T

by Dr. Sonia M. Zaide

Early Philippine -
Selected excerpts from Mexican relations.
Philippine History and Government After 1521, Mexico
(7th edition, 2015) became the center of the
Spanish Empire in Latin
by Gregorio F. Zaide America. Due to the Mexican viceroy the Philippines was established the center of
and Sonia M. Zaide the Spanish Empire in Asia. Both colonies played
histories.
Because of missionaries from Mexico, the Philippines became the first
Christian nation in Asia. The missionaries in the Philippines evangelized Guam and
the Marianas, China, Japan, and Southeast Asia. Eventually, the Filipinos
Before there was a Philippines, there was jico (Mexico). The Philippines themselves became outstanding missionaries of the faith in Asia. As Pope Francis
would never have been a single political unit, colonized by Spain and later declared noted, when he visited Manila in January 2015, he Philippines becoming the first
independent, without Mexico. Through Mexico, the Philippines turned up as the first Christian nation in Asia is a 2

and foremost Christian nation in Asia. Because of Mexico, the Philippines became a
unique nation, with a cultural heritage from four civilizations Asian, European,
Latin and North American. Connected to Mexico by the galleon trade, the Philippines
the first global maritime trade
for five continents Asia, Latin and North America, Europe, and Australia.1
Most Filipinos know Spain colonized their islands for 333 years (1565-1898).
But not many know that it was actually Mexico for most of those years (1565-1821)
that enabled Spain to rule over the Philippines. discovery of the
Philippines in 1521, there were five more maritime expeditions to find the
Philippines: the Loaisa expedition (1525); the Cabot expedition (1526); the Saavedra
expedition (1527); the Villalobos expedition (1542; and the Legazpi expedition
(1564-65).
The expedition of Miguel de Legazpi succeeded not only in exploring the
Philippine islands again, but in establishing the return route to Mexico. The Mexican
Viceroy, on orders of the Spanish king, had organized the Legazpi mission and
subsequent relations thereafter. Thus began a long (256 years) relationship with great
consequences for the religion, economics, politics, and culture of both nations.
1 This essay is a modified version of sections in the 7th edition of a textbook for Philippine schools,
Gregorio F. Zaide and Sonia M . Zaide, Philippine History and Government (2015). The 6th edition of
the book was published in 2011 (Quezon City: All-Nations Publishing Co. Inc.).
Had it not been for the additional troops and supplies from Mexico,
colonial venture would have failed. The soldiers sent to the Philippines were
recruited from veterans of the colonial wars in Latin America. Many were of
Spanish-Mexican blood, second-generation mestizos (creoles) born in Mexican
towns. The wives of the soldiers and civil officials came on the return voyage of the
galleons. The supplies of food, arms and ammunition came from Mexico also. The
annual subsidy from Mexico paid the colonial salaries, stopped revolts, and repelled
outside enemies.
The Royal Subsidy (Real Situado).
The Philippine colony did not earn
enough for its own expenses, nor did it
enrich the Spanish kings. The Spanish
conquistadors here did not penetrate the
Cordilleras, and thus did not find rich
mines like in Latin America. Neither the
tribute, agricultural taxes, nor the galleon
customs tariffs paid enough for the expenditures of the colony. Thus, the Spanish
king instructed the Mexican viceroy to send an annual royal subsidy (real situado)
to keep colonial administration going in the Philippines.
Every year, an annual subsidy came from the Mexican treasury. It included all
the galleon customs tariffs collected by Acapulco. The amount was not fixed, but it
2
Radio Vatican, January 18, 2015.

1 2
averaged 250,000 Mexican silver pesos a year. 3 Sometimes, it was more; at other
times, less. After Mexican independence in 1821, the subsidy could no longer be
sent. Ironically, the self-sufficient native economy improved, gave birth to the
Filipino middle class ilustrados, and sowed the seeds of nationalism in the islands.
The Manila-Acapulco Galle on Trade (1571-1815). In the early colonial era,
the undeveloped Philippine economy led to the idea of using the supply galleons
for trade. The Mexican-Philippine galleon trade turned up as the most interesting
anomaly of the global economy.
The galleon, a bulky, slow-moving wooden sailing ship, was the wo st
maritime bulk carrier similar to tanker or huge container ship. The Manila
galleons brought the luxury goods of the East to the New World. The trade began
migration to the New World of Chinese coolies and Filipino mariners who
accompanied the galleons.
The returning Acapulco galleons brought to Manila the Mexican silver pesos,
Spanish friars, colonial soldiers, colonial officials, wives of the colonizers, and
provisions from Mexico. The half-empty returning galleons also carried huge ballast
stones. Today, the stones of the walls, paved roads, churches, and old buildings of
Intramuros speak of Mexico, their origin.
The sea journey from Acapulco to Manila was easier and faster because of
equatorial trade winds that propelled sailing ships westwards. Hence, the Acapulco-
to- its ease and
because it brought the wives of Spanish officials to Manila.
The Importance of the Chinese to the Philippine s and Mexico. The
Chinese played a crucial role in the success of the galleon trade. Chinese junks
brought their luxury goods like silk and porcelain from southeast China to the
galleon port in Aduana Post Office Building). After the
Chinese merchants were paid, Chinese laborers (coolies) stuffed the goods onboard
the galleon. It was said that no native Filipino could do the job of the Chinese. Only
the Chinese coolies knew how to pack the goods in such a way that the Spanish
owners could cheat on tonnage and customs rules. Moreover, they were the only
ones who could calculate the payments in different currencies and get away with
bribing customs officials.
As galleon commerce increased, thousands of Chinese laborers and merchants
flocked to Manila and Mexico. A Chinatown Parian was established outside
Intramuros, and in the main plazas of Acapulco and Mexico City itself.
The Chinese became the pillars of the Philippine economy, even during colonial
days. A newly independent Mexico itself recognized the value of Chinese
immigrants. In 1821, the Mexican Independence Junta encouraged Chinese
immigration to Mexico, like thousands of Chinese in the Philippines. The junta
Because of their business acumen, frugality, and industriousness, we should
allow them to enter our country, too, in order to foster economic development
3
The ocho real coin (the M exican silver peseta) had a content of around 25 grams of silver. In
3 4
The Galleon Trade: A Global Economic Anomaly. The galleon trade was the
heart of Spain's unsuccessful attempt to make money from the colony and its main
business in Asia for over two centuries. However, it is hardly known that the
governments of Spain, Mexico, and the Philippine colony at all did not prosper from
it at all. In reality, the galleon trade was not commerce it was gambling.
The galleon trade only benefited the individual Chinese and European private
traders, the middlemen, and the smugglers. Indirectly, it also gave relief to the poor
masses of Filipino indios, newly emancipated from slavery and awarded small plots
of land. The indio masses, freed from their oppressive datus and colonial
encomenderos, became the vast increments to the tribute payors noted in surveys by
the town friars (who counted the population through the tribute). The former (datus)
had no more say over them, and the latter (colonial conquistadors) were too distracted
by the galleons to mind them.
Strangely enough, through the underground economy of the galleon trade,
wealth actually left all the three governments the Philippines, Spain and Mexico
and went into the pockets of individua ls in China, Mexico, and Manila. The Chinese
went crazy for the Mexican silver peseta, something they had not seen before. Silver
pesos became the informal currency in the Asian continent for a while. Other profits
went to a few private Spanish or European investors, who secretly included the
governor and the religious orders. By the 17th century, the galleon trade averaged 2
to 5 million pesos a year in turnover. However, merchants in Spain went bankrupt
and protested against it. Thus, the king limited the number of galleons from four to
only two a year.
The galleon trade distracted the attention of Spanish encomenderos and officials,
to the utter neglect of the agricultural economy, which were left for the newly
emancipated slaves and a few brave tillers. The Spaniards had no inclination or
incentive to farm and ranch, because they made more money in the galleons. The
contrast between the farmer and the galleon investor is seen vividly in the tale of one
famous investor Madame Ana Gironiere, wife of Dr. Paul de la Gironiere (1797-
1862), a French physician. While her husband labored unsuccessfully to raise coffee,
indigo, hogs, and fighting cocks in their farm at Jala-Jala, Morong, she made a fortune
exporting in the galleons.4
4 See Dr. Paul dela Gironiere, Twenty Years in the Philippines (London, 1854).
 Many galleons sank, or pirates stolen them. Today, black rice grains from a
burned galleon still wash up on shores of Puerto Galera, Oriental Mindoro. The
galleons encouraged smuggling, ship overloading, and speculation. In 1815, the
Mexican Revolution abolished the galleon trade. it was abolished due to the Mexican
Revolution.
Effects of the Galleon Trade. In its first 40 years, the galleon trade grew quickly.
It made Manila the trade center of Asia. The Manila-Acapulco galleon trade became
more profitable than the overland Silk Road, the maritime Spice Route of India and
Holland, and the maritime trade route of Portuguese Macao.
Other European colonial powers Portugal, Holland, and Britain made attempts
to grab the Philippines for themselves. But their attempts were unsuccessful.
However, Britain occupied Manila for two years (1762-64), and successfully grabbed
a southern island (Balambangan) from the Sultan of Sulu for the first British colony
in Southeast Asia.
The galleon trade made the Mexican silver
coin the first international money, similar to
the American dollar today. In the Philippines
and Asia, it was called the peso. The word
"peso" entered the vocabulary.The silver peso
became the most desirable currency in the
world, and gave birth to the American dolla r
sign ($).
Not so well-known is the fact that the galleons were important not only to Asia,
Europe, South and North America but also to the little continent of Australia. After
the colonization of Australia in 1788, Australian settlers traded in horses, cattle and
sheep to sell to the Spaniards in Manila. So happy were Australian ranchers that
ic) in New South Wales. The Australian traders were
paid in the galleon silver peso. However, the Australian British have a bad memory
of Spanish monarchs (the Spanish Armada, the unpaid British invasion ransom
money, etc.). So, they punched out the emblem of the Spanish monarch from the
silver coins and made a hole in the middle of it. As the galleon trade ended, an
economic depression affected Australia, and, from 1820-25,
became the only money accepted in the continent. 5
The most important events of the year in both Manila and Acapulco were the
departure and arrival of a galleon. A galleon's safe arrival in Manila in September to
October, or in Acapulco, was fiesta time. It was celebrated with great joy, masses,
parties, and the traditional feria (fair). In Manila, the officers, crew and crowd
traditionally marched barefoot from the port area to the Ermita Church. Here, they
made thanksgiving masses and offerings to the patron
saint of the galleons, the image of the Nuestra Seora
de Guia.

First Global Trade for Five Continents

(1565-1815). The Manila-Acapulco galleon
trade was the most important maritime trade in the world at the time. According to
historians, the Manila-Acapulco galleon trade was the pioneer of transcontinental or
global maritime trade. Because the galleons carried precious pearls, Manila became
The safe arrival of a
galleon meant a year of prosperity. On the other hand, its loss at sea, or to pirates,
was a year of poverty.
The Manila to Acapulco galleon trade was important to five continents Asia,
North and South America, Europe, and even Australia. The galleons exported the
exotic and luxury goods from the East to the Americas and Europe. Through Mexico,
the goods were brought to Cuba, and from there they reached the West. The Spanish
silver peso (peseta) became the currency of choice in Europe, North and South
America, Asia, and even Australia.

5 See Zaide, History of Asian Nations (2010), p.280.

5 6
 Latin Heritage of the Philippines
Spanish Mexicans in the Philippines. Many Spanish Mexicans came to the
Philippines to live or work. Legazpi himself was a retired Mexican official. He
brought his two grandsons, Felipe and Juan de Salcedo. Eventually, thousands of
Spanish soldiers and missionaries came from Mexico. Two Mexican mestizos
(creoles) served as Archbishop of Manila. They were Archbishop Miguel de
Poblete (1653-1667) and Archbishop Manuel Antonio Rojo (1759-1764).
A Mexican Comedy during the British Invasion of Manila. In 1762-64,
Archbishop Rojo was the acting Spanish governor of the Philippines during the
Britain successfully invaded Manila from Madras, India. The British and Indian
British invasion (1762-1764
soldiers looted and burned in what beca the worst
Apart from pure-bred Spaniards, there were also indios and mestizos from
atrocity of the Seven Years War. Although there was a tragedy during the war, there
Mexico who migrated to the Philippines, They were the sailors, servants,
was also some hilarity involving Mexican prisoners of war.
adventurers, and soldiers. Many of these Mexicans became important to the
The acting Spanish governor, Archbishop Manuel Rojo, a Mexican mestizo, had
development of Philippine nationalism.
for his personal guards some 135 Mexican guachinangos (soldiers). The British
locked them up at a military stockade outside Intramuros, at San Fernando, Binondo,
Filipinos in Mexico. The galleon route brought Filipino indios, Filipino
near the Chinese Parian. Irked by months of boredom and bad meals at their prison,
mestizos, and Chinese to Mexico. The first Filipinos in Mexico came from the datu
the unhappy Mexicans hatched an escape plan. Their leader, a talented corporal from
(noble) class. They were exiled because of the Tondo Conspiracy of 1587-1588. All
Guadalajara, Mexico, masterminded the whole thing.
of them were related to Raha Sulayman, the last native datu of Manila and leader of
For two months, the Mexicans secretly dug a tunnel leading to the Parian outside
the failed revolutionary plot. The Filipino nobles exiled to Mexico were some of
the prison gate. From Chinese friends, they obtained the supplies for a stage show.
the most important native rulers. They included Pitongatan, chief of Tondo; Felipe
Once the tunnel was done, the Mexican corporal requested permission from the camp
Salonga, chief of Polo, Bulacan; Agustin Manuguit and Juan Banal, both chiefs of
commander to celebrate the feastday of the Guadalupe, the patron saint of Mexico,
Tondo.
on December 12th , 1762. He invited the British and Indian Sepoy guards to see a
During the two and a half centuries of the galleon trade between Manila and
musical stage show. Of course, the commander and all the guards were delighted.
Acapulco many Filipino crew members of the galleons deserted and lived
On that night, the Mexicans used their talent for amusement and entertainment
permanently in Mexico. For example, the Espiritu Santo arrived in Mexico in 1618,
to save themselves. The musical show featured the mariachi Mexican songs and
with 75 Filipino seamen; it returned to Manila with only five Filipinos remaining.
music. The British and Sepoy guards were captivated, for they had never experienced
The Filipino deserters married Mexican women and put up a Filipino colony in
such music. Some male prisoners cross-dressed in female attire and brought the
the hills of Acapulco. They introduced the coconut wine industry in Mexico. The
house down. Their corporal, dressed as a clown, hosted the show with a repertoire of
tuba became very popular because it was cheaper and sweeter tasting than the corn-
witty jokes.
based wine. Irked by the growing number of Filipino illegals in Mexico, and the
As each number finished, the prisoner-actors slipped quietly offstage, crawled
drop in local wine sale, a Spanish official suggested that all Filipinos be arrested
through the tunnel, and exited to freedom on the other side of the prison. The jail
and shipped back to the Philippines.
breakers easily got lost among the Christmas shoppers in the Chinese Parian stalls.
Fortunately, no action was taken.
Towards the end, their leader was the last one left on stage. As his turn came to
Some of these Filipinos in Mexico
escape, he told the audience to remain in their seats for an intermission and a big
ended up in North America, as seen in the
surprise number. Then, he, too, quickly slipped through the tunnel, and walked out a
local history of the Louisiana Manila Men
free man on the other side.
of New Orleans.
By the time their captors realized what happened, the Mexicans had all fled to
join the resistance forces in the provinces. The British guards desperately searched
but could not find the escaped prisoners.

Chinatowns of Me xico. The first Chinese and Chinatowns in the Americas

came from the Philippines. With the galleons came the Chinese goods, Chinese
6 merchants, and Chinese coolies. They settled down in Acapulco and Mexico City,
See Zaide, Pageant, Vol. 2, pp. 19-20.

7 8
the capital. Their markets (parians) were centrally located. In Mexico City the
main Plaza de la Independencia, next to the national cathedral (see photo), was the
old galleon market. At these Chinatowns were sold the Asian goods that Mexicans
fondly remember as coming from Manila (porcelain, blankets, clay jars, cigars,
monton shawls etc.).
Me xican contributions to the Philippines. During the two and a half
centuries of Philippine-Mexican relations, the Mexicans enriched Philippine life and
culture. The Spanish way of life in the colony was more Latin American than
Spanish. The Mexican contributions included plants and animals; industries; diet
and dress; music and dances; Catholic images; church architecture; the grid town
plan; customs and traditions; words and language; and the inspiration for
independence.
New plants and animals . Among the new plants from Mexico were abaca
(maguey), achuete, avocado, beans, cacao, calabasa (squash), camachile, cane sugar
(tubo), cassava, chico, cincamas, coffee, corn (mais), guava, guyabano, papaya,
peanut, tobacco, pineapple; potato, sirihuela, tomato, and wheat. Many flowers
were introduced, like the acapulco, azucena, marigold, calachuchi, cadena de amor,
and poinsettia Among the new animals were the horse, cattle, sheep, donkey; oxen,
horses, ducks, geese, pigeons, swans, mayas, and better breeds of chicken and
Texas roosters.
New products and industries . The new products from Mexico bred local
cottage manufacturing. These included straw hats, ships rope, leather, metal stirrup
and armor, shoes and slippers, books, adobe stones, cement; pia cloth; sugar from
sugar cane. In addition, new jobs came through cattle ranching, cigar and cigarette-
making, carving Catholic images and church decor, wooden shoes (bakya) or soft
slippers, and weaving hats and mats. The Philippines became a world center for the
manufacture of rope, which came from the maguey (abaca) plant. For centuries,
shipping rope was known as "Manila rope."
New die t and dre ss. Filipino diet
changed because of new plants and
animals introduced from the New World. Filipinos learned to eat corn, chocolate,
cane sugar, cassava flour, white potato, salted fish, and beef. Recipes for them were
of Mexican origin.
9 10
New dress modes were introduced. Men wore loose trousers and a long, loose
shirt called the barong. The Filipino "barong" came from the guayabera. a loose-
fitting shirt worn in Cuba and Mexico. (See photo)
The Filipino local officials wore a man's coat, the "Americana," which came
from Latin America and not from the United States, as usually thought. Men wore
straw hats.
Women learned to cover their upper torso, and wear undergarments, long
cotton skirts, scarfs or veils. The women's cotton undergarment, naguas, came from
Mexico. Footwear was required of native men and women, and the Pagsanjan
woodcarvers invented the wooden clogs (bakya), thus making their town the capital
of Laguna.
New music and dance s. New Latin musical influences came from Mexico,
Cuba, and Brazil. New instruments (violin, guitar, flute, harp, drum, piano, trumpet,
and cymbal) were brought from Mexico and Spain. The kumparsa (group band)
had Cuban origins. Many Philippine songs and dances are of Latin origin for
example, the jarabe and pandango. Filipino music integrated the six-beat Latin
rhythm, and native musicians invented new musical styles, like the kundiman.
Catholic images and churches. Many Catholic images came from Mexico.
These are now famous shrines in the Philippines the Black Nazarene in Quiapo,
Lady of Peace and Good Voyage in Antipolo, and the Guadalupe in Pagsanjan,
Laguna. Ironically, the Philippine demand for images influenced the Chinese to
make their own. Friars from Manila commissioned Chinese ivory carvers in Fujian
to carve ivories of Marian images. The industry led to Chinese ivories of Guanying,
the Chinese goddess, for the home market in China.
Churches in Spanish Philippines were copied from Mexico because their first
parish priests came from Mexico, for example the old church at Mexico, Pampanga.
The oldest existing stone church is San Agustin Church at Intramuros Manila, built
in 1607. It has survived all the natural
calamities, including bombardment
during WW2. There are hundreds of
other historic stone churches in the
islands. 7
7
 Hernando Cortes, the conquistador of Mexico, implemented a town plan in
Latin America based on Aztec and Maya cities of Central America. The Spanish
officials applied the same grid design to Philippine towns. The Spanish town
formed a rectangular grid-pattern, with a central plaza and rectangular street blocks.
The grid-like town plan organized the native population in more manageable units
for purposes of religion, taxation, colonial administration, and military efficiency.
At the center of a town was the square plaza. Adjacent to the plaza was the
Catholic Church, the convent house, and the Casa Real or government hall. The
town streets were arranged in perpendicular style, criss-crossing side streets. Only
the trusted nobles or richest people could live close to the church and town hall.
Only the rich could walk along a main street called the Camino Real (royal walk).

Proper spacing was allowed for trade, festivals, and military operations, as well
as the passage of horses and carriages.

House, church, and town plan. New designs for

houses, churches, and towns grew out of the early
settlements built by the Spaniards. The local
Catholic Church became the new center for town life, replacing
house. Spain introduced the use of stone and cement for building the first stone
churches, stone buildings, stone forts, and stone houses. Due to the tropical climate,
the Spanish house followed the Mexican design (which was also tropical).
The Spanish house had a square patter a red tile roof, an azotea (balcony), and
a yard (patio) in the middle. The rooms were arranged around the patio. The living
room enjoyed air from the south and north. The horses and animals were kept in a
separate stable. Every house had a pit for garbage and human waste. Examples of
bahay na bato (stone house) are the house of Jose Rizal at Calamba, Laguna, and
the Aguinaldo Shrine in Kawit, Cavite.

11 12
 Customs and traditions . Many Filipino customs and traditions reveal the
Mexican influence. Examples are the moro-moro play, the town feria, the Moriones
festival in Marinduque, the Santacruzan (May procession), and the Flores de Mayo
(May parade of beautiful girls), the pabitin (party delights hung from a pole), and
the annual celebration of Todos los Santos (November 1) to honor the dead.
Words and language . Mexico enriched the Filipino vocabulary. More than
100 Filipino words came from Mexico, among them are acacia (tree), balsa
(lightwood), chocolate, bayabas (guava), mais (corn), palengke (marketplace),
tiangge (market day), and zacate (grass fodder). language in
Cavite, Zamboanga and certain parts of the Philippines is a mixture of Mexican,
Spanish, and Filipino.
Mexican blood.
rson
with native (indio) ancestors. There was no official apartheid (segregation) policy
on persons of indio or mestizo blood; but there was some prejudice and injustice.
Hence, the movements for rights and independence in both the Philippines and
Latin America were begun by the mestizos (criollos).
Many Filipino families are descendants of Spanish Mexican officials and
soldiers who came to live and work in the Philippines. They include the Macabebes
of Pampanga, the Amayas, Carranzas, Cuevas, Hidalgos, Morelos, Zaldivars, and
Zapatas of Manila, Cavite, Pampanga, Masbate, Zamboanga and other places.
Inspiration for independence. When Mexico and other Latin American
countries won their independence from Spain in the early 19th century, the Filipinos
were inspired to seek their own freedom. The first written constitution made by
Felipe Calderon for the First Philippine Republic in 1898 was patterned after the
constitutions of Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Guatemala.
13
Filipino contributions to Mexico and Spain. The galleons brought people
and influences from the Philippines to Mexico and to as far as North America.
Among these Philippine influences were new food and plants, clay jars, treasures of
the East, monton de Manila, new words, new blood, and an unintended assistance
for Mexican independence.
New food and other plants . Many Philippine plants were introduced into
Mexico and then to Spain. These new plants included rice, flowers, bay (laurel)
leaves, cinnamon, black pepper, tamarind, mangoes,
bananas, ilang-ilang, and of course, rice, yam, and
coconut.
Clay earthen jar. Many Mexican families still use
the big clay jar called tapayan which came from the
Philippines. This was introduced during the galleon
trade.
Treasures from the East. Many rich Mexican and Spanish families collected
treasures of Chinese porcelain, Paete handicrafts, Ilocano blankets, and other
gadgets which came from Manila.
The female shawl became a family heirloom. It was called "monton de Manila"
even if it was woven elsewhere. All women wore them, from royalty to the common
folks.
The Chinese fan and the umbrella were thought to be Filipino. Children enjoyed
their new toy the kite. Men liked their new weapon the switchblade (balisong).
Parian. The Parian of Mexico City and Acapulco existed from 1703 to 1843
and was copied from the Chinese Parian in Manila. It was placed in the main plaza.
Filipino words. Some words came from the Philippines. Among these are
manga (mango), monton (shawl), racatan (lakatan banana), palenque (market),
palay (raw rice), maluto (cooked rice), and saranggola (kite).
Filipino blood. Many Filipino sailors deserted the galleon ships and hid in
Mexico. They married Mexican women and their descendants became Mexican. A
Mexican Filipino, General Isidoro Montesdeoca, assisted General Vicente Guerrero,
the Mexican revolutionary general who later became Mexican president. Other
Mexicans of Filipino origin fought in the Mexican war for independence.
14

Mexican independence saved by Filipino
money. Manila galleon money unintentionally
helped the Mexicans gain independence from
Spain (1810-21). In 1819, the Mexican
Revolution was about to collapse. The forces of
General Agustin de Iturbide, the Mexican
revolutionary leader, were hungry, broke, and
desperate.
At this darkest hour of the Mexican fight for
independence, a train passed by. It was carrying
silver pesetas for a galleon leaving for the
Philippines. The money was supposed to pay
Spanish merchants in Manila who had exported goods to Mexico on the galleon.
General Iturbide and his troops held up the train and stole the money for the
revolution. He won the revolution and Mexico became independent in 1821.
Of the Manila merchants who lost money in that train, only one dared to file for
legal compensation. In December 1859, Seor Pedro de Escura of Manila went to
Mexico. On behalf of his father Don Antonio Escura, Pedro wrote a letter to the
Mexican president requesting reparations for their losses of P100, 000 from the
stolen galleon money. President Benito Juarez recommended that the Mexican
Congress repay the sum. However, Mexico's government fell and was replaced. All
that Pedro got in Mexico was a Mexican wife. The Manila traders were never
repaid, but their money helped to save Mexico in 1821.
15
Influential revolutions. In the 18th to 19th centuries, several revolutions
toppled great empires around the world. These were (in chronological order): the
American Revolution, the French Revolution, the Latin American Revolutions, and
the Philippine Revolution of 1896. Each of these revolutions influenced the next
one, and the Philippine Revolution of 1896 influenced the rest of Asia because it
was the first anti-imperial revolution in that continent.
Latin American Revolutions your land The Latin American
Revolutions (1791-1826) were successful, and most of Latin America became
independent new states. It started in Haiti, a French colony in 1791. The slaves in
Haiti sugar plantations revolted and killed their French colonial masters. The ideas
of the French Revolution had inspired them. After that, the colonies of Spain and
Portugal in Latin America also headed for independence.
The ideas of the Enlightenment, the goals of the American and French
Revolutions, and their own desire for freedom and justice propelled the Latin
American natives into the modern world. They, too, wanted to get rid of their
foreign monarchs and colonial masters, and taste
In 1810, in a small Mexican village of Dolores, the parish priest Father Miguel
Hidalgo, rang the church bell to call his people together. Fr. Hidalgo was a creole
(mestizo) who sympathized with the sufferings of the people
take back your land that was stolen
became the first cry of independence in a Spanish colony in Latin America.
Although Fr. Hidalgo was caught and executed, his cry echoed throughout Mexico
and other colonies in Latin America. Revolts broke out in Mexico, Argentina,
Ecuador, and other colonies. In 1821, Mexico won its freedom from Spain under
the leadership of General Agustin de Iturbide. The loss of Mexico was a big blow
to Spain, because of the silver peseta mines.
The weakening of Spain, in terms of finances and troops, was felt as far away
Interestingly enough, newly arrived
peninsular officers from Spain relieved all Mexican creole officers of their
command.The creole and Mexican soldiers retained in the army were suspected of
revolutionary ideas or divided loyalty. Hence, they were assigned to remote
garrisons in the provinces. One of them, Lt. Col. Juan de San Martin, commander
of the Dragones Luzones cavalry unit, was moved to Zamboanga. He was the
younger brother of Jose de San Martin, the revolutionary hero of Argentina.
Historic unity of revolutionary le aders in South America. The greatest and
best-known revolutionary heroes of South America were Simon Bolivar and Jose
de San Martin. General Simon de Bolivar of Venezuela (1783-1830) was known as
independence of northern
countries in South America: Venezuela, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, and Bolivia.
The last country was named after him.
16
 In the southern part of the continent, another successful liberator, General Jose
de San Martin of Argentina (1778-1850), led the independence movement. San
Martin is the national hero of Argentina. After freeing his country in 1816, he
crossed the Andes to help Bolivar in the liberation of Chile and Peru.
Neither of them alone could finish the task of defeating the last Spanish
strongholds, but if they united their forces, they would be successful. However,
only one commander-in-chief must lead, in order to avoid confusion and rivalry.
Bolivar and San Martin realized this and met in a secret meeting at Guayaquil,
Ecuador on July 26, 1822.
Historians are still debating what happened at that secret meeting. It is only
known that, at the end of the historic unity meeting, General San Martin graciously
turned over all his military forces and resources to Bolivar for the sake of the cause
they both cherished. Then, San Martin voluntarily sailed for Europe, and never
came back home to challenge or to rival Bolivar.
Historians acknowledge the supreme sacrifice of San Martin for the sake of
unity as the key to the success of the final liberation of South America. Otherwise,
these two leaders would have fought each other, like the tragic rivalry of the
Philippine Revolution between Aguinaldo and Bonifacio.
How Latin American Revolutions Influe nced the Philippines. Far more
than the American and French revolutions, the liberation of Latin America
intersected greatly with the Philippine Revolution. Historians attribute the
Philippine Revolution to the ilustrado class (bourgeoisie) or to the katipuneros
(masses). But the influence of Mexican mestizos should also be appreciated.
The Latin American independence movements were led by the educated
creoles (mestizos) in Latin America. Their successful revolutions increased tensions
between pure-bred Spaniards and half-blooded mestizos in the Philippines. The
mestizos came from the mixed races of Filipino Spaniards, Mexican Spaniards, and
Chinese Filipinos. hijos del pais
the land). The mestizos belonged to the upper class, but they suffered inferior
treatment by the pure-bred aristocratic Spaniards. It is little appreciated in
Philippine history that the creole mestizos helped to light the long fuse that led to
the Philippine Revolution of 1896.
After achieving independence, the Mexican Independence Junta established
their provisional government, headed by General Agustin de Iturbide. In 1823, the
Mexican Junta wrote a secret memorandum which vowed to help other Spanish
colonies to obtain their own freedom and independence. 8
The Philippines was singled out in this memorandum for special mention.
According to the secret memorandum, the new Mexican government promised that
must resume the intimate Mexican-Philippine relations, as they were during the
halcyon days of the Acapulco- The junta sent a secret agent to stir up
trouble in the colony. It is not known if he was successful in his mission.
Nevertheless, Bishop Perez, a member of the Mexican junta, predicted,
8The secret memorandum of the M exican independence junta is found in Gregorio F. Zaide (ed.),
Documentary History of the Philippines (Vol. 6, pp. 305-307) (M anila: National Book Store, 1990.
17
First -Filipino mestizos. Even before
Aguinaldo and Bonifacio plotted to revolt from Spain, Mexican mestizos raised the
he Philippines. They took their cue from the
successful Latin American revolutions in the early 19th century. After the Latin
American revolutions, tensions increased in the Philippines between the peninsular
Spanish authorities and the Mexican mestizos. Mexican officers in the colonial army
were sent away from the capital and reassigned to provincial duties. For example, one
Cavite, and another to the Ilocos.
Mexican officers in the Battalions Reyna Luisa and Principe Fernando, and the elite
valry unit Dragones de Luzon, were dismissed or transferred to provincial garrisons.
For example, an Argentine mestizo, Lt. Col. Juan de San Martin, commander of the
Dragones de Luzon, was sent to Zamboanga. He was the younger brother of
revolutionary general Jose de San Martin, who became the national hero of Argentina.
In turn, the Mexican creoles launched several revolts in the Philippines: the
Bayot brothers (Captains Manuel, Jose and Joaquin) in 1822; the mutiny of Captain
Andres Novales in 1823; and the conspiracy of the Palmero brothers in 1830. 9 The
ere
sons of Colonel Francisco Bayot, a prominent mestizo citizen of Manila. Manuel,
Jose and Joaquin Bayot together conspired to rise in arms at dawn of April 17, 1822
and to proclaim the independence of the Philippines, with their father as king.
However, an unknown traitor sold them out to the authorities. The prominent Bayot
brothers were exiled to Spain on the same boat as the mestizos who later conspired
in the Novales revolt.
The Novales Revolt (1823). The Novales revolt was very important because it
was the first Filipino uprising after successful independence. The new
governor, Juan Antonio Martinez, field marshal of the Spanish Army, brought many
armed forces. Martinez relieved many Mexican creoles of their military positions
and gave them to the peninsulars. The Mexicans retained in the army were placed
under the command of the peninsular officers or assigned to remote provinces.
To protect their own interests, the Mexican army officers held secret meetings
to discuss their deplorable situation. Many creole residents in Manila, who were
prominent businessmen and professionals, sympathized with their cause. News of
their clandestine meetings reached Governor Martinez.
The spies reported that the the ring-leader of discontented Mexican mestizos was
Captain Andres Novales. Captain Novales was commander of the elite Luzon
cavalry. He was reassigned to Misamis, Mindanao, to fight the Moros.
On the evening of June 1, 1823, Captain Andres Novales was supposed to board
a ship sailing for Mindanao. Instead, he secretly returned to Manila and organized a
revolt. About 800 officers and men of the First Regiment and other military units
joined him. By 11:00 PM, the mutiny erupted.
9 On M exican creoles revolts , s ee Zaide, Documentary Sources, ibid., 308, and Gregorio F. Zaide,
Pageant of Philippine History (Vol. 1, pages 585-591) (M anila, Philippine Education Co., 1079).
18
sargeants, raided the homes of Spanish civil and military officials and took them
prisoner.
Lt. Ruiz, commander of the Intramuros city guards that night, joined the revolt.
Lt. Ruiz and his men rushed to the home of former governor Mariano Fernandez de
Folgeras and demanded to get the keys to the main Intramuros gate. But the latter
resisted, and Lt. Ruiz and his men killed him and got the keys.
Novales himself led his main forces toward Fort Santiago. To his great surprise
and dismay, his own younger brother, Lt. Mariano Novales, refused to give him Fort
Santiago and declared his loyalty to Spain.
Unable to enter the main fort, Novales turned back his forces and seized the
Cabildo (City Hall), Everywhere
he struck with success, crushing the loyalist defenders.
y following
for a while of independent Mexico.
The incumbent governor, General Martinez, was at his summer palace at
Malacaan, outside the city walls. With his loyal forces the crack Pampanga
he assaulted the
beleaguered city of Intramuros. Furious fighting raged in the streets until Novales and
his rebellious troops were crushed in the morning of June 2nd .
The tragic Captain Novales was captured alive. After a hurried court-martial, he
day, he and his brave Sargeant Mateo were shot by firing squad at the Luneta. The
next day, Lt. Ruiz and 14 surviving sargeants were also executed at Luneta. Governor
Martinez pardoned the other survivors, except six more sargeants, who were also
shot.
Thus ended the tragic story of Captain Novales, who had reigned only for a few
hours. As Dr Gi
Aftermath of the Novales Revolt. After the Novales revolt, many liberal-
minded and prominent Manila creoles were arrested and exiled abroad. They
continued to intrigue against the colonial government for decades. Among them were
the prominent poet Luis Rodriguez Varela, known as or of political
The others were Domingo Roxas, millionaire industrialist; Francisco
Rodriguez, banking magnate; Jose Maria Jugo, lawyer; and Jose Ortega, director of
the Royal Company of the Philippines.
In 1830, another conspiracy was hatched by the Palmero brothers,
discontented Mexican creoles against the Spanish colonial government. The first
names of the Palmero brothers were not known, and their conspiracy was short-
lived. It is only known that they were exiled and imprisoned in Spain.
Other influences of Mexican mestizos in the Philippines. Of those arrested
and exiled after the Novales revolt, Domingo Roxas returned to the Philippines and
became a follower of the religious revolt of Apolinario de la Cruz,
in Tayabas Province, 1840-41. The violent seige by Spanish troops of Hermano
P religious community in 1841 led to thousands of his followers being
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massacred. Two years later, their relatives in the Tayabas Regiment of the colonial
army waged a mutiny led by Sargeant Irineo Samaniego in Manila on January 21,
1841. The bloody revolt was put down, and Sargeant Samaniego and 80 of his
followers were executed by firing squad. During the furious combat at the gates of
According to the
French consul Fabre, in his repor
10
Meanwhile, Francisco Rodriguez (1790-1857), another Mexican creole, made
his exile in London profitable. He returned to Manila as a wealthy banker and a
secret agent for the British and Foreign Bible Society, the most active mission
society distributing Bibles and bible translations around the world at the time.
He succeeded in providing seed money for British companies. His help was
critical to the growth of British investments (and to the Philippine Revolution).
Among the British investments were the first railway system in the Philippines, the
sugar industry and modern sugar mills in association with the British consul
Nicholas Loney in Iloilo and Negros, and a warehouse for Fleming & Company in
Tondo. In the 1980s, this warehouse employed an alert young checker
named Andres Bonifacio. He recruited many urban workers for the Katipunan
revolutionary society.
Rodriguez and Loney were also instrumental in ensuring that every British
merchant ship coming to the Philippines carried Bibles, which then got into the
hands of local people. It is interesting that Nicholas Zamora, a nephew of Fr.
Mariano Zamora, later became the first Filipino Protestant pastor in the Philippines.
Fr. Mariano Zamora, himself was one of the three priest martyrs (Gomez, Burgos
-Bur- executed after the Cavite Mutiny of 1872.
oray into banking, the Spanish also
created their own banking industry. Thus in 1851 was founded the Banco de las
Islas Filipinos (BPI), the first bank in Southeast Asia. When Rodriguez died in
1857, his own fortune was willed to the British government.
The Latin Revolutions and the Philippine Revolution of 1896. Due to the
discontentment of the Mexican military mestizos against Spain, many of them
deserted and joined the Philippine Revolution of 1896. They fought in the ranks of
the Philippine Independence Army under the leadership of General Antonio Luna,
Among them were Colonels Celso Mayor, Manuel Silyar, Cavestani, and
Queri; Majors Jose Torres Bugallon, Bedel, Blardoni and Hernando; and Captains
A. Costons, R. Leysan, and Zousa. They distinguished themselves in battles,
fighting with gallantry and valor in defense of the Philippines against Spain and,
later, the United States invasion. Interestingly enough, a Mexican-French creole
named Juan Cailles (1871-1951) left his profession as a schoolteacher and joined
. Later, Cailles became the first
Filipino governor of Laguna Province.
10
See French Consul Fabre to the French Minister of Foreign Affairs, M anila, January 21, 1843,
Archives de Ministre des Affaires Etrangere, Paris, II, pp. 71-72, cited in Zaide, Pageant of Philippine
History, Vol. 1, p. 596.
20
 The Latin American revolutions influenced the Philippines in so many ways
as an inspiration for the Filipino people, and as the model for its flag, its first
constitution and its first government. The tricolor design of the Philippine flag,
which appeared in 1898, was similar to the revolutionary Cuban flag. The first
Philippine Constitution of 1899 approved in Malolos was influenced by the
constitutions of Mexico, Brazil, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and Guatemala. The first
government established by Filipinos the First Philippine Republic (1899-1901)
was parliamentary and influenced by the Latin American governments, rather than
by the American model.
Finally, the second part of the Cuban Revolution was the beacon that signaled
Andres Bonifacio to begin his own violent uprising in August of 1896. Spanish
forces from the Philippines were moved to Cuba. The weakening of Spanish
defenses in the Philippines inspired Bonifacio to summon the katipuneros to arms in
August 1896. And the rest is history.

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