburban 500 kb/s BER=10 3 , D=30 ms 500 kb/s 103 108
Outdoor BER=10 6 , D=100 ms
BER=107 , D=300 ms
Indoor/Low Range 2 Mb/s BER=10 3 , D=30 ms 500 kb/s 103 108
Outdoor BER=10 6 , D=100 ms
BER=107 , D=300 ms

IMT-2000 FREQUENCY ALLOCATION
M ULTIPLEX TECHNIQUES
frequency
Downlink (DL)
duplex
separation
Uplink (UL)
FDD
TDD frame
DL UL DL UL DL UL
TDD
time

W IDEBAND CDMA S PECIFICATIONS (FDD,
PHYSICAL LAYER )
Multiple access DS-CDMA

Duplex technique FDD
Chip rate 3.84 Mchips/s
Carrier spacing 5 MHz
Frame size 10 ms
Spreading technique Variable-spreading factor+multi-code
Channel Coding 1/2-1/3 rate convolutional coding
Turbo coding
Interleaving Block interleaver with inter-column permutations
Modulation QPSK with roll-off factor = 0.22
U PLINK C HANNELIZATION C ODES

Code-tree for generation of Orthogonal Variable Spreading Factor (OVSF)
codes
Cch,4,0 =(1,1,1,1)
Cch,1,0 = 1 , Cch,2,0 = (1,1)
Cch,4,1 = (1,1,-1,-1)
Cch, 2, 0 Cch,1, 0 Cch,1, 0 1 1
= =
- Cch,1, 0 1 - 1
Cch,1,0 = (1)
Cch, 2,1 Cch,1, 0 Cch,4,2 = (1,-1,1,-1)
Cch,2,1 = (1,-1)
Cch,4,3 = (1,-1,-1,1)
The OVSF codes are only orthogonal in the synchronous case.

U PLINK L ONG S CRAMBLING C ODES
Complex scrambling codes, Gold sequence generator
clong,1,n
MSB LSB
f1 (X) = X 25 + X 3 + 1
f2 (X) = X 25 + X 3 + X 2 + X + 1 clong,2,n
Notice: no change in signal bandwidth!
U PLINK S HORT S CRAMBLING C ODES
The selected codes are defined from the family of periodically extended
S(2) Codes (N=255)
2
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
d(i)
f0 (X) = X 8 + X 5 + 3x2 + x2 + 2x
mod 2
+ + + 2
+ mod n addition cshort,1,n(i)
f1 (X) = X 8 + X 7 + X 5 + x + 1
zn(i)
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
b(i)
+ Mapper
cshort,2,n(i)
multiplication mod 4
mod 2
+ + +
7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
f2 (X) = X 8 + X 7 + X 5 + X 4 + x
a(i)
3 3
2
3
mod 4
+ + + +
S(2) codes supports MU-detection.

D OWNLINK S PREADING
I
Sdl,n
Any downlink
S
S

physical channel I+jQ
Cch,SF,m
except SCH
P Q
SCH: Synchronisation Channel
D OWNLINK S CRAMBLING C ODES
Complex scrambling codes, Gold sequence generator
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0
f1 (X) = X 18 + X 7 + 1 I
f2 (X) = X 18 + X 10 + X 7 + X 5 + 1
Q
17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

F ORWARD E RROR C ORRECTION IN UMTS
Transport Channel Type Coding Scheme Coding

Rate
Broadcast ch. 1/2
Paging ch. Convolutional Code
Randomaccess ch. 1/3, 1/2
Turbo Code 1/3
C ONVOLUTIONAL E NCODER
Input
D D D D D D D D
Output 0
G0 = 561 (octal)
Output 1
G1 = 753(octal)
(a) Rate 1/2 convolutional coder
Input
D D D D D D D D
Output 0
G0 = 557 (octal)
Output 1
G1 = 663 (octal)
Output 2
G2 = 711 (octal)
(b) Rate 1/3 convolutional coder

T URBO E NCODER
P HYSICAL CHANNELS (FDD)
Physical channels typically consist of a three-layer structure:
Super frame: A super frame has a duration of 720 ms and consists

of 72 radio frames.
Radio frame: A radio frame is a processing unit of 10 ms which
consists of 15 time slots.
Time slot: A time slot is a unit which consits of fields containing bits.
The number of bits per time slot depends on the physical channel
(Spreading factor). Length of a timeslot is 667 ms.

E XAMPLE D OWNLINK
DPCCH DPDCH
Pilot TPC TFI Data
Npilot bits NTPC bits NTFI bits Ndata bits
Time slot
0.625 ms, 20*2k bits (k=0..6)
Slot #1 Slot #2 Slot #i Slot #16 Radio frame

Tf = 10 ms
Frame #1 Frame #2 Frame #i Frame #72 Super frame

Tsuper = 720 ms
U PLINK D EDICATED P HYSICAL C HANNELS
DPDCH: Dedicated Physical Data Channel. This channel is used

to carry dedicated data generated at Layer 2 and above, i.e. the
dedicated transport channel (DCH). There may be none, one or
several uplink DPDCH on each Layer 1 connection.
DPCCH: Dedicated Physical Control Channel. This channel is used

to carry control information generated at Layer 1 such as: pilot bits
for coherent detection, power control, feedback information, and
multiplexing information of the DPDCH.

Data
DPDCH Ndata bits
Pilot: Known pilot bits
k
Tslot = 2560 chips, Ndata = 10*2 bits (k=0..6) support channel estima-
tion for coherent detec-
Pilot TFCI FBI TPC tion.
DPCCH Npilot bits NFBI bits NTPC bits
NTFCI bits
TPC: Transmit power-
Tslot = 2560 chips, 10 bits control commands
FBI: Feedback informa-
tion
TFCI: Optional transport
format combination indi-
Slot #0 Slot #1 Slot #i Slot #14
cator
1 radio frame: Tf = 10 ms
cd,1 bd
DPDCH1
cd,3 bd
S
DPDCH3 I
cd,5 bd
DPDCH5
Sdpch,n
I+jQ
cd,2 bd
S
DPDCH2
cd,4 bd
DPDCH4
bd
S
cd,6 Q
DPDCH6
j
cc bc
DPCCH

D OWNLINK D EDICATED P HYSICAL C HANNELS
DPDCH and DPCCH are time-multiplexed in downlink.
The dedicated pilot channel facilitates the use of antennae in down-

link.
D OWNLINK D EDICATED P HYSICAL C HANNEL
DPCCH DPDCH
Pilot TPC TFI Data
Npilot bits NTPC bits NTFI bits Ndata bits
0.625 ms, 20*2k bits (k=0..6)

Pilot: Known pilot bits
support channel estima-
tion for coherent detec-
tion.
Slot #1 Slot #2 Slot #i Slot #16 TPC: Transmit power-
control commands
Tf = 10 ms TFI: Optional transport
format combination indi-
cator
Frame #1 Frame #2 Frame #i Frame #72
Tsuper = 720 ms

S YNCHRONISATION IN UMTS
The initial Cell Search is carried out in three steps:
Slot synchronisation using the primary synchronisation channel.
Frame synchronisation and code-group identification using the

secondary synchronisation channel.
Scrambling-code identification through symbol-by-symbol correla-

tion over the primary CCPCH with all the scambling codes within
the code group.
UMTS FDD P OWER C ONTROL S PECIFICATIONS
Open loop power control

The downlink power is measured on the CCPCH (Common
Control Physical Channel) before the MS transmits the random-
access burst.
Uplink interference level and required SIR is broadcast on the
BCCH
Closed loop power control
Power control commands are sent every 0.625ms.
The step size is 0.5 3.0 dB, and is fixed for each cell.
Target SIR is determined by the outer loop.
Outer loop power control
The target SIR is determined by radio resource management,
i.e. not a physical layer issue.
The SIR level is adjusted according to a quality estimate (FER,
BER, a.s.o).

Spread-Spectrum Technique and Its Application To DS/CDMA

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Spread-Spectrum Technique and

its Application to DS/CDMA

Navigation & Communications Section (NavCom)

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 #1

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 #2

Bit stream Waveform d(t) Carrier Modulation &

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 #3

B LOCK D IAGRAM OF A S PREAD S PECTRUM S YSTEM

Bit stream Waveform d(t) Carrier Modulation &

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 #4

Usually, the bandwidth W of c(t) is much higher than the bandwidth

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 #5

M ULTIPLICATIVE BANDWIDTH E XPANSION

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 #6

Tranmitted Spectrum. Processing Gain = 16

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 #7

M ULTIPLICATIVE BANDWIDTH E XPANSION

Tranmitted Spectrum. Processing Gain = 64

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 #8

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 #9

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 10

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 11

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 12

Signal-to-interference power ratio after bandwidth compression

Interference reduction is proportional to the spreading factor G.

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 13

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 14

Tranmitted Spectrum. Processing Gain = 16

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 15

M ULTIPLICATIVE BANDWIDTH E XPANSION

Tranmitted Spectrum. Processing Gain = 1

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 16

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 17

M AIN TYPES OF SS TECHNIQUES

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 18

Power spectrum of d(t) P

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 19

T IME -F REQUENCY O CCUPANCY OF A DS-SS

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 20

Data waveform d(t)

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 21

T IME -F REQUENCY O CCUPANCY OF A FH-SS S IGNAL

Occupied timefrequency slot

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 22

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 23

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 24

Code Code Code

User 3 User 1 User 2 User 3

Frequency Frequency Frequency

FDMA TDMA CDMA

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 25

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 26

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 27

P ROPERTIES OF R ANDOM B INARY S EQUENCES

In order for these sequences to be pseudo-random or pseudo-noise

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 28

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 29

P ROPERTIES OF R ANDOM B INARY S EQUENCES ( CONT D )

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 30

Let a(l) denote the l-times cyclicly right-shifted version of a. Example:

Spread-Spectrum Technique and its Application to DS/CDMA, Fall 2008 # 31

AUTOCORRELATION OF BINARY SEQUENCES

Ra (l) is a measure of the resemblance between the sequence a and its