Habitat International 58 (2016) 51e58

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Habitat International
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/habitatint

Water resources carrying capacity assessment: The case of Algeria's

capital city
Meriem Naimi Ait-Aoudia a, b, *, Ewa Berezowska-Azzag b
a
USDB, Universit

e Saad Dahleb Blida, Route de Soumaa, BP 270, Blida, Algeria
b
EPAU, Ecole Polytechnique d'Architecture et d'Urbanisme, Route de Beaulieu, El-Harrach, 16200, Algiers, Algeria

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Algiers, the capital city of Algeria, experienced in the past years, recurrent water shortages due to
Received 27 December 2015 rampant population growth, coupled with the relative scarcity of water resources in this Mediterranean
Received in revised form city. The current supply system, despite improvements that have occurred since then, still shows
25 July 2016 -vis a number of factors. Indeed, cyclical droughts, that signicantly reduce the intake
vulnerability vis-a
Accepted 17 September 2016
of surface water, affect the region. Over-exploitation of groundwater has led to the phenomenon of
seawater intrusion, when not mastered, can make these aquifers unusable. Water resources are also
prone to pollution that threatens water potability. To analyze the balance between water supply and
Keywords:
Algiers water issue
domestic demand, we will use the concept of water resources carrying capacity (WRCC). The latter can be
Water demand/supply balance dened as the level of human activity that can be withstood by the available water resources without
Indicators major degradation of aquatic environments while maintaining an adequate standard of living. Action
Carrying capacity assessment must be carried out simultaneously on the determinant factors of supply and demand which are of social,
economic and environmental nature. The objective of this study is to assess the population that can be
sustained with regard to water resources and domestic consumption patterns. Water demand consid-
eration as much as on supply is of critical importance to reduce water supply vulnerability in a country
with limited fresh water resources.
2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction individuals adequately. A rational and optimizing approach is

Access to fresh water in adequate quantity is undoubtedly one of
the key indicators of well-being and human development. In the
second World Water Report, Managing Water in uncertainty and
risk (UNESCO, 2012), UN-Water pointed out that water underlies
all aspects of human development, and that a coordinated and
rational approach to water management is fundamental. The major
concern about water in many areas is the uncertainty to provide
enough water to the growing demand of the population. According
to the United Nations FAO, (2007), by 2025, 1.8 billion people will be
living in countries or regions with absolute water scarcity and two
thirds of the world population could be in conditions of water
stress.
Strategies and actions are preconized to overcome water
shortages or at least mitigate its effects to meet the needs of

Saad Dahleb Blida, Route de Soumaa,
* Corresponding author. USDB, Universite
BP 270, Blida, Algeria.
E-mail address: meriem.aitaoudia@gmail.com (M. Naimi Ait-Aoudia).
essential to meet these objectives without degrading the ecosystem
(Gober, Wentz, Lant, Tschudi, & Kirkwood, 2011; Hellstro m,
Jeppsson, & Ka rrman, 2000; McDonald et al., 2011). A very gen-
eral consensus emerges to assert that humanity must live within its
supply capacity and assimilation of discharges. Carrying capacity is
a concept that deals with this issue to ensure a sustainable devel-
opment of humankind (Arrow et al., 1995; Cohen, 1995). Among the
plethora of denitions, we retain the concise one given by Rees
(1992) that denes the carrying capacity as the maximum rate of
resource consumption and waste discharge that can be sustained
indenitely in a given region without progressively impairing the
functional integrity and productivity of relevant ecosystems. The
question that arises is to plan the actions to be undertaken to
respond favourably to the current population and future genera-
tions. Carrying capacity issue still receives special attention (Wei Y.,
Huang, Lam, & Yuan, 2015; Wei Y., Huang, Li, & Xie, 2016). Water
resources carrying capacity is becoming a major issue in urban
planning (Joardar, 1998). It can be dened as the level of human
activity that can be withstood by the available water resources

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2016.09.006
0197-3975/ 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
52 M. Naimi Ait-Aoudia, E. Berezowska-Azzag / Habitat International 58 (2016) 51e58
without major degradation of aquatic environments while main-
taining an adequate standard of living. Water resources carrying
capacity assessment allows giving the maximum population sup-
ported under individual water requirements. The assessment de-
pends on various parameters related to water demand and supply.
Intensive research has been carried out in this direction especially
in areas with a negative gap between water supply and demand of
the population (Feng, Zhang, & Luo, 2008; Li, Guo, & Chen, 2000; Li,
Wei, & Lu, 2010; Song, Kong, & Zhan, 2011; Liu & Chen, 2007; Ming,
2011; Liu, 2012; Potter & Darmame, 2010; Zhongmin, 1999). Pro-
jected climate change scenarios for freshwater resources attracted
great attention (Kundzewicz et al., 2008). A general review on
water demand and supply and adaptation to climate change to
mitigate the negative effects is given by Olmstead (2014). Pingale,
Mahesh, and Deepak (2014) studied the optimum allocation of
water to satisfy the demands of different users under different
climate change scenarios.
Algeria is generally classied as semi-arid country affected by
water stress. According to the United Nations Organization FAO.
(2015), Algeria has a natural water supply below 500 cubic me-
ters per capita per year and is considered in absolute scarcity
referring to Falkenmark classication (Falkenmark & Lundqvist,
1998). Among Algeria cities, Algiers, the political and economic
capital, suffered from severe water scarcity due to several factors.
The most important ones are recurrent droughts conditions and
high pressure on resources, due to a fast population growth. By
2025, Algiers population will be around 4 millions (UNDESA, 2012).
To resolve this problematic, the Algerian government launched
major infrastructure projects consisting of new dams and desali-
nation plants. A signicant improvement was observed, and the
population experiences a relative comfort in water consumption
during recent years. Nevertheless the current system, completed in
2011, has not yet faced droughts. Moreover, due to overexploitation,
groundwaters are threatened with depletion and seawater
intrusion.
In this paper, we will focus on Algiers water resource carrying
capacity assessment to determine the population that can be
adequately supported vis-a -vis water resource issue. The assess-
ment focuses on the water demand and supply factors. The ef-
ciency of water use depends upon improving the supply and
rational patterns consumption of users.
The assessment is made focusing on determinant factors con-
cerning both the demand for and supply of water. The efciency of
water use depends upon improving the supply and rational pat-
terns consumption of users. The ultimate aim is to devise measures
to meet adequate satisfaction of the current and the future popu-
lation in terms of water needs without signicant climatic condi-
tions dependence. The remainder of the paper is organized as
follows. We give in section 2 an overview of Algiers current water
supply system. Water resources carrying capacity assessment is
given in section 3. Section 4 is devoted to discussion. Conclusions
are given in section 5.
2. Water supply system
The current water system relies on three sources of water:
ground water, surface water and desalination. Historically, Algiers
was mainly supplied with water from aquifers. This explains the
extensive use of these waters. Algiers groundwater relies on
aquifers that are Mitidja and the Sahel Dunes. During the 1970s,
this millenary source was not enough to cover the basic needs of
the inhabitants. Several dams have been built to increase the ca-
pacity of the water supply system. Algiers is also now supplied
with freshwater by three systems of water transfer referred to as:
me de Production Isser-Keddara e in service in 1987),
SPIK (Syste
SAA (Se
curisation de l'Alimentation en eau d'Alger e in service in
2002) and TAKSEBT (in service in 2008). In addition, the desali-
nation option was implemented. Desalinated water mainly comes
from two plants located in El Hamma (in service in 2008) and
Fouka (in service in 2011). The water supply system is shown in
Fig. 1.
For water consumption estimation, we will follow the meth-
odology of Shiklomanov (1998), (2000) and Shiklomanov and
Rodda (2003) that assesses water withdrawals by sector taking
into account water use for domestic, industrial and agricultural
sectors. The structure of water, which shows water distribution by
sector is expressed as (a: b: g) where a, b and g are the percentages
of water allocation to domestic, industrial and agricultural sectors
respectively.
Water structure has undergone considerable changes during the
two last decades. Indeed, in the period 1999 to 2002, the amounts
allocated to Algiers by sector were 49,900,000 m3 for domestic use,
26,900,000 m3 for industrial use and 87,000,000 m3 for agricul-
tural use (UNEP, 2004), (UNEP, 2005). Hence, the water structure
was (30:17:53) showing that the agricultural sector constituted the
most important part. The current water supply system being
operational in 2011, allocation by sector during a year considered
normal in terms of rainfall is: 226,900,000 m3 for domestic use,
122,200,000 m3 for industrial use and 96,600,000 m3 for agricul-
tural use (Naimi-Ait-Aoudia & Berezowska-Azzag, 2014b) which
yields (51:27:22) as water structure. Modication in the water
structure can be explained by several factors, including population
growth, increased industrialization and willingness of government
to favor domestic consumption (Mozas & Ghosn, 2013).
Carrying capacity concept focuses primarily on domestic needs
due to the fact that health and well-being of people depend on
adequate water consumption that must be above the sanitary
threshold of 100 L per capita per day recommended by WHO
(2011).
3. Water resource carrying capacity
3.1. Carrying capacity conceptual framework
The Carrying capacity of a given area stands for the maximum
number of population that can be sustained through the use of
available resources which can be brought to that region. The
maximum borne population relative to a given constraint is
assessed using the objective formulation of the German geographer
Penck (1925). Originally, this formulation was used to determine
the maximum population that can be fed taking into account
available food resources. Thereafter this equation was generalized
to consider resources other than foodstuffs (Cohen, 1995; Oh, Jeong,
Lee, Lee, & Choi, 2005).
Based on these works, we dened the conceptual framework of
water resources carrying capacity assessment system shown in
Fig. 2. Input parameters for assessing the water resources carrying
capacity of a given region are of two types: the level of individual
consumption according to given standards and water availability.
Service level and water supply depend each on several determinant
factors or key indicators.
In our case study, the following indicators of water supply have
been identied: 'climatic year type', 'exploitation rate of ground-
water resources', 'surface water mobilization rate', 'desalination
capacity', 'loss rate in adduction network', 'loss rate in the distri-
bution network', 'water reuse rate' and 'water structure'. On the
other hand, key indicators for individual water consumption are:
households' average size, water expenditure in household budget,
percentage of households with water-saving devices and percent-
age of homes using rainwater (Ouyang, Wentz, Ruddell, & Harlan,
 M. Naimi Ait-Aoudia, E. Berezowska-Azzag / Habitat International 58 (2016) 51e58 53

Fig. 1. Algiers water supply system.

3.2. Water availability scenarios

Several water supply scenarios were considered for assessing

carrying capacity with regard to domestic water consumption. We
will consider three sets of scenarios. The rst set comprises sce-
narios S1, S2 and S3 with the indicators values relative to the cur-
rent supply system. The second set dened by scenarios S4, S5, S6
and S7 is relative to current supply system with improved in-
dicators. These improvements could be made in the short term. A
scenario recommending reducing groundwater extraction during
the normal year to bring it to 80% (scenario 5) was proposed in
order to discuss the possibility to create a reserve of water for dry
years. Finally, the third set, which implies scenarios S8, S9, S10 and
S11, focuses on an augmented water supply capacity and further
indicators improvement. Overall the choice of hypotheses tends
towards the improvement, from the current situation, of indicators,
except for climatic year type that is beyond human control. Water
supply scenarios are shown in Fig. 5.
The water supply comes mainly from surface waters that are
highly dependent on rainfall. Between 1981 and 2002, the country
has experienced long periods of severe drought. Rainfall charac-
teristics observed in Algiers weather station during the period from
1970 to 2012 (Nouaceur, Laignel, & Turki, 2013) are illustrated in
Fig. 2. Carrying Capacity conceptual framework.
Fig. 3. As the risk of drought looms over the region, the three sce-
nario groups comprise hypotheses of climatic year: normal, dry and
very dry. Surface water contributions are considered reduced by
2014; Rockaway, Coomes, Rivard, & Kornstein, 2011; Stoker &
50% in a dry year and 75% in a very dry year, compared to a normal
Rorthfeder, 2014).
year. Emphasis was put on drought years to see the vulnerability of
A number of hypotheses is retained for each input factor i.e. this
the system during these years.
latter may take a value from a given set. All combinations among
The hypotheses retained for the other indicators, illustrated by
key indicators hypotheses constitute the eld of possibilities for
Fig. 4, focus on increasing mobilization of surface resources,
supply and service level. Each combination is called a scenario for
rational management of groundwater resources, reducing loss rate
calculating carrying capacity. Exploring the eld of possibilities or
in networks, increasing desalination capacity, encouraging treated
morphological analysis (Ritchey, 2006; Zwicky, 1969), aims to study
waste water reuse and increasing the part of the domestic sector by
the plausible scenarios for the water system.
54 M. Naimi Ait-Aoudia, E. Berezowska-Azzag / Habitat International 58 (2016) 51e58

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
Very dry Dry Normal Wet Very wet

Fig. 3. Algiers rainfall characteristic during 1970e2012 period.

Throughout the world, the current trend is to reduce water demand

even in countries with high water potential. For example, Berliners'
daily water consumption dropped from 220 L to 115 L (Berliner
Wasserbetriebe, 2015). The aim is to preserve this precious
resource by a rational and an optimal consumption.
For the four key indicators inuencing water demand we have
retained the following hypotheses shown in Fig. 6. For 'Water
expenditure in household budget' indicator we have set the hy-
potheses to 1% (current) and 2%. Setting this rate to 2% means an
increase in water prices. Water price setting is one potential lever
for restraining water demand when resources are scarce. For the
indicator 'Percentage of households with water-saving devices', we
dened three hypotheses. They all go towards an increase in the
generalization of these devices at homes. First, consider the current
rate of 0% that reects the absence of any incentive for citizens to
acquire such devices. Secondly, a rate of 15% that corresponds to a
feasible improvement in the short term, and nally, a signicant
improvement of 30% in the medium term. Similarly, for the indi-
cator 'Percentage of homes using rainwater', we dened three hy-
potheses going towards a progressive generalization of these
facilities. The current rate of 0%, the rates of 10% and those of 20%
have signicant impacts on reducing water demand. Finally, the
assumptions for the indicator 'Households' average size' express the
downward trend in the number of persons per household (5 per-
sons per household), and the consideration of current average size,
6 people per household (ONS, 2014). Water demand scenarios are
shown in Fig. 7. The resulting daily consumption have been
rounded to retain only four reference values, namely 100, 115, 130
and 145 L per capita per day respectively for scenarios D1-D2, D3-
D4, D5-D6 and D7. Domestic needs for the projected population for
2025 are respectively 145, 167, 189 and 210 million cubic meters for
a daily consumption per capita of 100, 115, 130 and 145 L.

3.4. Algiers household water resources carrying capacity

assessment

Carrying capacity assessment can lead to different estimates of

Fig. 4. Water Supply determining factors and hypotheses.
changing water structure, allowed by the reuse of treated water for
agricultural uses. The considered scenarios are shown in Fig. 5.
maximum supportable population because it depends on estimates
of individual water requirements and water availability. Algiers
carrying capacity was evaluated for the three sets of scenarios.
Estimations of population that can be supported with the four
references levels of daily consumption and under considered hy-
potheses of water supply are shown in Figs. 8e10 for set 1, set 2 and
set 3 respectively.

3.5. Scenario results analysis

3.3. Water demand scenarios
Individual water consumption can vary considerably from one
region to another depending on several parameters. The WHO
(World Health Organization) dened a hierarchy of water re-
quirements that gives the minimum water quantity required for
domestic uses in terms of needs and level of health concern
(Howard & Bartram, 2003). The World Health Organization con-
siders daily consumption of 100e200 L per capita as optimal.
The analysis of the different simulations, gives rise to a number
of remarks on the factors characterizing the carrying capacity on
water resources for our case study. The rst group of simulations
regarding the current supply system highlights its vulnerability to
drought, and its inability to support the projected population in
2025, except under favourable rainfall conditions, and a reduction
in the level of service to 100 L per capita per day.
The second set of simulations, which considers intermediate
 M. Naimi Ait-Aoudia, E. Berezowska-Azzag / Habitat International 58 (2016) 51e58
Fig. 5. Water supply scenarios.
Fig. 6. Water Demand determining factors and hypotheses.
improvements to the supply system, also highlights the difculty to
withstand drought, and to support the projected population
beyond a daily consumption of 115 L per capita. It is also note-
worthy that in normal years, if we maintain the level of con-
sumption below that level, it would be possible to reduce
groundwater extraction and consequently constitute a water
55
reserve to use in dry years as practiced in the city of Phoenix -
United States (Gober et al., 2011).
Finally, the last group of scenarios regarding a system based on a
signicant supply improvement shows an ability to support a large
population of up to more than seven million inhabitants in
favourable weather conditions. It would also be possible under
these conditions to reduce groundwater pumping allowing the
aquifers to replenish and, why not, regaining their past artesian
property.
4. Action levers for a sustainable water policy
We proposed an approach whose ultimate objective is to pro-
vide a tool that advises about the possibilities and the limits of
population growth in the light of the available water resources,
means implemented and climatic constraints on the region. In
addition, another interpretation of the scenario analysis allows
drawing a number of recommendations to dene a water policy,
with the aim of meeting the water needs of a growing population,
while preserving the natural capital of the resource and
ecosystems.
4.1. Water supply efciency
4.1.1. Infrastructure investments
Algeria has long relied exclusively on groundwater resources to
supply the population. Due to population growth, this strategy was
not only doomed to reach its limits but have adverse effects on
aquifers as well. The government then started intensive investment
56 M. Naimi Ait-Aoudia, E. Berezowska-Azzag / Habitat International 58 (2016) 51e58
Fig. 7. Water demand scenarios.
Fig. 8. Water resource carrying capacity set 1 simulations.
policy in infrastructure mobilization of water to face the ever-
increasing demand. Today dams can mobilize part of dripping
water in watersheds. Strengthening the mobilization of surface
water by building new dams will increase the amount of water
delivered. Indeed, the Algerian government goes forward by
launching new dam projects. These investments can globally be
evaluated to 234 million dollars for the two dams under con-
struction (Oued-Djemma and Souk-Tleta) in the near region of
Algiers with a capacity of 266 million cubic meters.
It is noteworthy that the improved water supply system requires
an additional desalination plant equivalent to the existing Hamma
station that can globally evaluated to 250 million dollars (Mozas &
Ghosn, 2013).
4.1.2. Improving existing infrastructure
The option of increasing supply should be linked with an
effective policy to reduce network losses caused by leaks due to
Fig. 9. Water resource carrying capacity set 2 simulations.
failures in the supply network. A considerable amount is lost along
the way before reaching its destination; forcing to deliver an
additional amount of water to meet the demand.
Adaptation to climate change may require creation or
enhancement of infrastructure for natural or articial groundwater
recharge and storage in preparation for dry seasons. Hughes,
Chinowsky, and Strzepek (2010) pointed out that the costs of
adapting existing water infrastructure to climate change scenarios
are less than 2% of total of basic infrastructure costs in OECD
countries.
The reuse of treated wastewater has been initiated but is at an
embryonic state. Several projects to achieve that goal have been
launched. The treated wastewater reuse represents a potential to be
considered with greater attention in a country reputed arid.
Reducing fresh water demand of agricultural and industrial activ-
ities could be signicant if they use recycled water after appropriate
treatment. The amounts of water gained would be redirected to the
 M. Naimi Ait-Aoudia, E. Berezowska-Azzag / Habitat International 58 (2016) 51e58
Fig. 10. Water resource carrying capacity set 3 simulations.
domestic supply, and so mitigate the pressure on resources. If this
policy is pursued and properly implemented, a giant step would be
done in toward an optimal water management.
4.1.3. Aquifer protection
Due to excessive exploitation for decades, ground waters have
lost much of their potential. From artesian property, evidenced by
piezometric surveys conducted under the French rule, aquifers are
now subject to the threat of seawater intrusion. Conscious of the
problem, the government has undertaken drastic measures to
reduce pumping and preserve groundwater. The supply from sur-
face water, desalination plants, and recently the initiation of treated
wastewater reuse are heading in this direction. However, the pro-
liferation of illegal wells for both agricultural use and some small
industrial units undermines the efforts and perpetuates the threat
depletion of aquifers. It is therefore necessary to strengthen control
to eradicate this scourge of illegal pumping, so that the resource
management policy can be effective.
In addition, scenario analysis has shown the possibility of alle-
viating the groundwater extraction in normal years in case of an
improved supply system. This will help the aquifers to retrieve their
condition and consequently allow the creation of a water reserve
for the dry years.
4.2. Water demand reduction
From the scenario analysis, it is clear that the carrying capacity is
inversely proportional to the level of consumption, i.e. the ability of
the supply system to support growth, increases with low con-
sumption levels. In addition, a reduction in consumption would
involve water withdrawal reduction and thus promote resource
conservation. Indeed, at this time of greater worldwide awareness
on climate change, it is strongly recognized that stimulation of user
behaviour change towards more efcient consumption patterns
should become the central objective of any water strategy intended
to be sustainable.
At national level, it is recognized that efforts to improve the
supply has been considerable but little has been conducted to in-
uence the evolution of water demand, i.e. user behaviour. Algerian
water policy should address the issue of regulation of demand, by
taking action on the determinants of domestic consumption
(Naimi-Ait-Aoudia & Berezowska-Azzag, 2014a).
Reducing inhabitant water demand should be addressed
through several actions:
57
Encouraging residents to use water efcient appliances; pro-
motion of rainwater harvesting at homes. Water-efcient ap-
pliances and xtures represent an investment of around 5000
dollars for households. Rain water collection system constitutes
eighty per cent of this amount.
Information policy: Education, awareness of citizens and au-
thority incentives, are ways to reach this objective. In general,
residents adopt efcient consumption patterns if they are
motivated to do so (Ferraro & Price, 2013).
The price of water could play a regulator to promote domestic
consumption-saving behaviour. A great part of the literature on
water demand has focused on the econometric estimation of
price elasticity (Lee & Tanverakul, 2015; Yoo, Simonit, Kinzig, &
Perrings, 2014).
5. Conclusion
In this paper we have assessed Algiers carrying capacity with
respect to per capita domestic water use under several water
supply conditions. We have considered in this assessment, both the
determinants of supply and demand. The choice of hypotheses was
guided by considerations of improving the supply system and
optimization in water consumption patterns. Indeed the manage-
ment of water demand as much as on supply is of critical impor-
tance in a country with limited fresh water resources. Simulations
on the different key indicators help to identify vulnerabilities in the
water system and therefore take actions to avoid or reduce these
vulnerabilities. Carrying capacity assessment provides, in ne,
policy makers, elements of appreciation to lay the foundations of a
sustainable urban development policy.
Appendix A. Supplementary data
Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://
dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.habitatint.2016.09.006.
References
Arrow, K., Bolin, B., Costanza, R., Dasgupta, P., Folke, C., Holling, C. S.-O., et al. (1995).
Economic growth, carrying capacity, and the environment. Ecological economics,
15(2), 91e95.
Cohen, J. E. (1995). How many people can the earth support? The Sciences, 35(6),
18e23.
Falkenmark, M., & Lundqvist, J. (1998). Towards water security: Political determi-
nation and human adaptation crucial. Natural Resources Forum, 22(1), 37e51.
FAO. (2007). Coping with water scarcity. Challenge of the twenty-rst century. UN-
Water. Food and Agriculture Organization.
FAO. (2015). AQUASTAT, electronic database. Food and Agriculture Organisation.
Re
cupe
re

sur http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/main/index.stm.
Feng, L.-H., Zhang, X.-C., & Luo, G.-Y. (2008). Application of system dynamics in
analyzing the carrying capacity of water resources in Yiwu City, China. Math-
ematics and Computers in Simulation, 79(3), 269e278.
Ferraro, P. J., & Price, M. K. (2013). Using nonpecuniary strategies to inuence
behavior: Evidence from a large-scale eld experiment. Review of Economics
and Statistics, 95(1), 64e73.
Gober, P., Wentz, E. A., Lant, T., Tschudi, M. K., & Kirkwood, C. W. (2011). WaterSim:
A simulation model for urban water planning in Phoenix, Arizona, USA. Envi-
ronment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 38, 197e215.
Hellstrom, D., Jeppsson, U., & Ka rrman, E. (2000). A framework for systems analysis
of sustainable urban water management. Environmental Impact Assessment Re-
view, 20(3), 311e321.
Howard, G., & Bartram, J. (2003). Domestic water Quantity,Service level and health.
WHO World Health Organisation.
Hughes, G., Chinowsky, P., & Strzepek, K. (2010). The costs of adaptation to climate
change for water infrastructure in OECD countries. Utilities Policy, 18(3),
142e153.
Joardar, S. D. (1998). Carrying capacities and standards as bases towards urban
infrastructure planning in India: A case of urban water supply and sanitation.
Habitat international, 22(3), 327e337.
Kundzewicz, Z., Mata, L., Arnell, N., Do ll, P., Jimenez, B., Miller, K., et al. (2008). The
implications of projected climate change for freshwater resources and their
management. Hydrological ScienceseJournal, 53(1).
Lee, J., & Tanverakul, S. A. (2015). Price elasticity of residential water demand in
58 M. Naimi Ait-Aoudia, E. Berezowska-Azzag / Habitat International 58 (2016) 51e58
California. Journal of Water Supply: Research and Technology-Aqua, 64(2),
211e218.
Li, L., Guo, H., & Chen, B. (2000). Water resources supporting capacity of Chaidamu
Basin. Chinese Journal of Environmental Science, 21(2), 20e23.
Liu, H. (2012). Comprehensive carrying capacity of the urban agglomeration in the
Yangtze River Delta, China. Habitat International, 36, 462e470.
Liu, S., & Chen, J. (2007). Water resources carrying capacity based on the theory of
ANN. Resources Science, 29, 99e105.
Li, X.-G., Wei, X., & Lu, Y.-D. (2010). Optimising the allocation of groundwater car-
rying capacity in a data-scarce region. Water SA, 36, 451e460.
McDonald, R., Green, P., Balk, D., Fekete, B., Revenga, C., Todd, M., et al. (2011). Urban
growth, climate change, and freshwater availability. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108(15), 6312e6317.
Ming, L. (2011). The prediction and analysis of water resource carrying capacity in
Chongqing Metropolitan, China. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 10,
2233e2239.
Mozas, M., & Ghosn, A. (2013). Etat
des lieux du secteur de leau en Alg

erie. Institut de
Prospective Economique du Monde Me
diterrane

en.
Naimi-Ait-Aoudia, M., & Berezowska-Azzag, E. (2014a). Household water con-
sumption in Algiers facing population growth. In 50th ISOCARP congress, water
and cities, managing a vital relationship, urban Transformations: Cities and water
(pp. 872e882) (Gdynia, Poland).
Naimi-Ait-Aoudia, M., & Berezowska-Azzag, E. (2014b). Algiers carrying capacity
with respect to per capita domestic water use. Sustainable Cities and Society, 13,
1e11.
Nouaceur, Z., Laignel, B., & Turki, I. (2013). Changements climatiques au Maghreb :
Vers des conditions plus humides et plus chaudes sur le littoral alge
rien?
Physio-G
eo [En ligne], 7.
Oh, K., Jeong, Y., Lee, D., Lee, W., & Choi, J. (2005). Determining development density
using the urban carrying capacity assessment system. Landscape and urban
Planning, 73(1), 1e15.
Olmstead, S. M. (2014). Climate change adaptation and water resource manage-
ment: A review of the literature. Energy Economics, 46, 500e509.
ONS. (2014). Enqu^ ete sur les d
epenses de consommation et le niveau de vie des
m
enages : D

epenses de consommation des m
enages alg

eriens en 2011. La Direction
technique charg
ee des statistiques sociales et des revenus. ONS : Ofce National
des Statistiques.
Ouyang, Y., Wentz, E. A., Ruddell, B. L., & Harlan, S. L. (2014). A Multi-scale analysis
of single-family residential water use in the Phoenix Metropolitan area. JAWRA
Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 50(2), 448e467.
Penck, A. (1925). Das Hauptproblem der physischen Anthropogeographie. Zeitschrift
fr Geopolitik, 2, 330e348.
Pingale, S. M., Mahesh, K. J., & Deepak, K. (2014). Integrated urban water manage-
ment modelling under climate change scenarios. Resources, Conservation and
Recycling, 83, 176e189.
Potter, R. B., & Darmame, K. (2010). Contemporary social variations in household
water use, management strategies and awareness under conditions of water
stress: The case of greater Amman, Jordan. Habitat International, 34(1),
115e124.
Rees, W. E. (1992). Ecological footprints and appropriated carrying capacity: What
urban economics leaves out. Environment and Urbanization, 4(2), 121e130.
Ritchey, T. (2006). Problem structuring using computer-aided morphological anal-
ysis. Journal of the Operational Research Society, 57(7), 792e801.
Rockaway, T. D., Coomes, P. A., Rivard, J., & Kornstein, B. (2011). Residential water
use trends in North America. Journal - American Water Works Association, 103(2),
76e89.
Shiklomanov, I. A. (1998). World water resources: A new appraisal and assessment for
the 21st century. United Nations Educational, Scientic and Cultural
Organization.
Shiklomanov, I. A. (2000). Appraisal and assessment of world water resources.
WaterInternational, 25(1), 11e32.
Shiklomanov, I. A., & Rodda, J. C. (2003). World water Resources at the beginning of
the 21th century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Song, X.-m., Kong, F.-z., & Zhan, C.-s. (2011). Assessment ofWater resources carrying
capacity in Tianjin city of China. Water Resour Manage, 25, 857e873.
Stoker, P., & Rorthfeder, R. (2014). Drivers of urban water use. Sustainable Cities and
Society, 12, 1e8.
UNDESA. (2012). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Popula-
tion Division, World Urbanisation Prospects: The 2011 Revision. CD-ROM Editions.
UNEP. (2004). Gestion int
egr

ee des ressources en eau et assainissement liquide e
Diagnostic. PAC: Programme dAme
nagement Co ^tier, Zone co
^ tie
re alge
roise,
United Nations Environment Programme, Mediterranean Action Plan.
UNEP. (2005). Gestion int
egr
ee des ressources en eau et assainissement liquide, Ten-
dances et alternatives. PAC: Programme dAme
nagement Co ^tier, Zone
co^ tie
realge

roise, United Nations Environment Programme, Mediterranean Ac-
tion Plan.
UNESCO. (2012). Managing water under uncertainty and risk. Paris: UNESCO
Publishing.
Wasserbetriebe, B. (2015). Wasser im haushalt - Alles unter einem dach. Re
cupe
re

sur
http://www.bwb.de/content/language1/html/523.php.
Wei, Y., Huang, C., Lam, P., & Yuan, Z. (2015). Sustainable urban development: A
review on urban carrying capacity assessment. Habitat International, 46, 64e71.
Wei, Y., Huang, C., Li, J., & Xie, L. (2016). An evaluation model for urban carrying
capacity: A case study of China's mega-cities. Habitat Internationa, 53, 87e96.
WHO. (2011). Guidelines forDrinking-water quality. WHO: World Health
Organization.
Yoo, J., Simonit, S., Kinzig, A. P., & Perrings, C. (2014). Estimating the price elasticity
of residential water demand: The case of Phoenix, Arizona. Applied Economic
Perspectives and Policy, 36(2), 333e350.
Zhongmin, X. (1999). Scenario-based framework for multicriteria decision analysis
in water carrying capacity. Journal of Glaciology and Geocryology, 21, 100e106.
Zwicky, F. (1969). Discovery, invention, research - Through the morphological
approach. Toronto: The Macmillan Company.