Mineral Resources Management and The Enviroment

MINERAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENT
Dedicated to
Prof. M.S. Swaminathan, the eminent scientist and humanist, in appreciation of his
untiring efforts to promote the use of science and technology to sustain a hunger-free
and violence-free Developing world, through job-led economic growth.
Mineral Resources
Management and the
Environment
U. ASWATHANARAYANA
Adviser on Environment & Technology, c/o Ministry of Environment,
Maputo, Mozambique
Former Commonwealth Visiting Professor, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane,
Maputo, Mozambique
A.A. BALKEMA / LISSE / ABINGDON / EXTON (PA) / TOKYO

This edition published in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005.
To purchase your own copy of this or any of Taylor & Francis or Routledges
collection of thousands of eBooks please go to www.eBookstore.tandf.co.uk.
Copyright 2003 U. Aswathanarayana
All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained

herein may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form of by any means, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or
otherwise, without written prior permission from the publishers.
Although all care is taken to ensure the integrity and quality of this publication
and the information herein, no responsibility is assumed by the publishers nor the
author for any damage to property or persons as a result of operation or use of
this publication and/or the information contained herein.
Published by: A.A. Balkema Publishers, a member of Swets & Zeitlinger

Publishers www.balkema.nl and www.szp.swets.nl
ISBN 0-203-97122-1 Master e-book ISBN
ISBN 90 5809 545 2 (hardback)

Contents
FOREWORD ix
PREFACE xiii
COPYRIGHT ACKNOWLEDGEMENT xvii
1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 Status of the World Mining Industry 1
1.2 Mining and the Environmental Agenda 7
1.3 Technology Trends in the Mining Industry 12
1.4 Extraction Costs vs. Environmental Acceptability 16
1.5 e-Business in the Mining Industry 17
2. MINING METHODS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 25

2.1 Introduction 25
2.2 Mine Design Process 26
2.3 Opencast Mining 40
2.4 Underground Mining 45
2.5 Mass Mining 53
2.6 Offshore Mining 58
2.7 Artisanal Mining 62
2.8 LKAB Iron ore Mine, in Kiruna, Sweden A Case Study 66
3. MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 69

3.1 Metallic Minerals 69
3.2 Industrial Minerals 70
3.3 Coal 79
3.4 Oil and Natural Gas 81
4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MINERAL INDUSTRIES

INDUSTRY-WISE 83
4.1 Steel Industry 83
vi Contents
4.2 Aluminium Industry 92

4.3 Base Metals Industry 95
4.4 Coal Industry 99
4.5 Industrial Minerals 101
5. IMPACT OF MINING ON THE ENVIRONMENT WASTE-WISE 105

5.1 Introduction 105
5.2 Impact of Mining on the Geoenvironment 106
5.3 Hydrogeological and Geotechnical Forecasting 112
5.4 Solid Wastes from Mining 113
5.5 Liquid Wastes from Mining 115
5.6 Emissions Due to Mineral Industries 118
5.7 Loss of Biodiversity 121
6. MINING AND HEALTH HAZARDS 123

6.1 Introduction 123
6.2 Dust Hazards 124
6.3 Other physical Hazards 131
6.4 Chemical Hazards 137
6.5 Biological Hazards 140
6.6 Mental Hazards 140
6.7 Coal Cycle and the Environmental Health 140
7. PROCESS TECHNOLOGIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 145

7.1 Preparation of Coal 145
7.2 Preparation of Metallic Ores 146
7.3 Flotation 147
7.4 Hydrometallurgy 153
7.5 Bioleaching 155
7.6 Gold Processing Technology A Case Study 157
8. CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR MINIMIZING

THE MINING ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT 167
8.1 Acid Mine Drainage 167
8.2 Tailings Disposal 181
8.3 Dust Control 197
8.4 Low-waste Technologies 200
8.5 Treatment of Wastewater 204
8.6 Subsidence 208
8.7 Noise and Vibration 210
8.8 Planning for Mine Closure 213
9. MITIGATION OF MINING IMPACTS 215

9.1 Monitoring of Mining Impacts 215
Contents vii
9.2 Ways of Reducing the Mining Impacts 218

9.3 Rehabilitation of Mined Land 222
9.4 Beneficial Use of Mining Wastes 235
9.5 Reuse of Mine Water 239
10. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS OF THE MINING IMPACT 245

10.1 Environmental Impact Assessment 245
10.2 Environmental Regulations 252
10.3 Environmental Audits 254
10.4 Environmental Code The Swedish Model 255
10.5 International Initiatives 256
10.6 Total Project Development A Visionary Approach 257
REFERENCES 259
APPENDIX A CONVERSION CONSTANTS 265
APPENDIX B PARTICULARS OF IMPORTANT OF

METAL MINES IN THE WORLD 269
APPENDIX C WORLD PRODUCTION OF MINERALS/METALS 283
APPENDIX D LIST OF MAJOR ACCIDENTS RELATED

TO MINING SINCE 1975 285
APPENDIX E INDUSTRY STANDARDS (ISO 14001) 287
AUTHOR INDEX 289
SUBJECT INDEX 291

Foreword
I have known my good friend, Professor Uppugunduri Aswathanarayana, since

1967, when we shared a room during a very pleasant field trip in the Arctic region
of Yellowknife, Canada, in the context of the First International Geochronology
Conference, held in Edmonton. At that time, he was a very competent isotope geo-
chemist, spending some time as an Associate Professor at the University of Western
Ontario, Canada. He had a very solid background in that subject, obtained essentially
in India, where he was attached to the Andhra University, and complemented with
post-doctoral positions held at the very respected research centers of Caltech, USA,
and Oxford, UK.
During his academic career, as a Professor at three very relevant institutions
in developing countries, namely; the University Saugar, India, the University of
Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania, and the University Eduardo Mondlane, Mozambique,
Aswathanarayana has developed special competence in dealing with socio-
economic issues important to the developing world, such as natural resources and
environmental management. For instance, I have heard of his highly success-
ful effort in building a modern Institute of Earth Sciences in Dar-es-Salaam, and
later about his activities in Mozambique, where he served as a consultant and inves-
tigator in many projects related to natural resources and environmental manage-
ment. Because of his international expertise, he has been a consultant, always in
Africa, to the UNIDO, the World Bank, the SIDA organization of Sweden, the M/S
Louis Berger Int. Inc., USA, and to some governmental institutions of Tanzania and
Mozambique, related to environmental matters.
Human activities are transforming the global environment profoundly. That the
quantity of mine tailings produced globally (about 18 billion cubic meters per year)
should be of the same order of magnitude as the quantity of sediments discharged
in the oceans, is an indication of the enormity of the anthropogenic impact. Mineral
resources will always be needed by man, despite significant increase in industrial
recycling and the development of new synthetic materials. Environmental issues
are expected to gain great importance all over the world, including the less indus-
trialized countries, and the challenge will be to find the best possible geologic loca-
tions and the best mining technologies, while minimizing the environmental impact
of mining operations.
x Foreword
During many years of my association with the International Union of Geological

Sciences, I have got acquainted with the environmental issues pertaining to the
mining industry, in the context of the vision of sustainable development, first
mooted with great fanfare in Rio-92. That there has been very little progress in
Agenda-21 became evident in the summit in Johannesburg in 2002. As mining costs
in the industrialized countries of North America and Europe have increased steeply,
investments in the mining sector have been diverted to the developing countries,
because of their lower costs, and less stringent environmental regulations. This cen-
trifugal movement of capital of the mining sector could be taken advantage of by
the developing countries with mineral potential, if mining and mineral extraction
are carried out diligently without degrading the environment.
Mineral Resources Management and the Environment deals with ways of
managing the environmental impact of mining and related operations, through an
understanding of the processes that cause environmental degradation. It is written
in a clear, objective and direct way and its contents are quite lucid.
The first seven chapters of the book cover a complete description of mining
worldwide. They include the main modes of occurrence of mineral deposits, and
the main mining methodologies employed internationally. They deal with the envi-
ronmental impact of mining and of mineral industries, and also of process tech-
nologies, with emphasis on emissions, wastes, contamination and associated
environmental problems, and their bearing on health. The rest of the book is devoted
to technologies developed to control, mitigate and minimize mining impacts. The
final chapter reports social-economic aspects, including the laws and regulations
adopted by many countries.
Aswathanarayana makes a very good use of the available experience in the
description of the mining methods and industrial processes, by means of examples
taken from real developments, in industrialized countries with strict regulations,
such as Sweden. For instance, the book describes the mining technologies used at
the LKAB iron ore mine at Kiruna, and the advanced decyanidation technology for
the gold extraction process used at Boliden. He also deals with the environmental
impact of the mining activities through the report of many case histories. Examples
are taken from all parts of the world, such as Elliot Lake and Sudbury, Canada,
Nizhi Tagil, Russia, Goa, India, and many other places in the US, Europe, Australia,
Brazil, South Africa, China, etc. Quite illustrative is the report on the land degrada-
tion that occurred in Rajasthan, India, as a result of haphazard mining of industrial
minerals such as gypsum, limestone, phosphate, and sandstone.
The final chapter of the book is especially relevant to the future of the mining
industry, because it is focused on the social-economic dimensions of the mining
impact, and describes the environmental regulations that are being adopted by
many communities. These are related to rehabilitation of mined lands, as well as
actions to mitigate contamination by liquid and solid wastes and by gas emis-
sions from mineral industries. Regulatory requirements are becoming increasingly
stringent, because the general public is becoming more and more concerned
Foreword xi
about the cleanliness of their environment as an integral part of the quality of life.
Aswathanarayana avers that one of the main dilemmas facing the society today is
how to balance the need for resource development with the need for conservation
and protection of the environment.
This volume of Professor U. Aswathanarayana is an excellent, state-of-art
summary of the present status of knowledge in regard to the environmental aspects
of mining. It will be useful to university students and professionals in the areas of
geology, mining engineering, geography, and environmental science, as a whole.
Sau Paulo, Brazil Umberto Cordani

Dec. 2002 Former Director, Institute of Geosciences,
Univ. of Sao Paulo
Past President, International Union of Geological Sciences
Preface
The book seeks to elucidate ways and means of managing the environmental
impact due to mining, beneficiation, transport, processing, etc. of ores, through an
understanding of the processes that cause the environmental degradation. The
issues are dealt with in terms of the linkages between the raw materials, methods of
mining, process technologies, wastes generated, health hazards, etc., with emphasis
on control technologies for the protection of environment.
Mining, like the proverbial serpent in the Garden of Eden, has never been held in
high esteem. Most people consider mining as an unmitigated evil, and some who
are more realistic, concede that it is a necessary evil (but evil all the same). This is
not a new development. In the olden days, mines were invariably worked by slaves
chained to pillars underground, the slaves used to die in a matter of weeks. In the
medieval Europe, being condemned to work in the salt mines was a form of pun-
ishment worse than death.
Presently, the horrendous consequences of mining are evident everywhere. The
landscape in some countries (e.g. USA, Zambia, PNG) is pockmarked with gigantic
pits. As pointed out by Frstner, the mass of the mine tailings produced worldwide
(18 billion m3/year) is of the same order as the quantity of sediment discharge into
the oceans. As progressively lower grades are worked, the mass of the mine tailings
is expected to double in the next 2030 years. Vast areas are either strewn with rock
fragments, and in some areas, Acid Mine Drainage has rendered the soil and water
so acidic that not a blade of grass grows there. Whole towns (e.g. eastern India) had
to be abandoned due to subsidence caused by underground coal mining. Mine workers
are exposed to a number of physical, chemical, biological and mental hazards, and
mining is ranked as number one among the industries in the average annual rate of
traumatic fatalities.
Faced with these problems, the industrialized countries have gone in for
high-tech solutions, with high degree of mechanization and fewer workers. For
instance, the Endeavour 26 mine in Northparkes copper-gold porphyry deposit
in New South Wales, Australia, which employs block caving, has achieved the phe-
nomenal productivity of 42,600 t of ore per underground employee, including the
contractors! The mining operations in the LKAB iron ore mine in Kiruna, Sweden,
which employs sub-level caving methods to produce 30 million tonnes of ore per
year, is almost wholly automated. By innovative use of technology, LKAB could
xiv Preface
enhance the mine productivity, while drastically bringing down the water, air and
noise pollution (incidentally, below the statutory limits), and reducing energy con-
sumption.
This high-tech model is, however, not applicable to the Developing countries, for
the following reasons: (1) the investments needed are high for instance, a block
cave mine may need an investment any where from USD 100 million to 1000 mil-
lion, (2) what the developing countries need is job-led (and not job-less) economic
growth. A sensible strategy for the developing countries is to use the mining indus-
try to promote job-led economic growth through the adoption of employment-gen-
erating, economically viable and environmentally acceptable technologies.
Neither the industrialized countries nor more so, the developing countries can
afford to avoid mining altogether, as the whole spectrum of industrial activities
(including energy generation) is based on minerals (mining accounts for 8090% of
the GDP of some African countries). What is possible and should be attempted, is
to minimize the adverse environmental impact of the mining industry through steps
such as recycling of metals, development of substitutes, low-waste technologies,
bioleaching, beneficial use of mine wastes, rehabilitation of mined land, etc. The
volume seeks to provide methodologies which both the industrialized and develop-
ing countries could use in developing plans for safe, efficient and ecologically sus-
tainable mining and mineral development.
The author is strongly convinced that if geology has to have socioeconomic rel-
evance, and provide employment opportunities in the twenty-first century, it needs
to be taught as earth system science, focused on the use of natural resources,
namely, water, soil and minerals (rather than in the traditional form of subject
disciplines, such as structural geology, stratigraphy, etc.). He tried to contribute to
the movement in a small way by writing a quartet (including the present work) to
provide the textual material to facilitate the switchover: Geoenvironment: An
Introduction (A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam, 1995), Soil Resources and the Envir-
onment (Science Publishers, Enfield, NH, USA, 1999), and Water Resources
Management and the Environment (A.A. Balkema, Lisse, Holland, 2001).
The volume has been carefully structured to avoid overlapping, since some
issues (e.g. dust) have to be examined from different perspectives, and therefore
figure in more than one chapter.
The book would be useful to the university students and professionals in the
areas of geology, mining engineering, mineral economics, geography, resource
management, environmental technologies, etc.
I am greatly beholden to Prof. Umberto Cordani of Brazil for writing the
Foreword for my book. Dr. Cordani is a role model for Third World geologists. As
the President of the International Union of Geological Sciences, and the President
of the International Geological Congress (Rio de Janeiro), he attained the highest
scientific administrative positions open to geologists in the world. That these
honours sit lightly on him should be evident from the fact that during an official
Preface xv
visit to China, he found time to determine the SHRIMP ages of zircons from some
Brazilian rocks.
Asa Sjoblom (Sweden), A.N.L. Raja (India), Susan Gamon (France), and
J.R. Ikingura (Tanzania) kindly provided reference material for the book.
When I wrote my book on water resources, I indicated how the title of the book
is related to the name my elder daughter, Indira, who was called Gangamai (Mother
Ganga) in her childhood. Now my younger daughter came up with the demand for
equal treatment. Though her official name is Vani (Hindu goddess of learning), the
pet name given to her in her childhood (Sonal, which means gold), proved more
prophetic she is determined to become the first millionaire in the family. Hence
the present book is golden and devoted to minerals! The togetherness in my fam-
ily manifests itself in book writing my wife (Vijayalakshmi) serves as cheerleader,
and my children (Viswanath, Srinivas and Indira) help in the mechanics.
Hyderabad, India U. Aswathanarayana

July, 2002
Copyright Acknowledgement
Grateful acknowledgement is made to the publishers, authors and editors of jour-

nals and books, from which some figures that appear in the volume have been
redrawn or adapted. The particulars of the page nos. are shown against the book or
journal concerned. Besides this consolidated statement, individual acknowledgement
is made against each figure as it appears in the text.
Beijer Inst., Stockholm, Mining Projects in the developing countries A manual
(ed. M.J. Chadwick et al.), 1987, Figures on p. 72, 78, 79, 83, 89, 111, 113, 115,
118, 121, 123, 150, 159, 160, 203
CRC Press, Constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment municipal, indus-
trial and agricultural, 1989, chap. 42f. (one fig.)
J. Cent. South Inst. Min. & Metall (China), v. 20(4), p. 339345 (one fig.)
Martinus Nijhoff, Water Resources and land-use planning A systems approach,
1982, p. 4
MEND, 1997, (one fig.) MEND, 2001, (one fig.)
Mining Mag., (one fig.) in Nov. 2000, (two figs.) in Aug. 2001, and (one fig.) in
Sept. 2001 issues,
Pergamon Press, The Heavy Elements Chemistry, Environmental Impact and
Health Effects. 1990, p. 208.
Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, Sweden, June 25
July 1, 2001, p. 27, 53, 109, 129, 132, 134, 150, 220, 283, 356, 360, 373, 442, 488,
541, 694, 726, 802
Proc. Int. Symp. on Tailings and Mine Waste, 02, 2002, p. 47, 131, 132,
133, 150.
Springer-Verlag, Environmental Impact of Mining (ed. J.M. Azcue), 1999,
p. 13, 109, 113, 185, 189, 196, 263294 (one fig.)
UNEP UNESCO, Mining and Geoenvironment (ed. G.S. Vartanyan), 1989,
p. 43, 72, 170, 171.
UNEP, 1986, Tech. Rev. on Environmental aspects of iron and steel production,
p. 14, 42, 83, 99, 109.
UNEP, 1991, The. Rep. No. 5, Environmental aspects of selected non-ferrous
metals oremining. p. 10, 12, 13, 18, 20, 21, 33, 37, 53, 54, 83, 84.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 STATUS OF THE WORLD MINING INDUSTRY
1.1.1 Introduction
Frstner (1999, p. 13) gave an evocative vision of the directions in which the min-
ing industry will have to make progress in order to cope with the increasingly seri-
ous environmental impacts of mining.
The volume of non-fuel minerals consumed during the five decades since the
Second World War has exceeded the total extracted from the earth during all the
previous history of mankind. While the world population doubled during the period
19591990, the production of six major non-ferrous metals (aluminium, copper,
lead, nickel, tin and zinc) increased eight-fold. The most serious problem facing
the mining industry presently is the enormous mass of the mine tailings (about 18
billion m3/y), which incidentally is the same order as the quantity of sediment
discharge into the oceans. As progressively lower grades are worked, the mass of
the mine tailings is expected to double in the next 2030 years. Great attention
is being paid to the mitigation of the sulphidic mining wastes, which produce acidic
leachate containing heavy metals that could contaminate soils and water. Multi-
disciplinary, multi-institutional research is going on countries like Canada (MEND
project) and Sweden (MiMi project) to mitigate the adverse consequences of Acid
Mine Drainage (AMD).
The Industrialised countries are going in a big way for miniaturization, economies
of scale, recycling and substitution. Consequently, the consumption of raw materials
in the Industrialised countries is actually going down. The new trend in this regard
has been described as dematerialisation, whereby less virgin material is used for
extraction, the production of waste materials is minimized, and useful materials are
recycled to the maximum extent possible. Future development will strongly depend
upon the extent and the efficacy of recycling.
Enhanced environmental awareness around the world has profound consequences.
In future, an orebody will be mined only when it is found to be viable after the social
and remediation costs are incorporated in the price of the product. Several indus-
trialized countries have become strong adherents of the concept of ecologically
2 Mineral resources management and the environment
sustainable development, so much so that Ranger Uranium in Australia has placed

A$ 2 billion in the bank to cover the final closure of the mining
Zimmermans dictum, Resources are not, they become, has profound tech-
nosocioeconomic implications. According to him, what constitutes a resource is
governed by two considerations: (1) knowledge and technical means must exist to
allow its extraction and utilization, and (2) there must be a demand for materials
and services produced. It is therefore perfectly possible that what was yesterday a
non-resource, can now become a resource today because advances in science and
technology made it possible for that substance to be put to economic use.
This can be illustrated with the example of nickel. In 1887, when Sudbury
(Canada) started producing nickel, they had trouble selling it the total world
demand for nickel at that time was less than 1000 t. During the twentieth century,
the demand for nickel rose about 900 fold (to 900,000 t). This came about because
numerous new uses were found for nickel (Ni-steels, Ni-Cd batteries, Ni plating,
nichrome filaments, cupronickel compounds, etc.).
A mineral resource is a concentration of naturally occurring solid, liquid or
gaseous material in or on the earths crust in such form and amount that economic
extraction of a commodity from the concentration is currently or potentially feasible
(U.S. Bureau of Mines, 1989).
Traditionally, mineral resources are divided into three categories: (1) metallic
minerals (e.g. iron ore), (2) non-metallic minerals (also known as industrial miner-
als) (e.g. clays), and (3) fuels (e.g. coal). Until the early part of the twentieth century,
metallic minerals dominated the mineral market. Presently, non-metallic minerals
and fuels exceed the metallic minerals both in terms of quantity and the value of
world production.
More than two-thirds of the 92 natural elements are metals. Some of them, such as,
Au, Ag, Cu, Pb, Sn, Hg, S, etc., have been known and used since ancient times.
Improvements in analytical techniques led to the identification of a large number of
metals. The specialized and exacting requirements of modern industries led to pro-
found changes in the ways metals are detected, extracted, alloyed and used. New
applications for metals are being found all the time, e.g., use of germanium in semi-
conductors, use of cerium in high temperature superconductors, development of zir-
calloys in nuclear industry, titanium alloys in aerospace industry, metal glasses, etc.
On the other hand, some traditional metals (e.g., Fe and Cu) are being substituted by
plastics, fiberglass, ceramics, etc., thus increasing the demand for industrial minerals.
The non-metallic minerals are being increasingly used as insulating material, fillers,
glasses, and construction material. The ever-increasing need for more fertilizers (due
to the need to grow more food for the increasing population of the world) will greatly
increase the consumption of fertilizer raw materials, like apatite, potash feldspar, etc.
Thus, the demand for a given mineral depends upon technology and markets.
Ore is defined as a mineral or rock that can be recovered at profit. Gangue is the
useless material associated with the ore. Protore is mineralized rock that is too lean
to be economically minable. The above definition of ore has the economic criterion
Introduction 3
built into it. Thus, a mineral does not remain an ore or non-ore for all time. A min-
eral can be regarded as ore so long as technology and market demand make it eco-
nomical to mine it. Alternately, what was yesterday a non-ore may become ore today
as technology and market demand make it economically worthwhile to mine it now.
1.1.2 Status of the metal mining industry

Appendix B carries a country-wise listing of about 400 large (1 Mt/y production)
metal mines in the world (source: Mining Magazine, Jan. 2000; M million 106).
Appendix C gives the world production of minerals/metals in 1998 (source:
Minerals Yearbook, 1998, v.1, US Geological Survey, 2000). The information in the
Appendix B is extracted and tabulated in Table 1.1. It may be noted that the produc-
tion figures given for different kinds of mining are only estimates (based on the
mean production level of a particular category of mines multiplied by the number of
mines in that category).
The following conclusions may be drawn from Appendices B & C:
1. The following ten countries have more than ten large metal mines: Australia
(114), USA (81), Canada (67), South Africa (54), Chile (49), Brazil (30),
Zimbabwe (23), Peru (21), Mexico (20), India (18).
2. Opencast mining is the most prevalent form of mining. It accounts for 60% of
the number of mines (236 out of 395), and 69% (1095 Mt/y out of 1569 Mt/y) of
the ore production.
3. Mining of iron ore: Virtually all the major iron ore mines (50 out of 52) are
opencast. The only underground iron ore mine in the world is in Kiruna,
Sweden. Opencast mining accounts for 95% of the production from large mines
(267 Mt/y out of 281 Mt/y). Small-scale and artisanal mining of iron ore is
invariably opencast. The gross production of iron ores (1020 Mt in 1998) from
all types of mining is about 34 times that of the production from large mines.
4. Mining of ores of gold and silver (occasionally copper): Most commonly gold
occurs in the form of intermetallic compound of Au-Ag, known as electrum.
Opencast mining accounts for 59% of the number of mines (105 out of 178) and
68% of the production (422 Mt/y out of 619 Mt/y). It is significant that though
the number of underground mines is 23% (41 out of total of 178 mines), they
account for 14% of the production (88 Mt/y out of 619 Mt/y). The world pro-
duction of gold from different types of mining in 1998 was 2480 t. Artisanal
gold mining is almost invariably opencast, and has certain characteristics, which
have a profound impact on mining. In the lateritic occurrences of gold, the metal
tends to be enriched in the mottled zone, which occurs 35 m below the surface
layer of red loam (murram). Artisanal miners use sluice boxes and panning to
concentrate gold, and mercury amalgam method to extract gold. As against this,
cyanidation is the most common method of extracting gold from ores produced
in large mines. The environmental implications of different methods of mining
and extraction of gold are discussed elsewhere (Section 7.6).
4
Table 1.1 Important metal mines in the world (Source: Mining Magazine, Jan. 2000).
Fe Au, Ag Cu, Pb, Zn Ni, PGM Baux
OP UG OP, UG Total OP UG OP, UG Total OP UG OP, UG Total OP
A ( 7.0 Mt/y)
Number of mines 27 1 1 29 24 2 4 30 32 7 10 49 6
Estimated production (Mt/y) 189 7 7 203 168 14 28 210 224 49 70 343 42
B ( 5.0 Mt/y)
Number of mines 11 11 34 2 11 47 13 7 4 24 3
Estimated production (Mt/y) 55 55 170 10 55 235 65 35 20 120 15
C ( 2.25 Mt/y)
Number of mines 8 8 25 18 5 48 11 25 5 41 5
Mineral resources management and the environment
D (1.25 Mt/y)
Number of mines 4 4 22 19 12 53 9 21 5 35 2
Total number of mines (395) 50 1 1 52 105 41 32 178 65 60 24 149 16
Total estimated production (1569 Mt/y) 267 7 7 281 422 88 109 619 325 166 107 598 71
A: 7.0 Mt/y; B: 3.07.0 Mt/y; C: 1.53.0 Mt/y; D: 1.01.5 Mt/y; OP Opencast; UG Underground; E: 0.51.0 Mt/y, and F: 020.5 Mt/y categories of mines number
about 250, with estimated total production of 125 Mt/y.
Introduction 5
5. Mining of ores of base metals (Cu, Pb, Zn), Ni, Cr, PGM, As, etc.: Though the
number of opencast mines (65) and underground mines (60) for these metals is
comparable, the production from the opencast mines (325 Mt/y) is almost dou-
ble that of the production from the underground mines (166 Mt/y).
6. Mining of bauxite: As bauxite deposits are usually surficial alteration blankets,
they are invariably mined by opencast methods. Thus, all the 16 large mines pro-
ducing 71 Mt/y of bauxite are opencast mines. Incidentally, the world production
of bauxite in 1998 (122 Mt) is about six times the quantity of bauxite produced
in 1980 (about 19 Mt) (Archer et al., 1987, p. 70).
7. The annual production of important metallic ores in the world (in millions of
tonnes Mt) are: bauxite (122), chromite (13), copper (12), iron (1020), lead
(3), Mn-ore (19), nickel (1), titanium (5), zinc (8), totaling about 1203 Mt. The
annual production of important industrial minerals in the world (in terms of Mt)
are: asbestos (2), barite (6), boron minerals (4), cement, hydraulic (1520), clays
(43), diatomite (2), feldspar (8), fluorspar (5), gypsum (107), lime (115), mag-
nesite (11), nitrogen (106), peat (26), perlite (2), phosphate rock (145), potash
(25), pumice (12), salt (192), sand and gravel (110), soda ash (32), sulphur (58),
talc & pyrophyllite (8), totaling about 2539 Mt. Thus, the production of indus-
trial minerals is more than double that of the metallic minerals.
1.1.3 Status of coal mining industry

An examination of the energy consumption (in the form of primary, commercially-
traded fuels) in different regions of the world in 2000 (Table 1.2; source: Mining
Magazine, Sept. 2001, p. 103) leads to the following conclusions: (1) North America
Table 1.2 Energy* production and consumption (2000) (Mt of oil equivalent) (source: Mining
Magazine, Sept. 2001, p. 103).
Oil Natural gas Coal Total

Supply/ Supply/ Supply/ Nuclear Hydro Primary
Region Demand Demand Demand Demand Demand Demand
North America(1) 652/1065 683/691 613/600 225 57 2638(2)

C & S America 348/219 87/84 37/20 3 849 372
Europe 329/753 259/413 241/347 252 53 1818
FSU 394/173 607/493 197/175 56 20 918
Middle East 1112/209 189/170 1/7 0 1 387
Africa 373/117 117/53 123/90 4 7 269
Asia Pacific 381/969 239/260 925/947 129 46 2351(3)
World 3590/3504 2181/2164 2137/2186 669 230 8752
C & S America Central and South America; FSU Former Soviet Union.
* Primary energy comprises only commercially-traded fuels, and excludes fuels such as wood, peat and animal wastes.
(1) Comprising US, Canada and Mexico.
(2) Of which US accounts for over 86%, representing 26% of the worlds primary energy consumption.
(3) Of which China accounts for 32%, Japan 22%, and India 13%.
Table 1.3 Particulars of important of coal producing countries in the world (source: Mining Magazine,
Sept. 1999). Proven reserves of coal in Mt in 1998; Coal production in Mt in 1998.
Reserves Production
Lignite/
Country/region Hard Others Total Hard brown Total
USA 111,338 135,305 246,643 934.20 80.00 1014.20

Canada 4,509 4,114 8,623 63.59 11.79 75.38
Mexico 860 351 1,211 10.00 10.00
Total North America 116,707 139,770 256,477 1007.79 91.79 1099.58
Brazil 11,950 11,950 5.60 5.60
Colombia 6,368 381 6,749 34.00 34.00
Venezuela 479 479 6.80 6.80
Other Latin America 992 1,404
Total Latin America 7,839 13,735 21,574 46.40 46.40
Bulgaria 13 2,698 2,711 0.10 31.00 31.10
Czech Republic 2,613 3,564 6,177 24.90 50.80 75.70
France 95 21 116 5.30 0.80 6.10
Germany 24,000 43,000 67,000 41.30 166.20 207.50
Greece 2,874 2,874 60.40 60.40
Hungary 596 3,865 4,451 0.90 13.60 14.50
Poland 12,113 2,196 14,309 117.00 63.00 180.00
Romania 1 3,610 3,611 4.00 29.00 33.00
Spain 200 460 660 12.40 13.70 26.10
Turkey 449 626 1,075 2.30 40.00 42.30
UK 1,000 500 1,500 41.30 41.30
Other Europe 584 16,594 17,538 0.10 43.10 43.20 *
Total Europe 41,664 80,368 122,302 249.60 511.60 761.20
Kazakhstan 31,000 3,000 34,000 65.70 3.00 68.70
Russian Federation 49,088 107,922 157,010 149.00 83.00 232.00
Ukraine 16,388 17,968 34,356 74.20 2.00 76.20
Other FSU 1,000 3,812 4,812
Total FSU 97,476 132,702 230,178 288.90 88.00 376.90
South Africa 55,333 55,333 222.30 222.30
Zimbabwe 734 734 5.05 5.05
Other Africa 5,095 250 5,345
Middle East 193 193 1.81 1.81 **
Total Africa & Middle East 61,355 250 61,605 229.16 229.16
Australia 47,300 43,100 90,400 289.70 65.80 355.50
China 62,200 52,300 114,500 1,185.50 50.00 1235.50
India 72,733 2,000 74,733 300.00 23.00 323.00
Indonesia 770 4,450 5,220 61.20 61.20
Japan 785 785 3.60 3.60
New Zealand 29 542 571 3.50 0.20 3.70
North Korea 300 300 600 60.00 15.00 75.00
Pakistan 2,928 2,928 3.10 3.10
South Korea 82 82 4.30 4.30
Other Asia Pacific 251 2,275 2,526 4.70 15.50 20.20 ***
Total Asia Pacific 184,450 107,895 292,345 1915.60 169.50 2085.10
Total World 509,491 474,720 984,211 3737.45 860.89 4598.34
* Serbia/Montenegro; ** Iran; *** Thailand.

Introduction 7
(USA, Canada and Mexico) account for about 30% of the total global energy con-
sumption, with roughly equal contribution from oil, natural gas and coal, (2) The
important consumers of energy in the Asia-Pacific region, are China, Japan and
India, and because of the strong dependence of China and India on coal, the energy
contribution from coal in their case far outweighs that from oil and natural gas.
Table 1.3 carries the particulars of reserves and production of hard coal
(anthracite and bituminous coal) and brown coal (sub-bituminous coal and lignite),
arranged country-wise and region-wise (such as, North America, Latin America,
Europe, Former Soviet Union countries, Africa and Middle East, Asia-Pacific).
An analysis of the data given in Table 1.3 leads to the following conclusions:
1. The following eleven countries which have reserves of more than 10 Bt of coal
each (all grades): USA (247), Russian Federation (157), China (115), Australia
(90), India (75), Germany (67), South Africa (55), Kazakhstan (34), Ukraine
(34), Poland (14) and Brazil (12), with aggregate reserves of 900 Bt, account for
91% of the total coal reserves of the world (984 Bt) (B billion 109).
2. The following eight countries which produce more than 100 Mt/y of coal each
(all ranks): China (1236), USA (1014), Australia (356), India (323), Russia (232),
South Africa (222), Germany (208), Poland (180), with aggregate production
of 3771 Mt, account for 82% of the global production of about 4600 Mt.
Interestingly, two countries, China and USA, produce half of the coal in the
world. As we will see later, the large quantities of coal produced and consumed
in China has profound adverse consequences on the quality of environment in
that country.
1.2 MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL AGENDA
1.2.1 Environmental challenges facing the mining industry

An Environmental impact may be defined as a change in the environmental param-
eters, over a specified period, and in a specified geographical area, resulting from a
particular activity compared to the situation which would have existed had the
activity not been performed.
It is no longer possible for a mine to be started merely because its technoeconomic
viability has been demonstrated. The mining project has to be socially acceptable as
well. Sengupta (1993, p. 2223) has drawn attention to the shadow effect of a
mine site. Apart from the degradation of land directly connected to the mine site
itself (due to the mine, supporting facilities, waste disposal arrangements, etc.), the
shadow effect of the mine site may extend to large areas around the mine site as a
consequence of the infrastructure (rail, road, housing, power plants, water storage,
etc.) necessary for the performance of the mining operations. Thus, the responsibil-
ity of the mining company is not confined to the mine site, but to a large area around
it. The mining company has thus to work harmoniously with a variety of land use
authorities, concerned with (say) wildlife, forestry, recreation and tourism, fisheries,
environmentally-sensitive habitats (e.g., corals, mangroves), parks, reserves, histori-

cal sites, native reserves and rights of the indigenous people, urban growth, etc.
Khanna (1999) gave a succinct account of the environmental challenges facing
the mining industry.
The adverse effects of mining on the geological environment include changes in
the landscape, landslides, subsidence, pollution of water and soil, lowering of
groundwater, damage caused by explosions, etc. The magnitude of the environ-
mental impact is function of the volume of the material mined, methods of mining,
mode of disposal of wastes, environmental protection measures undertaken, etc.
The potential effects of the mining activities on the environment are summarized in
Table 1.4 (source: UNEP, 1986). It has been estimated that there are more than
40,000 mines in the world, which process an aggregate volume of 33 109 m3/y of
rock (Vartanyan, 1989).
Mining has a negative image some of the worst industrial disasters happen to be
mining related (vide Appendix D). Mining industry has a characteristic, which is not
shared by other industries. For instance, mining has to be undertaken where the ore
occurs direct relocation is not possible. There has been much controversy whether
the concept of sustainable development is at all applicable to the mining sector,
which is based on the production of non-renewable resources from finite deposits.
Mining takes out the ore, but leaves nothing in its place in other words, mining is
inherently unsustainable. On the lines of the definition of the Ecologically-
Sustainable Industrial Development (ESID), Sustainable Mining may be defined as
those patterns of mining that enhance economic and social benefits for the present
and future generations without impairing the basic ecological processes. This
implies that any uses of mineral resources that lead to significant degradation of eco-
logical processes, are deemed to be ipso facto unsustainable and hence unacceptable.
Mining industry faces pressure to follow good environmental practice from
the following kinds of institutions: (1) Environmental pressure groups, such as,
Minewatch, Greenpeace, Friends of the Earth and the Mineral Policy Centre, (2)
International organizations, such as, the World Bank, UNDP, and the International
Council of Metals are using their financial leverage to make the mining companies
follow certain guidelines, (3) Most national governments have prescribed regula-
tions for the protection of the environment, amelioration of the mined land, and the
responsibilities of the mining company in the event of the mine closure, (4) Mining
associations which are developing codes of practice, and helping the mining com-
panies to implement the Best Practices this is a kind of corporate peer pressure
which often has proved very effective, and (5) The coverage of mining disasters
in the International media, particularly the Internet, can be so extremely intense that
a mining company may be put in a tight corner, and may even have to fold up.
In the context of the increasing public consciousness about environmental conse-
quences of any commercial activity, it is no longer possible to take decisions about
mining based on commercial rationale alone. A community may wonder whether the
economic benefit from a mine is worth the ugly scar that would be left behind when
Table 1.4 Potential effects of mining activity on the environment.
Surface water Underground Noise and

pollution water pollution Air pollution Solid waste Excavation vibration Remarks
Human Soluble contaminants Soluble Dust blown on Hazards related Effects of (1) Such impacts on
health and in domestic and/or contaminants inhabited or to lack of noise on underground waters do
activity agricultural use waters. in wells, agricultural stability of human health not occur generally; it
springs, etc. (1) lands (2) waste deposits depends essentially
Deposition of solids on Damage to on the hydrogeology
agricultural lands, and in buildings due of the area.
the shallow zones of to blasting (2) Plant, especially the
the sea; Withdrawal of vibration atmosphere of the
water for industrial underground mine.
purposes
Fauna Degradation of aquatic Loss of Disturbance (3) Issues regarding
fauna, Including the habitat of habitat unique habitat features
destruction of fish feature (3) (e.g. migration corridors,
species, accumulation watering areas, etc.)
of toxic elements by fish for threatened or
endangered species,
should be specially
addressed.
Flora Degradation of Accumulation Spatial requirements of
aquatic flora in plants of of mining operations
toxic elements are normally quite
carried by restricted; but within
dust that area, the disturbance
can be quite significant.
Land use Deposition of sand in Land disturbance; Land disturbance
river channels and in the Withdrawal of Land subsidence
shallow zones of the sea agricultural land due to underground
mining
Introduction 9
the mine is closed. Previously, mining companies used their public relations exercise
to sell a project. Now they use community consultation techniques to develop the
project in harmony with the stakeholders who will be affected by the mine.
Poor communities may accept mining, as it may be the only way for social and
economic development. But when once the mine is exhausted, the mine-dependent
community is left with a big hole in the ground, plus the environmental problems
associated with the contaminated soil and ground. In the past, companies simply
closed the mine and walked out. Now a days, the communities and the government
will not tolerate such a step. The mining companies do indeed have a responsibility
for the well being of the community when once the mining ceases. A sensible
approach would be for the mining company in cooperation with the government
and the community concerned, to plan for a long-term development of the area to
enable the sustainable development to continue after the mining ceases. In other
words, the financial costs of the environmental and social protection have to be
integrated into the business plan right at the start. Companies are finding that this
kind of proactive approach of a long-term, mutually beneficial relationship with the
community is better than a retroactive approach which tries to sort out the environ-
mental and social conflicts after they become intractable.
Mining companies are slowly getting reconciled to the fact that there is no way
they can avoid issuing reports of their environmental performance, as such reports
are demanded by the government regulations, by the public, and by the sharehold-
ers. It is good for the image of a company to show that it is environment-conscious.
Companies, such Cambior Gold, are taking pride in fulfilling the requirements of
Industry standard ISO 14001 (see Appendix E, for details of procedure for getting
certified under ISO 14001). This is a good trend.
1.2.2 Mining, environmental protection and sustainable development a case

study of Indonesia
Miller (1999, p. 317332) examines the dilemma facing the developing countries
(such as Indonesia) as to how to reconcile environmental protection with sustain-
able development. The developing countries think that sustainable development as
defined by the Brundtland Commission seems to imply a low rate of economic
growth that impedes the development of their energy and mineral resources. They
regard mining as the engine of development to promote technological and eco-
nomic development of the country. Mining accounts for 8090% of GNP in some
countries in Africa. For instance, Botswana with a population of little over one
million, earns almost USD 3 billion from the mining sector, principally diamonds.
This works to about USD 3000 per capita per annum, which happens more than 20
times the GDP per capita of the neighbouring Mozambique.
The mineral resources that mining exploits are non-renewable, but the resources
that are affected by mining, namely, water, land, flora and fauna, are renewable.
Sustainable mining has therefore to be understood to mean that the mining has to be
carried in a manner that is ecologically sustainable.
Introduction 11
Mining activity in Indonesia faces formidable problems heavy monsoon rain-

fall (20004000 mm/yr) can cause rapid erosion and sedimentation, making reha-
bilitation of mined land extremely difficult. In many places, the slopes are steep,
and one has to contend with seismic activity. Corruption in the government is
rampant.
The Government of Indonesia has promulgated various laws to protect the envi-
ronment, including regulations on Polluter pays principle. A reasonably compre-
hensive regulatory and enforcement scheme (AMDAL) is in place. But the real test
is implementation on the ground. Unlike the US EPA regulations that demand quan-
tification of various parameters for compliant effluents, the Indonesian regulations
are not specific. Thus, when a mining company puts out an environmental impact
document, the particulars provided by the mining companies are not precise enough
to assess whether the regulations have been complied with (If you cannot measure
it, you cannot manage it Peter Drucker). Experience has shown that large min-
ing companies do a better job of mine planning and achieve a higher level of envir-
onmental protection. This is so because they have operations in countries in which
environmental controls are strict and effectively enforced. The technology for com-
pliance is substantially transferable. The real culprits are state-run companies, and
more so, the artisanal miners. Artisanal gold mining using the highly polluting mer-
cury amalgam method is common. The Ministry of Mines and Energy has about
100 inspectors. It is an almost impossible task for them to monitor all the mining
operations (the Indonesian archipelago is spread over 3700 km, with probably the
worlds most difficult terrain to travel).
1.2.3 Economics of environmental protection in mining

Maxwell and Govindarajulu (1999, p. 717) gave a good analysis of the economics
of environmental protection in mining, with particular reference to Australia. It has
been estimated that mining companies in Australia spend upto 5% of capital and
5% of operating costs for new mining projects to maintain best practice environ-
mental management.
Of late, environment has been attracting considerable interest from the econom-
ics. It is generally held that markets do not allocate environmental resources effi-
ciently. This is so because many environmental resources are public goods. There is
obviously a need for environmental protection regulation. The point that Maxwell
and Govindarajulu (1999) raise is how zealous that such a legislation should be. If
it is too demanding, the mining operation would result in less than the optimal level
of output. The diagram of Coase (1960, quoted by Maxwell & Govindarajulu, 1999)
helps us to understand the economics of the environmental impacts of a mine in
terms of curves for marginal damage to the environment (air, water, soil, noise, etc.
pollution and aesthetic damage) versus marginal abatement cost (or marginal bene-
fit). The most economically efficient level of environmental damage occurs where
the marginal damage and the marginal benefit curves intersect (Fig. 1.1, source:
Maxwell & Govindarajulu, 1999, p. 13).
Figure 1.1 Economics of environmental protection in mining (source: Maxwell & Govindarajulu,
1999, p. 13).
1.3 TECHNOLOGY TRENDS IN THE MINING INDUSTRY
Chadwick (2001) highlighted the implications of technological improvements on

the performance of the mining industry. As is happening in other industries, Service
and Automation are emerging as two over-riding trends in the mining industry as
well. Technology is being increasingly applied to improve efficiency and safety, cut
costs, and reduce the adverse impact of mining on the environment. Previously,
manufacturers used to supply equipment and spares, and the mining companies
were expected to take care of their own maintenance and repair work. Now a days,
the manufacturers of equipment are undertaking all the related services, such as,
managing of spare parts inventories, servicing, maintenance and repair work (even
if the equipment concerned is not their own make), and optimizing the utilization of
equipment. Mergers and acquisitions in all sectors of manufacture are allowing the
manufacturers to achieve the critical mass and provide a truly global service (the
role of ecommerce in this process is discussed in section 1.5).
1.3.1 Automation in the mining industry

Automation is helping the mining companies to optimize their mining and process-
ing operations, depending upon the prevailing commodity prices. This may take the
form of using the equipment in such a manner that render possible the selection and
processing of specific ore grades, and extraction of specific metals in a polymetal-
lic deposits, etc. This is similar to the customary practice in oil refining different
Introduction 13
crudes are blended and process technologies adjusted, depending upon the product
mix that the market needs at any particular point of time.
Automation is revolutionizing exploratory drilling. Drilling can take place
autonomously with high hole accuracy, and samples are recovered (and in some
systems, analysed) automatically.
Portable XRF devices are available for the geologist to check the ore grade in the
drill core, or this could be done automatically. Nitons new XL-500 Prospector can
assay ore samples directly in situ (rock face or drill core). It is a single-piece, hand-
held analyzer weighing only one kg, including the battery. Typical in situ measure-
ments can be made in 3060 seconds, and 5001000 measurements can be made
per day. About 1000 measurements can be stored in the instrument internally, and
can be downloaded as needed for the preparation of maps, grade control and other
kinds of evaluations. Niton also markets a special device for precious metals (called
Precious Metals Analyser), for the analysis of Au, Ag, Pt, Rh, Ru, Ir, Pd, Cu, Zn, Ni,
Co and Fe in ores, and fire assay can be avoided. Details about Niton instruments
can be had from www.niton.com.
In surface mining, as the capacity of haulers is increasing, there has been con-
current increase in the capacity of loading and ancillary equipment. Blasthole
drilling which can be isolated from other surface mining activities, has benefited
most from automation. Emulsion explosives have emerged as safe, inexpensive and
easy to use alternatives to the old nitroglycerine, water gels, ANFO, etc. These
explosives are manufactured in the form of water-in-oil emulsions. As each micro
cell of the oxidizer is coated with an oily exterior, the emulsion has excellent water
resistance, and could therefore function efficiently under water. Glass microspheres
dispersed throughout the basic emulsion serve as bulking agent and help in density
control and sensitivity. The consistency of the emulsion can be varied depending
upon the blasting applications. Bulk emulsion has a density of 1.25 g/cm3, VOD of
5500 m/sec, and energy of 1030 kcal/cm2. Studies have shown that the efficiency of
the emulsions (93%) is much higher than those of the water cells (70%).
Orica of USA has developed digital energy control software (ShotPlus) for the
safe, accurate and efficient control of blasts. NPV Scheduler software enables the
optimization of open pit mining through the identification of the unique path of
extracting minerals in the pit, which will deliver the highest possible Net Present
Value.
With the increasing accuracy of GPS equipment, driverless trucks in open pits
may indeed become a reality in the not too distant future.
Automation has gone much farther in underground mining. Automated load and
haul systems are being increasingly used in Australia, Sweden and Finland. In the
Automine system operating in Kiruna, Sweden, LHDs with a tramming capacity of
25 t, load themselves from drawpoints under tele-remote control. The automatic
tram and dump cycle starts. The LHD take its load to the overpass, dumps it, and
returns to the drawpoint, all autonomously. Under the Sandvik Tamrocks system,
the LHD determines its position by dead reckoning. It gets its direction from the
onboard gyroscope, and the articulation angle and distance from the drive line
(Mining Magazine, July, 2000, p. 12). Other navigation systems are based on reflec-
tors suspended from the sides of the drifts, on the basis of which the LHD fixes its
position. Tyre life has shown significant improvement, as the LHDs are driven more
smoothly under automatic control. Unlike the operator-driven machines, which
operate 1012 hours per day, the automatic machines can work upto 19 hours a day.
One operator can control three LHDs. The Kiruna mine expects that its production
of 23 Mt/y of ore will be drawn, trammed and dumped by semi-autonomous LHDs
(Mining Magazine, July, 2000, p. 1216) (see section 2.8 for a case study of the
Kiruna mine).
The following considerations are likely to lead greater emphasis on underground
mining: (1) decline in the availability of deposits which are amenable for surface
mining, (2) the greening of the mining industry which wants to avoid the ugly
scars on the surface, (3) reduced extraction of waste by the placement of the tailings
back in the underground, particularly as backfill support, and (4) high degree of
automation that is possible in underground mining.
Automation in mineral processing allows large plants to be run with minimum
staffing. Expert systems not only reduce the personnel costs, but also provide real
time information on the processes as they operate, so that the recovery can be fine-
tuned depending upon the market situation. Gravity separation is coming into
vogue, particularly in situations where the use of cyanide is to be avoided.
1.3.2 Technology-driven developments in the mining industry

Technology is being increasingly used to address three major challenges of the min-
ing industry: (1) increase in the global mineral consumption of minerals (for
instance, the production of bauxite increased six-fold during the last two decades),
(2) the reduction in the prices of minerals (for instance, the price of gold which
has been oscillating around USD 350400/oz, is currently around USD 300/oz),
(3) Huge quantities of ever-lower grades are being processed by bulk mining meth-
ods (such as opencast mining). Such mining not only leaves big, unseemly pits in
the ground and huge waste dumps above the ground, but also leads to increased pol-
lution due to ore processing and increased tonnages of tailings that have to be dis-
posed off.
According to Khanna (1999), the following technological advances have an
impact on the issue of Mining and Environment: (1) The total recovery of metals
from ore is being improved, with the consequence that the waste material will have
lower content of heavy metals, and hence lesser ability to contaminate the environ-
ment, (2) Process chemicals which are environmentally unacceptable are being
replaced by those which are environmentally-friendly and recyclable.
Bioleaching has the potential not only to revolutionize the extraction of metals,
but also the detoxification of industrial waste products, sewage sludge, and soils
contaminated by heavy metals. Several companies have resorted to in situ leaching
Introduction 15
of ores, but the environmental consequences of in situ leaching are not yet fully
understood.
Sulphur dioxide produced in the course of smelting of sulphidic ores, has been a
major pollutant of air. Hydrometallurgical techniques avoid the use of smelting, and
thereby eliminate the sulphur dioxide emissions. Copper industry is already using
pressure leaching techniques in a big way.
The patented Gold Haber process avoids the use of cyanide in the extraction of
gold. The preliminary operation is the same as in conventional cyanide process,
namely, crushing and grinding of ore, mixing it with water, and making a slurry.
Before pumping the slurry to the leach tanks, Habers patented reagent suite is added.
This involves the use of activated carbon to recover the gold in solution, which is
then followed by electrowinning. The acidic tailings are neutralized before disposal.
The most serious problem facing the mining industry is the disposal of wastes.
The extent of the environmental impact of mine wastes can be illustrated with the
example of gold. The world production of gold is about 2500 t. Since the gold con-
tent of the mined material is usually of the order of a few gms. per tonne, virtually
all the mined material (1.5 Bt/y ?) ends up as mine waste which needs to be dis-
posed off.
As mentioned earlier, 69% of the metallic ores are produced by opencast mining.
As more and more low-grade ores are mined, the ratio of waste generated relative
to the quantity of mineral produced rises steeply. Waste dumps make the landscape
ugly to look at. Potential acid-producing material need to be encapsulated, so that
the rainwater and surface runoff leaching the waste dumps do not contain too high
concentrations of heavy metals.
When tailings are discharged into impoundments, we not only have to manage
the solid wastes but also the water/supernatant. The tailing impoundments need to
be dewatered before the rehabilitation of the solid wastes. Failure of tailing
impoundments is a kind of disaster that would attract the glare of adverse publicity.
Khanna (1999) gives an example of this. A tailings spill at the Marcopper mine in
the central Philippines has polluted a 26 km stretch of Makulapnit and Boac rivers.
This raised a public furore. The Marcopper Mine was, however, too small a com-
pany to be able to afford the amelioration of the problem. Though Placer Dome had
only a minority interest in the company, it came forward and cleaned up the rivers.
Paste technologies and subaqueous disposal are some of the new technologies
that are being developed to reduce the risk of failure of tailings impoundments.
The management of waste rock and tailings has become such a major problem
that some authorities are proposing that in future mining should be underground
only, with the wastes being disposed off wholly underground.
The advanced, low-polluting coal combustion system, called Low NOx
Concentric Firing System (LNCFS) reduces the formation of NOx by nearly 40%
in older coal burning plants. Power plants equipped with this burner now account
for 56,000 MW of electricity in USA. Sales of this system reached over USD one
billion (Mining Magazine, July, 2001).
1.4 EXTRACTION COSTS VS. ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY
Cyanidation process for the extraction of gold brings into focus most vividly the con-
flict between the economic and technical viability on one hand and the environmen-
tal acceptability on the other (see section 7.6 for details of gold process technologies).
There has been increasing pressure from the environmental groups for substitut-
ing cyanide by more environment-friendly reagents. The following reagents have
been tested and used by reputable firms: (1) Sodium hypochlorite stabilized by
sodium chloride, (2) Bromine stabilized by sodium bromide, (3) Ammonium thio-
sulphate stabilized by ammonia, and catalyzed by cupric ion, and (4) acidic thiourea.
Table 1.5 gives a comparative performance of the different lixiviants using the
Cortez (Nevada, USA) ore (fully oxidized ore of low grade, with 0.87 g/t of Au, and
4.98 g/t of Ag).
The great advantage of cyanide heap leaching is that there would be no dis-
charging of process solutions, and minimum recycling of water. Treatment and dis-
charge of process solutions would not be needed during the operation. In effect,
there would be a single permanent large heap leach pad. Percolation of pregnant
cyanide solutions downwards through hundreds of metres of leached ore can take
place, without the solutions undergoing chemical change. On the other hand, other
Table 1.5 Comparison of the effectiveness of different leaching systems.
Consumption of
Leaching system Reagent reagent (kg/t) Au dissolved (%) Ag dissolved (%)
Cyanide, pH: 10.511.0 NaCN 0.15 73 23

CaO 0.55
Hypochlorite, pH: 6.46.5, NaOCl 5.55 68 22
Eh: 1.1381.183 mV HCl 3.25
Bromine, pH: 1.32.0, Br2 2.85 57 13
Eh: 1.0891.099 mV H2SO4 6.8
Thiosulphate, pH: 9.49.5, (NH4)2S2O3 14.5 37 16
Eh: 228244 mV NH3 2.0
Thiourea, pH: 1.11.3, CS(NH2)2 3.05 57 22
Eh: 437450 mV Fe(SO4)3 9.0
H2SO4 48.0
Table 1.6 Water treatment costs of different lixiviant systems (source: McNulty, 2001).
Lixiviant system Total cost of water treatment (USD million)
Sodium cyanide/lime 22
Bromine/bromide/sulphuric acid 208
Hypochlorite/chlorine 605
Ammonium thiosulphate/ammonia/copper 242
Thiourea/ferric sulphate/sulphuric acid 194
Introduction 17
lixiviants require rigorous control of pH and Eh, and there is always the possibility
of side reactions and precipitation of gold.
The water treatment costs for different lixiviant systems are summarized in
Table 1.6 (source: McNulty, 2001).
It should be emphasized that the above considerations apply to the specific case
of Cortez ore.
Degussa-Hls of Germany has developed a cyanide system, which automatically
regulates the cyanide levels, such that neither overdosing nor underdosing of
NaCN occurs and gold is not lost. Their Peroxide Assisted Leach (PAL) technology
accelerates the leach kinetics, reduces the consumption of cyanide and increases the
amount of gold recovered. The Degussa-Hls technology is particularly attractive
for transition and sulphide ores, which are generally difficult to leach.
While it is true that sodium cyanide is toxic to human beings and other verte-
brates, pragmatic consideration should be given to the following ground realities:
(1) The mining industry accounts for only 13% of the total consumption of cyanide,
(2) Despite the use of hundreds of millions of kilograms of cyanide during the
twentieth century, there have been only three deaths in North America potentially
attributable to cyanide poisoning in the mining industry in the last century. This is
so because the manufacture, storage, use and disposal of cyanide are stringently
regulated, and are handled by carefully trained personnel, (3) Out of the 14 inci-
dents involving precious metal mining and processing, ten were caused by struc-
tural failings of the tailings dams, and two each were due to pipeline failures and
transportation accidents.
In sum, there is little doubt that assuming reasonable prices of gold and silver,
cyanide is the only leaching system that is economically attractive.
1.5 e-BUSINESS IN THE MINING INDUSTRY
The following summary is largely drawn from the review articles on the topic that
appeared in the Mining Magazine (Nov. 2000 & Aug. 2001).
Now a days, it is fashionable to place the prefix e before a normal activity to
make it appear modern and technologically exciting. This trend probably started
with e-mail, and now we have a whole set of new terms: e-business, e-commerce,
e-procurement, e-logistics, e-fulfillment, e-CRM (customer relationship manage-
ment), etc. Besides, we have three-letter acronyms: B2B (business-to-business),
B2C (business-to-consumer), etc. Business Schools are offering formal courses on
these topics.
How is e-business different from normal business? e-business is nothing more
than business conducted through electronic media. In other words, every thing that
is done in the course of normal business has to be done in e-business also but only
electronically. The recent crashing of many a dotcom is attributable to the failure to
appreciate this basic principle. e-business should not be considered as an electronic
Figure 1.2 The linkages in e-business (source: Mining Magazine, Nov. 2000, p. 206).
add-on, to be handled separately by the technical department. If e-business is to suc-

ceed, it should be completely integrated with the companys business methodology.
The linkages in e-business are schematically shown in Figure 1.2 (source: Mining
Magazine, Nov. 2000, p. 206). There are three primary channels of e-business:
(1) Web storefronts, (2) electronic Procurement (e-procurement) and (3) electronic
Marketplaces (e-markets). The Web storefront offers a low-cost channel to market
and sell products and services to a global clientele. Sellers use the Internet to differ-
entiate their product offerings, enhance customer service and reduce costs of mar-
keting and order processing. e-procurement establishes virtual electronic markets,
enabling a kind of self-servicing purchasing environment. The multi-buyer, multi-
seller e-markets allow dynamic e-commerce models, involving various combina-
tions of sourcing, auctioning, exchanges, etc.
The e-commerce models equally benefit all the participants as follows (source:
Aberdeen Group):
1. Buyers can automate and streamline procurement processes and gain access to
new market opportunities,
2. Suppliers can automate order and fulfillment processes, reduce order processing
errors and costs, identify new sales opportunities, and capture increased value
for excess inventories or assets,
Introduction 19
Table 1.7 Potential e-savings in cash costs.
Total cost e-savings e-savings e-savings Savings (AT)

Cost breakdown % ($ billion) % of costs ($ billion) % of sales % cash flow
Labour 27 43 5 2.2 1 4
Energy 23 37 2 0.7 0 1
Stores 33 53 9 4.7 3 8
Other 17 27 4 1.1 1 2
Total 100 159 5 8.7 5 15
3. Market managers who are responsible for brokering content, value-added serv-
ices, and transactional activities across the marketplace, can leverage e-markets
by inserting themselves into the buyer-supplier trading relationships.
Internet-based, business-to-business (B2B) or e-business, is growing at the rate
of 200% per year. It is estimated to reach about USD 2 trillion by the year 2003.
Global mining business is estimated to reach USD 200 billion in sales in the year
2000, whilst incurring cash costs of USD 159 billion.
Table 1.7 summarize the mining cost structure and potential e-savings in cash
costs (source: UBS Warburg, quoted in Mining Magazine, Nov. 2000, p. 208).
Though there is little doubt that the events of Sept. 11, 2001 have adversely
affected the e-business in the mining sector, the magnitude and direction of the
impact is unclear.
1.5.1 How to start new e-business?

In effect, e-business deals with commercial transactions (principally B2B) carried
on through Internet. A customary way of starting e-business is for a supplier com-
pany to set up a website, displaying its catalogue, and indicating how to order goods
or services online. A good model of this kind of e-business is Amazon.com which
is an online bookshop. Amazon.com can obtain for you any book published any
where in the world in any language. If you know the title of the book, you can get a
quote on it and order it. Alternately, one can browse through the particulars (titles,
contents, reviews, etc.) of books on a particular topic, or by a particular author, and
make up your mind. Amazon.com has been so successful that several other book
publishers were forced to go online in order to remain competitive.
Another approach is e-procurement. Under this, one or more buyers establish a
website, and invite suppliers to submit tenders against specific requirements. Price
setting may be based on quoted price procedure, or through a normal or reverse
auction procedure. These procedures are automated, and performed through the use
of appropriate software tools. The e-marketplace deals with more complex situa-
tions, in which buyers and sellers interact and negotiate prices and terms. This
process would work well where the products involved are standardized, and price
comparisons are possible.
There are five categories of business between mining companies and their suppli-
ers: (1) new capital equipment, (2) used capital equipment, (3) consumables, (4) pro-
fessional services, and (5) support services. Among these, consumables, and in some
cases, capital equipment, are amenable to this kind of automated e-business solu-
tions. e-business solutions do not seem to work well for other categories, where price
is not the only consideration, and several issues have to be taken into account in
making the final choice. Suppose a mining company needs a drilling service. It will
not automatically go in for a company which quoted the lowest rate it will make
the choice on the basis of a number of factors, such as, the past technical perform-
ance of the drilling outfit, time-frame and terms offered, etc. Another myth about
e-business has been that prices will be driven down. This is not inevitable, as suppli-
ers can be expected to differentiate their offerings on the basis of the quality of serv-
ice that they would be providing. It has been found in actual practice that the
expected centralized purchasing arrangements did not happen, and the biggest buy-
ers tend to pay higher prices.
The value/volume relationship for different product categories, and the market
positioning of different e-business sites, is shown in Figure 1.3 (source: Andrew
Barriskell, as quoted by Mining Magazine, Aug. 2001).
Since e-business is based on Internet, it is global in coverage. But where physi-
cal products have to be delivered (say, a drill rig), the suppliers have to take into
account the costs of delivery, political barriers to the market entry, taxes and duties,
and the margins to be allowed for local distributors, agents or dealers. The pattern
that is emerging is that, instead of the middleman in the traditional business, we
now have the IT (Information Technology) consultant who supplies the software,
and manages the e-marketplace for a company.
Figure 1.3 The value/volume relationship for different product categories of e-business (source:
Mining Magazine, Aug. 2001).
Introduction 21
A company, which wants to introduce e-business methods, must be willing to

make large-scale changes in the organizational set-up (such as, establishment of
call centers) and the management (such as, having IT-qualified staff in the highest
levels of management) of the company. Instead of building in-house competence in
e-business techniques, a company may go in for outsourcing through software
enterprises. SAP has emerged as a leader in the management software. Globally it
ranks third after Microsoft and Oracle as a software supplier. SAP provides the soft-
ware for integrated ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), which covers the whole
range of e-business functions.
The technical complexity of e-business led to the establishment of a new breed
of software companies. Gartner Group predicts that 30% of the e-business ventures
will fail by 2003 due to lack of attention to cultural issues. PLAUT is a software
company, which specializes in the introduction of new software to the companies.
They provide training, and advice on the management changes that are needed to
obtain maximum benefit from SAP-type of complex software. Such IT manage-
ment services, which are custom-made to suit the particular business environments,
may improve the survivability of new e-businesses. The catch is that only compa-
nies with a turnover of at least USD 1012 million can afford the SAP and PLAUT
type of solutions.
1.5.2 Present status of e-business in the mining sector

A Cobalt Open Sales System, which was established in mid-1999, now sells 100%
of the WMC cobalt. The success of this system led to the establishment of a nickel
site in late 1999. WMC found to its great surprise a number of new customers for
nickel of which WMC was not aware earlier. In May, 2000, Australias state-owned
Macquarie Generation initiated the first on-line market in coal with all major pro-
ducers bidding on 50,000 t of coal. This led to the reduction of time for negotiating
spot contract from weeks to hours. US-based MetalSite launched by the end of
1998 hosts upto US $40 million of steel products per month (this site has failed
recently, however).
In Oct. 2000, fourteen leading mining companies in the world (Alcan, Alcoa,
Anglo American, Barrick Gold, BHP, Codelco, CVRD, De Beers, Inco, Newmont
Mining, Noranda, Phelps Dodge, Rio Tinto, WMC, etc.) joined together to form a
consortium called Quadrem (www.quadrem.com) (as of Aug. 2001, Quadrem has
21 members). The founding shareholders have invested about USD 100 million to
establish the systems. This is undoubtedly the most significant development in the
e-business in the mining and the metals sector. The objective of Quadrem is to bring
down the costs of the consumables and capital items needed by the mining compa-
nies, through lower transaction costs and a more efficient and liquid market. The
purpose of Quadrem is thus to manage the marketplace efficiently. Quadrem is
going out of the way to indicate that it is not a buyers cartel. For instance, they say
that no individual shareholder can hold more than 15% of the Quadrem equity.
Despite the protestations, there is a general feeling that Quadrem may emerge as a
powerful buyers cartel.
Quadrem makes use of the expensive SAP software. They expect to recover the
costs by charging membership and transaction fees both from buyers and sellers.
The earlier catalogue-based, point-to-point B2B links are now being supplanted by
exchange-based systems through collaborative hubs. Quadrem has already estab-
lished e-market hubs in Australia, South Africa, Brazil and Canada, and a
European hub is about to be launched. About 200 suppliers that have signed up with
Quadrem are mid-sized companies. The major suppliers have not signed, probably
because Quadrem is not sufficiently attractive to them, and small suppliers did not
join probably because they are scared.
Apart from Quadrem which is the most advanced, a number of other mining
e-business have been set up during the last one or two years. One notable feature of
the Australian e-business, which may become the norm elsewhere, is for the mining
companies and suppliers to sign up with multiple B2B services. Examples of new
mining e-business sites are: www.corprocure.com.au, www.freemarkets.com.
Quadrem is developing common catalogues in multiple languages, which will
allow buyers regardless of their location, to access and trade with a large pool of
suppliers locally and around the world. The project will consist of a series of
regional marketplaces linked to a single global site. It has been estimated that
6070% of the global mining procurement spending is done on a regional basis,
and about 3040% on a global basis.
The suppliers will be able to access a large number of potential buyers through a
single system it will no longer be necessary for a supplier to link their sales infor-
mation into the individual purchasing system of each buyer. Any supplier can par-
ticipate, as Quadrem is not a broker, and does not take any responsibility for credit
risk. By promoting the use of industry-wide standards on goods and services sup-
plied, Quadrem seeks to improve the health, safety, and environmental impact of
the mining industry.
Since Quadrem already represents more than 60% of the buyers (and more are
expected to join), the suppliers are worried that the mining companies are attempt-
ing to squeeze their already shrinking margins, with the attendant adverse impact
on R. & D. They point out that the cost of a product can vary tremendously on a
geographical basis. This may be illustrated with an example of the explosives
industry. Ammonium nitrate, which is used in the manufacture of explosives, is in
plentiful supply in USA, but not (say) in Australia. So it is not possible for the
Australia-based mining company to get a given explosive at the same price as the
US-based subsidiary of the same mining company. Also, the freight rates for haz-
ardous explosive products are different depending upon the product, and the regu-
lations in the country concerned.
A number of problems require to be sorted out. The big question is whether the
volume leverage does lead to lower prices. There may be enormous difference
between the overt (list) prices and the covert prices (after discounts and special
Introduction 23
considerations have been taken into account). The transactions have to keep in mind
the risks involved in using multiple currencies, and local political pressures (favor-
ing a particular supplier for political reasons).
The mortality of mining e-business companies is high. Recently, metalsite.net
and aluminium.com have failed. The presence of too many players may have con-
tributed to the failure of dotcoms. Another cause of failure may be poor service.
Many B2B portal sites have had poor customer service and continual delays. Lower
unit value products where the price pressure is most intense, appear to be more
amenable for e-business than high unit cost goods and services, which involve tech-
nical sophistication and where off-the-shelf solutions may not be applicable.
1.5.3 Future of internet technology in relation to e-business in mining

The future of e-business in the mining industry is shown schematically in Figure 1.4
(source: Andrew Barriskell, as quoted in Mining Magazine, Aug. 2001).
Till now, Internet technology has been used only as a price setting marketplace
or trading exchange. The development of Internet to serve as a knowledge base for
the mining industry, has not been adequately explored by the mining companies. The
buyers thought that they will use the Internet marketplace to drive down prices. This
is a short-sighted view. In their own long-term interest, the buyers (mining compa-
nies) should allow sufficient margins for the suppliers to survive and to perform
R&D to develop new products and services. The break-down of the supplier/buyer
link would be disastrous for the viability of the mining industry as a whole.
Standardization of components would reduce costs, and allow price comparisons
to be made. But this cannot be achieved by Quadrem-style e-business but by col-
laboration between suppliers and buyers in engineering design.
Figure 1.4 The future of e-business in the mining industry (source: Mining Magazine, Aug. 2001).
Mining industry suppliers are faced with a big dilemma involving risks and costs.
They have to balance the risks and costs involved in doing e-business, or losing the
competitive edge by not doing e-business.
Whatever might be the prognosis, there is little doubt that Quadrem will have a
powerful impact on all facets of the mining industry. Time only can tell whether
Quadrem will remain unchallenged or whether new, more complex and more het-
erogeneous e-marketplaces will emerge.
CHAPTER 2
Mining methods and the environment
2.1 INTRODUCTION
A mineral is mined only when it is profitable to do so (in terms of goods and serv-
ices it could provide). Also, it has to be mined where it is found. The Chapter pro-
vides a brief account of various mining methods, and seeks to elucidate how the
adverse environmental impact of a given mining activity can be minimized through
an understanding of the method of mining, equipment used for mining, haulage and
transport, quantum of mineral production, disposal of wastes, etc.
Coal is chosen as a type case to examine the environmental impacts of different
methods of mining, for the following reasons: (1) The annual production of coal in
the world (4600 Mt in 1998) is higher than any other metallic and non-metallic
mineral, (2) Its use is widespread because of its versatility as a fuel and industrial
raw material, (3) It is mined both by opencast and underground mining, or combi-
nations of both, (4) Transport of coal is expensive. Hence, industries using large
quantities of coal, such as, thermal power stations, iron and steel complexes, etc.
tend to be located near the coalmines. Consequently, coal-mining areas tend to be
the foci of a wide range of environmental stresses, arising not only from the coal
mining industry itself, but also from coal-using industries, (5) Coal has a variable
composition (e.g. rank of coal, calorific value, sulphur content) depending upon its
geologic setting and burial history. It may have to be preprocessed (e.g. washed),
depending upon the requirements of the user. Depending upon the composition of
coal (such as sulphur content), mining of coal may have consequences such as acid
mine drainage (AMD) and burning of coal could cause acid rain, (6) the environ-
mental impacts associated with the coal cycle are complex and interactive. They
may be instantaneous (e.g. land clearance), accumulative (e.g. spoil deposition), or
progressive (pneumoconiosis).
The following account is largely drawn from Chadwick et al. (1987). The special
feature of this excellent work is its particular reference to the mining problems of
the developing countries.
In most cases, mining is preceded by exploratory diamond drilling (Fig. 2.1;
source: UNEP Tech., Rept., No. 5, 1991, p. 10) in order to get samples of the sub-
surface, and build a three-dimensional structure of the ore body.
Figure 2.1 Diamond drilling, and collection of sludge samples (source: UNEP Tech. Rept., No. 5,
1991, p. 10).
2.2 MINE DESIGN PROCESS
A large coal mining project is bound to have a profound effect on the economy of
an area or region, in terms of investment, use of natural resources, employment,
environmental impact, etc. The Design Process of a coal mine is a part of the Coal
Project Development Cycle. The trickiest part of the exercise is the choice of tech-
nology to be adopted in mining, as considerations of national policy are involved
whether to go in for the most advanced and productive technology, or whether to
opt for low-cost, low-productivity, labour-intensive technology.
Figure 2.2 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 72) shows the relationship between
the planning stages of a coalmine, and expenditure during a typical coal project
development cycle.
There are four phases of mine planning Pre-feasibility studies, Conceptual
planning and Full feasibility, Preliminary Design and Final Design. The expert
geotechnical assistance needed at various phases of mine planning, is shown in
Table 2.1 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 75).
Chadwick et al. (1987, p. 76) showed diagrammatically how the various inputs
are to be integrated to decide upon the design of the combination of opencast and
underground mine.
1. On the basis of the geophysical data, basic drillhole data and topographic and
existing status data, the coal seam (chemical and physical properties, reserve
Figure 2.2 Relationship between the planning stages and expenditure during a typical coal development cycle (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 72).
Mining methods and the environment 27
Table 2.1 Geotechnical expertise needed at different stages of mine planning (Chadwick et al.,
1987, p. 75).
Geotechnical input Coordinators Expert assistance needed
General site Mining engineer-geologist, Photogeologist, Geotechnical engineer,

Structural geologist Hydrologist, Geochemist, Petrologist,
Seismologist
Site-specific Mining engineer-geologist, Geophysicist, Photogeologist, Structural
Geotechnical engineer, geologist, Geochemist, Petrologist
Hydrogeologist
Geotechnical Geotechnical engineer, Mining engineer-geologist, Geophysicist,
designs Hydrogeologist Structural geologist, Engineering geologist
estimations, etc.) and overburden (specific gravity, hardness, diggability, etc.)

are evaluated.
2. Choice of underground methods (select mining areas and design the layout of
the mine), and/or opencast methods (layout of the strip plan).
3. Projection of the problems of hydrology, subsidence, spoil characteristics,
safety, economics, etc.
4. Schedules of underground mining, open cut mining, mine production, and waste
disposal.
5. Infrastructure, manpower requirements, operating costs, financial evaluation,
sensitivity data, etc.
Figure 2.3 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 7879) is a matrix diagram indicating
the linkages between and the importance of, the various investigations needed for,
the design of the underground mining, surface mining and surface facilities.
The mine planning process requires a large volume of information, starting with
the nature, location and extent of coal deposit, and features that may affect the eco-
nomic extraction of coal. Before drawing up the programme of exploitation, it is
necessary to establish whether the reserves and quality of coal justify the develop-
ment of a new mine. Thereafter a study will have to be made of the factors (largely
geotechnical), which affect the design and layout of the mine.
The factors which have a bearing on the location, design and layout of any kind
of mine (coal or others) are briefly described as follows:
2.2.1 Geographical factors

Terrain: The nature of the terrain (rough, rolling, flat, etc.) has an obvious bearing on
the mine location and layout. The land contours and the elevation of an area have to
be determined precisely. The relative topographic data is needed to determine the
exact location of the drillhole collars, to calculate the volumes of the overburden to
be removed, to decide upon the specifications for site accesses, coal preparation and
overburden stripping equipment, etc. Even for areas for which topographical maps
are available, it is prudent to resurvey the area because of the crucial importance of
the topographic data. It should be borne in mind that high altitudes (such as those
characterizing the mines in the Andes in South America) affect the performance of
the mining machinery.
Land ownership: A map of the land has to be drawn up, indicating the mineral
ownership (government, public institutions, private companies, individuals, reser-
vations, etc.).
Surface features: such as heavily forested areas, desert terrain, seasonal depth
and rate of flow of surface bodies of water (such as streams and ponds), presence of
monuments or structures of archeological, religious or cultural importance, burial
areas, settlements, etc. are to be recorded.
Natural hazards: Some areas may be subject to natural hazards, such as, earth-
quakes, volcanoes, floods, avalanches, bush fires, insect plagues, etc. Their fre-
quency and intensity need to be ascertained and recorded.
2.2.2 Meteorological factors

The following meteorological factors have to be taken into account in the design of
the mine:
Rainfall: 10-, 20- and 100-year maximum and minimum rainfall data (daily,
monthly, yearly) are necessary for the design of the capacity of pumps, haulage
roads, water handling and conservation facilities, etc. In monsoon climates, heavy
rains occur in 34 months in a year, while it is almost dry for the rest of the year.
Temperature and humidity: Data regarding the daily maximum and minimum
temperatures and humidity are needed to design the ventilation in the mine, and air-
conditioning in the office buildings.
Winds and extreme weather conditions: 10-, 20- and 100-year data regarding wind
direction and velocity are needed for the design of the buildings, headframes and other
structures. Extreme weather conditions (hurricanes, heavy snowfall, etc.) affect the
number of working days and productivity of mining (particularly opencast mining),
and have to be taken into consideration in the design of the excavation equipment.
2.2.3 Geological and structural setting

This is the first and most important step. As much data as possible about the geolog-
ical and structural setting should be gathered from geological maps, aerial photo-
graphs and space images, published papers, reports and theses, personal discussions
with individuals who have knowledge of the area and who have worked in the adja-
cent areas, etc. On the basis of the regional geologic setting, the structure and con-
figuration of the strata in the area are delineated. Information on the frequency, and
geometry of faults (and in some cases, dykes) is of crucial importance, because it has
a profound effect on the minability and the economics of coal mining.
The three-dimensional configuration, size and structure of the deposit are delineated
on the basis of the following studies (Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 81): field mapping,
subsurface geophysics (gravity, magnetism, electrical resistivity, electromagnetism,
(a)
Figure 2.3(a, b) Matrix diagram showing how the investigation techniques are linked to the mining
considerations (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 7879).
(b)
seismic reflection/refraction, etc.), trenching and pitting, drilling (non-core drilling,

core drilling, geophysical borehole logging), exploration shafts and drifts, etc.
The mine is designed on the basis of the following data derived from the above sur-
veys: (1) Stratigraphy of the deposit, (2) Three-dimensional configuration, size and
structure of the deposit, (3) Location and nature of the faults, dykes and washouts,
(4) Depth of the deposit, (5) Thickness and dip of the different coal seams, etc.
2.2.4 Techno-economic viability

The techno-economic viability of the mine is evaluated on the basis of the following
parameters:
1. Quantity of coal available for extraction under the present economic and technical
conditions: The system used in the assessment of coal reserves is given Figure 2.4
Figure 2.4 System used in the assessment of coal reserves (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 83).
(source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 83). Reserves are classified as Inferred, Indi-
cated, Measured, Assessed, on the basis of increasing confidence (see Table 2.2
about the reliability and economic limits for coal resources assessment source:
Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 84). As should be expected, the degree of geological
certainty and confidence in regard to the reserve estimates depend upon the
density of sample points (such as boreholes, trenches, outcrops). The size of the
reserve is not static it keeps on changing depending upon the method of mining
chosen, the market conditions, and emerging technologies.
2. Quality of coal: The possible laboratory preparation flowsheet for the bore core
is given in Figure 2.5 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 89). The following
parameters generally define the quality of coal: calorific value, rank and type
of coal, ash content, sulphur and chlorine contents, etc. High rank coals (e.g.
anthracite and bituminous coal) are characterized by high calorific value, and low
contents of ash, sulphur and chlorine. On the basis of such preliminary measure-
ments on the samples of drillhole cores, the general market for which the given
coal is best suited (e.g. steam coal, metallurgical coal, etc.) is determined.
Table 2.2 Reliability and economic limits for coal resources assessment (source: U.S. Geological
Survey, 1976, as quoted by Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 84).
Term All coals
Measured 0400 m* around data points or inside well controlled outcrop belt, or area with
data points upto 800 m apart.
Indicated 4001200 m around data points or inside well-controlled outcrop belt, or area with
data points 800 m to 2.4 km apart.
Inferred 1.24.8 km around data points or inside well controlled outcrop belt, or areas with
data points 2.49.6 km apart.
Hypothetical Greater than 4.8 km around data points or well controlled outcrop belt, or area with
data points greater than 9.6 km apart.
* Presently, the commonly used interval between data points is 100 m, and in some cases, even 50 m.
Bituminous coal and anthracite Lignite and sub-bituminous coals
Reserve base* Seams 70 cm, Depth 300 m Seams 150 cm, Depth 300 m
Sub-economic Seams 3570 cm Seams 75150 cm
Resources Depths 1800 m, or Depths 1800 m, or
Seams 35 cm, Seams 75 cm,
depth 3001800 m depth 3001800 m
Resources Seams 15 cm, Depth 1800 m Seams 75 cm, Depth 1800 m
* Equivalent to in situ reserves.

Notes: (1) Sub-economic seams may be included in the Reserves or Reserve base if it is possible to mine
them in conjunction with thicker seams, such as in a multi-seam open-cut operation. (2) Coal with ash content of
more than 33% is excluded in all calculations.
Figure 2.5 Possible laboratory preparation flowsheet for the examination of the drill core (source:
Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 89).
The following is the outline of the ply-by-ply analysis of coal seams in an explo-
ration area (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 8687):
1. Non-destructive testing of whole seam
1.1 gas emission characteristics,
1.2 geological (including macropetrographic) logging,
1.3 X-radiography,
1.4 Apparent relative density determination.
2. Selection of plies for analysis on an engineering and geological basis,
3. Analysis of each ply (including dirt bands) for determining
3.1 volumetric recoveries,
3.2 true relative density,
3.3 ash and inherent moisture (or full proximate analysis),
3.4 total sulphur,
3.5 swelling index.
4. Crush each ply or sub-section to specified size with minimum percentage of fine
particles.
5. Float-sink tests for each ply, then for each R.D. fraction, determine
5.1 yield,
5.2 ash and moisture content,
5.3 total sulphur,
5.4 swelling index,
5.5 specific energy.
6. Select optimum working section from coal quality and engineering properties.
7. Combine appropriate clean coal fraction of each ply of subsection involved, to
prepare simulated washed coal product or products.
8. Analysis of simulated washed coal product for coking properties, by determining
8.1 proximate analysis,
8.2 ultimate analysis,
8.3 swelling index,
8.4 Gray-King assay and coke type,
8.5 phosphorus content,
8.6 maceral analysis,
8.7 vitrinite reflectance,
8.8 Gieseler plastometer characteristics,
8.9 Arnu-Audibert dilatometer characteristics,
8.10 mineral matter determination and analysis.
9. Analysis of simulated washed coal product or middlings from coking product to
test potential value as steaming coal, by determining
9.1 proximate analysis,
9.2 specific energy,
9.3 ash fusion temperature,
9.4 Hardgrove grindability index,
9.5 ash analysis.
Notes: (1) Some tests may be omitted, depending upon the projected use of coal. For
instance, if the coal is to be sold as steam coal after washing, step no. 8 may be omitted.
(2) Non-coal beds within the seam may be omitted from float-sink tests 59 in
ply-by-ply analysis, and counted directly as a part of the reject material. The mass
of these present should, however, be included in the assessment of yield of clean
coal or middlings,
(3)When once the working section is established, float-sink test (no. 5) may be per-
formed on that alone.
It is always cheaper to undertake detailed analyses of coal samples, in the begin-
ning itself, rather than redrilling at a later date to get the samples to determine the
parameters that may be needed in the light of the emerging market conditions. This
does not mean that every foot (0.3 m) of the core should be examined for all the
parameters. This would produce huge quantities of redundant data, which is not
worth the expense. The most important commercial data relate to the final ROM
(run-of-mine) product and the final saleable coal. It follows that the investigation
of detailed properties should be confined to the coal sections that are proposed to
be mined. Hence coal bands that will not be mined, may be excluded from the
detailed analyses, whereas the dirt partings and interburden that will form the ROM
product should be included. A practical arrangement would be for the geologists,
mining engineers, mineral technologists, marketing experts and laboratory personnel
to meet together and decide upon the analytical programme which is most cost-
effective.
Where alternatives exist for the extraction of coal, the quality data based on ply-
by-ply analysis should be examined in conjunction with geomechanical properties
to select the most favourable working section of the seam.
Often, the ROM coal may have to be beneficiated to satisfy the market specifica-
tions. In order to establish the techno-economic feasibility of the beneficiation, the
ROM coal is subjected to simulated preparation plant processes, such as float-sink
tests and froth flotation. The marketable (clean) coal fraction is subjected to
detailed tests, such as calorific value, coking characteristics, trace elements, lique-
faction characteristics, etc. Such data will be useful to determine the percentage of
the ROM coal that is saleable. Thus, knowing the quantum of demand for saleable
coal, one can calculate the amount of ROM coal that needs to be produced in order
to satisfy the market demand.
After the relevant data are assessed and refined, in progression with increasingly
precise and detailed data, final decisions are taken in regard to the following:
(1) whether the mining is to be opencast or underground or both, (2) the size of the
mine, and the rate of annual production, (3) the seams or sections of the seams that
are to be mined, and (4) costing.
Whether a given deposit is to be mined by opencast or underground methods,
is critically dependent upon the geology and geometry of the deposit. For instance,
underground mining is virtually the only option to mine a 3 m thick seam occur-
ring at a depth of (say) 500 m. On the other hand, if the same seam occurs at a
depth of 15 m, opencast mining would be the evident choice. A combination of
opencast and underground methods may have to be used to mine the same seam
occurring at a depth of (say) 50 m, and dipping from the surface at an angle of
(say) 10 .
2.2.5 Geotechnical considerations in mining

The design, safety and techno-economic viability of a mine are critically dependent
upon the geotechnical characteristics of the rock strata.
In the case of the underground mines, geotechnical data are needed to decide
upon the following (Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 8889): (1) pillar sizes and extraction
ratios, (2) ways and means of controlling the subsidence and ingress of water,
(3) most economical method of excavating coal and waste rock, (4) where to locate
the accesses to the mine, (5) where to locate the surface structures and tips. In
the case of opencast mining, geotechnical considerations are taken into account for
(1) determining the pit slope and bench angles, (2) choice of excavation technique,
and the equipment to be used for the purpose, (3) location of the surface structures
and tips.
Some geotechnical tests are performed in situ (Table 2.3) while some are
performed in the laboratory (Table 2.4). Special rock mechanics tests that are
performed in trenches, shafts and adits are given in Table 2.5 (Chadwick et al.,
1987, p. 9196).
Table 2.3 Rock mechanics in situ tests (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 9193).
Open air mining,
Large Tunnels, shafts, quarries, large
underground underground surface
In situ mechanical tests works mining excavations
1. Deformability tests
1.1 Static method nDC
1.1.1 Plate bearing (flat jack; (n)DD nDC
hydraulic jack; cable jacking)
1.1.2 Pressure tunnel (water loading; (n)DD
radial jacks)
1.1.3 Pressure borehole (dilatometer) aF; (n)DD oiDC
1.2 Dynamic method aF; nDC nDC
1.2.1 Measurement of Longitudinal aF nDC
waves velocity (geophones)
1.2.2 Measurement of the velocity nDD
of the longitudinal and transversal
waves (Rayleighs vibrograph)
1.2.3 Measurement of direct longitudinal aDC
waves velocity in a borehole (sonic coring)
1.2.4 Detailed stratigraphic surveys nDC
2. Natural rock mass stresses tests
2.1 Rock surface tests aF; nDD
2.1.1 Measurement of deformation (n)F
after overcoring or bond removal
(by strain rosette)
2.1.2 Measurement of pressure a(F)
to balance natural stresses (by flat jack)
2.2 Test inside borehole nDD
2.2.1 Measurement of core deformation nDD
after overcoring
2.2.2 Measurement of borehole wall nDD
deformation after overcoring
3. Strength tests
3.1 Compression
3.1.1 Triaxial tests aDD
3.2 Shear nDD aDD aDD
3.2.1 Rock block test along discontinuity nDD aDD aDD
surface
3.2.2 Concrete block test along interface oiF
4. Permeability
4.1 Inside borehole (Lugeon) nF
4.2 In a joint pumping test
4.3 Piezometric levels and groundwater flow nF nF oiF
5. Rock anchor tests aDD aDD aDC
6. Rock movement monitoring
6.1 Long base extensometer nAC
6.2 Inverted pendulum
6.3 Slope indicator aAC
6.4 Blast and ground motion monitoring nF; nDC nF; nDC
6.5 Rock noise monitoring OiAC
Test importance: n necessary, a advisable, oi of interest, ( ) alternative.

Stages of work: F Feasibility, DD Detailed design, DC During construction, AC After completion.
Table 2.4 Rock mechanics laboratory tests (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 94).
Large Tunnels, shafts, Open air mining,

underground underground quarries, large
Rock mechanics laboratory tests works mining surface excavations
1. Uniaxial test aDD

2. Biaxial triaxial test oiF; aDD
3. Poissons ratio aDD
4. Sound velocity pulse and resonance aF oiF
5. Direct shear aDD aDD
6. Tensile (Brazilian) test nDD
7. Hardness (Rockwell indentation, Shore nDD
scleroscope, Schmidt rebound hammer)
8. Triaxial chamber for determining body nDD
forces due to interstitial pressure
9. Density aDD
10. Water content aDD
11. Porosity aDD
12. Absorption aDD
13. Permeability

2.2.6 Stripping ratio

For all practical purposes, it is the economics of mining, in the form of stripping
ratio, that would determine whether a coal seam is better mined by opencast or
underground methods (Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 101102). The stripping ratio (S)
is the ratio between the volume of overburden removed to the volume of coal
recovered.
(U M A)
Maximum Stripping Ratio (Se) (2.1)
O
where
U total production cost per unit volume of coal mined by underground methods
(ROM),
M Cost of excavating and transporting a unit volume of coal,
A Total fixed charges for mine development, overheads administration, and
financing per unit volume of ROM coal,
O Cost of excavating, transporting disposing of unit volume of overburden/
waste.
If, as is possible, the operation of a surface mine under conditions of maximum strip-
ping ratio is uneconomic, a cut-off stripping ratio (Sc) may be calculated as follows:
(D ((P R) (B P R)) M A)
(Sc) (2.2)
O
Table 2.5 Geotechnical tests in trenches, shafts and adits (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 9596).
Tunnels, shafts, Open air mining,

Object of investigations Rock underground mining, quarries, large
(rock properties, and slopes natural large underground surface
engineering aspects) or artificial openings excavations
System of spacing of joints, faults, etc. nF; nDD; nDC nF; nDC nF; nDD
Nature of surfaces of joints, faults, etc. nDD; nDC nDC oiDC
Contact of different rocks nF; nDD nF; nDD aDC
Observation of deep weathered zone nDD nF; nDD oiDC
Observation of hydrothermal altered zone nDD nF aDD
Trace of very important faults nF nF oiF
Observation of permeable strata nF nF
Study of improvements of rock masses nDD nF; nDD
Study and arrangement of volume of nDD; nDC nDD; aDC nDD; nDC
explosives
Ascertain the effects of grouting nDC NDC
Ascertain the constructional techniques nF; nDD
for underground work
Shearing strength tests in situ aF nF
Permeability tests in situ aF
Stress state tests in situ nF; nDC nF; nDC
Rock hardness tests in situ nF
Taking samples for identification aF nF; nDC
or lab. tests
In situ stress strain determinations nDC; nAC nF; nDC
Measurement of rock temperatures aDC
Identification of noxious gas emanations nDD
Measurement of rock hardness NDD nDD
Measurement of physical properties aAC aF; aAC
using geophysical methods
Protection against inflow and aDC aDC
pressure water
Construction of improvement of OiDC
dispositions of rock masses

Where
R Recovery of coal for sale from ROM material (i.e. after beneficiation),
D Density of ROM coal,
B Unit cost of transport of coal from pit limits to the preparation plants cost
of preparation cost of waste disposal cost of loading out per tonne of
ROM coal,
p Minimum acceptable profit per tonne of saleable coal,
P Selling price of saleable coal per tonne.
These simple formulae are helpful in getting a feel of the problem. Now-a-days,
computers are extensively used to figure out Se and Sc by considering and optimising
all the variables involved, such as geology, topography, geotechnical characteristics,

mining methods, economics and cost information, NPV (Net Present Value), etc.
2.3 OPENCAST MINING
2.3.1 Advantages
The following are the advantages of the opencast mining (Chadwick et al., 1987,
p. 100101): (1) high productivity per man-hour, and high output per mine, (2) low
annual capital costs and operating expenses per tonne of mineral mined, (3) easy to
manage the equipment and the workforce, (4) further exploration can be carried out
relatively cheaply, and would yield data of greater confidence, (5) allows the use of
large-capacity machines, (6) better safety record (relative to underground mines),
(7) labour prefers the opencast mines, relative to underground mines, (8) few prob-
lems with seam gases, heat and roof collapse, and subsidence, (9) shorter lead time,
relative to underground mining.
Because of these advantages, opencast mining is the most prevalent form of min-
ing, accounting for 60% of the large mines (i.e. those with production of more than
one Mt/y), and 69% of the production.
Sengupta (1993) gave a detailed account of dragline operations to undertake
surface coal mining coupled with reclamation. The dragline initially cuts a trench
called as keycut, adjacent to the newly formed highwall. The length of the block is
the distance between the previous keycut position and the present keycut position.
The keycut material is dumped in the bottom of the mined-out pit. The operating
cycle of the dragline consists of five steps: (1) The empty bucket is placed in a posi-
tion ready to be filled, (2) the bucket is dragged towards the dragline in order to get
filled, (3) the filled bucket is hoisted up, and the boom is swung towards the spoil
pile, (4) the bucket dumps the spoil material it is carrying, (5) the bucket is lowered,
and the boom swings back to the cut.
The width of the panel is an important consideration in the dragline operations.
It is chosen on the basis of the following considerations: (1) coal loadout: the prac-
tical minimum width is 28 m; any width less than 28 m hampers maneuverability
of the coal trucks, (2) slope stability: wide pits are safer for mine and equipment,
(3) Cycle time: depends upon the swing of the dragline; for medium and large
draglines, wide panels give better productivity, (4) spoil regrading: the wider the
panel, the greater would be the amount of dozing to be done to level the spoil piles,
(5) walking: the wider the panel, the less would be the walking needed for the
dragline, (6) spoiling at entryways: the narrower the panel is, the shorter would be
the spoiling radius.
The cycle time for a small dragline increases significantly if the panel width is
increased, but if large draglines are used on the same depth of overburden, the
increase in the cycle time will only be marginal. For instance, when a large dragline
is used, the cycle time increases by only 1.6% even though the panel width has been
increased from 75 ft. (22.8 m) to 175 ft. (53.3 m) (Sengupta, 1993, p. 39).
2.3.2 Mine layouts

When coal measures are in the form of flat, tabular deposits, they can be con-
veniently mined by strip or area mining (Fig. 2.6; source: Chadwick et al., 1987,
p. 111). Excavation is started in the area at or close to the surface where the thickness
of overburden is at a minimum. The overburden is first removed in order to expose
the first strip of coal, and this overburden is deposited outside the proposed pit area.
After coal is removed from the first strip, a second strip of overburden is then exca-
vated along the downdip side of the first. The material taken from this cut is cast
directly into the void created by the first strip (Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 110). This
process of stripping is continued, until the overburden to be excavated is found to
be too thick to be stripped economically or when the excavation has reached its
maximum depth or when some other boundary condition is reached.
Contour mining which is a variant of strip mining, is used to mine flat or gently
dipping coal seams exposed on steeply sloping hillsides (Fig. 2.7; source: Chadwick
et al., 1987, p. 111). Overburden is removed from above the seam outcrop and
placed below the exposed coal on the downhill side (Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 112).
Successive cuts are made on the hillside until a situation arises whereby the high-wall
height is such that further excavation is no longer economic. The excavation process
leaves behind a long, narrow bench which follows the contours of the hillside.
Open pit mining is best suited to excavate coal measures which are large, thick,
and irregular, or which are multi-seam and steeply dipping. If a seam is too thick to
be mined from a single face either because of the limitations of the reach of the min-
ing equipment or because of the possibility of slope failure, recourse is taken to the
development of several smaller faces. Similar conditions hold good for multi-seam
measures faces or benches may be developed for individual seams in such a man-
ner that some faces are used for the removal of overburden and interburden, and
Figure 2.6 Principle of strip mining (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 111).
Figure 2.7 Strip-mining in steeply sloping terrain (contour mining) (source: Chadwick et al., 1987,
p. 111).
Figure 2.8 Schematic diagram illustrating the layout of an open pit mine (source: Chadwick et al.,
1987, p. 113).
some for winning coal. A possible layout of a open-pit mine is shown in Figure 2.8
(source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 113). In this arrangement, the excavated overbur-
den is deposited outside the pit, until a suitable area becomes available within the pit
area itself. Only when the excavation is started on the lowest bench, will it become
possible to emplace the overburden material to fill the previously created voids.
A variety of machines are used in opencast mining. It is convenient to use scrap-
ers to remove the top soil, subsoil and unconsolidated overburden. Though strip-
ping shovels and bucket wheel excavator with boom stacker are used in strip
mining, the walking dragline is the most widely used equipment for strip mining of
regular, flat coal deposits. It strips the overburden and casts it directly into the void.
In some situations, such as when the overburden strata are composed of resilient
Figure 2.9 Opencast mining with dragline with progressive restoration. 1. Carbonaceous sediment,
2. Overburden, 3. Topsoil (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 159).
material, it may be necessary to drill the strata, and then break it up with explosives.
Coal is won in a second drilling and blasting operation. Coal is loaded out either by
power shovel or front-end loader into trucks for being hauled away. Where the
ground is sufficiently hard, combination of power shovels, hydraulic excavators
and front-end loaders are commonly used to remove both the overburden and coal
from multi-bench systems. Where the ground is soft, the usual practice is to use
combinations of bucket wheel and bucket chain excavators with railcar or conveyor
belts.
Figure 2.9 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 159) shows how opencast coal min-
ing with progressive restoration can be carried out using a dragline. A birds eye of
opencast mining and progressive restoration using a dragline is given in Figure 2.10
(source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 160).
In some open pit mines in Indonesia, mining operations have been abandoned in
the past when they developed long high walls. Matsui and Shimida (2001) developed
a high wall mining system to extract coal from exposed seams at the base of the open
cut or stripping operations. The equipment used in high wall mining is analogous to
the machinery used in underground mining. Figure 2.11 (source: Matsui & Shimida,
2001) shows how the high wall mining is carried out with the Addcar system. After
making a small bench, mining can be started from the outcrop with minimum envi-
ronmental disturbance. As only a narrow bench is required to gain access to the coal
Figure 2.10 A birds eye view of the opencast coal mining and progressive restoration, using a dragline
Figure 2.11 Highwall mining using the Addcar system (source: Matsui & Shimida, 2001, p. 488).
seam, there is minimal disturbance to the surrounding land, and there is no need to
worry about failures of waste rock spoils.
2.3.3 Projected advances

The following are the projected advances in open-pit mining (Hustrulid, 2000):
1. Increase in mining geometry, steeper slopes, deeper pits
2. New, large production machines/techniques
2.1 400t capacity trucks, 76.5 m3 shovels and 381432 mm drill holes
2.2 continuously variable explosives with respect to energy and other properties
2.3 electronic blasting caps
3. Mechanization/automation
3.1 very high accuracy GPS on all machines
3.2 driverless trucks
3.3 remotely-operated drills
3.4 remotely-operated shovels
4. MARC in place, guaranteed availability. Advanced condition monitoring and
prediction
5. Few working places, with high utilization
6. Short time between stripping and production
7. Automatic sampling of drill cuttings, remote after blast sampling
8. Automatic sampling in the dipper/truck bed or along the route. Automatic desti-
nation assignment
9. Simulation is extensively used to plan production.
The projected advances in open-pit mining are realisable only in the context of the
following considerations (Hustrulid, 2000): 1. The very large automated machines
and techniques require precision cutting of bench faces and maintenance of bench
widths, 2. The production would be coming from a limited number of working
places, and the plant should be able to handle the feeds in such a situation, 3. It may
be necessary to maintain several stockpiles, and rehandle the ROM, 4. A great num-
ber of safety factors may have to be considered, to take care of the mixture of auto-
mated and non-automated jobs.
Presently, even the least expensive underground mining method (say, by panel
caving) costs 35 times more per tonne than the material handled by the open pits
(Hustrulid, 2000).
2.4 UNDERGROUND MINING
2.4.1 Advantages
The following are the advantages of the underground mining (which can also be
thought of as the disadvantages of the opencast mining): (1) mining can be carried
on round-the-year, and round-the-clock, unaffected by weather conditions, (2) min-
imal environmental disturbance of the surface, (3) relatively small amount of spoil
is generated, with the implication that less land is disfigured and contaminated, and
the expense of rehabilitation of the mined land is correspondingly limited, (4) oxi-
dation problems at the outcrop are less likely, (5) mining can be done selectively
specific sections of seams can be mined to maintain quality, and to relieve break-
downs, (6) the working environment can be adjusted, etc.
An underground mine may be a drift mine or slope mine or vertical shaft mine,
depending upon the inclination of the access to the seam. The choice is determined
by the position of the seam relative to the surface and the economics of mining.
Where a seam outcrops at the surface and is more or less horizontal, it can be
conveniently mined as a drift mine (Fig. 2.12 ; source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 115).
Figure 2.12 Schematic diagram of a drift mine (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 115).
Figure 2.13 Schematic diagram of a slope mine (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 115).
Access by inclined tunnel is limited to seams which occur at shallow depths. This
is so because the length of the tunnel tends to be about four times that of the verti-
cal depth of the seam (Fig. 2.13; source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 115). A vertical
shaft mine is necessary to mine deep seams. For purposes of ventilation, and to pro-
vide means of egress, all underground mines should necessarily have at least two
accesses from the surface. For this reason, most mines contain vertical shafts and
inclined tunnels.
Table 2.6 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 116117) gives a comparison of the
engineering aspects of shaft and drift types of mines.
In the past, tunnels were constructed through a cycle of drilling, blasting, loading
and haulage of the broken rock and installation of supports. The current practice
is to use tunnel boring machines with multiple cutting heads to drive the tunnels
continuously, without using explosives. The shafts are usually circular in outline,
and are lined with concrete. Just as happened in the case of tunnels, shafts are now-
a-days sunk using large diameter shaft boring machines, thereby avoiding blasting.
Table 2.6 A comparison of the engineering aspects of shaft and drift mines (source: Chadwick
et al., 1987, p. 116117).
Shaft Drift
Mineral (a) Limited to between 2.2 and 4.4 M (a) No significant limit on capacity; upto
tonnes/annum/shaft. 12 M tonnes/annum is achievable.
(b) Intermittent feed to coal preparation (b) Continuous feed to coal preparation
plant evened out by surface bunkers plant but stockpile are still required to even
or stockpiles. out peaks and cover breakdowns.
(c) Adequate pit bottom bunkerage (c) Drift bottom bunker desirable for smooth
essential. flow and to cover belt stoppages.
(d) Inspection and maintenance carried (d) Haulage system required for men and
out from the winding system. materials access for conveyor and drift
inspection and maintenance.
Labour (a) High capacity and shortest time (a) Capacity similar to shaft but time
between surface and pit bottom. between pit top and seam level is greater.
(b) Capacity of second egress at mineral (b) Maintenance haulage in conveyor drift
shaft limited to around 30%/40% may only give limited second egress facility
of man shaft. but conveyor could be equipped for
man-riding if speeds are appropriate, or men
could walk out on a power failure.
Material (a) Large equipment can be (a) Equipment size limited by drift
accommodated but this cannot always dimensions but this will commensurate
be fully utilized due to restrictions of with underground roadways.
underground roadways.
(b) Speedier transport of materials to (b) Slower transport of materials to drift
pit bottom. bottom but problems of transfer to
underground haulage systems may be less.
Ventilation Resistance is relatively less Resistance is relatively more
Services Allows a better arrangement of electric Arrangement of electric and other cables,
and other cables, water and compressed water and compressed pipes, is relatively
air pipes less convenient
Other considerations affecting the choice between shat and drift are: construction time, extra distance of drift,
geological factors, weak/wet strata, and the nature of the reserves.
Figure 2.14 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 118) gives a schematic diagram of a
vertical shaft mine.
The design of a major access underground has to take into account the geotech-
nical and hydrological characteristics of the rock strata through which the entry
structure is to be driven. A weak or unconsolidated ground may lead to roof col-
lapse, and large quantities of groundwater may flood the mine. Dewatering at shal-
low depths can no doubt be accomplished by pumping, but this may not always be
possible in the case of deep strata. Grouting with cement or chemical solutions to
fill the voids in the rock mass, is the only remedy in such a situation grouting not
only reduces the permeability of the rock mass, but also increases its strength. An
Figure 2.14 Schematic diagram of a vertical shaft mine (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 118).
Table 2.7 Underground mining methods (source: Cummins & Given, 1973).
I Self-supporting opening II Supported openings III Caving methods
A. Open-stope mining A. Cut-and-fill stoping A. Sub-level caving

1. Isolated openings B. Square-set-and-fill stoping B. Block and panel caving
2. Pillared open stopes C. Longwall mining
a. Open stoping with random D. Shortwall mining
pillars
b. Open stoping with regular E. Top slicing
pillars
B. Room-and-pillar mining
C. Sub-level stoping
D. Shrinkage stoping
E. Stull sloping
alternative is freezing the water in the voids of the rock mass, by the circulation of
the coolants. This has the same effect as grouting, but this technique is seldom used
in the developing countries.
2.4.2 Room-and-pillar method, and Longwall mining

There are three types of underground mining methods: Self-supporting openings,
Supported openings, and Caving (Table 2.7; source: Cummins & Given, 1973).
The room-and-pillar method, and longwall mining are the two common methods
of underground mining of coal. The room-and-pillar method is best suited to mine
Figure 2.15 Schematic diagram showing the operation of the room-and-pillar method (source:
Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 121).
relatively thick coal seams which occur at shallow depths, and have reasonably
strong roof and floor strata. In the first stage, a series of intersecting openings are
driven through the seam. At this point, solid pillars of coal support the roof. The
size of the pillars needed depends upon the depth of the seam at shallow depth,
small pillars would suffice, but at greater depths, the pillars have to be thick. Thus,
in the first stage, the percentage of recovery of coal decreases with increasing
depth. In the second stage, the pillars are mined, allowing the roof to collapse into
the abandoned area.
Figure 2.15 (source: UNEP Tech. Rept. No. 5, 1991, p. 11) depicts an open stope
with regular pillars. The sub-level stoping longitudinal slopes in narrow veins is
shown in Figure 2.16 (source: UNEP Tech. Rept. No. 5, 1991, p. 12). The process
of cut-and-fill mining operation is depicted in Figure 2.17 (source: UNEP Tech.
Rept. No. 5, 1991, p. 12).
In the past, the cycle of winning coal used to be through drilling and blasting the
seam, loading the coal and hauling it to the surface. The present practice in most
mines is to mine coal continuously with a cutting head, and load the coal to a shuttle
car or an extensible conveyor system. Such a system has a much higher productivity
than the conventional cycle.
Figure 2.16 Sub-level stoping longitudinal slopes in narrow veins (source: UNEP Tech. Rept.,
No. 5, 1991, p. 12).
Figure 2.17 Cut-and-fill process in mining (source: UNEP Tech. Rept., No. 5, 1991, p. 12).
Longwall mining is characterized by a greater flexibility. It is the preferred

method for mining deep, thin seams, where the dips are steep, and the roof strata are
weak. This method involves mining coal along a single face about 100200 m long,
using a rotary trim shearer, a trepanner or a coal plough which traverses along the
face. The broken coal is loaded onto a series of conveyor systems. The working area
is protected by self-advancing, hydraulic roof supports. As the working face
advances, the roof supports move synchronously. As should be expected, the
Figure 2.18 Schematic diagram showing the longwall retreat mining (source: Chadwick et al., 1987,
p. 123).
removal of the roof supports will result in the collapse of the roof in the area from
where coal has earlier been removed.
There are two basic variations of longwall mining longwall advance where the
face is moved into the seam away from the entry area, or longwall retreat, where
the face is opened up at the boundary of the seam, and worked backwards towards
the original entry point. Figure 2.18 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 123) is a
schematic diagram of longwall retreat mining.
The principal advantages and disadvantages of the longwall mining vis--vis
room-and-pillar method, are summarized as follows (source: Chadwick et al., 1987,
p. 124).
Advantages
(1) Higher overall recovery of in situ coal reserves, (2) Lower cost of timber sup-
ports, roof bolts, etc., (3) Greater productivity since fewer personnel are needed for
equivalent coal production, (4) Improved efficiency in ventilation as an extensive
system of first workings is not needed, (5) Can cope with weak strata and with
mining at great depths, (6) Better protection for operating personnel at the work-
ing face.
Disadvantages
(1) The equipment needed for the purpose is expensive, and needs a large capital
outlay, (2) Since the working mine faces are large and few in number, the stoppage
of work at a single face may mean a large drop in the total mine output, (3) Large
haulage capacity is needed over a single line to transport coal from the mine face to
the top, (4) Cannot cope efficiently with thick seams, or geological irregularities in
the seam, (5) Will always produce subsidence at the ground surface.
Irrespective of the method of mining used, a mine should have good ventilation.
The purpose of the ventilation in a mine is not only to provide fresh air to the work
force, but also to cool the work face and remove dust and noxious gases. Ventilation
is generally provided by powerful fans (pressures upto 6 kpa) located at the surface.
Fresh air is circulated through the mine from one entry, and the exhaust is removed
through another entry.
Surface subsidence invariably accompanies longwall mining. Similarly, surface
subsidence can be expected to take place when most or all the pillars in the room-
and-pillar method are moved. Surface subsidence can, however, be minimized by
sand stowing under pressure or back filling with gangue material or the new tech-
nique of emplacement of paste. Tailings are being increasingly used for mine back-
fill or surface stackings. This would require a very high solids content. Previously,
tailing dams have been used for water recovery and solids disposal. Paste thicken-
ers have long been used by the alumina industry and the thickener technology is
being applied to mineral industry as a whole. Deep cone thickeners are used to pro-
duce pastes with over 70% solids, suitable for backfill and stacking.
2.4.3 Special problems of underground mining of coal

The underground mining of coal has some special problems of critical importance:
1. Seam gas: Coal measures may have large contents of methane (also called fire
damp). Historically, methane explosions have caused several of the worst min-
ing disasters in the world. The methane hazard can be minimized by the appro-
priate design of the workings and equipment, sufficient ventilation and drainage
of methane gas. Continuous monitoring of the gas emissions is necessary to alert
the workers before the gas concentrations reaches dangerous levels. On the basis
of in situ gas pressure, flow rate (in terms of m3 per tonne of ROM coal), and the
chemical composition of coal, it is possible to predict the likelihood of gas emis-
sions, and incorporate this aspect in the mine design.
2. Cleat of coal: Cleat refers to the fractures in the coal seam. The existence of
cleats in a seam can assist in the winning of coal in the course of longwall
mining. Cleats have a bearing on porosity and permeability. Consequently,
underground openings driven parallel to the orientation of cleats, may be char-
acterized by higher rates of water and gas seepage.
3. Roof and floor of the seam: If the roof of a seam is composed of thick strata of
strong, well-cemented, unfissured sandstone, it may not cave. This is an impor-
tant consideration in longwall mining.
4. Liability of coal for spontaneous combustion: In the presence of air, coal may
get oxidized, releasing energy. If the air flow is sufficient to oxidize coal, but
not sufficient to remove the heat generated, spontaneous combustion may take
place. Spontaneous combustion may occur underground, or on the surface (such

as stockpiles, storage bins or spoil tips). It can be prevented by isolating the
broken coal from air flow or by compaction. The tendency of a given coal for
spontaneous combustion could be assessed from the degradability of coal, and
rank of coal.
5. Swell factors: A unit mass of coal will occupy a greater space after excavation.
The density of mined coal will hence be lower than the same coal in situ. This
factor has to be taken into consideration in the transportation and storage of coal,
and in backfilling the excavations.
2.5 MASS MINING
The methods of opencast (Chap. 2.3) and underground (Chap. 2.4) mining have
been explained in terms of coal. In contrast, the mass mining method (Chap. 2.5) is
unrelated to coal it is essentially used for mining metallic minerals. The method
of mining through block caving is shown in Figure 2.19 (UNEP Tech. Rept. No. 5,
1991, p. 13).
Figure 2.19 Mining by block caving (source: UNEP Tech. Rept., No. 5, 1991, p. 13).
Mass mining is underground mining by caving. Table 2.8 (source: Mining Mag.,
July, 2001) lists the important mines in the world where different kinds of caving
operations (block caving, panel caving, sublevel caving, sublevel and longhole
stoping and vertical crater related) are practised.
As in the case of open-pit mining, advances in underground mining are predicated
to the achievement of the following: (1) With increase in the scale of production,
the output will have to come from limited number of places, (2) There should be
minimal time-lag between the development and extraction (just-in-time delivery),
(3) Increasing dependence on a small fleet of sophisticated machines, (4) In view
of the large scale of the mining operations, the consequences of misjudging the
geologic environment can be severe and extremely expensive. Hence it is critically
important that the geological structure, and the geotechnical characteristics of the
rock strata should be clearly understood beforehand.
According to Hustrulid (2000), any mining system should satisfy the require-
ments of high production, competitive cost, safety and teamwork. The choice of an
appropriate cost-effective mining system would depend upon the scale of mining,
mine design/layout, equipment selection, sequencing, etc. Technology is no doubt
a powerful tool to reduce costs, but as new technologies tend to spread fast, every-
body has access to the same technology sooner or later. In order to stay competitive,
the mining engineer should understand his deposit more closely, and customize the
tools/techniques employed/employable to suit the specific conditions in his mine.
2.5.1 Equipment automation

Though mobile mining equipment represents only a small portion (about 10%) of
the costs of a mining project, the mines performance and profitability are critically
dependent upon the choice of the mobile equipment technology. Mass mining is
different from small-scale mining or artisanal mining in that it has to provide for the
efficient and continuous movement of large quantities of material produced (say)
through block caving. Automation is hence an inevitable concomitant of massive
mining. In order to get the best out of the automated mobile equipment, it needs to
have trained personnel, supportive infrastructure, monitoring and information
transfer systems, established working procedures, etc.
Puhakka (2000) gave an account of the OPTIMINE simulation tool for the selec-
tion of mobile fleet. The tool combines the performance capabilities of the
machines with operational knowhow and the mine environment, to optimize the
performance of the mobile fleet, scheduling of work, and fine-tuning the layout of
the mine. OPTIMINE can be used to identify the effect of a particular change (say,
one additional turn in a continuous loading cycle) to the daily capacity. Pukkila
and Sarkk (2000) developed the software for Intelligent Mine. This includes the
mine-wide information and data acquisition system, high-speed two-directional
mine-wide communication network for monitoring and control, mine planning,
automated, and tele-operated machinery connected to the information network, etc.
Table 2.8 Mines/projects included in Massmin proceedings (source: Mining Mag., July, 2001).
Mine Country Product
Block cave
Bingham Canyon US Copper
Bulfontein South Africa Diamonds
Didipio Philippines Copper
DOZ Indonesia Copper/gold
Ertsberg Indonesia Copper/gold
Henderson US Copper/molybdenum
Kings (Gaths) Zimbabwe Asbestos
Mont Porphyre Canada Copper/molybdenum
Nothparkes Australia Copper/gold
Palabora South Africa Copper
Premier South Africa Diamonds
Salvador Chile Copper
Sao Tomas II Philippines Copper
Shabanie Zimbabwe Asbestos
Tongkuangyu China Copper
Panel cave
Premier South Africa Diamonds
El Teniente Chile Copper
Sublevel caving
Big Bell Australia Gold
Kiruna Sweden Iron ore
Obuasi Ghana Gold
Perseverance Australia Nickel
Shabanie Zimbabwe Asbestos
Trojan Zimbabwe Nickel
Sublevel and longhole stoping
777 Canada Copper/Zinc
Anqing China Copper
Brunswick Canada Pb/Zn/Ag/cu
Cannington Australia Ag/Pb/Zn
Enterprise Australia Copper
George Fisher Australia Pb/Zn/Ag
Golden Grove Australia Copper/zinc
Jinchuan China Nickel
Mount Charlotte Australia Gold
Mount Isa Australia Copper
Obuasi Ghana Gold
Olympic Dam Australia Copper
Target South Africa Gold
Vertical crater retreat
Mindola Zambia Copper
The lessons learned through the use of Intelligent Mine software have been used in
Outokumpus Kemi chrome mine in Finland. Kay (2000) explains how the digital
blasting technology developed by M/S Orica can revolutionize mass mining. The
new technology allows large and complex blasts to be fired routinely and with min-
imum of risk.
2.5.2 Case histories of mass mining

Block caving is most suitable to mine large, low-grade deposits where high pro-
duction is needed to maintain profitability. It has both advantages and disadvan-
tages. It has emerged as the lowest cost underground mining method, but it is
characterized by high technical, social, political and environmental risks, and high
up-front capital and development costs (ranging from USD 100 to 1000 million).
Thus, a decision for block caving has to be taken after a detailed consideration of
the risks involved (Heslop, 2000).
Block caving is like an elephant. An elephant eats a lot, but can do a lot (such as,
transporting large logs of wood in inaccessible forest areas). Wisdom therefore lies
in making use of the elephant most efficiently.
The Northparkes copper gold porphyry deposit in New South Wales, Australia,
comprises two open pits, Endeavour 22 (E22) and 27 (E27). E26 is the first mine
in Australia to employ block caving, and is said to be the most productive under-
ground mine in the world (the Endeavour 26 mine achieved the phenomenal
productivity of 42,600 t of copper/gold ore per underground employee, including
the contractors!). The orebody comprises a moderately to well-jointed rock mass.
The top 480 m of orebody is currently being exploited by block caving, with the
undercut having dimensions of 196 m in length and 180 m in width. When cave
inducement was needed to maintain caving, hydraulic fracturing was used as a
cave inducement tool, using the exploration boreholes located midway up the
current lift. This proved highly successful, and yielded more than 7 Mt of ore at a
significantly lower price than for conventional cave inducement techniques. More
importantly, this led to a better understanding of how to use the geometry, growth
and influence of hydraulic fracture networks to induce caving.
Construction of the second block cave (Lift 2) of Northparkes is due to be com-
pleted in 2003/2004. It will produce about 5 Mt/y for 6 years. Block caving mini-
mizes the operating costs, and maximizes the mine value. Lift 2 continues the same
design philosophy as lift 1, namely, low maintenance, continuous flow of ore, con-
structability, and minimized capital. Some design changes have been made for lift
2 to improve the caving response. These include enforced regular-shaped, under-
cut footprint, and the implementation of a narrow inclined advanced undercut.
There are technical and capital cost benefits in having a single lift cave (rather than
a dual lift cave) for the remaining reserves of E26. Besides, the higher lift promotes
greater secondary fragmentation, and haulage by inclined conveying layout is more
economical than shaft construction alternative (Duffield, 2000).
The Premier Mine in South Africa is a well known kimberlite-hosted, diamond

mine. It is one of the great cave mines in the world. The kimberlite pipe is emplaced
in a sequence of quartzites and norites. The greatest risk facing the mine is the geo-
technical challenge of mining a weak rock at great depth. The new block cave will be
at a depth of 1000 m, about 300 m deeper than the current operations. The geotech-
nical considerations which were taken into account in mine planning and layout,
include the hydraulic radius needed to initiate caving, fragmentation, drawpoint
spacing, secondary blasting, and possibilities of seismicity (Bartlett & Croll, 2000).
Mont Porphyre in Quebec, Canada, is a large tonnage, low-grade copper-
molybdenum, porphyry deposit. It is located at a depth of 11.7 km below the sur-
face. As it is characterized by a very competent rock mass, it was felt that caving
mining is not a viable option. But the present view is that any thing will cave if
sufficient area is available for undercutting. Noranda which owns Mont Porphyre
property has sponsored an International Caving Study to assess the techno-economic
viability of cave mining of competent orebodies.
The El Teniente copper mine, Codelco, Chile, is a good example of the use of
panel caving (Diaz & Tobar, 2000). Mass caving methods are employed to produce
95,000 t/d of ore to the mill from a number of sectors underground, each sector being
virtually a large mine. The current panel caving method faces problems of high
seismicity level, coarse fragmentation and ore pass damage. Caving is initiated by
undercutting the base of the block or panel by blasting. Instead of incorporating
massive areas as in block caving, the panel caving is accomplished by continuous
blasting. Caving is followed by the excavation of the drawbells, which are designed
on the basis of geometry, dimensions and sequence of excavation, the size of the
fragmented ore, etc. The drawbells are suitably adjusted to take care of mining
problems that may arise, such as major rock bursts, and collapse of the production
facilities.
Caving operators are mortally scared of the hang-ups, because of the devastating
air blast that they could trigger when they collapse. On Dec. 5, 1999, a planned col-
lapse of 15,000 m2 arch that was formed in Codelcos Salvador division produced a
massive air blast. The damage from the air blast was minimized by maintaining the
drawpoints and their drifts full and covered with ore, maintaining permanent seis-
mic monitoring networks, and instant communication with personnel.
In the Henderson molybdenum mine in Colorado, USA, mining has to be done
about 2 km below the ground, with attendant problems of rock stress. The produc-
tion of 36,000 t/d of ore through caving, involved a number of challenges: finding
experienced staff, rock bursts, poor mining conditions, inflow of 50 C water, raise
boring and muck handling, etc. Apart from installing a conveyor system, Henderson
was the first mine in the world to use the 100 t Sandvik Tamrock Supra 0012H
trucks. The trucks have high productivity, long life and can accommodate both pull-
through and back-in chutes. The maintenance costs can be minimized through good
haul roads, and traffic control to minimize queuing delays will enhance the produc-
tivity of the trucks.
A chrome deposit in Zimbabwe has been mined to a depth of 80 m by what has

been termed as vertical pit mining (Redford & Terbrugge, 2000). This is an alterna-
tive mining method for the exploitation from surface of small, vertical or near vertical
orebodies. A conventional open pit is uneconomic due to the high waste: ore ratios.
Reduced environmental impact and rehabilitation requirements constitute additional
benefits. The sides of the vertical pit are maintained by systematic lateral support.
2.6 OFFSHORE MINING
Table 2.9 (source: G.J.S. Govett and M.J. Govett, World Mineral Supplies, Elsevier,
Amsterdam, 1976) lists the various minerals obtained from the oceans, and their
value in (millions of USD), also expressed in terms of the percentage contribution
from the ocean supplies. Lime shells, titanium sands and tin are mined from shal-
low coastal, often estuarine waters.
Offshore mining is related to the mining of heavy mineral placer deposits occur-
ring on the beaches, lagoons, inshore sediments, etc. Manganese nodules (which
contain Mn, Cu, Ni, Zn, Pb, etc.) occur in deep-sea areas, and their mining has not
yet become commercially viable. India has staked claims over an area of
150,000 km2 of manganese nodules in the central Indian Ocean. The richest site here
contains 21 kg of nodules per sq.m. as against 3.5 kg in the Indian Ocean elsewhere.
Various Indian organizations are currently evaluating the techno-economic feasibility
Table 2.9 Minerals from the oceans.
Production value (in millions Percentage from oceans

of USD), 1972
Subsurface
Petroleum 10,300 18
Gas 4,200 33
Surface deposits
Sand and gravel 100 1
Lime shells 35 80
Tin 53 7
Titanium sands 76 20
Iron sands 10 1
Barite 1 3
Subsurface bedrock
Coal 335 2
Iron ore 17 1
Extraction from seawater
Salt 173 29
Magnesium and compounds 116 51
Bromine 19 30
Heavy water 27 20
of mining the nodules. It has been estimated that the hydraulic mining of Mn nod-
ules at the rate of 1000 tpd, would entail the disposal of about 9000 tpd of sediments.
Placer deposits form when heavy minerals get concentrated in detrital materials
due to the action of moving water, waves, or wind. Some of the important heavy min-
erals, which form placers, are: gold, diamonds, cassiterite (SnO2, with 78.6% Sn),
ilmenite (FeTiO3, containing 48.6 to 57.3% TiO2), rutile (TiO2), Zircon (ZrSiO4, with
67.2% of ZrO2), monazite (Ce, La, Di, PO4, with Th and U), etc.
The main methods used in the mining of placers are the following:
(a) Land-based plants:
(1) Bucket scraper and wire-line, (2) mobile equipment such as dozers,
draglines, shovels, bucketwheel excavators and trucks, (3) Hydraulic mining,
where water under high pressure is used in loosening in situ material,
(b) Floating plant:
(1) dragline and washing plant, (2) hydraulic dredging, (3) bucket line dredging
Marine mining of heavy minerals (ilmenite, monazite, etc. in India, cassiterite in
Malaysia, and diamonds in Namibia, etc.) involves dislodgement, lifting, shipboard
processing and/or overflows). Strip mining on the sea floor brings about changes in
the bathymetry of the sea floor, coastal erosion, physical removal of organisms,
changes in the particle size, depletion of oxygen, and formation of free sulphides.
The environmental impact of discharge of slurry of fines and tailings from a mining
vessel is indicated in the form of matrix diagram (Table 2.10; source: Marine
mining of the Continental Shelf ).
Marine mining causes coastal erosion, and hence no mining is allowed near the
coast (in the case of U.K., it is 5 km from the coast).
In the coastal area of the tropics (e.g. coast of Gujarat, western India), salt is
produced by the solar evaporation of seawater. The saltpans are developed over the
tidal flats which have hard impervious substratum or semi-consolidated clayey
Table 2.10 Environmental impact of the discharge of fines and tailings from the offshore mining
vessel.
Potential direct or Water Phyto- Zoo- Shell Juvenile Adult

indirect impact quality plankton plankton Benthos fish fish fish
1. Suspended solids D D D D
and turbidity dispersion
2. Reduction of sunlight D D D
in the water column
3. Oxygen demand from D D D D
sediment dispersion
4. Release of nutrients B B B B B B B
5. Release of pesticide D D D D D D D
6. Interaction of fines with D D
the marine organisms
D Detrimental; B Beneficial
deposits. The saltpan development has the following environmental impacts:

(1) only common salt (NaCl) is recovered. The supranuant fluids containing the chlo-
rides and sulphates of magnesium, chloride of calcium, and bromide of potassium,
etc. are discharged back into the coastal waters, thus affecting the marine biota,
(2) the soil around the salt pans gets salinised, (3) agricultural land near the coast is
brought under salt pan development, (4) the estuaries and creeks may get polluted
due to toxic industrial effluents (containing cadmium, chromium, mercury, etc.), or
pathogens from municipal sewage which are discharged into the sea at high tide.
Since seawater for making salt is pumped from the sea at high tide, the pollutants
may find their way into the extracted salt (Wadhwan, 1988).
Gravel and sand are bulk commodities of low unit cost. It is hence not economic
to transport them for long distances. Mining of gravel and sand from the beaches
and barrier bars for use in construction in the nearby towns (say, in Gujarat referred
to above) disturbs the shoreline equilibrium and beach nourishment, and causes
severe beach erosion. Even as it is, the damming of the rivers and streams on the
upstream side has reduced the discharge of sediment into the sea, and when this is
compounded by the mining of the beach, the consequences can be disastrous and
irreversible.
2.6.1 Mining of diamonds in the inshore sediments of the SW coast of

Africa a case study
The erosion of the diamondiferous kimberlite pipes of South Africa have led to
the dispersal of diamonds, which now occur in the form of placers in the alluvial,
aeolian and beach and inshore sediment environments. Along the southwest coast
of Africa (e.g. Namibia), diamonds occur along the so-called oyster line (though
the diamonds have nothing to do with oysters, they happen to occur in the shallow
zone where the oysters also occur).
The barge-mounted diamond recovery plants custom-designed by M/S Bateman,
Boksburg, Republic of South Africa, have proved reliable and efficient. The plant
consists of four modules primary screening, dense media separation (DMS), pre-
X-ray treatment, and final diamond recovery. The DMS plant for the separation of
diamonds uses water-ferrosilicon (FeSi) suspension as the flotation medium. The
density of the ferrosilicon-water mixture in the units is accurately controlled by the
use of nuclear density control systems. The recovery module utilizes a wet X-ray
sortex machine for the size range of 2 mm to 16 mm gravel. The use of wet
X-ray sorting avoids the need to dry the concentrate before feeding it into the recov-
ery plant. The 2 mm gravel is treated over a vibrating grease table. The 16 mm
material is hand sorted in glove boxes.
The material on the seabed is composed of a mixture of clay, boulders, sand,
gravel, heavy minerals, foam and diamonds. It is airlifted as a slurry containing
between 1% and 3% solids, which is then fed into the primary screening module.
Some plants (e.g. Kovambo which operates along the Lauderitz coast off Namibia)
has a capacity of 3800 m3/h of slurry. The multistage vibrating screens allow
most of the clay to be scalped off and discharged back into the sea. It is critically
important to remove as much clay as possible otherwise it can clog up the screens,
trap the diamonds which may be rejected with the floats in the DMS circuit,
increase FeSi consumption in the DMS unit, and make materials handling difficult.
The sized gravel produced by the screens is pumped to the surge bins by means of
a jet pump. In the process of pumping, much of the remaining clay gets removed.
The scrubber-mill is so programmed as to retain the grinding charge (autoge-
nous, using ceramic balls), while allowing the diamond bearing gravels to be
quickly flushed through the system. Such a process avoids the exposure of dia-
monds to high energy impact, or long retention times which could damage the dia-
monds. The scrubber mill gets rid of the small quantities of clay that may still be in
the system.
The recovery plant is the heart of any diamond process plant, and the following
security measures are incorporated into the system to prevent theft of diamonds:
TV monitoring system, air transportation of the X-ray concentrate into the sort
house, card access system coupled with lie detectors, and sealed glove boxes.
2.6.2 Offshore exploration for cassiterite in Thailand a case study

When exposed to humid tropical weathering, the cassiterite-bearing granitic rocks
disintegrate into quartz sand, kaolinitic clay, and unbroken grains of cassiterite.
Rain-wash and fluviatile action transport the weathering products over distances,
which are determined by topography of the land, grainsize and specific gravity of
the minerals. Cassiterite grains get concentrated at the valley bottom. When the
river valleys are drowned by sea level rise, the cassiterite-containing sands are
reworked by wave action and concentrated. Evidently, the tenor and dimensions of
a deposit depend upon the mode of formation of a deposit, which in its turn deter-
mines the method of exploration of the deposit.
There are four types of cassiterite deposits in Thailand: (1) The Valley bottom
type this is most common. (2) The more truly residual type, with very little hori-
zontal transport of heavy minerals (e.g. offshore at Thai Muang), (3) The Colluvial
type, with little transport and little outwash, giving rise to small deposits with lim-
ited concentration of heavy minerals, e.g. Phuket Island and offshore, (4) The sheet
flood or avalanche type, with long transport distance and reworking by fluviatile
and marine action, e.g. Ramong area.
For purposes of exploration, a platform on a pontoon and a drilling unit are
needed. The pontoon may be built in a variety of ways: bundles of bamboo poles,
and horizontal oil drums, two fishing boats, connected by wooden beams, steel
floats interconnected by steel beams, twin-propeller elevation pontoon, commercial
vessel with schottel propeller, or twin-propeller pontoon. In thin sediment layers
(1 m), hand-bailed Banka drill is used. For sandy layers 5 to 25 m in thickness, the
rammed-down casing of the Becker drill is most efficient (Aleva, 1978).
ARTISANAL MINING
The contribution of small-scale or artisanal mining to the overall mining output in

the world is estimated to be 1016%. In general, the percentage contribution with
respect to industrial minerals is higher than for metallic minerals. Estimates vary
widely about the number of persons involved in artisanal mining (upto 16 million).
In some countries, the contribution of artisanal mining is of considerable economic
significance. For instance, Peru has about 3000 small-scale mines which produce
100% of the antimony, 90% gold, 15% tungsten, etc. of the national production
(Gocht, 1980, Natural Resources and Development, v. 12, p. 718). About 90% of
Brazils gold production is attributable to artisanal mining.
Capital-intensive, mechanized mining is not cost effective for the exploitation of
small deposits, even of high grade. Such a deposit is amenable to small-scale min-
ing, particularly where the deposit occurs at or close to the surface, and where the
mineral could be won by simple methods, such as hand-picking, panning, sluicing,
etc. It therefore follows that artisanal mining may be a cost-effective option in the
case of several economic minerals occurring in the soil. For instance, by the nature
of its occurrence and its properties, opal can only be mined manually.
Small-scale mining has several advantages: it is labor intensive, can be initiated on
any scale, with simple technology, at low capital cost, low consumption of energy,
and short lead time, and without expensive imported equipment. It can also promote
local industries. This, however, does not mean that small-scale mining is the panacea
for the problems of the developing countries. Artisanal mining suffers from the fol-
lowing serious disadvantages: (1) it tends to be haphazard, since in most countries
there is no systematic exploration activity to support small-scale mining; (2) destruc-
tive exploitation by the gouging of rich pockets; (3) low recovery rates; (4) low labor
productivity (about 4% of highly mechanized mines); and (5) non-extraction of valu-
able byproducts which are therefore irretrievably lost to the country.
In future, vegetative methods of reclamation of mined land may emerge as a
significant, economically viable, and employment-generating activity.
2.7.1 Mercury pollution due to artisanal gold mining

Artisanal gold mining using mercury amalgamation has serious adverse implica-
tions for human health, and the integrity of the ecosystems. Usually, 68 kg of
mercury is used for amalgamation to extract one kg of gold. Simple squeezing and
sublimation recover most of the mercury, but about 1.5 kg of mercury is irretriev-
ably lost to the environment per kg of gold extracted (the Brazilian average is
1.32 kg of mercury). This leads to mercury pollution in soils, sediments, waters, and
biota. The bacteria (such as, Enterobacter aerogenes and Escherichia coli) present
in the soils, sediments, human faeces, etc. convert the metallic mercury to the
highly toxic form of methyl mercury. Mercury compounds may enter the human
body through inhalation, ingestion of food and water, and transfer through the skin.
The intake and uptake of mercury is highly species sensitive. The organomercury,
particularly methyl mercury, CH3 Hg, is more easily absorbed and is far more
toxic than elemental mercury (Hg0) and divalent inorganic mercury (Hg2). In the
food chain, methyl mercury gets concentrated in fish (about 80% of mercury in fish
is in the form of the more toxic methyl mercury). The FAO/WHO permissible tol-
erable level of mercury exposure has been set at 0.3 mg/week, with methyl mercury
constituting not more than two-thirds of it (i.e., 0.2 mg).
Artisanal gold mining using mercury amalgamation has increased markedly in
developing countries, such as Brazil, Tanzania, Zimbabwe, Philippines, Indonesia,
China, Vietnam, etc. involving about 10 million people. According to Akagi (1998),
there are 2000 goldfields (or garimpos) in the Amazon Basin in Brazil, involving
about 650,000 gold miners (or garimpeiros) according to official reports. Since
many of the garimpeiros are illegal miners, the actual number may be 11.2 million.
The amount of mercury released into the environment annually is of the order of
130 t about 45% of it is released into the river systems, and 55% into the atmos-
phere. The total amount of mercury released to the environment since 1980s is a
mind-boggling figure of 20003000 t. There are two types of garimpos: the lowland
garimpo where the garimpeiro digs a large hole in the ground to excavate the auri-
ferous alluvium, and the raft garimpo where a motorized suction pump collects the
god-bearing sediment from the river bed.
There are two main pathways of mercury to man in the gold mining areas, gold
miners and gold shop workers are exposed to metallic mercury through inhalation.
In the secondary environments, the metallic mercury would get methylated, and
enters the food chain (say, fish) as more poisonous methyl mercury. The fish-eating
populations who may have nothing to do with artisanal gold mining, are hence
at risk.
Akagi and Naganuma (2000) reported the mercury concentrations in hair, blood
and urine of persons in Jacareacanga and Vila Novo Sitio, which are fishing vil-
lages, and Alta Floresta, which is the main trading centre in the Tapajos River basin
in Brazil. (Table 2.11; source: Akagi & Naganuma, 2000).
Table 2.11 Concentration of methyl mercury in the hair, blood and urine of the inhabitants of the
Tapajos River Basin, Brazil.
Me-Hg Total Hg Me-Hg/

Origin Sample (ng/mg) (ng/mg) Total Hg (%)
Jacareacanga Hair (ppm) 24.1 24.6 96.0

Blood (ppb) 90.0 90.4 97.2
Vila Novo Sitio Hair (ppm) 27.3 28.8 95.7
Blood (ppb) 131.9 130.7 98.8
Alta Floresta Hair (ppm) 4.2 5.2 86.0
Blood (ppb) 9.0 12.2 72.2
Urine (ng/g, creatinine) 0.4 165.7 0.3
In the Tapajos River, the mercury levels in fish ranged from 0.08 to 3.82 ppm (the
permissible level in Brazil is 0.5 ppm). In the case of fish-eaters, mercury present in
hair and blood is almost wholly in the form of methyl mercury. There is clear evi-
dence that the inhabitants of fishing villages have been exposed to abnormally high
methyl mercury levels due to the consumption of fish. On the other hand, the inges-
tion of metallic mercury by gold miners and gold shop workers shows up in urine.
Levels of mercury in hair samples were more for males than females.
Since hair grows fast at the rate of about one cm per month, the longitudinal
analysis of mercury along a strand of hair provides timing of the exposure of indi-
viduals to methyl mercury. Such a study of the long hair of the women showed that
they were exposed to methyl mercury during the fast few years, with an increasing
trend with time.
East Africa is another major area concerned with artisanal gold mining (van
Stratten, 2000 a, b). Tanzania and Zimbabwe produce about 5 t of gold each from arti-
sanal mining. It has been estimated that 200,000 to 300,000 persons are involved in
small-scale gold mining activities in Tanzania, and more than 200,000 persons in
Zimbabwe. For every 1 g of gold recovered, 1.21.5 g of mercury is lost to the envi-
ronment (about 7080% of Hg is lost to the atmosphere due to processing, and
2030% in tailings, soils, stream sediments, etc.). Approximately 34 t of Hg is
released to the atmosphere in the Lake Victoria goldfields, and 3 t in Zimbabwe.
Mercury in soils and sediments is in the form of metallic mercury. The dispersal of Hg
in soils and sediments is limited (laterally 260 m, and vertically 20 cm). Urine
analyses show that about 36% of the gold miners working with amalgam exceeded
the WHO limit (of 50 g/g creatinine). Concentrations in fish were low, and 90%
of the hair samples from the fish-eating populations showed 2 g/g T-Hg. Highest
Hg concentrations were found in the fish caught in the rivers draining the gold
mining sites, and southern shores of Lake Victoria. Among the fish, lungfish species
(Protopterus aethiopicus) have the highest concentrations, and tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus) the least. The amount of mercury pollution in Tanzania is estimated to be of
the order of one mg/m2 annually (Aswathanarayana, 1995, p. 177).
The critical organs affected by mercury intoxication are the lungs, kidneys and
the brain. The effects of mercury on the respiratory tract are coughing, bronchial
inflammation, chest pain, and in severe cases, respiratory arrest. Methyl mercury
causes the disintegration of cells within the brain, and consequently affects the
sensory, visual, auditory and coordination control functions of the brain. This leads
to loss of coordination in walking, slurred speech, loss of hearing, blindness, coma,
etc. (Fergusson, 1990, p. 542).
2.7.2 Innovative technologies suggested

It is possible to improve the efficiency of small-scale mining, while concomitantly
reducing its deleterious consequences, by the adoption of the following innovative
approaches:
1. Developing simple techniques of prospecting which could be used by semi-
skilled labor, e.g. use of smoky quartz as indicator of cassiterite-lepidolite peg-
matites, and looking for cassiterite resistate in the soils near pegmatite. Training
of miners on-site about simple methods of mineral search and extraction.
Using a portable X-ray fluorescence analyzer, it is possible to make a quick
and fairly accurate on-site assay of several ore metals in the material mined or
to be mined by a miner. Such an assay can serve two purposes: (1) to make the
miner aware of the economic value of the material already mined by him
(through a knowledge of what kind of ore metals and in what concentrations
occur in the material mined by him), and (2) to advise him as to what kind of
material he should be mining in order to get greater returns.
2. Research and development to design improved methods of ore search and ore
extraction relevant to small-scale mining. Placer gold is a case in point. An arti-
sanal miner can extract gold only if it is coarse grained (say, 30 m) and high
grade (say, about 25 g/m3). He uses the mercury amalgam method of extraction
which is highly polluting. New carbon-in-pulp and carbon-in-leach technologies
have several advantages: (i) they are capable of extracting fine-grained gold
(about 10 m) and at low concentrations (about 2 g/t); (ii) they are environmen-
tally benign. These technologies need to be adapted for small-scale operations. In
extremely dry areas, pneumatic methods of gold separation have to be developed.
3. Using mobile units for preconcentration and extraction on site: truck-mounted,
diesel-powered, self-contained, ore-dressing modules are taken to the site of the
artisanal mining and the ore is concentrated/extracted on site. The mobile unit
can be owned and operated by a cooperative or a private company. A part (say,
one-third) of the output could be collected in kind towards service charge due to
the mobile unit and the royalty due to the government. As the recovery rates by
the mobile unit are at least 23 times higher than by manual methods, the arti-
sanal miner is still left with considerably more saleable material than he would
have been able to recover on his own.
4. Through the use of the mercury amalgam method, artisanal gold mining indus-
try in Tanzania has severely contaminated the waters and soils. About 78% of
the water samples analyzed contained concentrations of mercury higher than the
permissible level of 1 g/l. Mercury levels in the mine tailings range from 1.31
to 18.7 g/g. The Institute of Production Innovation of the University of Dar es
Salaam, Tanzania, has developed a rugged, easy to handle, highly portable and
locally manufactured, and inexpensive (eq. USD 50) retort which has efficiency
of 99.6 100%. The use of such a retort is the most effective way to reduce the
pollution of airborne mercury produced by the firing of the AuHg amalgam
(Mpendazoe, 1995).
5. The Portable gold plant developed by Libenberg, Rundle and Storey of San
Martin mining company (Mining Magazine, July 97, p. 810) is a veritable
godsend for small-scale gold miners. The salient points of the plant are as
follows: San Martins claims encompasses two dumps around Bonda, Kenya, with
250,000 t of material, grade: 13 g/t. Carbon-in-pulp/carbon-in-leach technique;
Capacity of the plant: 10,000 t/month; production cost: USD 150/oz. The total
steel requirement (12 t) for tanks, baffles, agitator mountings, and the pumps and
piping, were brought from South Africa in one container and erected on site.
Dump material is reclaimed by high-pressure water. In the first leach tank, lime
(5 kg/t) and sodium cyanide (0.5 kg/t) are added. The residence time in each of
the absorption tanks is approximately 1.3 hr at a throughput of 10,000 t/month,
and carbon concentration of 1520 g/l. The eluate is heated in a diesel-fired cast
iron burner. Gold is recovered onto steel wool cathodes. Security is ensured by
having the recovery cell protected by a 220 V inner cage, and 15,000 V outer cage
(powered by solar cells). Dor is 80% pure. Total power consumption: 145 kw
(diesel generators). Water is pumped from the Yala River (3 km from the plant).
The plant has been in operation for more than a year and has the following
advantages: environmentally-benign as no mercury is used; can be erected even
in remote areas, and shifted and reassembled without much problem; can be
operated with minimal expatriate assistance; economically viable. This technol-
ogy can be used in two kinds of situations: (1) as a private enterprise, for treat-
ing dumps, where they exist, and (2) as a cooperative, by setting up the plant at
a central place where a number of artisanal miners (50100) operate.
6. The modular plants designed by M/S Bateman Project Holdings Limited,
Boksburg, South Africa, have revolutionized the recovery efficiencies in artisanal
mining of a number of minerals (such as, modular process plants for prospecting,
sampling and small scale production of diamonds). The heart of the equipment is
the Dense Media Separator (DMS) plant, which uses water-ferrosilicon mixture as
the flotation medium. The density of the medium is automatically controlled. The
smallest unit has a capacity of 1 t/h of diamondiferous gravel in the size range of
18 mm. The modular unit which has become very popular is 5 t/h DMS unit,
which weighs only 4.5 t, and can fit into a standard 12 m container, with all the
spares. It is custom-designed depending upon the kind of feed, assembled and
tested. It is then dismantled and shipped to site. It can be erected on site in a day
or two. The DMS modules are skid mounted and has built-in spillage pumps, and
no concrete foundations are needed (see section 2.6.1 for further details).
2.8 LKAB IRON ORE MINE IN KIRUNA, SWEDEN A CASE STUDY
The LKAB iron ore mines in Kiruna, Sweden, are located above the Arctic Circle.
Two underground mines, located at Kiruna and Malmsberget, employ sublevel
caving method, to produce 30 Mt/y of iron ore. Much of the mining operation is
automated for instance, the production drilling rigs, loading machines and trans-
port systems on the new main haulage level are remote-controlled. The magnetite
ore is crushed, ground, screened and upgraded by magnetic separation techniques.

The iron ore concentrate is pelletised using bentonite as a binder.
The LKAB complex demonstrates how continuous improvements in technolo-
gies could bring about high productivity, while at the same time reducing water and
air pollution (Nordstrom, 2001, p. 604614). Mining and process water goes
through large pond systems, to facilitate the removal of the sludge by sedimenta-
tion. The water is then pumped to the clarifying ponds from which the process
water is recirculated. Since 1980, LKABs atmospheric emissions have been
halved, while the production of pellets has doubled. The external energy consump-
tion in the pelletising plants which was 639 MJ (million joules)/t of pellets in 1970
has been brought down to 250 MJ/t in 2000.
The following air pollutants are produced in the process of pelletisation:
1. Fine dust, mainly composed of iron oxides, before induration,
2. Sulphur dioxide, from sulphur in the fuel, and sulphides in green pellets,
3. Hydrogen fluoride and hydrochloric acid from apatite residues in green pellets,
4. Nitrogen oxides, from nitrogen in the fuel and in the atmosphere.
That the emissions in the pelletising plants in Kiruna are less than the statutory
limits is evident from the following information:
Parameter Statutory limit Emissions in Kiruna
(g/t of pellets) (g/t of pellets)
Particles 100 60
Sulphur dioxide 15 13
Hydrogen fluoride 6 2
Hydrochloric acid 6 2
Noise is generated by ventilation fans, mining and transport equipment. The maxi-
mum noise level nearest to the dwelling should not exceed 4045 dB (A). Blasting
in mines produces vibrations in the bedrock in the surrounding areas. Noise and
vibrations are measured continuously to minimize the inconvenience to property
owners in the neighbourhood.
CHAPTER 3
Mode of occurrence of mineral deposits
The environmental impact of a given mineral industry depends upon the geologic
setting, genesis and mode of occurrence of the mineral deposit, which in turn deter-
mines how the mineral is to be mined, and processed and how the wastes are to be
disposed. This concept can be illustrated with two examples.
Because of the nature of its genesis, bauxite, the ore of aluminium, is invariably a
surface deposit, which is therefore mined by opencast methods. The major environ-
mental impact of the bauxite industry arises from the need to dispose of the large
quantities of red mud that are generated during the chemical treatment of bauxite to
produce alumina. The mitigation of the adverse environmental impact consists in
using the red mud to make useful products, and the rehabilitation of the mined land.
On the other hand, underground methods are employed to mine vein deposits of
(say) primary sulphide ores of base metals. Ore concentrates are produced from ROM
through processes such as flotation. The adverse environmental impact arises from
acid mine drainage (AMD) from the mine and waste piles, and SOx emissions and
acid rain. These are mitigated by the use of scrubbers, and through the prevention and
control of AMD, and by passive treatment of AMD through natural or constructed
wetlands.
3.1 METALLIC MINERALS
The metallic minerals are divided into the following categories:

1. Precious metals: Gold, silver, Platinum group metals (PGM)
2. Ferrous metals: Iron, manganese, chromium, titanium, vanadium,
3. Non-ferrous metals: Molybdenum, copper, lead and zinc, tin, nickel, aluminium
(some authorities designate a sub-group, copper, lead and zinc, as base metals)
4. Radioactive elements: Uranium and thorium
For each metal, the following particulars are provided: principal ores and their com-
position, processes of concentration of ore elements needed to form ore deposits,
and the important geological environments and locations in which the ore deposits
occur in the world (Tables 3.1 to 3.9, partly after Smirnov, 1983).
Table 3.1 Gold and Silver. Processes of concentration of ore elements to form ore deposits.
Important ore minerals, and Processes of Important geologic

Element concentration to form ore deposits environments
Gold CA: 4.5 ppb, CC: 2000. Archaean greenstone belts

The most important commercial mineral of (2.5b.y.)(e.g.Yellowknife
gold is native gold. Though several inter- (Canada); Proterozoic, palaeo-
metallic compounds with Ag (electrum Au, placers (2.2.b.y.), reworked
Ag), Sb, Pt, Te, etc. are known, they have no and mobilized (e.g. Witwatersrand,
significant role in Au production. South Africa), Subduction-related,
island arc volcanism (e.g.
Mantle-derived mafic-ultramafic rocks have Bougainville, PNG), Laterites in
the highest gold contents (upto 10 ppb). In the the greenstone belts (e.g.Tanzania);
endogenous environments, gold may be mobilized Placers (e.g. Nome, Alaska, USA).
and transported in the form of thiosulphate
complexes [Au(S2O3)]3, which result in coarsely
crystalline gold alloyed with 5075% Ag, and
chloride complexes (AuCl
2 and AuCl2 ) which
tend to be reprecipitated with concretionary
Fe oxides with 0.5 wt.% of Ag. In the exogenous
environments, Au may be transported as Au-humate
complexes, and may end up as very fine lateritic
gold. Alluvial placers of gold are of considerable
economic importance and are the mainstay
of artisanal gold mining
Silver CA: 50 ppb, CC: 1000. Volcanogenic hydrothermal
Native silver (80100% Ag, with upto 10% Au), deposits: Ag-Au Comstock
Argentite (Ag2S Ag: 87.1%), Pyrargyrite (USA), Ag sulphide: Casapaslca
(Ag3SbS3 59.8%), Proustite (Ag3AsS3 65.4%), (Peru); Ag-Sn: Potosi (Bolivia);
Polybasite (Ag, Cu) 16 Sb2 S11; 62.184.9%), and Ag-As: Gowganda (Canada)
Stephanite (AgSbS4 68.3%)
Insignificant variation in abundance from acidic to
basic rocks (5070 ppb). Commercial concentrations
through post-magmatic thiosulphate and chloride
complexes. Under exogenous conditions, silver
sulphate or thiosulphate may be redeposited at depth
as native silver or halides. Placers are unimportant.
CA.: Crustal Abundance; CC * Concentration Coefficient.
3.2 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
The industrial minerals have some common features: (1) Most of the industrial min-
erals are of secondary origin, and are mined by opencast methods, with the excep-
tion of some minerals such as fluorite and rock salt, which are unstable in the
surficial environment, (2) They are produced in large quantities their world pro-
duction (about 2.5 billion tonnes, not counting the huge quantities of building stones,
for which the records are rarely kept in many countries) is more than double that of
Table 3.2 Platinum Group Metals (PGM).
PGM Platinum Group Metals (PGM) include Pt, Pd, Ir, Rh, Early magmatic deposits e.g.
Os, and Ru. CA: varies from 5 ppb for Pt to 50 ppb Merensky Reef within the
for Os. CC: varies from 1000 for Pt to 50 for Os. Bushveld Complex, South Africa;
PGM form native elements, disordered solid solutions, Late magmatic deposits e.g.
intermetallic compounds, arsenides and sulphides, dunites of Nizhni-Tagil, Russia;
such as, Polyxene Pt, Fe: 7789% Pt), Sperrylite Placer deposits in Columbia
PtAs2 (56.5% Pt), Laurite (RuS2: 6165% Ru), etc. (South America), Zimbabwe,
Closely associated with mafic and ultramafic igneous Zaire, etc.
rocks. Separation of PGM due to liquation and
fractional crystallization. Hydrothermal deposits of
PGM are rare. Pt forms disordered solid solutions and
intermetallic compounds, arsenides and sulphides. In
the ultramafic rocks, PGM concentrations are directly
related to the abundance of ortho- and clino-pyroxenes.
Besides, the Pt/Ir ration is controlled by CPX/OPX ratio.
Table 3.3 Iron and Manganese.
Iron CA: 4.65%; CC: 10.

Economic minerals, with Fe%: Magnetite Lower Proterozoic, ferruginous
(Fe3O4 72.4), haematite (Fe2O3 70), limonite quartzites of Labrador (Canada),
hydrogoethite (FeO.OH.nH2O) admixed with Lake Superior (USA),
siliceous ingredients 4863, siderite Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and
FeCO3 (48.3), chamosite iron silicate (2738). Orissa (India), Minas Gerais
Fe as Fe2 (ferrous) in endogenous processes, (Brazil), Hammersley (Australia),
and as Fe3 (ferric) in exogenous processes. Krivoi Rog (former USSR)
Exogenous concentrations of Fe in basic and
intermediate rocks. Exogenous concentrations in
sedimentary rocks and weathering crusts in
ultrabasic rocks. Precambrian banded iron
formations (BIF) are economically the most
important.
Manganese CA: 0.1%; CC: 300. Coastal marine and lagoonal,
Economic minerals, with Mn%: Pyrolusite MnO2 Oligocene sediments of Nikopol
(5563), braunite Mn2O3 (6572), hausmanite (former USSR), Chiatura
Mn.Mn2O4 (6572), manganite MnOOH (5062), (Georgia); Archaean-Proterozoic
psilomelane MnO.MnO2.nH2O (4060), Gondites (Madhya Pradesh,
rhodochrosite MnCO3 (4045), mangano-calcite India); ferruginous quartzites
(Ca, Mn)CO3 (723), mangano-siderite of Minas Gerais (Brazil), etc.
(Mn, Fe)CO3 (2332).
Mn2 substitutes for Fe2 in endogenous
processes, resulting in the enrichment of Mn in
ultrabasic and basic rocks (0.15%). Endogenous
deposits have no commercial value. Mn4
substitutes for Fe3 in exogenous processes. Iron
precipitates under higher oxidizing conditions near
the coast, whereas Mn precipitates in less oxidizing
conditions away from the coast. Exogenous
concentrations include sedimentary rocks,
volcanogenic sedimentary rocks, and weathering
crusts of metamorphic rocks.
Table 3.4 Chromium, titanium and vanadium.
Chromium CA: 83 ppm; CC: 4000. Early magmatic deposits in the

Chrome-spinellids have all the same formula: Bushveld Massif (South Africa)
(Mg, Fe)O. (Cr,Al,Fe)2O3, with Cr2O3, 1865%, and Great Dyke (Zimbabwe);
FeO upto 18%, Fe2O3 upto 30%, Al2O3 Late magmatic deposits in
upto 33%. Chromium gets segregated at the Kempirsai (former USSR); Placer
high temperature magmatic stage. Higher deposits in Cuba, Phillippines,
concentrations of Cr in ultrabasic (0.2%) and New Caledonia, etc.
basic rocks (0.02% Cr2O3).Cr3 compounds are
most stable. They form oxides with ions of
Al3, Mg2, Fe2 and Fe3. Chromite is stable
under exogenous conditions and forms placers.
Cr in the form of hydrolysate suspensions may
end up in sands and clays. Cr6 compounds
form only under extremely high Eh and
pH conditions.
Titanium CA: 0.45%; CC: 20. Large deposits of coastal-marine

Ilmenite (Fe.TiO3, 31.6% Ti), Rutile (TiO2, placers of ilmenite-rutile-zircon,
60% Ti). Leucoxene, which is the altered occur along the SW coast of India
product of ilmenite, contains 96% TiO2. (Chavara), coasts of Mozambique
Titanium gets concentrated in gabbros, (Xai-Xai), Sri Lanka, (Pulmoddai),
pyroxenites and alkali rocks. Concentrations in Sierra Leone, east Brazil.
basic rocks (0.9%) and in intermediate rocks
(0.8% Ti).Ti2 compounds (as TiO2) are most
stable. Titanium minerals are resistant to
weathering and form placers of ilmenite and
rutile.
Vanadium CA: 90 ppm, CC: 30. Highest contents of vanadium

Economic minerals of vanadium, with V%: (up to 0.22%) occur in the Permian
Roscoelite KV2AlSi3O10 [OH]2 1929; phosphorites of Rocky
carnotite K2U2 [VO4] 2 O4.3H2O (20), Mountains (USA), Oxidation
vanadinite Pb5 [VO4] 3 Cl (19), desclozite zones of poly-metallic ores
(Zn, Cu) Pb [VO4] OH (2023), and patronite (Broken Hill, Australia), coastal
VS4 (29%). In hypogenic processes, V3 marine placers of New Zealand,
substitutes for Fe3 and Ti4, gets concentrated high-sulphur crudes of Venezuela
in Fe-Ti minerals, and thus gets enriched in the and Iran.
early-formed magmatic rocks (200 ppm of V). In
the hydrothermal stage, V is transported in the
form of V3, V4 and V5 complexes with
halogens. Under exogenous conditions, V forms
complexes such as VCl3, VCl4, VCCl, VOCl3,
moves as suspensions or in solution, and gets
adsorbed on the hydroxides of Fe and Al, and
organic substances. This explains the presence
of V in high-sulphur crudes, pitch and coals.
Mode of occurrence of mineral deposits 73
Table 3.5 Molybdenum and Copper.
Molybdenum CA: 1.1 ppm, CC: 5000. Precambrian, quartz-molybdenite-

Molybdenite (MoS2) with an isomorphic sericite veins of Climax, Colorado,
admixture of Re, is the principal ore mineral. USA; Skarn deposits in Turnyauz,
Molybdescheelite Ca(Mo, W)O4 (0.515% northern Caucasus (former USSR);
Mo) is subordinate.Mo exists in Mo4 form in Greisen deposits of Eastern
endogenous environments, and in Mo6 form Kounrad, Kazakstan (former
in exogenous environments. Mo gets USSR), etc.
concentrated in the end phase of the magmatic
cycle, i.e. in acid and alkali earth magmas,
post-magmatic and hydrothermal solutions.
Thus granites contain 2 ppm of Mo, whereas
the basic rocks have only 0.2 ppm. In the
endogenous environments, Mo gets transported
in the form of heteropolysilicic acid
complexes (SiO2.12MoO3.nNa2O.H2O
types) in acid and weakly acid solutions. Drop
in temperature and the presence of H2S result
in the disintegration of such complexes, with
the formation of MoS2 and silicification of the
host rock. Under exogenous conditions,
MOS2 gets oxidized into easily soluble
compounds of MoSiO2, and H2MoO4 types,
and may form molybdenorganic compounds
(e.g. bituminous oil shales).
Copper CA: 47 ppm; CC: 200. Plutonogenic, hydro-thermal
Principal copper ores, with Cu%: Native porphyry copper deposits of
copper (92), Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 (34.6), El Teniente (Chile), Bingham,
bornite Cu5FeS4 (63.3), cubanite CuFe2S3 Utah (USA), Vein deposits
(2224), chalcosine Cu2S (79.9), covellite (Butte, USA; El Cobre, Cuba),
CuS (66.5), tennantite 3Cu2S.As2S3 (57.5), Volcanogenic, massive sulphide
tetrahedrite 3Cu2S.Sb2S3 (52.3), enargite deposits (Rio Tinto, Spain);
Cu3AsS4, cuprite Cu2O (88.8), tenorite CuO Cupriferous sandstones and shales
(79.9), malachite CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 (57.4), of Nchanga and Roan Antelope
azurite 2CuCO3.Cu(OH)2 (55.3), Chalcanthite (Zambia).
CuSO4.Cu(OH)2 (31.8), brocanthite
CuSO4.3Cu(OH)2 (56.2), atacamite
CuCl2.3Cu(OH)2 (59.5), chrysocolla
CuSiO3.nH2O (36.0). Copper is
polymagmatogenic. In the basaltic magmatism,
it is concentrated in the plutonic stage to form
liquation deposits, and at the volcanic stage to
form post-volcanic, massive sulphide deposits.
Post-magmatic, hydrothermal ores of copper
come into existence due to the transportation
of copper in the form of thiosulphate and
chloride complexes. Supergene enrichment of
copper takes place under exogenous conditions.
Copper also gets concentrated in the
sabkha environment.
Table 3.6 Lead and zinc.
Lead & Zinc For Pb: CA: 16 ppm, CC: 2000; For Zn: Skarn deposits (El Potosi,
CA: 83 ppm, CC: 500. Mexico); Metasomatic
Principal lead minerals, with Pb%: Galena PbS deposits of pyrite-galena-
(86.6), Jemsonite Pb4FeSb6S14 (40.16), sphalerite in carbonate rocks
Boulangerite Pb5Sb4S11 (55.42), bournonite (Freiberg, Germany;
CuPbSbS3 (42.6), with cerrusite PbCO3 (77.6), Agnigundala, India, Leadville,
anglesite PbSO4 (68.3) in the oxidizing zone. USA); Carbonate-hosted,
Principal Zn minerals, with Zn%: Sphalerite stratiform deposits (Mississippi
ZnS (67), wurtzite ZnS hex. (63), smithsonite Missouri, USA), Massive
ZnCO3 (52), calamine Zn [Si2O7] (OH)2 (53.7). sulphide deposits (Bawdwin,
Pb & Zn gets concentrated in the residual portion Burma; Rio Tinto, Spain);
of the differentiates. Pb is enriched in acid rocks Chacopyrite-sphalerite-pyrite
(20 ppm) relative to the ultrabasic rocks (0.1 ppm). in volcanogenic deposits of the
Variation in Zn content is irregular (ultrabasic: Kuroko type, Japan;
30 ppm, basic: 130 ppm, Acid: 60 ppm). The Metamorphosed deposits
complexation of Pb and Zn depend upon pH, (Broken Hill, Australia)
temperature and the presence of H2S. In H2S-free
solutions, Pb is transported in the form of
complexes such as, (PbCl), (PbSO 02), (PbF), and
(PbCO 30). In the H2S-bearing solutions, Pb is
transported in the form of Pb(HS) 02, and Pb(HS)3 .
Zn is transported in the form of chloride (ZnCl02)
and sulphide complexes (ZnHS 2 ). In exogenous
conditions, Pb and Zn sulphides are oxidized to
sulphates. Zn sulphate is soluble and mobile,
whereas lead sulphate is insoluble and immobile.
Table 3.7 Tin.
Tin CA: 2.5 ppm, CC: 2000. Tin pegmatites are known in
Cassiterite SnO2 (with 78.6% Sn) is the principal ore. Bastar Dt., M.P. (India),
Stannine Cu2FeSnS4 (27.7), tillite PbSnS2 (30.4), frankeite Silver Hill (USA), Skarn
Pb5Sn3Sb2S11 (17), Cylindrite Pb3Sn4Sb2S14 (26) are not deposits (Lao Chan, China),
important commercially. The large ionic radius and high Plutonogenic, and hydrothermal
charge of Sn4 prevents its entry into early-formed magmatic deposits of Yakutia (Russia).
rocks. The concentration of tin in magmatic rocks increases Tin-bearing placers are known
with increasing acidity from 0.5 ppm in ultrabasic rocks, in Yakutia (Russia), Kinta, Perak
1.5 ppm in basic rocks to 3 ppm in acidic rocks. It follows (Malaysia), Chanwat (Thailand),
that tin ores should be looked for in granites and Tin-Tuk (Vietnam), etc.
granodiorites. Tin-bearing granites are usually late-stage,
S-type granites, which show distinct evidence of having been
generated in the upper continental crust. When granite is
remobilized, tin probably gets transported in the form of
complexes such as [Sn (OH, F)6] in alkaline solutions.
When pH decreases to 77.5 (say, due to the presence of
carbon), the complex dissociates into hydrofluoric acid and
tin hydroxide. The latter, on dehydration, becomes tin oxide
(cassiterite). Cassiterite is stable under exogenous conditions,
and forms eluvial, alluvial and diluvial placers.
Table 3.8 Nickel and Aluminium.
Nickel CA: 58 ppm, CC; 200. Important deposits of segregated

Sulphide ores, with Ni%: Pentlandite (Fe, Ni)S magmatic Cu-Ni ores are:
(2242), millerite NiS (65), nickeline NiAs (44), Sudbury (Canada), Bushveld and
chloanthite Ni As32 (4.521), polydymite Insizwa (South Africa), Kola
Ni3S4 (4054), gersdorffite NiAsS (2640). Peninsula and Norisk Traps
Silicate ores, with NiO%: garnierite (Russia). Deposits of weathering
NiO.SiO2.H2O (46), nepouite 12NiO.3SiO2.2H2O with silicate ores of nickel occur
(2046), redvinskite 3(Ni,Mg)O.2SiO2.H2O in New Caledonia (island in the
(46%). As Ni2 can substitute for Mg2, Pacific, under French control),
nickel tends to get concentrated in the Indonesia, Brazil, Russia, Albania,
early-formed magmatic minerals like olivine. Greece, etc.
Consequently, ultrabasic rocks have the highest
concentrations of Ni (2200 ppm), followed by
basic rocks (160 ppm), with acid rocks having
negligible concentrations of Ni (8 ppm).
It follows therefore that commercial
concentrations of Ni can only be found in
mantle-generated ultrabasic basic rocks.
The tropical weathering of the ultrabasic
rocks leads to the release of nickel contained in
the olivine and other ferromagnesian minerals.
Ni and Co thus released gets transported to the
lower part of the weathering crust. The infiltrating
solutions become more alkaline with depth,
leading to the precipitation of secondary,
Ni-containing minerals, such as garnierite.
Ni gets concentrated 1030 fold in the process
of lateritisation of serpentine or peridotite.
Aluminium Ca: 8.05%; CC: 5. Residual lateritic deposits of Boke
Bauxite is the principal ore of aluminium. It is (Guinea), residual redeposited
composed of gibbsite [Al(OH)3] (with deposits (sheet deposits of
65.4% Al2O3), boehmite (-AlOOH) and Northern and SW Australia);
diaspore ( -AlOOH), with 85% Al2O3. The Allitic latosols of Gujarat
abundance of Al is next only to that of Si, but (western India), Surinam
because of the strong oxyphilic tendency of Al, (South America), Arkansas
it is not economic to extract Al from primary (USA), equatorial Africa;
rocks. The principal ore of aluminium is bauxite. Ferrallitic latosols: Galikonda
Formation of laterites and bauxites is facilitated (South India), bauxites on the
by a combination of high rainfall (1000 mm), alkaline syenites of SE Brazil, etc.
high temperature (20 C), intense leaching,
strongly oxidizing environment, subdued
topography, long duration of weathering and
chemically unstable rock. Autochthonous
bauxites on igneous, metamorphic and
sedimentary rocks may be primary, or they
may be fossil, polygenetic, altered bauxites.
There are also autochthonous karst bauxites in
limestone terrains.
Table 3.9 Uranium and Thorium.
U & Th For Uranium: CA: 2.5 ppm, CC: 400;

Important ores of U, with U3O8%: Uraninite (or Deposits of uraninite-sulphide
pitchblende) UO2 (92)- amorphous varieties may deposits of Marysvale, Utah, USA;
contain 60%). Brannerite (U, Ca, Th,Y) [Ti, (Fe)2O6] Uraninite-arsenide deposits of
(2844), davidite (Fe, U) TiO3 (20), uranothorite Great Bear Lake, Canada;
(Th, Fe, U) SiO4.nH2O (upto 17), uranophane CaH2 Uraniferous conglomerates in the
[UO2 (SiO4)2] 5H2O (67), coffinite U (SiO4)1x. Proterozoic metamorphic rocks of
(OH)4x (68), autunite Ca [UO2.PO4]2.1012 5H2O Blind River (Canada); Triassic
(60), torbernite Cu [UO2.PO4]2.812 H2O (61), Sandstones of the Colorado
zeunerite Cu [UO2.AsO4]2, 10H2O (56), Carnotite Plateau (USA); refractory
K2 [(UO2)2.V2O8].3H2O (64). brannerite davidite deposits of
For Th: CA: 15 ppm, CC: 200 (?). UTi; uranium-bearing
Important ores of thorium, with ThO2%: Thorianite phosphorites of Florida, USA;
ThO2 (88%), brggerite (U, Th) O2 (615), thorite Placer deposits of thorium-bearing
ThSiO4 (81.4), uranothorite (Th, U)SiO4 (5070), minerals (such as, monazite)
ferrithorite (Th, Fe)SiO4 (4565), thorogummite occur along the SW coast of India
(Th, U)[(SiO4) OH] 4 (4565), Priorite (Y, Th) (Chavara) and the coasts of
(Nb, Ti)2O6 (8), thorium-bearing monazite (Ce, Th) Sri Lanka and Mozambique
[(P, Si)O4] (3.5 to 10, upto 40). (Deia), etc.
U4 (radius: 1.05 ) and Th4 (radius: 1.10 ) go
hand in hand in the magmatic environment. They
get enriched in acid rocks (Th:12 ppm, U: 3 ppm),
relative to the basic rocks (Th: 3 ppm; U: 1 ppm),
and their contents are largely in the form of
accessory minerals, like allanite, monazite, etc. In
the late stage granitic magmas and hydrothermal
solutions, U4 gets oxidized into highly soluble
uranyl ion (U6O2)2, while Th4 remains unchanged
and immobile. In the exogenous conditions, uranium
gets transported in the form of uranyl tricarbonate
[UO2(CO3)]4 and hydroxide [UO2(OH)2], uranyl
humate, phosphate, etc. complexes, and gets
precipitated when reducing conditions (due to the
presence of H2S, organic matteretc.) are encountered.
This accounts for the close association of uranium
ores with organic matter (e.g. sooty pitchblende).
Th-bearing minerals are resistant to weathering,
and form placers (e.g. monazite placers).
Uranium minerals never form placers.
ppm parts per million 1 g/106 g 1 g of ore element per tonne of rock.
ppb parts per billion 1 g/109 g 1 mg of ore element per tonne of rock.
* Factor of concentration of crustal abundance needed to form an economic deposit.
metallic minerals (about 1.2 billion tonnes), (3) Several of the industrial minerals
(notably sand and gravel) are of low unit cost, and hence it is not economical to
transport them for long distances, (4) their existence is widespread.
Far from creating environmental problems, several industrial minerals (such as,
bentonite) are highly useful in the mitigation of the environmental problems.
All world production figures (in Mt millions of tonnes) given below refer
to 1998.
In this section, industrial minerals are described mineral-wise, as a given mineral
may have several uses for instance, clays are used in ceramic, refractory, filler and
other industries (see, the classic textbook, Economic Mineral Deposits, by Jensen &
Bateman, 1979, for details).
Asbestos: The term, asbestos, is applied to a group of silicate minerals which can be
separated into fibres. There are two main groups of asbestos minerals chrysotile
asbestos which occurs in serpentine that has been altered from igneous rocks such as
peridotite and dunite, and amphibole varieties (amosite, crocidolite, tremolite, acti-
nolite and anthophyllite) which are associated with schists and banded ironstones.
The fibres of chrysoltile are fine, silky and strong. About 4350 m of thread can be
spun from 1 kg of the mineral. It can withstand temperatures upto 2750 C. Asbestos
is separated from the parent rock, fiberized and classified by length. Asbestos as
spinning fibre is used in the manufacture of asbestos cloth, heat insulators, etc.,
whereas the non-spinning fibre is used for the manufacture of millboard, asbestos
cement sheets and shingles, and various composites. As the inhalation of asbestos
fibres can cause pleuro-pulmonary cancer, stringent limits have been put on the con-
centration of asbestos fibres in room air, and the use of asbestos is hence strongly
discouraged. Consequently, the world production has gone down steeply during the
last two decades, and now stands at 1.84 Mt (1998). Asbestos is probably the only
industrial mineral in the world whose production has decreased.
Barite (BaSO4): Commercial barite is formed as fissure and cavity fillings, breccia
fillings, bedded deposits and residual deposits. It is the principal constituent of
lithopone paint (barite and ZnS). It is used as filler in drilling muds, rubber, glass,
lineoleum, etc. For being used in drilling mud, barite is ground finely (ten percent,
minus 325 mesh) it cools the drill bit and confines the high oil and gas pressure at
depth. The world production of barite is 5.89 Mt.
Boron: Borax (Na2B4O7.10H2O) is the principal mineral of boron. It is obtained
from bedded deposits beneath old playas, brines of saline lakes and marshes, encrus-
tations around playas, and hot springs and fumaroles. Chemically refined borax is an
ingredient of baking powder and medical products. It is used in the manufacture of
glass, and ceramics, etc. Its world production is about 4.44 Mt.
Clays: Three types of clays, namely, bentonite, Fullers Earth and kaolin, are
described.
Bentonite: is a clay composed essentially of montmorillonite. It is a product of devit-
rification and alteration of volcanic ash or tuff. There are two classes of bentonite:
the sodium type that swells and increases its volume 1520 times when wetted,
and the calcium type that does not swell. The importance of Na-bentonite in the
waste disposal industry, arises from the following considerations: (1) its high base-
exchange capacity and large surface area (600800 m2/g) enables it to capture and
attenuate the waste elements, particularly, the heavy elements, (2) because of its
small particle size distribution, it can plug even the smallest voids against seepage,
and (3) its high liquid and plastic limits make it a very flexible structural component
(Tewes, quoted by Attewell, 1993, p. 92). A major use of bentonite is for binding iron
ore pellets. Its annual world production is 9.33 Mt.
Fullers earth: is composed predominantly of palygorskite. It is a soft abrasive for
grease removal, and high-grade polish for silver and chromium wares. Its world pro-
duction is 3.32 Mt.
Kaolin: Al2Si2O5(OH)4. The word kaolin is derived from Kaoling in China fine
chinaware has been made in Kiangsi province in China since A.D. 220. The physical
properties of importance are: plasticity, transverse strength, shrinkage, and fusibility.
Kaolins are used not only in ceramics, but also as a filler and paper coater, and in med-
icines, cosmetics, building industry. The world production of kaolin is 39.8 Mt.
Diatomite: It is also known as diatomaceous earth or kieselguhr. It is composed of
microscopic siliceous tests of diatoms. It is friable and light, and when dry, floats on
water. It is used as a filler and filter. Its main use is in filtration of oils, juices, wastes,
medicines, etc. Its world production is 2.15 Mt.
Fluorspar (CaF2 ): occurs as disseminated and replacement deposits in igneous
rocks, such as rhyolites and carbonatites, in association with volcanoclastic sedimentary
rocks, and in hydrothermal deposits. It finds its most important use in steel industry
(to facilitate fusion in the basic open hearth furnace). It is used to make hydrofluoric
acid, from which synthetic cryolite used in aluminium industry, is made. Other uses
are in glass and enamel industry. Its world production is 4.7 Mt.
Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O): is an evaporite mineral. As it occurs in flat and gently
inclined beds, it is generally mined by open pit methods. Its main uses are in con-
struction industry and agriculture. It is used as a retarder in setting time in Portland
cement, and as a soil conditioner and fertilizer in agriculture. It is used for the man-
ufacture of wallboards used in the building industry. Plaster of paris is produced by
calcining gypsum at 300 to 350 F, during which part of water of crystallization is
removed. The world annual production of gypsum is 107 Mt.
Magnesite (MgCO3): occurs both in crystalline and amorphous forms. It has three
modes of occurrence: as replacement of dolomite or limestone, as veins, and in sed-
imentary rocks. Magnesite in commerce refers not only to MgCO3 but also its sintered
products, such as, caustic magnesite (7001200 C) and dead-burned magnesite
(14501500 C). Caustic magnesite is used for sorel cements, and in the manufac-
ture of high-quality floor tiles and wallboard. Dead-burned magnesite is a high-grade
refractory. The world production of magnesite is 10.7 Mt.
Phosphate rock: Phosphate rock is the principal raw material for the production
of industrial phosphatic fertilizers. The principal phosphorus mineral is apatite,
Ca5(PO4)3 (F,Cl,OH). Apatite in magmatic and metamorphic rocks is in the form of
crystalline fluorapatite or chlorapatite Ca5(PO4)3 (F,Cl), with P2O5 content in the
range of 42.341.0%. In sedimentary phosphates (phosphorites), phosphate may
occur in the form of cement in sandstones, or as oolites and concretions. Phospho-
rites should contain at least 20% P2O5 in order to be commercially usable. Raw sed-
imentary phosphate (phosphorite) invariably contains some amount of cadmium,
which ends up in industrial fertilizers. When such industrial fertilizers are applied,
cadmium is taken up by plants and enters the food chain. Some guano phosphorites
(as those of Minjingu, Tanzania) have high contents of uranium (about 200 ppm).
The local farmers directly apply the crushed phosphorite to their crops. The addi-
tion of bentonite to the crushed phosphorite at the time of application, markedly
reduces the loss of nutrient elements through leaching of P (and of U and F as well)
by rainwater, thus preventing the pollution of streams by U and F (Aswathanarayana,
1988). The world production of phosphate rock is 145 Mt.
Salt: Commercial salt is obtained from sedimentary-bedded deposits, brines, sea-
water, surface playa deposits, and salt domes. It is the most familiar of all minerals.
In ancient times, in countries where salt was scarce, salt was as precious as gold,
and was even used as currency (salt of the earth, is he worth his salt?). On an
average, a person consumes 56 kg of salt per year. This works out to about 30 mt/y
for the world population of about 6 billion. Considering that the world production
of salt is 192 Mt/y, it is obvious that the industrial uses of salt are far larger than
human consumption. Salt is used in (1) industries: metallurgical industries (treating
and refining of ores), chemical industries (soaps, dyes, wood preservatives, bleach-
ing), ceramics, refrigeration, (2) agriculture (cattle feed, fertilizer, soil amenders)
(3) medicine, and (4) home.
Sulphur: Sulphur is by far the most important chemical mineral. It occurs both in the
native form, and also as sulphides and sulphates. Sulphur occurs as (1) elemental
sulphur deposits in evaporite rocks, (2) hydrogen sulphide contained in sour natural
gas, (3) organic sulphur compounds found in petroleum, (4) massive deposits of
pyrite, (5) elemental sulphur deposits in volcanic rocks, (6) ores of metallic sulphide
minerals (Jensen & Bateman, 1979, p. 562). Sulphur is used in the manufacture of
soluble fertilizers, synthetic fibres, pigments, explosives, drugs, insecticides, etc.
The world production of sulphur in all its forms is 57.8 Mt.
3.3 COAL
Coals are formed from the accumulation of vegetable debris in specialized environ-
ments. They range in age from Upper Palaeozoic to Recent. The rank of coal (peat,
lignite, sub-bituminous coal, bituminous coal, semi-anthracite and anthracite, in order
of increasing rank) and the degree of structural complexity are determined by the
synsedimentary and post-sedimentary processes to which the vegetable matter has
been subjected. The coal-bearing sequences tend to be so similar that when once a
lithofacies (say, a sandstone) of a particular sequence (say, a Gondwana cyclothem)
are met with, it is possible to predict the existence of coal of a particular rank.
The greater the depth of burial, and the longer the length of burial, the higher would
be the rank of coal. As Hilts law states, In a vertical sequence, at one locality in a
coal field, the rank of the coal seams rises with increasing depth. The rate of rank
increase depends upon the geothermal gradient and heat conductivity of rocks. Where
the geothermal gradient is high (7080 C/km), coal attains bituminous rank at depths
of 1500 m (as in Upper Rhine graben, Germany), whereas in an area of lower gradi-
ent (40 C/km), coal is bituminous only at a much greater depth of 2600 m (Thomas,
1992, p. 21). Thus, Palaeozoic coals tend to be bituminous and anthracitic, whereas
Tertiary coals are generally lignitic.
Coal is formed in fluvial, deltaic and coastal barrier systems. The palaeo-
depositional environments of coal are reconstructed on the basis of the study of the
relationships between the changes in the lateral and vertical sequences and the
depositional settings in the modern analogues of fluvial, deltaic and coastal barrier
systems (Thomas, 1992, p. 5595).
3.3.1 Coal-bearing sedimentation sequences

Coastal barrier and back-barrier facies: The clean barrier sandstones become fine-
grained in the seaward direction and grade landwards into dark grey lagoonal
shales, and marginal swamp areas on which the vegetation was established. As the
barrier sandstones have been constantly reworked, they tend to be more quartzose
than the sandstones in the surrounding environments. In this sequence, upwards-
coarsening, organic-rich grey shales and siltstones are overlain by thin, discontinuous
coals, with bands and concretions of chemically precipitations of sideritic ironstones.
The sequences are generally 2030 m thick, and 525 km in width.
Lower delta plain facies: The lower delta plain deposits are composed of mudstones
and siltstones, ranging from 15 to 55 m in thickness and 8 to 110 km in lateral extent.
Sandstones are common in the upper part of the sequence, indicating shallow water
deposition. As the bays filled, plants grew abundantly, and these provided the veg-
etable debris needed for coals. Thick organic accumulations in the abandoned dis-
tributary channels resulted in the formation of lenticular coal deposits.
Upper delta and alluvial plain facies: Linear, lenticular sandstone bodies upto 25 m
in thickness and width of 11 km, are characteristic of upper delta and alluvial facies.
The massively bedded sandstones are overlain by siltstones. Coal seams in the upper
delta plain facies are more than 10 m in thickness, but are of limited areal extent. A
special characteristic of the transition zone between the upper and the lower delta
plain facies is the formation of peat mires on a widespread platform. The platform
was cut by numerous channels, and there was development of crevasse-splay
deposits. The coals formed on such a platform are thicker and more widespread than
the coals of the lower delta plains (Thomas, 1992, p. 63).
As should be expected, the variations in the thickness of the coal seams are closely
related to the pre-existing topography. The environment of deposition of, and syn-
sedimentary and post-sedimentary changes in, a coal seam has a direct bearing on
the thickness, quality and minability of the seam. Any rise in pressure (due to say,
folding or faulting) or temperature (such as, due to igneous intrusions) could have
the effect of raising the rank of coal.
Syndepositional changes: The combination of thick sediment accumulation and
rapid basin subsidence could lead to slumping and loading structures and liquefaction
effects. Under such loading, coaly material may be squeezed into the overlying strata.
Growth-faulting is common in the coal-bearing basinal sediments. The basement
faults may continue to be active in the sedimentary basin, and their effect may be com-
pounded by faults which owe their origin to gravity sliding within the sedimentary pile.
The jointing or cleat in the high-rank coals, is a consequence of the reduction in
porosity and permeability brought about by the burial, compaction and continued dia-
genesis of the organic constituents of coal.
Post-depositional changes: Folding of coal seams has a profound effect on their
minability. Steeper dipping strata may result in unfavourable overburden stripping
ratios, and may lead to the cancellation of the project. Similarly, in the underground
operations, if the dip of the coal seam is too steep, it can make further working of coal
difficult, and in the case of longwall mining, extraction of coal may have to be given
up. The heat associated with the intrusion of dykes and sills may some times have the
beneficial effect of raising the rank of coal, but the intrusions may also cause problems
in mining. The dykes and sills are generally doleritic. They are extremely hard, and by
their baking effect, they render the surrounding area hard. Such intrusions are partic-
ularly common in the South African coalfields. They need to be carefully mapped, and
their disposition has to be taken into account while planning the mining operations.
A common feature of the coal-bearing sequences is the presence of iron stone
(siderite FeCO3) which is extremely hard. This creates problems in mining, because
of the difficulty in separating coal and siderite. Iron sulphide (pyrite FeS2) may be
precipitated along with coal as disseminations or as thin bands. This gives rise to the
extremely troublesome acid mine drainage (see section 8.1 for details).
3.4 OIL AND NATURAL GAS
Customarily, drilling for oil and water is not included under mining industry.
There is a vast body of literature on all aspects of oil its mode of occurrence,
distribution, extraction, environmental impact, economics, politics, etc. Only the
barest outlines of the oil and natural gas industry is given in this section (just for
purposes of completion).
It is generally accepted that petroleum is derived by the slow decomposition of
the remains of marine and brackish water organisms (such as, plankton and algae)
in an oxygen-free environment. Carbon-14 studies indicate that the process could
take place in less than 10,000 years. The bacteria that exist in seafloor muds are
believed to have converted the organic matter into protopetroleum. Petroleum is
composed of a variety of compounds of carbon and hydrogen, with minor amounts
of oxygen, nitrogen and a little sulphur. There are broadly two kinds of crudes
paraffin-based light crudes (with specific gravity of about 0.8), and asphaltic-based
heavy crudes (with specific gravity nearer to 1.0). Oil is a fugitive mineral it may
migrate from the source rock, and accumulate in structural traps (e.g. anticlines) or
stratigraphic traps (e.g. unconformities) in the reservoir rocks. The presence of
impervious caprocks prevents the escape of petroleum. The migration might be

caused by the compaction of muds, capillarity, buoyancy, gravity and currents.
The differences in the composition of the crudes in different parts of the world
are attributed not so much to the differences in the source material, but due to the
post-depositional processes to which the source material has been subjected.
The age distribution of the known reserves of the worlds oil and gas are as fol-
lows: Cenozoic 29%, Mesozoic 59%, Permian 8%, Precambrian 6%.
The depth versus production of the oil fields in the world is as follows:
Production (per cent of

Depth (in m) total volume)
500 6.9
5001000 32.3
10001500 26.1
1500 34.7
Though some oil wells are deeper than 10,000 m, the most productive wells are
less than 3300 m deep. Some authorities even hold that the best possibilities exist
for wells less than 2000 m deep.
Oil reserves are expressed in terms of billions of barrels (b bbl; one barrel is
equivalent to 42 US gallons 162.75 l). The largest reserves of oil in the world are
in the Middle East and North Africa (391 billion barrels), with Saudi Arabia (137),
Kuwait (74), Iran (62), Iraq (33), Libya (24), etc. having large reserves. Other
important oil-producing countries are: Former Soviet Union (FSU) (42), USA (36),
Venezuela (13), Nigeria (13), Indonesia (11), etc. The oil producing and exporting
countries have formed a cartel called OPEC (Oil producing and Exporting coun-
tries), with headquarters in Vienna, Austria.
CHAPTER 4
Environmental impact of mineral

industries industry-wise
Environmental impacts of any industry cover two broad categories harmful

effects on human health and environment which can be studied objectively, and
social perceptions in regard to unpleasantness and annoyance arising from a partic-
ular environmental situation, which could be highly subjective. History shows that
what is considered unacceptably unpleasant to one group of people enjoying a high
standard of living, may be acceptable to less favoured groups which may be depen-
dent upon the particular activity for their living. This chapter is confined to changes
in the natural biophysical environment arising from the mineral industries.
Though several of the environmental, safety and health issues are common to all
the minerals, each mineral industry has certain specific environmental impacts,
which are unique to it (e.g. red mud in aluminium industry). This chapter deals with
such unique environmental impacts, industry-wise.
4.1 STEEL INDUSTRY
The iron and steel industry is broadly divisible into two types, depending upon the raw
materials used: Integrated steel mills, starting with iron ore, and mini mills, based
on iron and steel scrap. This categorization is of course an over-simplification,
because integrated mills also remelt scrap, and some mini mills include facilities
for the pre-reduction of iron ore.
The following are the principal sectors of the integrated steel works, with each
sector being characterized by a particular kind of environmental impact:
1. Stocking and handling of the basic raw materials, namely, coal, iron ore and
limestone fluxes,
2. Coking, where raw coal is carbonized in coke ovens, to form metallurgical coke
which is used to produce pig iron in the blast furnace, with the recovery of high-
energy, coke-oven gas,
3. Sintering: where the crushed iron ore, and coal fines and coke breeze, are combined
together at high temperature to form a product (called sinter) with appropriate
mechanical strength and porosity to be used in blast furnace. When the lime-
stone fines are added to the mixture at the outset, a self-fluxing sinter can be
obtained. Pelletizing is a related process iron ore fines are hardened as pellets
in a rotary furnace at a high temperature,
4. Blast furnace: This is charged with iron ore, coke and limestone flux, or sinter
or pellets and coke. In the blast furnace, the iron ore gets melted and reduced to
liquid iron. The pig iron and slag are drawn out by tapping, and the gas is recov-
ered from the throat,
5. Oxygen converter: This refines pig iron into steel, through the removal of the
impurities in pig iron, such as, C, Si, P, Mn, etc. Some countries use open hearth
furnace for refining pig iron to steel these are more flexible, and could be
charged with scrap also, apart from pig iron,
6. Casting: to solidify liquid steel in the form of ingots, billets or slabs,
7. Rolling mills: for hot forming solid steel, or cold working of thinner products,
8. Processing units: for ingot scarfing, acid pickling, tinning, galvanizing, lead
coating, etc.
The building costs of steel works are schematically shown in Figure 4.1 (source:
UNEP Tech. Review, 1986, p. 14). It may be noted that investments costs (per t of
steel) in the case of large steel works of high productivity in industrialized countries
are much lower than small, integrated works in developing countries.
Figure 4.1 Building costs of steel works (source: UNEP, 1986, p. 14).
Environment impact of mineral industries industry-wise 85
Presently, there are two main processes of steel making: processes based on reduc-
ing gases (CO, H2) via shaft furnaces or fluidized bed, and processes based on coal.
Gross energy consumption in integrated works (in terms of G cal/t of liquid steel)
is as follows: solid fuel (0.56), coke (2.08), hydrocarbons (0.85), electricity (0.4),
total (3.89). Energy constitutes an important component of the cost of steel making
for instance, energy accounts for 25% of the cost of steel making in integrated steel
works.
The structure of the price of a tonne of rolled steel in the case of integrated steel
mill (flat product works, based on blast furnace and oxygen converter), and mini
bar mill (based on scrap melting with electric furnace), are summarized in Table 4.1
in terms of percentage costs (source: UNEP Tech. Review, 1986, p. 12).
The UNEP document (1986) quotes the production costs of steel in terms of
French Francs in 1978 FF 1081/t for integrated mill, as against 971 FF/t for mini
bar mill. As the market value of the currencies tend to change, the cost figures for
various components are shown in terms of percentages, which are likely to remain
relatively more valid.
4.1.1 Air pollutant discharges in the steel industry

The steel industry has a bad reputation as a dirty industry. Thanks to the technolog-
ical improvements that have been made all over the world to reduce the emissions,
modern installations, such as, coke ovens, sintering plants, blast furnaces, steel mak-
ing shops and rolling mills, can be made reasonably dust-free, if properly operated.
It is not, however, possible to eliminate the pollutants altogether.
The steel works produce particulate emissions (i.e. dust) and gaseous pollutants.
The particulate emissions are of two types: (1) coarse dust particles of larger grain-
size (known as grit or coarse dust) which tend to be deposited on the ground in the
vicinity of the installation concerned, (2) Fine dust particles (of micron and sub-
micron size) or suspended dust which can be carried for long distances in the air.
The gaseous pollutants are: sulphur dioxide (derived from sulphur present in the
Table 4.1 Structure of the price of rolled steel.
Integrated steel mill Mini bar mill
Iron ore (0.8 t iron) 14.4%

Scrap 36%
Power (coal, hydrocarbons, 25.4%
electricity, etc. 700 kg of coking coal)
Electricity (600 kwh) 9.9%
Miscellaneous supplies 13.9% 13.4%
Manpower 18.5% 16.5%
Depreciation 27.8% 24.2%
Total 100% 100%
Table 4.2 Emission of fine particles (in terms of aerodynamic diameter).
Emission
fraction
Operation 30 m 15 m 10 m 5 m 2.5 m Units rating *
Continuous drop 13 9.0 6.5 4.2 2.3 g/Mg D

Conveyor transfer
sites Sinter
Pile formation Stacker
Pellet ore 1.2 0.75 0.55 0.32 0.17 g/Mg B
Lump ore 0.15 0.095 0.075 0.040 0.022 g/Mg C
Coal 0.055 0.034 0.026 0.014 0.0075 g/Mg E
Batch drop Front and loader track
High silt slag 13 8.5 6.5 4.0 2.3 g/Mg C
Low silt slag 4.4 2.9 2.2 1.4 0.80 g/Mg C
Vehicle travel on unpaved roads
Light duty vehicle 0.51 0.37 0.28 0.18 0.10 kg/VKT C
Medium duty vehicle 2.1 1.5 1.2 0.70 0.42 kg/VKT C
Heavy duty vehicle 3.9 2.7 2.1 1.4 0.76 kg/VKT B
Vehicle travel on paved roads
Light/heavy vehicle mix 0.22 0.16 0.12 0.079 0.042 kg/VKT C
* Definition of Emission Factor Rating (see Supplement no. 10, Air Pollutant Emission Factors, Third Edition,
AP-42, US EPA PB 80-199045): A Excellent, B Above average, C Average, D Below Average, E Poor.
fuels or iron ore), nitrogen oxides (arising from combustion processes involving
coke in the blast furnace and coke breeze in the sintering plant, and fuel oil in the
blast furnace), carbon monoxide (from sintering fumes) and HF and HCl (from ores
used in sintering, or from fluorspar that may be charged in the steel melting shop).
Sintering plant is a major source of emissions. For instance, pollutants from sin-
ter contain 1% carbon monoxide in a discharge of 2500 Nm3 per tonne of sinter.
Sintering plant is a major emitter of sulphur oxides and sulphuric acid aerosol.
The quantities of the open dust from various sources (in terms of particle size
range) are listed in Table 4.2 (source: UNEP Tech. Review, 1986, p. 22). These are
indicative of the order of magnitude the actual quantities of dust may vary
depending upon the composition of the raw materials, and the nature of the tech-
nology used. The following qualitative conclusions can be drawn from Table 4.2:
(1) Conveyor transfer sites at sinter plant are a major source of fine particulates,
(2) the emissions from pellet ore are more than for lump ore and coal, (3) the emis-
sions from high silt slag are invariably higher than the low silt slag, in all size
ranges, (4) dust from vehicle travel on unpaved roads is far higher than the travel on
paved roads, and (5) dust from heavy duty vehicles is about seven times more than
that from light duty vehicles, etc.
The standard emission factors of gaseous pollutants (as proposed by OECD) are
given in Table 4.3 (source: UNEP Tech. Review, 1986, p. 23).
Table 4.3 OECD Proposed standard emission factors for gaseous pollutants.
Unit CO SO2 NO2
Sinter plant kg/t sinter 30 2 0.3

Coke oven kg/t coke 1 0.52 0.65
Hot metal production kg/t pig iron 10 0.2 0.5
Steel production converter kg/t steel 15 0.3
Electric arc furnace 10
Rolling mills Kg/t product 1.1
4.1.2 Water pollutant discharges in the steel industry

Water pollution arising from the steel industry is assessed in terms of the follow-
ing parameters: COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand), BOD5 (Biochemical Oxygen
Demand after 5 days), SS (Suspended Solids), Hydrocarbon content, Conductivity
(which is linked to salinity), Toxic substances (inorganic substances, such as Cd,
Cr, Cu, Pb, Ni, Tl, Zn, cyanide, fluoride, sulphide, and organic compounds, such as,
Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). Table 4.4 (source: UNEP Tech.
Review, 1986, p. 25) gives the orders of magnitude of potential pollution).
Waste dumps are likely to get leached, and this process may go on for a long
time. The toxic constituents of the leaching effluent may contaminate the water-
courses, and could end up in the food chain (e.g. vegetables). The pollution poten-
tial of the dumps will be considerably reduced if the deposits have pH value nearer
to 78, and they contain carbonate. At the level of neutral pH, wastes from the steel
industry are likely to be insoluble (solubility: 106 mols/l). However, complexation
with organics may render such substances soluble.
4.1.3 Solid wastes in the steel industry

Steel industry generates the following types of solid wastes:
1. Slag: related to the gangue compounds from the blast furnace and steel melting
shop,
2. Dust and sludge: arising from the screening of raw materials, dry scrubbing of
gases, liquid waste treatments or works cleaning,
3. Used refractories,
4. Oil and gas residues,
5. By-products from coking or from recycling treatments.
The extent of the waste generated depends on the raw materials and the production
process. If the original ores are of low grade, and contain impurities, that will be
reflected in the quantity and the composition of the blast furnace slag. In the case of
electric furnace-based mini mills, little waste is generated.
The order of fugitive dust emissions from an oxygen steelmaking plant is as follows:
(in terms of g/t of steel): Rehandling of pig iron (19), desulphurization of pig iron (16),
converter charging (140), converter blowing (24), miscellaneous (8), total (187).
88
Table 4.4 Extent of the water pollution potential of steel industry.
Hydrocarbons Conductivity Toxic substances

Area COD (kg/t) BOD5 (kg/t) (kg/t) (mRO/cm3 m3t) (mg/l) SS (kg/t) Remarks
All cooling circuits Increase by Products Scant

concentration and (coolant)
treatment products
Sintering, pelletising 0 0 0 Ore impurity, 0.01 Dry dust cleaning
Zn, As, F, S, Cu 0.140 Wetdust cleaning
Coke oven plants 13 inhibited by NH4: 0.4/2.5, 0.32
toxics Phenol: 0.4/08
CN: 5 105, Cl: 1.5
Blast furnace 0.6 Cn 0/2 1.26
Oxygen converter 0.06 0.1 340
Mineral resources management and the environment
Continuous casting 0.050.1 0 0.10.4 0.005 0 030 According to type

hot rolling mills
Pickling 0.5 20 H; 2/3 mols/t various 79
Cold rolling mills 0.10.2 0.10.15 0.11 0.20.4

Surface treatments 0.05 Inhibited by Zn, H , Cl, Sn, Cu, etc. 0.10.15
toxics
4.1.4 Fumes collection in the steel industry

Stockyards and handling areas: In the steel industry, unloading, storage, recovery
and transfer operations in the case of iron ore, coal, coke, limestone, lime and also
slag, take place all the time, creating dust pollution. The following techniques can
be made use of to collect and clean the dust (UNEP Tech. Review, 1986, p. 4951):
(1) installation of hoods above the conveyor belts to suck in the air, and extract the
dust from it (on the analogy of a vacuum cleaner), (2) dozing the coal in the stock-
yard for smoothing and compacting of coal, (3) spraying the stockpiles with water,
with or without surfactants, (4) covering the stockyards with a roof, and (5) build-
ing walls to serve as wind-breaks.
Coke ovens: Pollution occurs during the preparation of the coal, charging the
coal into the oven, the coking process itself, removal of the coke from the oven,
quenching it, screening and handling. Dirty, black dust is visible all around. The
quantities of dust produced are highly variable, and are dependent upon the proper-
ties of coal, the design of the coke oven, and operational procedures.
The progress that has been made in the techniques of reducing the dust pollution,
is illustrated with two examples from coke pushing and the coke quenching opera-
tions. For instance, there are three possible ways of recovering waste gases and
extracting dust from them in the case of coke pushing operations: a wholly mobile
technique, with a mobile hood and dust cleaner coupled to the coke car, a wholly sta-
tionary technique, in which stationary dust cleaner in a covered bay cleans up the
dust, and a combination technique, with a mobile hood connection running along the
length of the battery, and linked to a stationary dust extraction system on the ground.
Similarly, there are wet or dry methods of limiting the emission of particulates in
the coke quenching tower. In the case of wet methods, the quantity and quality of
cooling water, and the system of baffles have to be carefully controlled. To avoid
the hassles of treating large quantities of used water, dry techniques of quenching
are being increasingly used. The dry techniques have two merits: they not only avoid
the emission of particulates and gaseous pollutants, but also allow the recupera-
tion of heat from the hot coke.
The extent of generation of pollutants in the earlier coke ovens, and how the
installation of modern cleaning equipment can drastically bring down the dust pol-
lution in the coke oven are indicated in Table 4.5 (source: UNEP Technical Review,
1986, p. 51).
Sinter plant: The dust collection system in the case of the sinter plant consists of
electrostatic precipitator for the main waste gases, and bag filters for the collection
of dust in the premises. Two 700 kW ventilators are needed to take care of air flow
of 2 million m3/hr over a 400 m2 grid surface.
Blast furnace: Blast furnace has always been regarded as a major source of pol-
lution. The top gas is highly noxious, with 25% content of carbon monoxide, and
it is discharged with 40 kg of dust per tonne of hot metal. Top gas is, however,
a source of energy, and the current practice is to recover the energy in the top gas,
Table 4.5 Effectiveness of cleaning equipment in the case of coke ovens.
Dust pollution before Dust pollution after

Operations treatment, in g/t of coke treatment, in g/t of coke
Coal charging 150 10

Coke pushing 400 10
Coke quenching 350 5
Coke handling 1500 50
Total 2400 50
and remove the dust contained in it, so that the top gas is never discharged into
the atmosphere.
Pig iron refining plants: Pig iron is refined into steel by the removal of impurities
contained in it, such as, silicon, carbon and phosphorus, through the Bessemer
process or open hearth furnace. Bessemer process is obsolete, and the importance of
open hearth furnace is decreasing. Currently, steel refining is mostly done through
oxygen converters. The emissions at the mouth of the converters are composed of
CO, and lesser amounts of CO2, and substantial concentration of fine particles of
iron and oxides, called red fume (about 150 g/Nm3). There are two environmen-
tally acceptable ways of handling the emissions: (1) recovery without involving the
combustion of CO, with the combustible gas being recycled into the energy circuit
of the works, and (2) recovery with the air combustion of CO, whereby the energy is
extracted in the form of steam.
Dust cleaning is usually done by the wet method involving Venturi scrubbers
using high or low pressure drop. Electrostatic precipitators can bring down the dust
content from 120 mg/Nm3 to 10 mg/Nm3. As considerable progress has been made
in the extraction of dust from the waste gases, the focus is now on the fugitive emis-
sions in the oxygen steel making plant. The order of fugitive dust emissions from an
oxygen steelmaking plant is indicated below (in terms of g/t of steel): Rehandling of
pig iron (19), desulphurization of pig iron (16), converter charging (140), converter
blowing (24), miscellaneous (8), total (187). The problem in the case of fugitive
gases is not so much the extraction of dust from them (which is a standard pro-
cedure), but the difficulty in forcing the waste gases into a hood at the front of the
converter. Extremely high suction velocities (e.g. 15 m/s) and throughput (e.g.
300,000 Nm3/h) are needed to achieve this.
Dust cleaning does not come cheap. The cost of investment of dust cleaning
facilities is about 15% of the cost of the steel works itself, and the operating costs
are high.
Scrap melting plants: There are essentially two kinds of scrap melting methods
open hearth process, which takes its heat input from the burners, and the electric arc
method, which uses electricity. In the case of the open hearth furnace, if the intensity
of steel making is low, the rate of emission of fumes would be limited, and it may not
be necessary to install cleaning systems. However, if high top blow technology is
used, the red fume emission would be high, and cleaning systems, such as electro-
static precipitators, will have to be installed.
In the case of electrical furnaces, there are two methods of fume collection:
(1) direct collection of fumes from the fourth hole into the furnace roof (three
holes are taken up by electrodes), and (2) secondary collection of fumes to capture
those gases which are emitted in charging the furnace, and tapping from it. In the
case of a 80 t furnace, the throughput rates are about 1000 Nm3: h/t for the collec-
tion from the fourth hole, and 4000 Nm3/t for secondary fumes. Dust cleaning is
done by bag filter, fitted with needle felts. High-energy scrubbers have been devel-
oped for direct collection only.
Reheating furnaces used in rolling mills are energized by blast furnace or coke
oven gas, or natural gas or fuel oil. Particulate pollution is minimal, and hence no
dust cleaning is needed.
4.1.5 Techniques for reducing gaseous pollutants in the steel industry

Control techniques have been installed in most steel mills to reduce the particu-
late emissions. The emphasis now is on the reduction of gaseous pollutants. Desul-
phurization and denitration constitute the most important techniques for the
elimination of gaseous pollutants in the iron and steel industry (source: UNEP
Technical Review, 1986, p. 5455):
Desulphurization: can be effected in two ways, by chemical treatment through alka-
line products, such as, calcium, sodium, magnesium, ammonium products, etc. or by
physical treatment involving adsorption using activated carbon. Japan achieved desul-
phurization of 90% using the milk of lime for desulphurization. The gases are scrubbed
with calcium (milk of lime or calcium chloride solution) or ammonium based liquid,
to recover SO2 and SO3 in the form of calcium and ammonium sulphate. The new prac-
tice is to link several physical purification processes together for instance, it is pos-
sible to capture residual dust and SO2 together by using bag filters charged with lime.
Denitration: Since nitrogen oxides are formed in the course of combustion, deni-
tration is effected by limiting the formation of nitrogen oxides or removing them as
they form: (1) modification of the combustion process (by lowering the temperature
of the flame, reducing the excess air, cutting down the time spent in the combus-
tion chamber, and technological modifications in the chamber), (2) modification
of the fuel (high-temperature denitrating of the coke beforehand), (3) by the addition
of lime to the sinter burden, nitrogen oxides formed are immediately recovered,
(4) waste gas is denitrated by chemical reaction with a base, catalytic reduction of
nitrogen oxides to molecular nitrogen (by ammonia in the presence of the catalyst
Fe2O3 Al2O3 or V2O5 Al2O3 at temperatures of 200400 C) and consolidation in
the form of dust (to be removed by simple dust collectors).
Dust extraction systems need to be modified continually in response to changes
in steel-making technologies, nature of the feedstock, environmental regulations
(which generally tend to be more and more stringent as time goes on), and markets.
The directions in which progress could be expected in dust collection are as fol-
lows (UNEP Tech. Review, 1986, p. 5961):
1. Electrostatic precipitators are used extensively in the steel industry for dust col-
lection (main gases in the sinter plants, detarring in coking plants, oxygen cutting
and scarfing), as they are economical to use in terms of energy. The performance
of the electrostatic precipitators is being enhanced by adopting higher voltages
(e.g. 150,000 V at the sinter strand), improvements in the design of the emitting
and collecting electrodes, introduction of partitions in the precipitators to mini-
mize the quantity of particles that fly off on impact, improving the efficiency of
wet precipitators by improving the spraying action of the liquid through the use
of an electrostatic device, etc.
2. Use of ring-shaped wet precipitators which operate at high speed (e.g. 20 m/s).
3. Dust collection at high temperatures (say, 6001000 C) through the use of fab-
rics woven from stainless steel fibres, or refractory fibres (e.g. aluminium oxide).
4. Increasing filtering speed through the use of needle felts, to be able to achieve
throughput rates of the order of millions of m3/h.
5. Use of ceramic sponges which can be used both for dust collection and water
treatment.
6. Energy efficiency: The dedusting operations generally use high energy scrub-
bers of the Venturi type for fine-spraying of water into the gas. A more efficient
energy option is the use of convergent jets, whereby a mist of very fine droplets
is formed by making two jets of water under pressure to converge.
7. The new trend is to combine several physical processes in the same appliance,
(e.g. bag filters charged with lime, which could capture both dust and SO2 gas in
one go).
4.1.6 Noise pollution in the steel industry

In the case of steel industry, large capacity blast furnaces (say, 9000 t of pig iron/d)
are a major source of noise. The noise may arise from multiple sources, such as,
balance of high top pressure, charge in the throat, hydraulic drive, blowers, snort
valves on the blast, inversion of hot-blast stoves, safety valves on the top gas ducts,
cleaning of top gas, water cooling pumps and circuits, etc.
Electric arc furnaces may emit upto 120 dB(A) of noise, which could be reduced
by the installation of a system of sliding doors to insulate the furnace from the rest
of the bay. The noise emissions could be reduced by changing from A.C. arc (which
is the source of noise on 100 Hz) to D.C. arc. Induction furnaces are recommended
to be used, as they are noiseless.
4.2 ALUMINIUM INDUSTRY
Berthier gave the name bauxite to the aluminous sediments in the Les Baux area
in France. The term, Bauxite, is now used to designate the Al-rich varieties
of weathering products, composed largely of gibbsite [Al (OH)3], boehmite

(
-AlOOH), and diaspore ( -AlOOH). Bauxite is the principal ore of aluminium. It
should preferably contain not less than 45% of Al2O3, and not more than 20%
Fe2O3, and 35% combined silica. As bauxite is a surficial deposit, it is invariably
mined by opencast mining. The overburden is stripped, and the ore is mined by
draglines and shovels. An ugly scar in the landscape will be left behind, unless steps
are taken to reform the arable layer through appropriate revegetation methods.
Open-pit mining of bauxite produces large amounts of dust. Other operations,
such as transportation of the ore, grinding, sorting, etc. also produce large quantities
of dust. Knowledge of the wind patterns is necessary to design control measures.
Other environmental pollutants are coal dust from steam generators, alumina dust
from calcining stacks, emissions of fluoride and other gases from the refinery, etc.
During the calcination of aluminium hydrate to anhydrous alumina, dust comes
out at both the ends of the kiln. Electrostatic precipitation at one end of the kiln, and
bag filters at the other end help to reduce dust emission. The ash and dust particu-
lates that are emitted by the steam plants along with fine gases are passed through
cyclones before being discharged through high chimneys.
4.2.1 Red mud

Huge quantities of red mud waste are produced in the process of treating bauxite to
produce alumina by the Bayer process. Red mud is by far the most serious environ-
mental problem associated with aluminium industry. It is composed principally of
the oxides of aluminium, iron, titanium and silica, with minor quantities of vana-
dium, gallium, calcium, magnesium, etc. The range of composition of red muds is
as follows: Al2O3: 1530%, Fe2O3: 2050%, TiO2: 528%, V2O5: 0.10.4%, etc.
The amount of red mud produced per tonne of alumina varies from about 1.06 to
1.33 t in India, to as high as 3.5 t in Australia, though 2 t may be taken as typical.
For each tonne of alumina, about 1 to 1.3 t of red mud is produced, depending on
the composition of bauxite. It has been estimated that from one million tonnes of
red mud, about 300,000 t of iron, 60,000 t of titania, and 900,000 liquid alum could
be recovered (source: Monograph no. 5 on Bauxite, 1977, Indian Bureau of Mines,
Nagpur).
Red mud has a coarse fraction (sand) and a fine fraction containing iron oxides,
sodium-aluminosilicates, titanium oxide, etc. The slurry consisting of the insoluble
residue from the caustic liquor is pumped to storage areas, called red mud ponds.
It has been estimated that the disposal of one tonne of red mud requires a space of
0.4 m3. These ponds cause a number of problems: they are ugly to look at, they
occupy a large area, make the surroundings dusty as they dry up, contaminate the
surface water through overflow or rain wash, and the groundwater through seepage,
etc. Extensive R&D studies are going on to ameliorate the red mud problem,
through (1) extraction of valuable metals, such as vanadium, and gallium, and (2)
use of red mud to ameliorate the wastewater, and for making bricks and as a filler.
Gallium is extensively used in the electrical (e.g. vapour arc lamps, electrodes)
and electronics (e.g. rectifiers, transistors, lasers) industries. As the electronics
industry is growing exponentially, there is bound to be an increasing demand for the
metal which fetches a good price in the market (USD 600/kg in 1980). The most
convenient way to recover gallium is from the sodium aluminate liquor obtained in
the Bayer process the liquor has a high content of gallium in a readily available
form, and gallium could be recovered without any preliminary processing.
Vanadium is used in iron and steel industry, to make the steel fine-grained and
uniform, and to improve the ductility and hardness of steel. Other applications of
vanadium are as a colouring agent in the ceramic industry, and as a catalyst in
chemical industries. Vanadium is recovered from the vanadium sludge.
Some companies process the red mud in the form of semi-dry and impermeable
cake, and dump it in the open. The cake gets dried in a weeks time, and can be
dozed. Since the material is dry, seepage would not be a problem. Another option is
washing the red mud to reduce the caustic soda content from about 6570 g/l to
23 g/l, and then transporting the mud in the form of slurry. The critical aspect here
is the prevention of seepage. Either the pond should be sited in an area of low per-
meability, or it should be having layers of compacted clay, or a geosynthetic liner
should be used. Additionally, a series of underdrains could be built to collect any
seepages.
4.2.2 Pollutants from aluminium smelters

The principal pollutants from the smelters are summarized in Table 4.6 (source:
The World Aluminium Industry, v. 1, 1982, Sydney).
Table 4.6 Principal pollutants from Aluminium smelters.
Type of pollution Material produced
Gaseous emissions Carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen fluoride, sulphur dioxide,
carbon disulphide, silicon tetrafluoride, hexafluoroethane, water vapour
Solid emissions Alumina, cryolite, aluminium fluoride, calcium fluoride, carbon, iron oxide
Liquid effluents Fluorine compounds, hydrocarbons (from soderberg plants entrained water)
Smelter waste Spent potlinings, anode butts from prebaked pots, dust from gas cleaning,
sludges from cleaning scrubbing water, material from pot skimming, spills
Paste preparation Coke dust, coal dust fines, hydrocarbon fumes
emissions and wastes
Anode baking Hydrocarbons, fluorides, sulphur
emissions and wastes
Cast house Fluxing flumes (primarily aluminium chloride), trace fluorine, sulphur
emissions and wastes dioxide
Ancillary operations Dust from material handling, demolition of old pots, and
emissions and wastes cleaning of pre-baked anode butts to recover carbon
Aluminium smelters emit approximately 780 m3 of gases per tonne of aluminium

from the cryolite, aluminium fluoride, calcium fluoride and sodium fluoride used in
the electrolytic process. Gas cleaning plants remove tar vapours, carbon monoxide
and other gases. Dust (9697%) and tarry substances (70%) are removed through
the use of electrostatic precipitators. Scrubbing with soda solution traps 98% of HF
and SO2 gases in the form NaF and Na2SO4. After the noxious gases are released,
the emissions are let out through a high chimney.
Cryolite is recovered from the scrubbed solution in the Cryolite Regeneration
Plant. The residual mud after the recovery of cryolite, is neutralized with lime and
sent to the mud pond. The soda solution is also recycled.
An oil-water emulsion is used for cooling and lubrication purposes. As should be
expected, water used for washing and cooling in the fabrication plant gets contam-
inated with oil. The contaminated water is collected into a sump, and the oil which
comes to the top is skimmed off. The water is chemically treated, before being
reused in the process line. The emulsion waste is treated in an emulsion waste dis-
posal plant. The recovered oil is purified, and stored in drums. The water is neu-
tralized, and disposed.
Air quality is measured at the anode paste plant, steam plant, and gas cleaning
plant. Fugitive emissions are measured at the ropeway, bauxite crusher, coal crusher,
alumina silos, weighing bridge/wagon tippler, calcinations/caustic drum storage
yard, foundry pig yard, cell houses/smelter silos, etc. The permissible threshold for
humans set by US National Academy of Sciences in 1971 was 2.45 g/m3 for hydro-
gen fluoride, and 2.15 g/m3 for particulate fluoride.
Ingestion of large quantities of fluoride (say, 2080 mg/d) over a long period
(say, 1020 years) is known to cause skeletal fluorosis in humans and animals.
Cattle may ingest fluoride when they graze plant leaves covered with fluoride-rich
dust from aluminium refineries. Studies in Japan (source: Tsunoda) have shown
that if the atmospheric fluoride level is 1 ppb, the fluoride content of the vegetation
in the area around the aluminium refinery reaches about 30 ppm (dry weight basis).
There is considerable variation in the tolerance of plants for fluoride toxicity. In
Hungary, an oak pine forest has been destroyed to a distance of 800 m from the alu-
minium smelter. Scotch pine forests have been seriously affected upto a distance of
1013 km from the fluoride source.
4.3 BASE METALS INDUSTRY
This account about base metals is drawn largely from the UNEP Tech. Report
no. 5, 1991.
Base metal ores represent about 15% of the tonnages of minerals extracted glob-
ally. The specific environmental problems of the base metals arise from the compo-
sitional nature of the ores, the reagents used for the beneficiation process, and the
potential toxicity of the metals and compounds extracted.
The important sulphide and oxide ores of Cu, Ni, Pb, and Zn are given in Table 4.7.
The metal content of ROM (Run-of-Mine) ores of non-ferrous metals is usually
low (e.g. 1.014% Cu in El Teniente, Chile; 0.87 g/t of Au in Cortez, Nevada, USA).
Hence it is necessary to concentrate the ores at mine site, and then send the
concentrates to a smelter or a hydrometallurgical plant for the extraction of metal
concerned.
Table 4.8 lists the common beneficiating processes.
Unlike the iron ore whose Fe content is generally of the order of 60%, the
content of metal in the base metal ores is usually of the order of a few per cent.
The gangue minerals most frequently present are silica, silicates, carbonates and
pyrite. Occasionally, fluorite and barite may also be present. Acid Mine Drainage
(see section 8.1 for details) is caused by pyrite and pyrrhotite which may be the
principal gangue minerals in the sulphide ores of base metals.
Table 4.7 Ore minerals of Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn.
Metal Sulphides Oxidized minerals
Copper *** Chalcopyrite CuFeS2 ** Malachite Cu2(OH)2CO3

** Bornite Cu5FeS4 * Azurite Cu2O
** Chalcocite CuS * Cuprite Cu3(OH)2(CO3)2
* Tetrahedrite (Cu, Fe, Zn, Ag)12
(Sb,As)4S13
Nickel *** Pentlandite (Fe,Ni)9S8 ** Garnierite 3SiO2.4(Mg,Ni)O.6H2O
*** Millerite NiS *** Lateritic nickel ores
Lead *** Galena PbS ** Cerussite PbCO3
* Anglesite PbSO4
* Pyromorphite Pb5(PO4,AsO4)3Cl
Zinc *** Sphalerite ZnS ** Smithsonite ZnCO3
* Calamine SiO2.2ZnO.H2O
* Zincite ZnO
* Willemite ZnSiO4
* Franklinite
(Fe,Mn,Zn)O.(Fe,Mn)2O3
*** Most important, ** Occasional ore, * Rare.
Table 4.8 Common beneficiation methods (source: UNEP, 1991, p. 16).
Metal Sulphide ore Oxide ore
Copper Gravity, Flotation Gravity, Flotation, Leaching

Nickel Flotation, Magnetic separation
Lead Gravity, Flotation Gravity, Flotation
Zinc Gravity, Flotation Gravity, Flotation
Gold is beneficiated using gravity, flotation and leaching methods.

4.3.1 Pollution of water by base metals

The chemical characteristics of raw mine water in the lead and zinc mines are given
in Table 4.9 (source: Hustrulid, 1982).
Some base metals, such as zinc and copper, are necessary for human health.
Zinc and copper serve the physiological function as metallo-enzymes, and their
Recommended Daily Intake is 15 mg/d and 0.150.5 mg/d respectively. But in high
concentrations, they are toxic to humans and aquatic biota. Heavy metals can pre-
vent the reproduction in fish, and could enter the human food chain by getting con-
centrated in the fish tissue. The toxicity of heavy metals in fresh water depends not
only on the concentration of metals, but also on factors such as pH, water hardness,
presence of other metals and chelating agents, etc. Table 4.10 shows that at low lev-
els of water hardness, even small concentrations of copper and zinc could be toxic
to the fish (source: EEC Council Directive no. 78659).
Table 4.9 Range of chemical characteristics of raw mine water from lead and zinc mines (source:
Hustrulid, 1982).
Mines with acidic characteristics Mines without acidic characteristics

Parameter (concentrations in mg/l) (concentrations in mg/l)
pH (units) 3.0 to 8.0 7.4 to 8.1

TSS * 2 to 5.8 2 to 138
COD ** 15.9 to 95.3 10 to 631
Oil & grease 0 to 3 3 to 29
P 0.002 to 0.075 0.03 to 0.15
Ammonia 0.05 to 4.0 0.05 to 1.0
Hg 0.0001 to 0.0013 0.0001 to 0.0001
Zn 1.38 to 38.0 0.03 to 0.69
Cu 0.02 to 0.04 0.02
Cd 0.016 to 0.055 0.002 to 0.015
Cr 0.17 to 0.42 0.02
Mn 0.02 to 57.2 0.02 to 0.06
Fe 0.12 to 2.5 0.02 to 0.90
Sulphate 48 to 775 37 to 63
Chloride 0.01 to 220 3 to 57
Fluoride 0.06 to 0.80 0.3 to 1.2
* Total Suspended Solids, ** Chemical Oxygen Demand.
Table 4.10 Effect of water hardness on the toxicity of Cu and Zn for fish.
Water hardness (mg/l CaCO3) Cu (mg/l) Zn (mg/l)
10 0.005 0.3
50 0.02 0.7
100 0.04 1
500 0.11 2
Acidity causes the solubilization of heavy metals, and thereby increases the toxicity
of water. Cyanides are lethal to fish even at extremely low concentrations of 0.04 mg/l.
Some of the organic reagents used in ore beneficiation may be toxic. Oil forms a thin
film over water, and could impede oxygenation of water by the atmosphere. It may
also coat the gills of fish. Nitrogen contributes to the eutrophication of water bodies.
4.3.2 Pollution due to flotation reagents

The flotation reagents used in the concentration of base metals are listed in Table 4.11
(source: Environment Canada, quoted in UNEP Tech. Report no. 5, 1991, p. 23).
Flotation processes for the beneficiation of base metals are generally carried out
under alkaline medium. The solubility of heavy metals in water under conditions of
basic pH is low. The limited amount of heavy metals present in the process water is
precipitated with the solid tailings (as in Swedish mines, item I of Table 4.12).
However, if iron sulphides are present in the tailings, and such tailings are used to
build tailings dam, low pH seepage water, similar to acid mine drainage, may get
generated (as in Canadian mines, item II of Table 4.12).
Table 4.11 Typical ore processing reagents (source: Environment Canada, 1987).
Reagents Comments
Acids (H2SO4, HCl, HNO3)

Alkalis (CaO, Ca(OH)2, CaCO3,
Na2CO3, NaOH, NH4OH, NH3)
Frothers and collectors Surface active reagents
Modifiers Surface active organics and various inorganics, such as NaCN,
Na2SO3, CuSO4, ZnSO4, Na2S, AlCl3, Pb(NO3)2, silicates and
chromates
Sodium Cyanide Used for the cyanidation of precious metals, and as depressants
in the flotation of copper, lead and zinc ores
Flocculants, Coagulants Aluminium and iron salts, and organic polymers
Table 4.12 Wastewater quality of tailing ponds at base metal mills.
Cu-Pb-Zn Swedish mines Cu-Pb-Zn Canadian mines
pH 7.58.1 6.59
Turbidity (mg/l) 1 8
Conductivity (S/cm) 6001700
Cu (mg/l) 0.010.003 0.1
Fe (mg/l) 0.110.23 1.0
Zn (mg/l) 0.140.32 0.5
Pb (mg/l) 0.0130.026 0.1
SO4 (mg/l) 190330 n.a.
Thiosalts (mg/l S2O3) n.a. 50
Thiosalts form in the course of flotation of sulphides under alkaline conditions.

If such thiosalts (even at concentrations of few hundred mg/l) find their way to the
tailings pond effluents, they can get oxidized into sulphuric acid, and create serious
environmental problems. When flotation is carried out properly, most of the process
chemicals used in the process, with the exception of the pH modifiers, get adsorbed
on the surface of the minerals. However, if some reagents are used in excess, they
may remain in solution in the mill tailings. When once the reagents reach the tailings
ponds, they will get oxidized, and will therefore not appear in the final effluent. The
kinetics of oxidation is temperature-dependent. In the cold season, oxidation may
not be able to completely destroy the excess reagents which may therefore persist in
the final effluent.
Cyanide at low concentrations is used in the flotation of lead-zinc ores. The con-
tent of cyanide in the flotation tailings is low enough to be removed by natural
degradation, through the process of volatilization of hydrogen cyanide. Large quan-
tities of cyanide are used in the gold processing, and the mode of removal of
cyanide has been described elsewhere (see Section 7.6).
4.4 COAL INDUSTRY
Coal is a critically important mineral in the industrial productivity of any country.

It is used to generate electricity, power the steam engines, smelt iron ore, and pro-
duce a variety of chemicals. No wonder the production of coal (4600 Mt.) far exceeds
other minerals. In the case of countries like USA, coal contributes about one-third
of the energy production. As against this, the contribution of coal to energy pro-
duction far outweighs that of oil and natural gas in the case of countries, such as
China and India.
The environmental impact of coal industry arises from the mining and trans-
portation of coal, washing of coal, combustion of coal, etc. (see Das & Chatterjee,
1988, for a good summary of the topic).
It has been estimated that the progressive disintegration of 1 cm3 lump of
coal may form 1012 particles, and could spread over 283 m3 of working ambient.
Because of their extremely small size (0.210 m), they are invisible to the naked
eye, and could remain suspended in the air for a long time. For this reason, the
ambient air loaded with these dust particles appears deceptively clear. But this dust
is respicable and could cause pneumoconiosis, bronchitis and severe dyspnea
(shortness of breath).
The coal mine dust contains a wide range of non-coal particles, such as silica,
naphthalene, and several Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). It has been
estimated that a mine producing one million tonnes of coal annually, about a tonne
of toxic elements such as, arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, fluorine, lead, mercury, etc.
are liberated as dust or gas where coal is cut from the working face. The dust prob-
lem is greater in arid and tropical climates.
Coal is mainly transported by rail and truck. In countries, which have canals and
navigable rivers, coal is transported by towed barges. Coal is also transported by
sea. The transport of coal involves emission of fugitive dust. It has been estimated
that 0.2 kg/t each is emitted during loading and unloading operations, and the loss
in transit may be 0.051% of total coal (excluding loss to spillage and pilferage).
Szabo (1978) made the following estimates of the atmospheric emissions from a
unit train carrying 1143 t of coal making a round trip of 985 km (in terms of kg/trip):
Particulates: 345; SO2: 780; NO2: 4855; Hydrocarbons: 2075; CO: 935; Particulates
during loading: 2285; Particulates during unloading: 2285; Fugitive emissions in
transit: 5700.
Coal is beneficiated to improve the heat content, while at the same time reducing
the content of mineral matter, including pyrite. In the case of the Gondwana coals,
which are of drift origin, the mineral matter is intimately interspersed in coal, and it
is virtually impossible to remove all sulphur and other mineral impurities present in
the coal. All the steps involved in the beneficiation process, namely, comminution,
sizing, cleaning, dewatering, drying, etc., all contribute to pollution. Huge quantities
of water used in washing, get polluted, and need to be treated before recycling.
Coal is carbonized in coke ovens to produce hard coke suitable for the steel indus-
try. The process produces a series of primary byproducts, such as coal tar, ammonia
liquor or ammonium sulphate, crude benzole and coal gas. Coal tar itself is a com-
plex mixture of aromatic hydrocarbons, such as benzene, naphthalene, anthracene,
pheanthrene and their homologues. Figure 4.2 (source: UNEP, 1986, p. 83) gives the
treatment models summary of the byproducts of coke making.
Carcinogenicity of coal tar derivatives depends upon the temperature of car-
bonization. Distillation products of tar at high distillation temperatures of around
800850 C, are composed of Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) (such as
BP benzo( )pyrene, DBA dibenzo( )anthracene, or DBP dibenzo( )pyrene),
which are known carcinogens. It has been observed that roofing workers who
routinely handle coal tar and pitch products, contracted skin cancer four times, and
lung cancer fifteen times, more than the control group. The carcinogenicity of
anthracene fraction of coal tar arises from its high content of benzo pyrene (27 g
per kg).
The combustion of coal leads to the production of a variety of pollutants, such as
the oxides of sulphur, nitrogen and carbon, as well as particles of ash that get
entrained in flue gases.
Sulphur dioxide is by far the most serious pollutant, because it has impacts on
human health, and it causes acid rain, which damages vegetation and buildings, etc.
In the atmosphere, sulphur oxides get converted into highly corrosive sulphuric acid.
Sulphur may be present in coal in two forms: (1) organic sulphur, and (2) pyritic sul-
phur. About 7080% of sulphur present in the Indian coals is said to be in the organic
form. When coal is subjected to combustion (as in thermal power stations), organic
sulphur is more readily converted to SO2 than pyritic sulphur. Stationary combustion
sources account for 70% of the sulphur emissions. The sulphur emissions from the
Figure 4.2 By-products of coke making treatment models summary (source: UNEP, 1986, p. 83).
coal industry exceed the emission of sulphur compounds from natural processes
world wide.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx) are produced when nitrogen naturally present in coal
reacts with oxygen in the combustion chamber. In the atmosphere, NO gets readily
converted to more toxic NO2, and the production of highly corrosive nitric acid.
Nitrogen oxides can have health effects, can damage crops, and lead to the produc-
tion of secondary pollutants. Fossil fuel combustion accounts for about 95% of the
anthropogenic production of NO2. Los Angeles type of smog is produced when
NO2 and hydrocarbons react photochemically under conditions of atmospheric
inversion. NOx is a radiatively active gas, and has a role in global warming and the
depletion of the ozone layer in the atmosphere (Antarctic Ozone Hole).
Two main groups of hydrocarbons are emitted during coal combustion: (1) Low
molecular weight species, derived from the volatile matter present in the raw coal,
and (2) High molecular weight species which are emitted as fine particles, or more
commonly adsorbed on fie particles. In moderately large boilers (say, 25 MW), the
volatile fraction (measured as CH4) and particulate fraction (measured as benzene
soluble organics) is of the order of a few milligrams per m3 of flue gas.
Pre-treatment of coal, fluidised bed technologies and the advanced, low-polluting
coal combustion system, called Low NOx Concentric Firing System (LNCFS), are
making it possible to make efficient use of high-ash coal, with reduced emission of
gases.
4.5 INDUSTRIAL MINERALS
The following account is drawn from an excellent study of Saxena and Chatterjee
(1988) about the environmental impact of mining of some industrial minerals in the
state of Rajasthan, India. This study has been chosen as a case history, as quantitative
data has been reported about the degree of loss of biodiversity, and reduction in the
biomass productivity, as a consequence of mining of industrial and other minerals.
It has been estimated that wasteland constitutes about 27% of the land area of
Rajasthan. Though exact figures are not known, mining is undoubtedly the princi-
pal cause of degradation. In western and southern Rajasthan, mining has resulted in
vast areas of land becoming barren, unproductive, and deeply pitted.
Gypsum: Gypsum is mined after the removal of the overburden (60120 cm).
There are mounds of 211 m height. Excavation brings up salts from lower depth.
Desmostachya bipinnata (dab) grass is the preponderant vegetation, and is probably
an indicator for gypsum, while Peganum harmala (harmal) appears to be an indica-
tor of crystalline gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O). Unmined sites show 34 species of trees
and shrub, while the mined sites have none. The herbage yield from the mined sites
varies from 0.922.5 t/ha, as against zero to 0.09 t/ha for the mined sites.
Fullers earth and bentonite: The inhospitable habitat conditions coupled with
the removal of vegetation by the labourers for fuel wood, has severely degraded
the vegetation. Only a few stray, deformed, cushion-shaped tree species stumps
(510 plants/ha) of kumut (Acacia Senegal), jal (Salvodora oleoides), kangkera
(Maytenus emarginata) are observable. The ground vegetation of the unmined
sites includes bui (Aerva psuedotomentosus), sannia (C. burhia), tantia (Elesine
compresa) and several grass species. The mining sites and mine spoils areas do not
support any shrub or tree species. Old mining waste dumps support a few pioneer
colonizer species, such as dhamsa (Gagonia cretica), bhoorangni (Solanum
surattense), chamkas (Corchorus depressus), etc.
Ochre and china clay: Red and yellow ochres are mined after the removal of
6090 cm of the overburden soil of the pediment plains. The excavation has been
continued, resulting in a huge pit of 200 300 m which could serve as a water
reservoir or a fishpond. Almost all the firewood material has already been removed,
as evidenced by tree stumps. The natural vegetation surrounding the mine includes
Phoenix sylnestris, Delonix elata, Acacia nilotica, Cassia auriculata, etc. All the
pits are devoid of any vegetation.
China clay is mined after the removal of top soil (60100 cm). The mining site
does not support any perennial vegetation except a few short-lived annual species
which are capable of serving as pioneer colonizing species on disturbed substra-
tum. As usual, firewood and shrub species have been severely exploited.
Marble: Marble is mined after the removal of thin overburden of 90150 cm of soil
overburden. Tree density varies from 2440 plants/ha, whereas grass clusters range
1520/ha. The ground flora includes dab (D. bipinnata), tantia (Eleusine compressa),
beoni (Tephrosa purpurea), etc. Old mine spoils with good soil cover gets easily
established by trees and shrubs like vilayati babool (P. juliflora), ak (C. procera),
munj (Saccharum bengalense), etc. These exhibit a density of 6 plants/1000 m2, with
25% crown cover. During monsoon, colonization of annual species takes place.
Sandstone: Sandstone is mined in large-scale quarries. Heaps of overburden 510 m
high are scattered haphazardly. They occupy a much larger area than the actual area
of mining. Unmined hilly part provides 2055 shrubs/ha with 69% crown cover,
and above ground biomass of 1.0 t/ha. Some sandstone pits are quite large and deep,
and could be developed for fish culture. Scrubby vegetation, such as thor (Euphorbia
caducifolia) and gangeran (Grewia tenax) community (6090 shrubs/ha) is charac-
teristic of unprotected hillocks.
Soapstone, pyrophyllite, wollastonite and calcite: The minerals are mined after
the removal of 120150 cm soil overburden. Heaps 35 m high are scattered all over
the area. Due to fifty years of mining activity, the vegetation as a whole is in a highly
degraded condition, whereas the mining areas are completely bare. The degraded
and deformed trees and shrubs pertain to rehonja (A. leucophloea), dhak (Butea
monosperma), anwal (Cassia auriculata), etc. with a density of 1520 plants/ha.
In the case of calcite mining area, the luxuriant vegetation in the unmined area is in
sharp contrast with the mined area which is devoid of vegetation. In the unmined
area, there is tree density of 15 plants/100 m2, with more than 50% crown cover. The
important tree species are, jamun (Syzygium cumini), baheri (T. bellerica), gular
(Ficus glomerata), etc. The stone debris of mining does not support any vegetation
as there is no soil cover.
Limestone: This is mined by mechanized methods, to provide the raw material
to the cement factories. As a consequence of cutting down of vegetation for fuel-
wood, the vegetation in the area is generally degraded. Deformed stumps of dhokra
(Anogeissus pendula) and salaran (Boswelia serrata) could be seen at a density of
6090/ha. The gravelly and bouldery muck dumped in the valley is completely
devoid of any vegetation. At one point, excavation created a large, deep (27 m) pit,
which could later serve as a water reservoir or a fish pond.
Rock phosphate: The rock phosphate is mined on a large scale using heavy equip-
ment. Mine spoils, 2050 m high, could be seen all over the place. The unmined area
supports an open plant community of Butea monosperma and Wrightia tinctoria.
The associated shrub vegetation is anwal (Cassia auriculata) and neel (Indigofera
argentea). Annual grasses grow in profusion during the monsoon time. Propopsis
juliflora is a pioneer colonizer on the tailings dump.
Mica: This is the only industrial mineral which is mined by underground mining.
Colourful flowering of Saccharum during winter is an indirect indicator of the exis-
tence of mica, but needs to be confirmed by drilling. The mica mining areas support
plant community of Acacia nilotica, and C. deciduas (3560 plants/ha). Very old
mica dumps (2.4 m high) support a few perennial species such as dhak (Butea
monosperma) and khemp (Leptadenia pyrotechnica).
The following plant species are suitable for being used for revegetating mining
spoils/tailings of gypsum, bentonite, Fullers earth, and clays (Saxena & Chatterjee,
1988).
Trees: Prosopis juliflora (vilayati babool), Acacia tortilis (Israeli babool),
Salvadora Oleoideas (jal).
Shrubs: Sueda fruticose (kala lana), Haloxylon salicomicum (jeriolena),
H. recurvum (sajilana), Indigofera oblongata (goila).
Undershrubs: Aerva persica (bul), Crotalaria burhia (sannia).
Grasses: Dichanthium annulatum (kerac), Sporobolus marginata (dave), Chloris
virgata (kalia), Cynodon dactylon (doob), Desmostechya bipinnata (dab).
Apart from the nutritional and other deficiencies of the mine dumps, any revege-
tation of the mined land has to take into account the fact that the area is arid. So the
local hardy species together with the introduced successful exotics should be tried.
For instance, Dichrostachys (kolai) and Balanites aegyptiaca (hingola) produce
root suckers in course of time.
Large-sized pits are produced as a consequence of the mining of limestone and
sandstone. These get filled during the monsoon time, and water remains in them for
about six months. Fish can be grown in these ponds during these periods. By stock-
ing the ponds with selective breeds, by giving the fish supplemental feed and by
adopting a cycle of harvesting by which only adult fishes are caught, and the finger-
lings left behind, it is possible to get good returns from the ponds. During years of
excessive rainfall, the pond water could be used for sprinkler irrigation. Some unsuit-
able quarry pits could be filled by rock debris and used for groundwater recharge.
CHAPTER 5
Impact of mining on the environment

waste-wise
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Almost all the mining involves the penetration of the lithosphere through quarries,
opencast mines and the underground mines. Hydrosphere comes into the picture in
the process of working the river placers and extracting minerals (usually heavy
minerals, but in the case of Namibia, diamonds) from the seabed. Mining and extrac-
tion of minerals have impacts on rocks, soils, water, air and the biota.
Three types of changes may be expected as a consequence of mining: (1) Change
in the natural topography, and the consequent disturbance in the suitability of land
for various uses, such as, agriculture and forestry, (2) Change in the hydrogeological
condition, affecting groundwater and surface water, and (3) Change in the geotech-
nical conditions resulting in the deformation of the natural conditions of the rock
mass, including dislocations the surface (Vartanyan, 1989, p. 39).
The impact of mining in a given district is determined by the geological charac-
teristics of the rocks, such as, age, lithology, structure and tectonics, geomorphic
setting, weathering, etc. Most of the Archaean belts have undergone polyphase
metamorphism and deformation. On the other hand, some of the younger forma-
tions may be flat-lying and unmetamorphosed. Igneous and metamorphic rocks are
generally much harder than the sedimentary rocks. In the tropical countries, weath-
ering can go very deep.
Surface mining usually involves the removal of the soil cover and the detritus
through the use of scrapers, bulldozers or digging machines, followed by the
drilling and blasting of the rock below it. The mined material is crushed, stored,
dressed and concentrated in various ways. These operations have the effect of chang-
ing the stress balance in the rock, hydrostatic pressure in the pores and aquifers, and
releasing dust and gas into the atmosphere. The resulting vibrations, landslides, and
contamination of soil, water and air may adversely affect people, animals, vegetation
and engineering structures.
The response of the rocks to drilling and blasting depends upon the geotechnical
properties of the rocks (Johansson, 1986; Zhu, 1986; Nilsen, 1986; Lappalainen, 1986,
quoted by Vartanyan, 1989). For instance, the strength index in uniaxial compression
of some granites have been found to vary from 38 to 275 Mpa depending upon the
modal composition and stress orientation of a granite. The uniaxial compression
strength of a sandstone may vary from 58.3 Mpa in dry state to 29.1 Mpa when wet;
shearing strength perpendicular to the bedding is 4.1 Mpa and parallel to it, 2 Mpa,
and so on.
The stability of rock masses is determined by the presence of fractures, folds and
faults. Intrusive rocks generally have three main conjugate system of joints, which
intersect each other, leading to cubical joints. Folding determines the kind of joint-
ing in gneisses and shales. Some rocks have cavities in the fractures, which are
often filled with clays that swell when moistened. The swelling could be as high as
80%. This results in strong pressure leading to rock displacement. In the solid rock,
permeability is generally low.
Rock stress changes as mining progresses. Hence, it is essential to monitor the
stress. Vertical stress is about one-third to one-half of the main horizontal stress.
Some studies show that the horizontal stress in the bedrock could increase from
5 Mpa at the surface to about 50 Mpa at a depth of 700 m.
5.2 IMPACT OF MINING ON THE GEOENVIRONMENT
5.2.1 Impact of mining on the lithosphere

Mining involves the extraction of large quantities of rocks, liquids and gases from
the depths of the earth, and therefore causes damage not only on the surface but also
to depths of hundreds and thousands of metres.
In the case of surface mining, the extent of geomorphic change is conditioned
by the thickness of the overburden covering the deposit, the quantity of barren rock
that needs to be excavated per unit of the extracted mineral and the area of the mine.
Underground mining may lead to surface subsidence with consequent disturbance
to surface runoff, formation of water-filled depressions, and flooding in the coastal
areas or near lakes.
When the horizontal layer deposits are mined, waste banks are left behind in the
worked out area as the mining front advances. This leads to the formation of alter-
nating ridges and depressions of the waste rock. In the case of steeply-dipping
lodes, big cone-shaped excavation pits form.
Wind-blown dust, spontaneous combustion and contamination of precipitation are
some of the adverse consequences of the waste dumps. Also, the waste dumps use and
degrade land that could be used for farming or forestry. For instance, in the former
East Germany, the mining of brown coal decreased the farm land by 320 km2, and
forest land by 90 km2 (these degraded lands have subsequently been ameliorated).
Mining under water generally involves dredging of loose sediments under water.
If the sediments involved are alluvial sediments, then the river beds, flood plains
Impact of mining on the environment 107
and river terraces will be affected. Dredging may leave behind waste dumps and small
valleys. The mining of the estuaries and intertidal zones (usually for heavy minerals)
disturbs the balance between the land and sea, and may trigger beach erosion.
Cavities are formed underground when geotechnical methods of mining (such as,
leaching, dissolution, fusion) are used. This leads to increase in porosity and decrease
in the strength of the rocks. The area becomes prone to collapse of roofs and sub-
surface subsidence. Instances are known of collapse of rock-salt mines when water
entered the abandoned mine and dissolved the salt pillars left there for roof support.
Underground gasification of coal in the Angren coal basin in the former Soviet
Union (involving a coal seam 515 m thick at a depth of 100130 m, in an area of
about 1 km2) gave rise to one of the biggest landslides in the world, with a volume
of 0.8 km3 spread over an area of 8 km2 (Vartanyan, 1989, p. 42).
Landslides and rock and mud flows are common in the mining areas, especially
when the wastes are dumped on the hillsides. For instance, the volume of the mud-
flow arising from the Yimen copper mine in China, was of the order of 200,000 m3.
Another mudflow of the volume of 100,000 m3 from a mine in Yunnan, China,
destroyed 6.2 km2 of the fertile land on the plain. The mining of limestone and
dolomite over a length of 40 km in Mussorie Hills in U.P., India, had disastrous
environmental consequences. The mine owners picked up only the very high-grade
material (50 mm size stones which are in demand for the sugar industry) and more
than 30% of the ore (50 mm size material) was cast off to slide down the 3050
slope. When heavy rains saturate the loose material, the debris flow cascades into
the valley, clogs the river channels and gets spread over agricultural fields. The
vibrations caused by the blasting operations destabilized the hill slopes, by opening
out joints, fractures, fissures and cracks. This triggered mass movements, and reduced
the discharge of springs (e.g. Shahastradhara, which means thousand discharges)
which feed the streams. Consequently, many streams dried up (quoted from
K.S. Valdiya, in Environmental Geology, 1987).
5.2.2 Impact of mining on the hydrosphere

Mining profoundly affects the hydrosphere in the following ways: (1) Groundwater
table is lowered for mining to take place, (2) Mine water is discharged into the river
systems, (3) Seepage from the settling tanks and evaporators adversely affect the
quality of groundwater, and (4) Water is pumped into the ground for the extraction
of a mineral (say, salt).
Figure 5.1 (source: Vartanyan, 1989, p. 43) illustrates how the water drawdown
in the course of the mining affects the hydrological processes. It shows how with
the increase in the volume of mining activities and water pumping, a cone of
depression comes into existence rapidly, the transient ground flow is reduced, and
the mineralization of mine water and river water increases, with time.
As a consequence of the surface mining, all the aquifers above a mineral deposit
may be drained. In the case of the aquifers below a mineral deposit, water pressure
Figure 5.1 Diagram illustrating how the water drawdown in the course of mining affects the hydro-
logical processes (source: Vartanyan, 1989, p. 43).
will be reduced, resulting in the formation of cones of depression. Also, surface

mining involves the placement of large waste water ponds, seepage from which can
pollute both surface water and groundwater.
Underground mining results in the dewatering of rock and reduction in the
hydraulic head. The consequences of removal of large quantities of groundwater
are the compaction of sand and clay, development of major jointing, surface subsi-
dence and damage to mine shafts and other installations. For instance, coal mining
in the Upper Silesian basin of Poland at a depth of 400 m, adversely affected the
hydrological regime in an area of 1200 km2. Coal mining in the Guishou province
of China has caused the subsidence of 0.10.3 m over an area of 93,000 km2. Gold
mining at a depth of 3000 m in the Western Rand area of the Republic of South
Africa, has resulted in the formation of karstic sinkholes with depths of about 60 m
and diameter of 90 m. In one district in the karstic region in the Urals in the former
Soviet Union, the mine drainage increased the groundwater discharge from 3000 to
20,000 m3/h.
The depression of groundwater levels and piezometric cones may sometimes
lead to complete dewatering of the aquifers in the mining area. The size of the cones
of depression depends upon the geological structure of the area and the type of
mining. It may vary in radius from a few hundred metres to tens of kilometers. In
districts where there is extensive mining, the cones may link up and cover the whole
region, As a consequence of mining, huge cones of depression with a radius of
1015 km have formed. Computer simulation has indicated that by the beginning of
the twentyfirst century, the groundwater level in the European part of Russia may
get lowered by hundreds of metres, and piezometric cones of more than 200 km may
develop.
As is well known, groundwater resources are depleted within the limits of the cones
of depression. The water wells may go dry, and serious shortages of water may
occur. Surface water resources may also be affected. The direction of movement of
groundwater may change, and the springs feeding the streams may dry up. Swamps
fed by groundwater seepages and fertile paddy soils (like gleysols and fluvisols) in
the low-lying areas may be drained, thus affecting the productivity of land and the
ecosystems. Small rivers and streams are particularly susceptible to the adverse
consequences arising from mining, such as the inflow of highly mineralized waters
and the reduction in the runoff.
When water under pressure is used for mining, the hydrological consequences
are exactly the reverse of normal mining the groundwater level may rise, artificial
springs may come into existence, and the groundwater recharge and rise in the water
level may occur in the vicinity of settling, tailing and clear water ponds, etc.
Mining has a profound effect on the geochemistry of both surface waters and
groundwaters. The chemical composition of mine waters may range from freshwater
to brine, depending upon the chemical composition of the pore water in the drained
layers, and the content of the soluble salts in the formations. The waterrock inter-
action, particularly in the oxidation zone created by the mine workings, renders the
waters highly acidic and capable of taking into solution a variety of toxic and heavy
metals, such as, lead and cadmium. Where the mine water is discharged into streams,
seepage invariably occurs, contaminating the groundwater. The stream water and the
groundwater thus polluted become unfit for human consumption or even for irriga-
tion, unless and until it is cleaned.
A case history of coal mining from Guandong and Guizhon areas in China, illus-
trates how serious the hydrogeochemical consequences could turn out to be. The
coal seams have a high sulphur content, and as expected, the mine waters have a
highly acid pH, as low as 2 to 3. The mine waters from Guizhon contained ten times
the allowable concentration of contaminants. When the mine water was discharged
into the streams, there was a marked decline in the catch of the fish and shrimp.
When the water was used for irrigation, the yield of farm crops declined. It has been
estimated that the polluted waters contaminated an area of 47,000 ha of rice paddies
(Mengxiong & Alsong, 1989).
5.2.3 Impact of mining on the atmosphere

Dusts and gases are emitted in the course of working of the mineral deposits, or
from dumps of coal and ore, waste tips, tailings, etc.
In the opencast mines, dust may be released in the course of blasting. Escaping
gases from rock and mineral masses, exhausts from the internal combustion engines
in the mining machinery, gases released from the waste tips, etc. contribute to the
gaseous emissions from the opencast mining. In the case of underground mining, air
released from the underground workings, and rock masses, pollute the atmosphere.
Methane, carbon monoxide, nitrogen oxide, and sulphur compounds may be
released to the atmosphere in the process of mining. For instance, huge quantities
of methane are released during coal mining in the Donetsk Coal Basin in the former
Soviet Union (2.5 billion m3 of gases, of which methane constitutes 32%). The
extracted gas is used as boiler fuel.
Burning waste tips discharge noxious gases into the atmosphere. A medium-sized
burning waste tip, can emit annually: 6201280 t of SO2, 1130 t of NO2, 330500 t
of CO, and 230290 t of H2S. There were instances where a burning waste tip
polluted the air for about 2 km around. As coal contains sulphur in the organic form
of pyrite (FeS2), the burning waste tips of coal mines discharge large quantities of
SO2 and H2S. It has been estimated that a total of 175 million tonnes (Mt) of gases
are discharged from all the waste tips of the coal mines in the world. This amount
includes 23 Mt of CO, 2 Mt of SO2, 0.9 Mt of H2S and 0.3 Mt of NO2.
Blasting operations in quarrying and opencast mining pollute the atmosphere
through dust and gases. For instance, if 200300 t of explosives is used for blasting
in a particular operation, the volume of the dust generated may be of the order of
2025 million m3. Blasting operations also discharge nitrogen compounds, such as
NH3 and NO2, into the atmosphere. One tonne of explosives produce 4050 m3
nitrogen oxides.
The discharge of dusts and gases into the atmosphere is bound to have health
effects. It has been reported that in the highly industrialized Ruhr District of Germany,
the incidence of respiratory diseases is 60% above the national average.
High intensity noises, which are generated during blasting and the operation of
the mining machinery, are hazardous to human health.
It is now a common practice in most of the mining areas in the Industrialized
countries to monitor the air continuously, for (1) the discharge, content and pre-
cipitation of dust and the concentration of heavy elements like cadmium, lead, etc.
in air (pg/m3), and (2) the concentration of gases such as, SO2, CO2, H2S, NOx, NH3
etc. in the air. When the ambient levels rise beyond the prescribed loads, corrective
action is taken promptly to bring down the concentrations to the acceptable levels.
To prevent loss and minimize pollution in the course of long rail transportation
from the mine to the smelter, ore concentrates (e.g. PbZn) are packed in heavy duty
polythene bags. When the concentrates are transported by open trucks for short dis-
tances (say, less than 50 km), a minimum moisture content of 8% is maintained.
5.2.4 Impact of mining on the biosphere

Mining activity adversely affects the biosphere through the loss of the farming land,
and through the degradation of the ecological systems. Microclimate in the mining
area is also affected. Land subsidence in the areas of underground mines, and the
creation of waste tips lead to the destruction of the vegetation, and the death of animals
and birds. It should not be forgotten that man is a part of the biosphere, and he cannot
avoid being adversely affected when the vegetation and the animals are degraded.
Acid mine drainage from mining areas contains toxic substances, and pollutes
the soil and water. Numerous instances are known from all over the world whereby
the rivers down stream of mines have been rendered virtually devoid of life. In Feb.
2000, leachates from the cyanide wastes of an Australian-operated gold mining
company in Romania entered the Danube river through the Tizsa (a tributary), and
caused an ecological disaster. For several tens of kms. of the stretch of the Danube
river in Hungary, and Yugoslavia, hundreds of tonnes of dead fish were found
floating in the waters, and the birds which ate the fish also died. The wastes from
the Outukumpu copper mine in Finland killed fish in the Ruutunene River and
Sismaervi Lake 10 km downstream. Fish appeared again when the pollution has
been cleaned up. In the northern areas of the Russian Republic, fish have stopped
spawning near mines, and polar foxes, lemmings and willow grouse have left the
mining areas. Wild reindeer evidently dislike the pollution so intensely that there
are instances of their going 150200 km away from the mining areas. When the lakes
in the mining areas are polluted, birds are known to desert their traditional nesting
sites on the lakes.
Coal mines generally use timber for roof support. Experience shows that a coal
mine with a production of (say) 400,000 tonnes per annum, uses 9000 to 12,000 m3
of timber, which is usually obtained from the local forests. Thus, local forests tend
to disappear unless tree crops are grown to provide the wood needed on a continu-
ing basis. Dewatering of the mines may lead to significant changes in the vegetation
in the mining area.
Plants are particularly susceptible to atmospheric pollution. The intensity of pho-
tosynthesis is adversely affected by pollutants such as, sulphur dioxide, carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons, which cause necrosis of leaves, inhibition of growth
and early leaf fall. Eventually, the plants wither and die. Space photographs clearly
show the devastation of the vegetation caused by mining in different parts of the
world (e.g. nickel mining in Sudbury, Canada, and zinc mining in Norway).
5.3 HYDROGEOLOGICAL AND GEOTECHNICAL FORECASTING
In any branch of human activity, wisdom lies in anticipating the shape of things to
come, and being prepared to face the eventualities that may arise. This philosophy
holds good for the mining industry as well. The principles of hydrogeological and
geotechnical forecasting are summarized as follows (Vartanyan, 1989).
Hydrogeological forecasting: Hydrogeological forecasting involves (1) forecasting
the cones of depression during the dewatering of the deposits, (2) evaluation of the
effects of dewatering on the existing and proposed water abstractions, (3) forecast-
ing the effects of dewatering on the surface run-off, (4) forecasting changes in the
quality of the drainage, (5) forecasting the groundwater pollution from the mining
effluent ponds, etc. Hydrodynamic, balance and hydrogeological analogue methods,
etc. are used for the purpose. The hydrodynamic methods, which are based on the
resolution of the infiltration continuity equation for various initial and boundary
conditions, yield satisfactory results if the rock structures are fairly homogeneous.
The hydrogeological analogue method makes use of the similarity in the hydrolog-
ical settings between a mining situation for which considerable operating data is
available, and the mine to be studied. It is not necessary that the two mines should be
of similar size; it is enough if the hydrological settings are similar (Vartanyan, 1989;
Wood, 1981; Day et al., 1984).
Forecasting geotechnical conditions: Forecasting geotechnical conditions involves
the evaluation of the possibility and extent of subsidence, displacement and cave-
ins at the ground surface; land-slides and collapses of natural and man-made slopes;
evaluating the weathering qualities of rocks, their ability to withstand long-term
loading (for the siting of the waste tips and tailings storage), future compaction
of rocks, change in the strength characteristics, development of karst, bulging,
deformation of waste tips, etc. (Vartanyan, 1989, p. 82). Evidently, the forecasting
has to take into account the mining practices, such as roof caving, back filling,
leaving pillars behind, etc. The analogy method is widely used to forecast geotech-
nical changes, i.e. whatever happened in a similar kind of mine under similar
geotechnical conditions, is likely to happen in the mine in question. Apart from
mathematical simulation, mechanical simulations using materials similar to those
in the mine can be used to forecast the safe excavation angles and the ground surface
effects.
The strength of the rock determines its susceptibility to slide, to undergo dislo-
cation, to be fractured and to resist weathering. It is estimated on the basis of the
following parameters: uniaxial compressive strength (Cu or c), the uniaxial tensile
strength (T or T) in the dry and water-saturated state; peak or residual shear
strength (); the ultimate strength in bending (bend) and the rock hardness ratio
(Sergeev, 1984, quoted by Vartanyan, 1989; Farmer, 1983).
Hazard zoning is a part of the Preparedness Systems for the mitigation of hazards
(see Aswathanarayana, 1995, Chap. 9 of Geoenvironment: An Introduction).
Hazard maps may be prepared on the basis of the geotechnical properties of rocks,
and the ways in which the rocks are likely to react to mining. It is possible to pre-
dict the sites which are prone to rock bursts, landslides, cave-ins, etc.
5.4 SOLID WASTES FROM MINING
Mining industry produces more solid wastes than any other industry. The aggregate
volume of mine tailings produced in the world has been estimated to be 18 109 m3/y
(Frstner, 1999, p. 13). Certain kinds of solid wastes, such as, waste products of
quarrying for building stone, lime for cement and agricultural use, filters (e.g. gyp-
sum, barytes), and roadstone, are generally inert. Consequently, water percolating
through them does not undergo any significant chemical changes. If the waste con-
tains crushed material, the Total Suspended Solids (TSS) content of the percolating
water could increase.
When the soil or sediment cover is removed in the process of quarrying, their fil-
tering and attenuation capabilities would have been lost, thus exposing the ground-
water to greater risks of pollution. Groundwater could also be contaminated due to
some ancillary activities associated with quarrying, such as, accidental spillages of
fuel oil, leakages from storage tanks or toilets for workers, or draining of water from
the surrounding areas into the quarry, etc.
Solid wastes arising from the mining of coal, lignite, metallic sulphides, uranium,
etc. tend to contain pyrite (FeS2). Under oxidizing conditions, and in the presence
of catalytic bacteria, such as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, pyrite gets oxidized into
sulphuric acid and iron sulphate. Thus, surface runoff and groundwater seepages
associated with waste piles tend to be highly acidic, and corrosive, and contain high
concentrations of iron, aluminum, manganese, copper, lead, nickel and zinc, etc. in
solution and suspension. The discharge of such waters (known as Acid Mine Drainage
or AMD) into streams destroys the aquatic life, and the stream water is rendered
non-potable. The ubiquitous gangue minerals, such as calcite and quartz, are less
soluble and reactive (ways and means of ameliorating AMD have been discussed in
detail under section 8.1).
The solid wastes produced in mining activities which could contaminate water
resources through leaching and effluent production, are listed in Table 5.1 (source:
Laconte & Haimes, 1982).
Figure 5.2 (source: Laconte & Haimes, 1982, p. 4) is a schematic depiction of how
mining activities could contaminate the water resources. Fly ash is reactive because
of its high surface area to volume ratio. Leaching of the fly ash may produce efflu-
ents containing toxic elements, such as, Mo, F, Se, B and As. Low pH leachates
from fly ash may give rise to problems of iron floc formation in surface waters.
When the flue gases are scrubbed, the resulting sludge will typically contain
cyanide and heavy metals. Its pH will be low, unless neutralized by lime. It has been
reported that mixtures of sludge, lime and fly ash will set rapidly to a load-bearing,
low-permeability, solid which is not easily leachable. Two benefits accrue from this
Table 5.1 Solid wastes from mining (source: Water Resources and Land Use Planning).
Rate of effluent or solid waste

Source Potential characteristics of leachate/effluent production
Coal-mine High total dissolved solids. Suspended 105107 m3/y

drainage solids. Iron. Often acid. May contain high
chlorides from connate water
Colliery Leachate similar to mine drainage waters 105107 t/y of wastes per colliery.
waste Quantity of leachate depends on climate
Metals High total suspended solids. Possibly 105107 t/y of wastes per mine.
low pH. High sulphates from oxidation of Quantity of leachate depends on
sulphides. Dissolved and particulate metals. climate
Washing and mineral dressing waters may
contain organic flocculents
Power Pulverized fuel ash. Upto 2% by weight of 104106 t/y
generation soluble constituents, sulphate. May contain
(thermal) concentrations of Germanium and Selenium.
Fly ash and flue gas scrubber sludges.
Finely particulate, containing disseminated
heavy metals. Sludges of low pH unless
neutralized by lime addition.
Leaching
from spoil Infiltration of Release of
mine discharge Spreading nitrate by
fertilizers, ploughing Unprotected
Leakage from stockyards pesticides, etc. watering holes
and cesspits, contaminate
Leakage through
shallow wells
quarry floor
AQUICLUDE
Pumping saline groundwater

from mines
Figure 5.2 Schematic depiction of how mining activities can contaminate the water sources (source:
Laconte & Haimes, 1982, p. 4).
process on one hand we will have a useful construction material, and on the other,
we would have minimized the pollution risk.
An environmentally-sound, and technoeconomically viable approach to mini-
mize the contamination potential of the wastes, such as fly ash and red mud, is to
put them to some useful purpose soon after they are produced (see section 9.4,
Beneficial use of mine wastes).
Table 5.2 Characteristics of the waste effluents from different mineral-based industries.
Industries Characteristics of the waste effluents
Petrochemicals High BOD, toxic sulphur compounds and phenols

Metallurgical & Characteristically acid, with high suspended solids; metal finishing wastes
metal finishing additionally contain heavy metals, phenols and oils
Thermal power Suspended matter in cooling water will not increase as it does not come into
production contact with any particulate matter during circulation. It may, however, get
(cooling water) reduced in volume due to evaporation, and raised in temperature by about
10 C. Consequently, the concentration of dissolved constituents will
increase four-fold, and carbonate minerals may be partly precipitated due to
loss of dissolved carbon oxide because of increasing temperature. Loss of
dissolved oxygen may also occur. The disposal of such oxygen-depleted,
heated water to the ground may have the following consequences:
(1) soil or aquifer material may be leached, (2) when the warm
water cools down as a result of contact with cooler, less mineralized
groundwater, some components may be reprecipitated within the
rock pores, thus reducing the permeability of the rock, and sequestering
the recharged waters within an oxygen depleted zone. If the heated water is
recharged via boreholes, microbial growth may take place, and clog the
wall screens.
Production of gas Crude tar oils with significant content of phenolic compounds are produced.
by coal distillation When hydrated ferric oxide is used to purify the raw gas, it may be
(by, say, horizontal contaminated with sulphides, free sulphur and cyanides. Impurities in the gas
retort method) itself may dissolve in water. Leaching of these wastes could contaminate the
groundwater with phenols and cyanide.
5.5 LIQUID WASTES FROM MINING
The waste effluents from different industries are listed in Table 5.2. Liquid wastes
from mining industries are given in Table 5.3. An estimate of the quantum of pro-
duction of contaminants from mineral industries is given in Table 5.4.
Drainage waters from coal collieries tend to have high suspended and dissolved
solids of iron and sulphate (derived from the oxidation of sulphates), and chlorides
(derived from connate water trapped within the sedimentary rocks). Discharge of
such waters on the surface and their subsequent percolation could contaminate the
groundwater seriously (in the early part of the last century, the discharge of mine
drainage water severely contaminated about 13 km2 of Chalk aquifer in southern
England). The drainage waters from metallic mines tend to be acidic, and have
higher concentrations of dissolved metals. The drainage waters may also contain
organic flocculents used in the screening and dressing of metallic ores.
Oil deposits are often associated with hot brines carrying traces of hydrocarbons.
In the early phases of development of the hydrocarbons, it is not uncommon for the
hydrocarbon/water systems to be under artesian conditions. In such a situation, the
Table 5.3 Contaminants resulting from liquid wastes from mining (source: Water Resources and
Land Use Planning).
Source Potential characteristics of leachate/effluent Rate of effluent/leachate production
Oil and gas High total solids (103105 mg/l), 103104 m3/d per well
well brines High Ca2 and Mg2 (103105 mg/l)
High Na and K (104 mg/l),
High Cl (104105 mg/l),
High SO42 (10103 mg/l),
Oil, upto 103 mg/l, Possibly high temp.
Saline Na (103104 mg/l), Rate of landward movement of
intrusions, due Mg2 (102103 mg/l), saline incursion varies with pump
to overpumping Ca2 (102 mg/l), ing regime and aquifer type
close to K (10102 mg/l), (example: 4 km in 40 y along the
coastlines Cl (103104 mg/l), estuary of River Thames in
SO42 (102103 mg/l), England)
Alkalinity (as CaCO3) 102 mg/l
Table 5.4 Quantum of production of contaminants from mineral industries (source: Paper 1.1 in
Laconte & Haimes, 1982).
Petroleum and High BOD, chloride, phenols, sulphur comp. 106108 m3/y
petrochemical High BOD, Suspended solids, chlorides,
refining process variable pH
Thermal power Increased water temperature. Slight increase in 103104 m3/y/megawatt
dissolved solids by evaporation of cooling wastes
Engineering High suspended solids, soluble cutting oils, trace 104107 m3/y
works heavy metals, variable BOD, pH
Foundries Low pH, high suspended solids, phenols, oil 107109 m3/y
Plating and Low pH, high content of toxic heavy metals, 107109 m3/y
metal finishing sometimes as sludge
Deep well Various concentrated liquid wastes, often toxic. 104106 m3/y
injection Brines. Acid and alkaline wastes. Organic wastes
Leakage from Aqueous solutions, hydrocarbons,
storage tanks petrochemicals, sewage
and pipelines
Accidental Various liquids in transit, hydrocarbons, Generally 10 m3 per incident
spillages petrochemicals, acids, alkalis, solvents. Liquids
may enter surface drains or soakaways
contaminated water may spill on the ground and percolate into shallow aquifers, or
it could leak upwards into a incompletely grouted production well. When hydraulic
mining is employed to mine evaporite deposits, care should be taken to ensure that
the brines do not contaminate the groundwater through surface spills and pipeline
leakages.
The heavy withdrawal of groundwater in the coastal regions and estuaries could
lead to the incursion of saline water into the coastal freshwater aquifers, thereby
degrading them. There have been several instances of giant tidal waves generated by
tropical cyclones, salinizing the arable land, surface water and the groundwater (On
Oct. 29, 1999, a 10 m high tidal wave generated by a super-cyclone swept across a
stretch of 150 km along the coast of Orissa province in eastern India, destroying
every thing in its path, and rendering the surface and groundwaters saline).
Mineralized waters may sometimes occur at depth in the form of connate
water trapped below the zone of natural groundwater circulation, or they may arise
from the leaching of evaporite beds terminating against an aquifer. Salinization of
fresh groundwater can occur in inland areas due to upconing of such mineralized
waters.
Overpumping of the groundwater may result in the lowering of the water table
below the streambed levels. If the river concerned is perennial or seasonally influent,
and if the river water is already contaminated, this would inevitably induce undesirable
recharge of the aquifer with the contaminated water of the river.
There may be accidental spills when liquid wastes stored in tanks are transported by
road or rail. Also, there may be leakages when the wastes are transported by pipeline.
Such spills or leakages could contaminate the groundwater, particularly in the case
of shallow water-table aquifers. The magnitude of such contamination may have an
enormous range while the leakage of a few cubic metres of oil from a domestic
tank may contaminate a water well nearby, an undetected leak of several thousand
cubic metres of oil from a pipeline could jeopardize a whole aquifer.
5.5.1 Industrial effluents arising from coal mining in the Damodar river basin,
India a case study
Damodar river basin in eastern India contains about 46% of the coal reserves of
India. Apart from underground and opencast mines of coal, the area has numerous
coal-based industries, such as, steel, chemical and fertilizer plants. Fortunately, the
pyrite content of coal is not high. The water of the Damodar river is contaminated
by (1) huge volumes of polluted water from underground mines for instance,
Bharat Coking Coal Limited (BCCL) mines in Jharia pump out 300 million gal-
lons (1.364 M m3) of mine water daily, (2) runoff water leaching the overburden
dumps, (3) industrial effluents from coal-based plants. Large amounts of fly ash
and fine coal particles discharged by the thermal power plants and washeries settle
down to the bed of the river and hinder the growth of the biota. About 25 million
tonnes of coal is washed annually in the area, involving the use of about 2000 t of
pine oil. Large amounts of suspended solids, oil and grease arising from the wash-
eries are discharged into the river. The coke oven plants serving the steel industry,
release highly toxic substances like phenols and cyanides. The low DO contents,
and high content of heavy metals in the effluents make it almost impossible for the
biota to survive in the river water.
Table 5.5 Physico-chemical characteristics of the industrial effluents in the Damodar river basin,
eastern India.
Thermal
Parameter IS:2490 Coke oven plant power plant Coal washery Steel plant
Flow rate (m3/hr) 10.872 8133768 30810 1127245

pH 5.59.0 7.678.62 7.988.46 7.317.49 2.987.3
Temp. (C) 40.0 29.240.0 28.039.0 29.131.2 20.036
TSS 100 447636 78020400 16083560 3341465
TDS 2100 486581 206398 304775 16186
DO 0.52.2 3.985.89 2.613.84 2.867.52
BOD 30 7.881.0 3.022.0 4.010.0 8.032.0
COD 250 208.3331.2 3595192 207363848 551098
Phenols 0.10.2 Nil Nil 0.021.13
Cyanide 0.2 0.0020.2 Nil Nil 0.010.07
Oil & Grease 10 0.981.26 0.71.8 0.432.5 0.86112.4
Fe 2.896.54 5.6183.6 0.11181.3 2.1737.0
Mn 0.280.45 0.081.19 0.066.20 0.140.41
Cr 2.0 BDL0.05 BDL0.17 0.180.43 BDL0.34
Pb 0.1 0.00.5 BDL0.09 0200.75 BDL0.06
As 0.2 BDL BDL BDL0.02 BDL
Cd 2.0 BDL BDL BDL0.2 BDL0.12
BDL Below Detection Limit

All parameters are expressed in mg/l, except for flow rate, and pH
Table 5.5 (source: Tiwary et al., 1995) summarises the physico-chemical charac-
teristics of the industrial effluents in the Damodar river basin.
The quality of the water in the upstream part of the Damodar river is fairly good
with TSS in the range of 18168 mg/l. But serious deterioration of water quality
occurs when the industrial waters from Patratu thermal power plant, and the steel
plant at Durgapur are discharged into the river. But people who live in the area have
no option except to drink the contaminated water. A health survey conducted in
199394 showed high incidence of water-related diseases, such as, dysentery, diar-
rhea, skin infections, jaundice, typhoid, etc. (Tiwary et al., 1995).
5.6 EMISSIONS DUE TO MINERAL INDUSTRIES
5.6.1 Modeling of particulate emissions

Particulate matter is the major pollutant of concern for most surface mining opera-
tions. The US EPA regulates the particulate matter less than 10 m (PM10) with
recent emphasis on particulate matter less than 2.5 m. The dispersion of air emis-
sions is modeled using the Industrial Sources Complex Short Term Model (ISC3)
developed by US EPA. A hypothetical quarry with the following characteristics is
Figure 5.3 Diagrammatic sketch of a hypothetical quarry (source: Reed, Westman & Haycocks,
2001, p. 694).
used for the modeling (Fig. 5.3; source: Reed, Westman & Haycocks, 2001, p. 694):
The area surrounding the quarry is flat, with an elevation of 500 m above MSL. The
quarry benches are 15 m in height, with 15 m catch benches. The pit slopes thus
created have inclination of 45 . The haul road into the quarry is based on a 10%
grade with a width of 40 m. The surface where the crusher is located has an elevation
of 15 m above the ground level. The quarry is assumed to be working 8 h/d, for 250
days a year, producing 900,000 tonnes per year of stone. The material is assumed to
have a silt content of 10%, moisture content of 1.0%, and specific weight of 2.0 t
per cubic yard (2.658 t/m3). Meteorological data are obtained from US EPA website.
The amount of PM10 produced by individual quarry operations is calculated
using the emission factors published by US EPA under AP-42 (1995) for various
quarrying operations, such as drilling, truck loading, haulage, stockpiles, crushing,
screening, conveyance, etc. In actuality, it has been found that the major contribu-
tors to PM10 emissions were truck hauling on unpaved roads, and loading of stock-
piles and trucks.
The ISC3 model proposed by US EPA is no doubt applicable to gases such as
CO, NOx, SOx, etc., but has been found to over-predict values for PM10. This is
probably so because the dust particles have larger particle sizes, and higher particle
densities than the gases. Also, the dust created in the operation does not consist of
PM10 only, and they settle in different ways. In the light of these observations, ISC3
model is being refined using the terminal velocity settling approach.
5.6.2 Gaseous pollutants

Energy industries (particularly coal-fired, thermal power stations) produce huge
quantities of gaseous pollutants (Table 5.6; source: El-Hinnawi, 1981). The global
Table 5.6 Average emissions from 1000 MW coal-fired and oil-fired stations (in tonnes) (source:
El-Hinnawi, 1981).
Coal-fired station Oil-fired station
Sulphur dioxide 110,000 37,000

Nitrogen oxide 27,000 25,000
Particulates 3,000 1,200
Carbon monoxide 2,000 710
Hydrocarbons 400 470
Ash 360,000 9,000
Table 5.7 Heavy element emissions from coal and oil combustion (109 g/y).
Element Total Coal Oil
As 23.6 0.7 0.002

Se 1.1 0.42 0.03
Cd 7.3 0.002
Hg 2.4 0.0017 1.6
Pb 449 3.5 0.05
Table 5.8 Atmospheric emission of trace metals from natural and industrial sources (109 g/y)
(compilation from Salomons & Frstner, 1984, p. 99).
Metal Natural source Industrial source
Cd 1.23 7.3
Cu 18.48 56
Ni 26.04 47
Pb 29.5 449
Zn 53.5 314
emissions of heavy elements and the contribution by the combustion of coal and oil
(in terms of 109 g/y) are given in Table 5.7 (compilation by Fergusson, 1990).
There exist both natural and industrial sources of particulates in the atmosphere.
The contribution from various sources (in terms of 1012 g/y) is: windblown dust
(5000), forest fires (36), volcanic particles (10), vegetation (75) and seasalt sprays
(1000). Though the contribution from the industrial activities is much less (200) in
global terms, the contribution of atmospheric particulates by industrial activities is
far more than natural sources near industrial centers.
Atmospheric emissions of trace metals arise both from natural sources as well as
industrial sources. The predominance of industrial sources relative to natural
sources can be understood from Table 5. 8 (data in terms of 109 g/y).
Table 5.9 Plant communities in disturbed sites in Jharia Coalfields, Bihar, India.
Site Plant communities and their abundance (%) Total plant biomass (g/m2)
Unmined
Mandman Andropogon (40), Eleusine spp. (20) 380
Mudidih Ergrostis (30), Andropogon spp. (26) 456
Mined
Mandman Ergrostris (24), Panicum (22), Tridex (14) 230
Mudidih Saccharum (25), Eupatorium (22), Leonotis (22) 270
Three approaches have been attempted to assess the extent of anthropogenic

impact on metal emission rates (Salomons & Frstner, 1984):
1. Comparison of the actual emission rates of the natural and anthropogenic
processes. For instance, the natural and anthropogenic emissions (in terms of
108 g/y) of lead are 40 and 4000 respectively. The Mobilization Factor (anthro-
pogenic/natural emission) is therefore 100 (4000/40). In contrast, the mobiliza-
tion factor of chromium is 1.6 (940/580).
2. Comparison of atmospheric concentrations to those in natural concentrations
(say, crustal abundance) contributing to it. Aluminium is used as a reference ele-
ment. Enrich factor is computed from the ratio (X/Al)air/(X/Al)crust.
3. Delineate the temporal variation in the composition of the metals by the study of
the metal in the cores of the lake sediments.
5.7 LOSS OF BIODIVERSITY
Large scale mining disturbs the biodiversity and productivity of the ecosystem. The
huge accumulations of overburden dumps at Mandman and Mudidih areas in
the Jharia Coal Field, Bihar, India, reduced the vegetation cover from 65% to 39%
and the fallow land and pasture from 9.1 to 3.1%, during the period, 1925 to 1993.
Table 5.9 (source: Tewary, Singh & Dhar, 1995) shows how these dumps affected
the composition of the plant species and their biomass.
CHAPTER 6
Mining and health hazards
6.1 INTRODUCTION
Mining is undoubtedly the most hazardous industrial occupation. For instance,

during the period 198089, mining ranked as the number one in USA with respect
to the average annual rate of traumatic fatalities (with the rate of 31.91 for 100,000
workers), as against 25.61 for the construction industry, 23.30 for the transportation/
communications/public utilities industries, and 18.33 for the agriculture/forestry/
fishing industries. There are two kinds of health impacts associated with mining:
immediate impacts such as accidents, and accumulative and progressive impacts such
as stress and pneumoconiosis. Opencast mining is generally less hazardous than
underground mining. Industrialised countries tend to use highly automated mining
systems, which not only employ lesser number of workers (who have to be highly
skilled), but also have the effect of drastically reducing the hazards to which they
are exposed. Developing countries cannot afford such high-tech mining systems, so
much so that mining accidents are a common occurrence in developing countries
such as China and India.
Health hazards in mining are described with reference to coal mining. There
are four types of health hazards (see the excellent account by Chadwick et al., 1987,
p. 203236, from which the following account has largely been drawn).
1. Physical hazards, e.g. coal dust, silica dust, excessive heat, noise, heavy physical
work, contorted body posture,
2. Chemical hazards, e.g. carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, methane, nitrogen oxide
gases,
3. Biological hazards (applicable in some developing countries), e.g. fungus, hook-
worm,
4. Mental hazards, e.g. shift work, constant danger.
The 3 km deep, Kolar gold mines of south India, constitutes an unusual case where
all the above problems are evident at one place, namely, rock bursts, high thermal
stress, gas and dust explosions, fires, inundations, hookworm infection, etc. (Pai &
Shenoi, 1988).
6.2 DUST HAZARDS
Dust is the cause of the many of the cumulative health hazards in the mineral indus-
tries, and is hence dealt with in some detail.
The main sources of dust in the mining operations are:
Point sources: (1) Ore and waste loading points in trucks, railroad cars, etc. (2) Ore
chutes in the haulage systems (bin, conveyors), (3) Screens in outdoor crushing
plants, (4) Exhaust from dedusting installations, and (5) Dryer chimneys.
Dispersed sources: (1) Waste dumps, (2) Ore stockpiles, (3) Haul roads, (4) Tailings
disposal.
The main natural and artificial dusts, associated sources and possible health
disorders are summarized in Table 6.1 (source: Archer et al., 1987, p. 171).
Table 6.1 Main natural and artificial dusts, associated sources and possible disorders (source:
Archer et al., 1987, p. 171).
Dust type Possible source Possible disorders
Silica (crystalline Mining, quarrying, sand blasting, abrasives, Silicosis

and amorphous) glass making, etc.
Coal Mining, transportation and use, smoke from Silico-anthracosis, coal
the burning of arsenious coal for domestic worker pneumoconiosis,
cooking arseniasis
Asbestos Asbestos cement, insulation, friction materials Asbestosis, and
(brakes, clutches, etc.), floor-tiles pleuropulmonary cancer
Fibrous zeolite Volcanic tuff Pleural cancer
Fibrous clays Quarries, drilling mud, pharmaceutical industry Fibrosis
Talc Mining, rubber industry, lubricants, Talcosis
pharmaceutical industry
Kaolin Quarrying, ceramic industry Kaolinosis
Bentonite Quarrying, drilling Fibrosis
Aluminium, Bauxite mines, ceramics, abrasives, paint, Fibrosis
alumina metallurgy
Barytes Mining, metallurgy, pharmaceutical industry Barytosis (pneumoconiosis
due to accumulation)
Beryllium Metallurgy, aeronautics industry, nuclear Beryllosis (granulomatosis)
compounds industry, solid fuel
Iron oxides Iron mines, foundries, steel plants Silico-siderosis, siderosis
Nickel Mining, polishing Fibrosis, lung cancer
Chromium Mining, polishing, electrochemistry Fibrosis, lung cancer
Cadmium Mining, polishing, electrochemistry Fibrosis, urinary tract cancer
Manganese Mining, polishing, foundries Fibrosis
Titanium, tantalum, Polishing Fibrosis, lung cancer
wolfram carbides
All metals Welding Fibrosis, lung cancer
Synthetic Thermal and acoustic insulation, composite Fibrosis?
mineral fibres materials
Airborne ash Coal and oil fired plants, incineration of Fibrosis? Cancer?
household and industrial wastes
Volcanic ash Volcanic eruptions
Mining and health hazards 125
6.2.1 Aerosols
Aerosol particles range in size from sub-microscopic to almost visible, and they are
characterized by a wide variety of chemical compositions. They are mainly respon-
sible for the haze, which affects the visibility in the industrial areas in Europe and
North America.
The distribution of the size of the aerosols is log-normal. Consequently, most of the
aerosols are in the 0.0110 m range, with the mean around 1 m. Depending upon
the size and nature of the particles, an aerosol may be called dust (diam. 1 m)
or fume or smoke (0.011 m). Mists (d 40 m) and fogs (d 540 m), are
liquid droplets. Aitken nuclei (d 0.2 m) are small hygroscopic particles or con-
densation nuclei. The size ranges of different aerosols are given in Figure 6.1 (source:
Fergusson, 1990, p. 208).
Iron, aluminium, manganese and chromium are generally found in the form of
coarse particles (around 1.5 m), whereas cadmium, lead, zinc and antimony occur
in the form of smaller particles (d 0.25 m). The particle size distributions in
respect of trace metals are customarily expressed in terms of Mass Median Diameter
(MMD), which is defined as the particle size for which 50% of the mass occurs on
larger, and 50% occurs on smaller, particles. For copper, MMD for marine air is
0.8 m, and general (rural to urban) air is 1.8 m.
Figure 6.1 Size ranges of different aerosols (source: Fergusson, 1990, p. 208).
Coarse particles are generally produced by mechanical processes (such as, disin-
tegration of minerals). On the other hand, fine particles are produced by condensa-
tion processes. The fine particle mode can be subdivided into nuclei mode and
accumulation mode.
0.3 m: Nuclear mode, involving condensation nuclei, secondary particles.
Brownian motion is the principal controlling force. The particles get removed by
adsorption on larger particles.
0.33.0 m: Accumulation mode. Important for fly ash. Small-sized particles
(0.1 m) coagulate to form larger particles, the movement and contact being con-
trolled mainly by Brownian motion. The number of particles decreases as a conse-
quence of coagulation. For particles 0.01 m, the decrease is 50% in an hour, and
for 0.05 m, it would take a day to bring the number down by 50%. Both soluble
and insoluble types adhere to the surfaces.
3.0 m: Coarse particle mode, involving large dust particles. Gravitational set-
tling and particle motion are the principal controlling forces.
Anthropogenic aerosols are dominated by comparatively finer particles (2 m).
In contrast, natural particles such as wind-blown or re-entrained dust is typi-
cally 2 m.
Aerosols can be transported for long distances, of the order of hundreds of kilome-
ters. In the ice-cores of Arctic and Antarctic, the lead level for 1965 (0.150.42 ng/kg)
is markedly higher than the pre-1940 levels (0.08 ng/kg). This is attributed to the
transport of lead from distant industrial sources.
The concentration of a trace metal in air, Ca, is related to the condensation nuclei
by the following equation:
Ca ken /L (6.1)
where k transfer constant, whose value ranges from 1.0 to 6.0 g/m , en mass
3
fraction of the aerosol used in condensation nuclei, a factor linked to the evap-
oration below the cloud, and L Liquid water content of the cloud.
The total emission of particles in the atmosphere has been estimated to be 2608
million tonnes per year. Out of these 89% (2312 Mt/y) are of natural origin (derived
from sea salt; soil dust; gas particle conversion from hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen
oxides and ammonia; photochemical, from terpenes, etc.; volcanoes; and forest fires).
The emissions from man-made sources are estimated to be 11% of the total emis-
sions, (about 296 Mt/y), distributed as follows:
Particles: 92 Mt/y
Gas particle conversion: sulphur dioxide 147 Mt/y
Nitrogen oxides 30 Mt/y
Photochemical, from hydrocarbons 27 Mt/y
Total 296 Mt/y
The circulation of the particles in the atmosphere would depend upon their size
and the altitude at which they are generated. Particles may remain in the lower
atmosphere for about 5 days, in the troposphere for a month, and in the stratosphere
for 23 years. This enables them to travel for long distances.
6.2.2 Dust hazards in coal mining

Dust is a serious hazard in coal mining. Coal and some stone dust are produced in
the process of drilling, cutting, crushing and blasting of the coalface. The dust gets
airborne due to ventilation, shoveling, transport and human movement. Only fine
dust particles of diameter 0.55 m are respirable. Anthracite (hard coal) particles
are more hazardous than particles of soft coal (e.g. lignite).
Respirable coal particles pass through the upper airways, and finally settle down in
the respiratory branchioli. There they accumulate and form nodules. Exposure to res-
pirable coal dust over a period of years leads to the incidence of Coal workers
Pneumoconosis (CWP, also known as Anthracosis or Black Lung). X-ray examina-
tion is the principal method of diagnosing CWP. Simple CWP will not progress when
once there is no more exposure to coal dust. But the complex CWP keeps on getting
progressively more and more serious, leading to emphysema and heart failure.
Silicosis is caused by the respiration of free silica (quartz) particles in the dust.
The respirable particles have diameters of less than 5 m. Although small quanti-
ties of free silica particles may occur in the dust in the underground mining, the risk
from them is greater in the opencast mining. When the silica particles reach the
lung alveoli, they are attacked by microphages, leading to the formation of fibrotic
nodules (simple silicosis). In due course, the nodules coalesce to form large
fibrotic masses called conglomerates. Simple silicosis may not show any clear
symptoms, but patients suffering from conglomerate silicosis invariably suffer from
shortness of breath. X-ray examination of the lungs is the standard procedure for
the diagnosis of silicosis.
The Kolar gold mines in southern India, and the Rand gold mines in South Africa
began production at about the same time, around 1880s. The nodular type of silicosis
which was highly prevalent in the Rand mine workers, had minimal incidence in the
case of Kolar mines. This is attributed to the extent of exposure to silica dust (Pai &
Shenoi, 1988). In the case of Rand, both the lode and host rock was quartzose,
whereas in the case of Kolar, only the lode is quartzose, whereas the host rock is
amphibolitic. The free silica percentage of the quartz reef averages about 90%, and
that of amphibolite, about 50%, with the aggregate having a free silica percentage of
5255%. There is therefore sharp difference in regard to the aggregate free silica per-
centage between Rand (90%) and Kolar (5255%).
The International Labour Organization (ILO), Geneva, has developed elaborate
classifications for pneumoconiosis and silicosis, for clinical and epidemiologi-
cal purposes. The characterization of the lung function is based on the parameters
of Forced Vital Capacity (FVC) and Forced Expiratory Volume in one second
(FEV1). If unchecked, the conglomerate silicosis may lead to emphysema and heart
failure.
The composition of the dust varies from mine to mine. Anthrcosilicosis is a mixed
disease caused by the inhalation of both coal and silica dust. Simple anthrocosis may
degenerate into Progressive Massive Fibrosis (PMF).
Workers suffering from silicosis become highly susceptible to the dreaded disease
of tuberculosis. Such an infection is hard to treat, as the fibrous and scar tissues
impede the penetration of antituberculostatica. No wonder that 25% of the silicosis
deaths are attributable to silicotuberculosis.
Bronchitis among the mine workers is attributable to the inhalation of relatively
coarse dust particles of the diameter 515 m. Such particles are too large to go into
the lungs. When inhaled, these particles get stuck in the upper airways. Constant irri-
tation by such particles leads to infection, coughing and production of sputum.
Statistics show that in a number of countries one out 8 workers suffers from CWP
and silicosis, and one out three workers suffer from bronchitis. In USA, during the
period, 197077, Federal Black Lung Compensation was awarded to 420,000 coal
mine workers who were totally disabled because of CWP. A survey during 197477
by the National Coal Board of U.K. found that about 7% of the British Coal Miners
were suffering from CWP. It has been reported that the incidence of CWP in India
may be as high as about 16%.
6.2.3 Dust in steel industry

The steel industry is notorious for the large quantities of visible fumes and clouds of
dust. The problem here is one of quantity of dust, rather than the toxicity of dust.
Two categories of dusts can be recognized in the steel industry (UNEP, 1986, p. 36):
1. Coarse particles (diam. 10100 m) produced in the course of mechanical oper-
ations, such as crushing, screening, and charging of raw materials these settle
down fairly rapidly.
2. Particulates (less than 1 m diam.) produced in the course of high temperature
metallurgical processes such as, blast furnaces, steel making, oxygen scarfing.
These remain suspended in air for long periods.
6.2.4 Pathological effects of mineral dusts

Toxic particles, such as silica, can cause severe fibrogenic reaction. In industrialized
countries, the incidence of pneumoconiosis has been kept under control by improved
dust control techniques. Asbestosis and pleuropulmonary cancer arising from expo-
sure to asbestos particles in the construction materials, have emerged as the princi-
pal health hazard arising from mineral dusts. In USA, there have been cases of whole
school buildings being completely demolished because asbestos products have been
used in their construction.
Soot or carbon black, which is the waste product of incomplete combustion in pri-
vate or industrial buildings and incinerators, is the most visible dust, although not
necessarily the most harmful. Air near the industrial areas may contain particles of
metal oxides, silicate and inert dust. Exposure to fibrous minerals, such as, chrysotile,
amphiboles, attapulgite, diatomaceous earth, bentonite, sillimanite, etc. in the course of

their mining, fabrication and use, leads to the development of various kinds of fibroses.
6.2.5 Fibrogenetic effects

The biological activity and hence the pathological effect of mineral dust particles
depend upon the extent of their penetration, retention and clearance.
Some mineral particles, such as those of carbon, iron and barium, have limited bio-
logical effect. When inhaled in large quantities, they accumulate and cause pneumo-
coniosis around the terminal repository bronchioles. On the other hand, the inhalation
of fibrous mineral particles causes pulmonary fibrosis. Fibrogenic pneumoconiosis is
caused by the inhalation of fibrous minerals such as silica, and asbestos, and metals
such as beryllium, aluminium, nickel, cadmium and manganese. In the case of mixed
dusts, the more the content of silica, the more pronounced is the fibrosis.
Electron microscopic images (300) allow us to distinguish between the intersti-
tial fibrosis of the lung associated with pleural fibrosis, and the nodular or massive
hyaline fibrosis found in silicosis. This may be a manifestation of the difference in
the penetration and clearance of the two kinds of dusts.
It has been observed that fibrous particles lodged in the lung tend to be surrounded
by a ferrous protein sheath. This probably represents an effort by the body to detoxify
the toxic fibres.
6.2.6 Carcinogenic effects

Several epidemiological and experimental studies have indicated that asbestos is
the direct cause of pleural or peritoneal mesotheliomas, besides being a co-factor in
inducing bronchopulmonary or gastro-intestinal cancer. There is epidemiological evi-
dence to suggest that chromium, nickel, arsenic and cadmium and their complexes are
carcinogenic in man. It has been reported that the toxic and carcinogenic effects of
the fibres are not only dependent upon their type and size, but also on their chemistry,
particularly surface chemistry. Experiments with animals suggest that the carcino-
genicity of metals depends upon their crystal structure and state of ionization.
Table 6.2 (source: Chen et al., 1999) summarizes the health effects of arsenic in
mineral dusts as observed in some countries.
Low-rank coals invariably contain pyrite. Arsenic may substitute in pyrite (FeS2) or
may be found in the form of a separate mineral, arsenopyrite (FeAsS). In Guizhou
province of China, coals have very high arsenic content (9600 mg/kg). When such
high-As coal is used for cooking, keeping warm, and drying of grain, arsenic content
of the ambient kitchen air rises to 0.0030.11 mg/m3. Exposure to this environment
leads to the absorption of arsenic by the respiratory tract, skin, and digestive tract
(Zheng et al., 1994, quoted by Sun et al., 1999).
About 30,000 workers in the copper smelting and arsenic mining industries are
exposed to high-As aerosols. The tin mine workers in the Yunnan province are exposed
to high-As aerosols the cancer incidence among these workers is 716.9 per 100,000,
Table 6.2 Health hazards due to exposure to arsenical dusts.
Population Non-cancer Cancer

Area Source at risk manifestations manifestations
Guizhou province, Burning of 200,000 M/K, G, P S, Li

China high-As coal
Yunnan, China Metal smelting 100,000 S
Toroku/Matsuo, Japan Metal smelting 217 patients M/K, D, G, B, P A, S, Lu, U, K
Ronpibool, Thailand Tin mining 1000 patients M/K A
M/K melanosis/keratosis; D dermatitis, G gastroenteritis; B bronchitis; P polyneuropathy; A all sites;

S skin; Li liver; Lu lung; U urinary bladder; K kidney; P prostate.
which is 82 times that of the controls. The average As content in the lungs of the
cancer patients was found to be 43.33 mg/kg.
Carcinoma of the lung is associated with inhalation of arsenic dusts. Instances are
known from Southeast Asia where lung cancer is attributed to As in drinking water.
In the Xinjiang province of China, both arsenic and fluoride contents are high in the
drinking water as well as in the coal used for burning. This led to the concurrent
endemicity of arseniasis and fluorosis among the populations.
Coal is the principal source of energy in China. China is the largest producer
of coal in the world (1235 Mt in 1998). With increased industrialization, and with
people aspiring for a higher standard of living, consumption of coal-fired thermal
energy as also the use of coal in home heating, has been growing rapidly. There
is a price for this. It has been said that nine out of ten most polluted cities in the
world are in China, and one out of three deaths in China is due to contaminated air
and water (Time, USA, Nov. 8, 1999).
Two or more mineral substances may interact together, some times antagonisti-
cally, and more often synergistically. The inhibition of quartz by carbon, aluminium
or polymers is an example of the antagonistic interaction. When sulphur dioxide is
adsorbed on soot particles in the atmosphere, the toxic effect of sulphur dioxide gets
intensified due to synergism. A possible mechanism for the operation of synergism
is as follows: when the solid particles are lodged in the lung tissues, the adsoptive
capacity of the solid particles allows them to retain the gaseous or soluble substances
adsorbed on them. It is also possible that through their surface properties, the solid
substances act as catalysts, accelerating or facilitating some processes. They may
also serve as vectors of toxic substances, penetrating the cells more readily.
6.2.7 Analytical methods

As the mineral dust particles tend to have a size range of 1 mm to 1 m, the usual
practice is to study the individual particles for their size (which determines their
aerodynamic properties, and respirability), shape (whether the particle is fibrous),
mineralogy, chemical composition and speciation, isotopic characteristics, etc. At
least two characteristics of a mineral dust particle, namely, morphology and chemistry,
need to be determined.
Table 6.3 Characterization of dust particles.
Parameter Mode of measurement
Mineralogy Polarised transmitted light microscopy, and polarized reflected light

microscopy (for particles 1 m in diam.), dark field microscopy (for
particles of more than 0.01 m)
Microanalysis Electron microprobe (for mineral particles 0.1 m, and atomic number 5).
Morphology Scanning electron microscopy (of particles with diam. 500 )
Textures Automatic image analyzer (for geometrical characterization)
The parameters to be measured and methods of measurement are summarized

in Table 6.3.
Dust is monitored in the following ways:
1. Air samples are regularly analysed for their dust content. Automatic air samplers
at fixed locations analyse the air, and feed the information to the central control
point. Besides, personal samplers worn by the workers are also analysed. The
Threshold Limit Values (TLV) for the total dust are 10 mg/m3, for silica dust,
0.2 mg/m3, and for coal dust, 2 mg/m3 (incidentally, this implies that the silica
dust is ten times more hazardous than coal dust),
2. Workers must undergo regular medical checks (X-ray photographs of the lungs,
lung-function tests, etc.), and records should be kept. Workers with dust-related
illnesses may be shifted to dust-free jobs.
6.2.8 Regulation
Asbestos has been the most widely studied particulate pollutant. Ambient air is
monitored inside buildings that have materials containing asbestos, such as sprayed
insulation materials and certain types of floor tiles. During the on-site inspections,
the fibre count in the ambient air is measured using the membrane filter method.
In 1983, the European Commission set the limit of the maximum concentration
for occupational health at 0.2 fibre per ml. of air for crocidolite and 1 fibre per ml.
for other asbestos fibres (with an averaging time of 8 hours). USA prescribed that the
maximum pollution level of asbestos in air should not exceed 30 ng/m3 of air.
Biological monitoring involves the direct measurement of the pollutants in
human biological samples. In the case of asbestosis, asbestos body counts are made
in the lung parenchyma and sputum or bronchioalveolar washing fluid.
6.3 OTHER PHYSICAL HAZARDS
6.3.1 Noise
Workers in mining industry are exposed to noises from drilling equipment, loaders,
scoop-trams, diesel locomotives, trucks, etc. in the mines, and from grinding mills
and air compressors in the beneficiation plants. Continuous exposure to intense
noise causes hearing loss. While temporary loss of hearing or auditory fatigue may
last for a short period of time, the loss of hearing due to prolonged exposure to high
noise levels may be permanent and irreversible.
Noise is measured by sound level meter, noise dosimeter, frequency analyzer,
impact or impulse noise meter, calibrator, etc. (UNEP, 1991, p. 64).
The frequencies which are audible to the human ear, range from 20 Hz to 20 kHz.
There is a threshold of audibility below which we cannot hear anything. At the other
extreme, there is a maximum pressure level (threshold of pain) beyond which the
eardrum will get irreversibly damaged. For instance, at the frequency of 1 kHz,
the threshold of audibility is 2 104 Pa, whereas the threshold of pain is in
the region of 102 Pa. Hearing losses are most prominent in the frequencies around
4000 Hz.
Figure 6.2 provides the classification of sound frequencies. The threshold of audi-
bility and pain in the human ear is depicted in Figure 6.3 (source: Environmental
aspects of iron and steel production, UNEP, 1986, p. 42).
The acoustic levels are customarily expressed in terms of decibels.
Noise regulations cover two kinds of situations: regulations for workers within
an industrial establishment, and regulations for the population living near the
works. The ISO standards evaluate the risk of deafness incurred by workers in two
ways: (1) Danger exists if in an 8-hr day, the level of noise to which a worker is con-
tinuously exposed is over 90 dB(A), (2) If the noise is not constant, the figures taken
must be weighted to take into account both the length of exposure to each noise
level, and the corresponding threshold. On this basis, an estimate is made of the
equivalent acoustic level (i.e. the level which, were it present for 40 hours per
week, would give the same index of exposure to noise as the various acoustic levels
measured during the week).
Figure 6.4 (source: Environmental aspects of iron and steel production, UNEP,
1986, p. 99) shows the relationship between years of exposure and percentage risk
of loss of hearing for various noise levels, ranging from 85 dB(A) to 115 dB(A).
Besides deafness, high noise levels could cause cardiovascular and respiratory
diseases.
Figure 6.2 Classification of sound frequencies (source: Environmental aspects of iron and steel
industry, UNEP, 1986, p. 42).
The regulations about environmental noise prescribe a limit of 10 dB(A) in the

neighbourhood of the works, with a lower figure during the night. The rules are
stricter for the residential areas than for industrial zones.
Noise levels from plants, and from mobile equipment are stated in Tables 6.4 and
6.5 respectively (source: Dowon & Stocks, 1977).
It is not possible to avoid noise in mining air drilling and pneumatic picks typically
produce noise of the order of 100 dB(A) (decibel equivalent). Blasting produces a
strong impulse noise. Ventilation blowers, graders and crushers, etc. produce noise
levels, which do not allow normal conversation. According to health experts, exposure
to noise levels greater than 85 dB(A) or more for 8 hours a day over a long period will
irreversibly damage the ciliated nerve cells in the hearing organ, and cause occupa-
tional deafness (this is different from natural loss in hearing which occurs in old age,
called presbyakusis). A person suffering from occupational deafness may not notice it
when he is young, but as he grows older (beyond, say, 50 years) the occupational deaf-
ness may get compounded by presbyakusis, resulting in total loss of hearing. Audio-
graphy is used to evaluate occupational deafness, which is indicated by a loss of
perception in the range 40006000 Hz. Workers should undergo periodical audiogra-
phy test, and the records of audiograms should be kept for monitoring the situation.
EEC regulations allow a noise level of 85 dB(A) for daily exposure level with no
peak sound in excess of 140 dB(A). Most countries allow noise levels of 8590 dB(A)
for an 8-hr day, with higher levels allowed for short periods.
In the case of steel industry, large capacity blast furnaces (say, 9000 t of pig
iron/d) are a major source of noise. The noise may arise from multiple sources, such
as, balance of high top pressure, charge in the throat, hydraulic drive, blowers, snort
Figure 6.3 Threshold of audibility and pain (source: Environmental aspects of iron and steel
industry, UNEP, 1986, p. 42).
Figure 6.4 Relationship between years of exposure versus percentage risk of loss of hearing for
various noise levels (source: Environmental aspects of iron and steel industry, UNEP, 1986, p. 99).
Table 6.4 Noise level from plant installations (source: Dowon & Stocks, 1977).
Equipment Noise level (dB(A)) Measurement location
Electrical ventilation fans 90100 At 5 m

Compressed air fans Upto 110 At 5 m
Jaw crusher 90100 Operator position
Cone crusher 9298 Operator position
Compressed air hammer 104112 Operator position
Drill sharpeners 102112 Operator position
Ball mill Upto 100 Operator position
Flotation equipment 6391 Inside flotation building
Table 6.5 Noise levels from mobile equipment (source: Dowon & Stocks, 1977).
Equipment Noise level (dB(A)) Measurement location
Compressed air rock drill 110115 At 1 m (3 ft)

98 At 15 m (50 ft)*
Large portable compressor 80 At 7 m (23 ft)
81 At 15 m (50 ft)*
7 m3 (10 yd3) dragline 9092 Operators cab
Diesel trucks 74109 Drivers cab
88 At 15 m (50 ft)*
Electric shovels 78101 Operators cab
Graders 76104 Operator position
Dozers 84107 Operator position
87 At 15 m (50 ft)*
Locomotives 7595 Driver position
Rotary drills 72100 Operator position
Front end loaders 83101 Operator position
Scrapers 92104 Operator position
88 At 15 m (50 ft)*
* Figures used by the US EPA.
valves on the blast, inversion of hot-blast stoves, safety valves on the top gas ducts,
cleaning of top gas, water cooling pumps and circuits.
Electric arc furnaces may emit upto 120 dB(A) of noise, which could be reduced
by the installation of a system of sliding doors to insulate the furnace from the rest of
the bay. The noise emissions could be reduced by changing from A.C. arc (which is
the source of noise on 100 Hz) to D.C. arc. Induction furnaces are recommended to be
used, as they are noiseless.
There are two ways of reducing noise sound proofing where possible, and redesign-
ing of equipment so as to produce lesser amount of noise. As it is difficult to reduce the
noise of the machines, a practical way-out is for the workers to protect themselves from
noise by using ear muffs. The ambient noise levels at various working points in the mine
are regularly monitored, to ensure that they are within the statutory limits.
6.3.2 Heat
The four environmental factors which determine the heat stress are: tempera-
ture, humidity, velocity of the air and radiant heat. Mine workers are exposed to
combinations of these stresses, apart from producing large amounts of body heat
when they perform heavy work. In the opencast mines, if the rocks are light-
coloured (such as quartzites), there is radiant heat load from the sun and from
reflected infrared radiation. If the rocks are dark coloured (such as, basalts), they
absorb the suns heat, and act as an additional heat source.
As is well known, it gets warmer as we go deeper into the earth, at the rate
of 2 C per 100 m. Thus, if the mining is taking place at a depth of (say) 300 m,
the ambient temperature at the mine face would be 6 C more than the surface
temperature. Added to this is the heat produced by the operation of the mining and
transport equipment, and rise in body temperature due to heat-producing muscular
activity. Under these conditions, the body temperature of a worker may rise to
40 C or more, leading to heat collapse or syncope. If the intake of water is not
commensurate with heat, the worker may suffer dehydration. The problem may be
treated by transferring the worker to a cool environment, and by increasing the fluid
intake. In some coal mines, one may have to do heavy physical work in narrow con-
fined spaces in a cramped position. This would lead to muscle and joint disorders,
such as sprains, myositis, tendonitis, lumbago, etc.
The problem of heat stress is best understood with the example of the Kolar gold
mine in south India, which at the depth of 3 km, is one of the deepest, if not the deep-
est, mine in the world. The virgin rock temperatures at that depth are exceedingly
high (68 C). In 1930s when the working depth was about 1500 m, heat collapse
cases were rare. As the mine became deeper, the heat stress problem became more
evident. Heat collapse cases occurred if the dry bulb temperatures was in the neigh-
bourhood of 110 F, and the wet bulb temperature was around 93 F. Experience has
shown that dry bulb temperatures of 110120 F and wet bulb temperatures of 90 F
or less, indicates good ventilation. A wet bulb temperature of 9495 F is indicative
of poor ventilation, and heat collapse should be expected if the temperature is above
96 F. With improved ventilation, installation of air cooling plants underground, and
the provision of cool drinking water, the heat stress problem in Kolar has been con-
trolled (Pai & Shenoi, 1988).
6.3.3 Vibration
In the mineral industries (e.g. iron and steel industry), three major categories of
vibration can be distinguished: mechanical vibration, vibration by combustion, and
aerodynamic vibration. The international standard ISO 2631 fixes the orders of mag-
nitude of tolerance limits. Thus, the vertical vibration with frequencies between
4 and 8 kHz is the least tolerated, particularly when the vertical acceleration exceeds
6 m/s2. Besides, vibration causes noise pollution.
Workers using mining and pick-hammering equipment are exposed to vibrations in
the 40300 Hz range. Exposure to such vibrations over a long period of time affects
the hands, joints of hand, forearm, arm and shoulder, and may give rise to microtrau-
mata, peripheral nerve stimulation, spasm of the arterioles, etc.. Starting with numb-
ness of hand (pasraesthesia), the affected person may develop vascular disorders
spread over the whole body. Such a condition is known as Raynauds disease.
Avoidance of the use of hand-held equipment (by the mechanization and automa-
tion of the equipment), and routine use of shock absorbers and gloves by the work-
ers are some of the ways of mitigating the vibration-caused diseases. The hazard
can be monitored by regular X-ray examination of the hands and arms of the work-
ers, and the analysis of the records.
The localized vibration arising from the use of hand pneumatic tools in mining
exposes the workers to: neurovascular alterations in the hands, including Raynauds
phenomenon (i.e. dead hand, white fingers), bone alterations, including cysts
on the some of the bones of the hand, muscular atrophy, degenerative alterations in
ulnar and median nerves, tenosynovitis (UNEP, 1991, p. 62).
6.3.4 Falls and explosions

Most of the serious accidents in mining arise from falls from the roof or walls in the
underground mining, and falls from side-walls in the opencast mining. The falls
may seriously or fatally injure the workers, and may entomb and suffocate them.
Explosions constitute a serious hazard in mining. They may be caused in the fol-
lowing ways: (1) poor timing and misfiring of charges in blasting, (2) methane gas
released by drilling and blasting, may explode when it is mixed with air in a proportion
of 515%, (3) fine particles of coal dust may explode, following a methane gas explo-
sion. Dust explosions have a multiplier effect one explosion triggering another. The
effects of these explosions are invariably very serious, and may consist of severe burns,
asphyxiation, intoxication caused by carbon monoxide gas, pulmonary oedema, and
physical injuries.
6.3.5 Mine flooding

Flooding of coal mines may cause hundreds of deaths, as has happened in the
Damodar Valley coal fields in eastern India. If an underground mine is in the prox-
imity of a river, and if the river and the coal mine are separated by a relatively
porous rock, the water in the river may leak into the mine and flood it. Some times
water from a flooded mine may leak into a nearby working mine. Such flooding can
be avoided by the construction of underground grout barriers, called hydrocurtains.
6.4 CHEMICAL HAZARDS
Methane problem is particular to coal industry, and fluorine problem is a special fea-
ture of steel industry. Other gases, such as, CO, CO2, SOx, NOx, etc. are common
among several mineral industries.
Methane gas is easily the most serious chemical hazard in the underground
mining of coal. It is naturally present in the layers of coal, and gets released when the
layers are drilled through or blasted. It is non-toxic when inhaled. However, methane
dilutes the oxygen in air, and thus causes oxygen deficiency, and asphyxiation.
The symptoms of methane intoxication are nausea, unconsciousness and convulsions.
The principal hazard due to methane arises out of its high flammability, and the
consequent ability to cause explosions. Hence great care has to be taken to ensure that
there is no build up of the methane concentration in the air in the mine. It is necessary
to check methane concentrations frequently using the methane detectors. As a rule,
the methane concentrations should invariably be checked before and after drilling and
blasting. Now-a-days, in the highly mechanized mines, the methane concentrations
are routinely monitored using remote registration. Methane concentrations in the air
should not exceed 0.51.0 vol. per cent.
Ventilation can be used to dilute the methane concentrations to safe levels. An
innovative approach that is followed in some countries is to collect the methane gas
from the mines, and use it as a fuel for boilers.
6.4.1 Health hazards from chemical pollutants in air

Carbon monoxide is an odourless, highly toxic and extremely flammable gas.
Incomplete combustion produces the gas, which is therefore to be found in the
exhaust fumes of combustion engines and in methane or coal dust explosions.
Carbon monoxide has 200 times more affinity than oxygen for haemoglobin in the
blood, and hence causes acute intoxication of all body cells. The symptoms of car-
bon monoxide intoxication are headache, weakness and shortness of breath. If not
treated promptly, carbon monoxide poisoning may result in collapse and death.
Treatment consists of artificial respiration and supply of oxygen.
The level of carboxyhaemoglobin is linked not only to the concentration of carbon
monoxide in the air, but also to the duration of exposure, the volume of air passing
through lungs, and the blood volume circulation. In healthy individuals, carboxy-
haemoglobin levels of 5% impair the vision, but in the case of individuals with heart
or lung diseases, levels of 2.5% can be harmful. Hence the average atmospheric
monoxide levels should not exceed 11.5 g/m3 (UNEP, 1986, p. 37).
Oxides of sulphur (SOx )
Sulphur dioxide (SO2 ) gas is a respiratory irritant. It causes respiratory diseases, par-
ticularly in the elderly people and in young children. The health effects of various
levels of atmospheric concentration of SO2 are summarized as follows:
At 2.1 mg/m3, early reduction of pulmonary function occurs,
At 10 mg/m3, the pungent odour becomes easily identifiable,
From 17 to 35 mg/m3, irritation of the throat and nose occurs,
At 58 mg/m3, it causes the irritation of the eyes.
At high concentrations, inhaled SO2 causes the oedema of the larynx. SO2 levels in
the air should not exceed 24 hr mean values of 0.100.15 mg/m3, with approximately
50% of these values for annual mean exposure. Sulphur dioxide concentration in the
air causes cankers in the flora, and corrodes the building materials.
Sulphur trioxide (SO3) gets converted in the atmosphere to highly corrosive and
toxic sulphuric acid. SO3 is more toxic than SO2 and affects the respiratory functions
at levels of 0.35 mg/m3. Oxides of sulphur become more harmful when combined
with particulates.
Nitrogen oxides (NO and NO2). NO gets readily oxidized to NO2 in the atmosphere,
and therefore the consequences of NO2 are more important. Nitrogen oxides are akin
to carbon monoxide in that both are products of incomplete combustions, and are
found in the same kinds of situations. At concentrations of 1.33.8 mg/m3, respira-
tory functions are affected. Short term exposure (1 hr) to 47140 mg/m3 can cause
bronchitis and pneumonia, and at 560940 mg/m3, fatal pulmonary oedema can occur.
The guideline value is in the region of 0.190.32 mg/m3. The intoxication by NO2 may
be treated preliminarily by the supply of oxygen, and antitussive medication.
Fluorine compounds. Fluorosis is caused by the ingestion of fluorides, and affects
bones and teeth of humans and animals. The principal pathway (80%) of fluoride to
man is through drinking water, but ingestion could occur through inhalation also.
Daily intake of more than 8 mg/d of fluoride causes dental mottling and skeletal
fluorosis. Fluorosis has been noted in the animals in the vicinity of steel complexes.
Fluorine poisoning of plants manifests itself in the form of canker of the needles
of fir, spruce, pine trees, deformation of the leaves of cherry, peach and almond trees,
and blight in the case of tulips and gladioli.
Carbon dioxide is produced in the process of breathing. The inspiration (ambient)
air contains 21% oxygen, and very little carbon dioxide. The expiration air contains
17% oxygen, and 4% carbon dioxide. If the ventilation is inadequate, i.e. there is no
supply of fresh air, the percentage of oxygen in the ambient air gets reduced, while
the percentage of carbon dioxide increases. If the oxygen concentration in the breath-
ing air becomes less than 1012%, a person becomes unconscious. This condition
can be treated by administering oxygen.
6.4.2 Health hazards from chemical pollutants in water

The principal water pollutants are: suspended particulate matter, hydrocarbons,
oxidisable substances and toxic substances.
Suspended particulate matter in polluted water can reduce the transmission of sun-
light, and thereby adversely affect the ability of the organisms living in it to perform
photosynthesis. This in its turn may affect the ecological cycle. The soluble particu-
late matter could change the chemical characteristics of the aquatic environment, and
thereby affect the flora and fauna.
Hydrocarbons impede the transfer of oxygen from air in water, and could render the
environment anaerobic. This could strongly impede the growth and reproduction of the
organisms most of which are aerobic, leaving only a few resistant strains to survive.
Oxidisable substances use up the oxygen present in the water, and could bring
about a rapid and severe depletion of oxygen in water. The water will become
anaerobic, and degrade the ecosystem. However, if the oxidisable substances are bio-
degradable and are present in limited quantities, they may actually improve the pro-
ductivity of water courses (with increase in algae and fish populations).
Living organisms best function at neutral pH of 7. Most organisms can function
only within the pH limits of 49. Highly acid or alkali effluents which have the effect
of changing the pH beyond the limits, degrade the ecosystem. Similarly, pollution by
heavy metals (such as, Cd, Pb, Hg, Ni, etc.) intoxicate the organisms and destroy them.
6.4.3 Health hazards from chemical pollutants in solid wastes

In some mineral industries (such as, steel industry), the wastes are recycled, or sold.
Recycling could lead to the danger of accumulation of toxic substances as has
been found to be the case with thallium in the cement industry. Recycling of wastes
containing lead and cadmium, could produce a product with unacceptably high
content of these toxic metals. This should hence be guarded against. The leachates
from the wastes could contaminate the soils and groundwater.
6.5 BIOLOGICAL HAZARDS
Biological hazards are those caused by living organisms. These tend to be common
among the mine workers in the developing countries because of poor standards of
hygiene and sanitation.
Tinea pedia is a fungus, which causes interdigital mycosis of the feet of the mine
workers. The hot and moist climate of the tropical countries promotes the propagation
of the fungus inside the boots. The fungus spreads by skin contact with infected waters
in the shower rooms.
Coccidiodmycosis is a disease caused by the fungus, Coccidiodes inmitis. The
fungus can survive in the soil in a cyst form for many years. When the soil is exposed
because of mining, the fungus may get released into the air. The inhalation of the
spores may cause pulmonary symptoms, similar to tuberculosis.
Ankylostoma duodenalis is a disease caused by the parasite, hookworm. The victim
develops hypochromic anaemia.
Weils disease (leptospirosis icterohaemorrhagica) is spread by a bacillus in the
urine of rats. The disease is marked by jaundice and internal haemorrhage. Workers
may get exposed to this disease in mines, which use wooden props for roof support.
6.6 MENTAL HAZARDS
A person working in an underground mine is always aware that falls of the ground,
roof collapse, blasting and explosions of dust and gas, could injure or kill him any
time. Such an environment may provoke feelings of anxiety, tension, irritability and
fatigue. A person working alone in a mine may develop feelings of claustrophobia.
If the management makes it known to the worker the various precautions that have
been taken to provide security and comfort to him, the worker will feel less anxious,
and more cheerful.
Almost always, the mines are operated on a shift basis (of, say, eight hours). The
shift work has an adverse effect on the circadian rhythms of the body, leading to
sleep disorders, stomach ailments and social stress. Some companies find that
operation in 4-hr shifts, or 12-hr shifts on a 4-day rotation basis, may be less dis-
ruptive of the circadian rhythm.
6.7 COAL CYCLE AND ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH
The major environmental and health impacts of the coal cycle are summarized in
Table 6.6 (Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 135136).
Table 6.6 Major environmental and health impacts of coal cycle (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 135136).
Operation Environmental impact Health impact
Surface mining
Many variations (contour stripping, mountain Destruction and disruption of vegetation, natural drainage patterns and Noise and vibration effects
top area mining, open pit), and machinery-use land use in the area of the mine. Erosion of cleared areas and soil from machinery. Blast effects.
options (shovel-truck, dragline, continuous and overburden dumps leading to sedimentation and pollution Potential silicosis and
mine). All basically involve removal of of water courses. Possibility of acid mine drainage. Dust created respiratory problems.
vegetation, top soil and overburden to expose during operations causing visibility problems and loss of agricultural
coal. Usual depth limit 300 m. production. Water consumption effects in arid areas.
Deep mining
Basically two types longwall, and Production of surface spoil heaps with potential erosion effects such as Noise, vibration and blast effects.
board-and-pillar, but many variations sedimentation and acidification of water courses. Possibility of Pneumoconiosis and other respiratory
and degrees of mechanization. spontaneous combustion of spoil heaps causing air pollution and tip problems from dust. Effects of mine
Access to seams by vertical shaft or drift. instability. Mine drainage adversely affecting the water quality of a large gases. Poor working environment
area by removing soluble minerals from aquifers and by the acidification high temperatures, wet conditions,
of surface water courses. Loss of agricultural productivity over large inadequate light. Hard physical
areas caused by subsidence. Water consumption effects in arid areas. work. High accident rate.
Coal preparation and beneficiation
Coal crushing and grinding for different Dust effects. Water consumption effects in arid areas. Air pollution Dust effects. Emissions from coal
end-uses, and washing to reduce ash and from emissions from coal drying after washing. Solid waste heap drying. Noise and vibration effects.
sulphur contents. disposal erosion, runoff and spontaneous consumption. Aqueous
waste disposal slurry lagoons, pollution of ground and surface water.
Coal transport and storage
Conveyor, slurry pipeline, truck, railway, Dust effects particularly during transit and at transfer points. Dust effects.
barge, ship. Water pollution from disposal of untreated slurry water.
Utilization
Coking, direct combustion, Emissions from all processes of particulates, nitrogen and sulphur Emissions of noxious gases, heat
coal conversion. dioxides, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons and trace elements. Disposal and dust. Process and end-product
of liquid effluents, e.g. ammoniacal liquor from coking. All processes related to occupational health risks.
produce large amounts of solid waste which can pose problems of
erosion, runoff, toxicity and contamination of water courses.
Table 6.7 Severity estimates for underground and surface mining by sector (data for USA in 1995)
(source: Grayson, 1999, p. 94).
Sector Fatalities Fatal-IR NFDL NFDL-IR Total-IR Overall SM
Coal underground 25 0.05 5426 10.57 13.50 772

Coal surface 10 0.03 942 2.75 4.06 288
Metal underground 3 0.04 422 5.79 9.75 498
Metal surface 5 0.03 469 2.52 4.23 290
Nonmetal underground 3 0.08 146 3.83 6.34 712
Nonmetal surface 3 0.05 137 2.41 4.19 433
Stone underground 0 0 75 3.71 5.53 122
Stone surface 11 0.04 1201 4.15 6.86 345
Sand/gravel surface 4 0.02 881 3.56 5.62 269
Sand/gravel dredge 2 0.04 182 3.77 6.10 335
IR incident rate; NFDL non-fatal days lost; SM severity measurement (the number of lost and restricted work
days, multiplied by 200,000 and divided by the number of employee-hours worked).
Table 6.8 Occupational illnesses in mining by sector (US data, 1995) (source: Grayson, 1999, p. 95).
Type/sector Coal Metal Nonmetal Stone Sand/gravel
Skin diseases 3 4 1 12 3
Dust diseases lung 207 8 5 9 2
Respiratory toxic agents 8 1 2 1 0
Poisoning 3 1 0 3 0
Disorders nontoxic physical agents 2 12 3 15 5
Disorders repeated trauma 214 109 32 49 22
All others 21 2 3 5 1
Total 458 137 46 94 33
An examination of the statistical data (for USA, 1995) in regard to fatalities, non-
fatal days lost (NFDL), total accident incident rate, and severity measurements
(SM) for underground and surface mines by sector (Table 6.7, source: Grayson,
1999, p. 94) leads to the following conclusions: (1) Among all the mining activities
for various minerals, the most hazardous is the underground mining of coal, (2) The
underground mining of coal, metal and nonmetal has higher severity measure than
the corresponding figures for surface mining for the same minerals, (3) Surface
mining of stone has a greater SM than underground mining of stone. On the basis
of such analyses, the Mine Safety and Health Administration (MSHA) targets sec-
tors, mines and jobs to enforce the regulations.
Table 6.8 (source: Grayson, 1999, p. 95) indicates that coal mining leads mining
for other minerals in regard to dust diseases of lungs and trauma disorders. By
improving the working conditions in the mines, the number of silicosis cases
per year came down from 857.4 during 196878 to 284.5 in 199192 in USA.
Similarly, the number of cases of pneumoconiosis per year, which was 2374.8 in
196878, was brought down to 1852.0 per year in 199192.
Table 6.9 Hazard prevention measures (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 223).
Hazard Principle of prevention Preventive measure
Dust Suppression at the source, Wetting the coal face, ventilation,

dilution in the air, suppression surfactants on the floor
in the environment
Noise Substitution Other machinery
Heat Reduction Ventilation and air-conditioning
Heavy work Elimination, substitution Mechanization/automation,
ergonomic design work
Vibration Elimination Remote control
Falls of ground Elimination Support to roof and walls
Dangerous machines Substitution, segregation Maintenance/replacement,
machine guarding
Blasting Suppression at source, Wet methods, ventilation
dilution of air
Gases Disposal, dilution Extraction, ventilation
There are three Es of mitigation: Education, Engineering and Enforcement. The

goal of the mining industry should be to ensure that the workers could work their
entire career without incurring death, disability or serious injury.
Table 6.9 lists the hazard prevention measures in the case of the coal cycle
CHAPTER 7
Process technologies and the environment
The Run-of-Mine (ROM) economic mineral is rarely saleable as such. In the olden
days, the saleable material used to be handpicked. Now a days, we have a whole
array of technologies to process the ROM to suit the specifications of the consumer.
The beneficiation process has to take into account (1) the market specifications,
(2) techno-economic viability and minimum costs, (3) ecological sustainability,
(4) national policy, and government regulations, etc.. If the ore is polymetallic,
the flowsheet is adjusted so as to produce more of the metal for which there is a strong
current demand. For instance, due to demand in high-tech applications, particularly
the cell phones, the market price of tantalum has shot up from USD 66 to 264/kg.
Thus, when tantalum ores, such as fergusonite, samarskite, euxenite, etc. are to be
processed, the flowsheet should be so designed as to be able to achieve the maxi-
mum recovery of tantalum, in preference to other associated elements such as
cerium earths, thorium, etc.
The Chapter elucidates how the environmental impacts of mineral processing
could be minimized through an understanding the scientific basis of the process
technologies.
7.1 PREPARATION OF COAL
Good part of the global production of coal (about 4600 Mt/y) undergoes some form
of preparation before it is used directly (say, in a pit-mouth thermal power station)
or sold. Consumers demand a high degree of consistency in the product sold to
them, and the environmental regulations need to be adhered to.
To start with, the ROM coal and the associated refuse material are analysed for
their mineralogy, size distribution, hardness, calorific value, coking properties, etc.
in order to determine their treatability by the main separation techniques available.
ROM coal is crushed using jaw, gyratory or roll crushers, and then screened to pro-
duce different size fractions.
Clean coal is lighter, because of its lower ash content. Hence coal separation is
effected using the density criterion. Jigging using the water medium is by far the
oldest and the simplest method of separation of clean coal. The density of the
medium can be raised to the desired level by making use of water-based suspen-
sions of sand, shale, barite, magnetite, etc. The lighter clean coal particles float to
the top of the washery cell, whereas the higher density waste particles accumulate
at the bottom, with middlings in between. The cycle is repeated until the needed
separation is effected.
Separation of coal and waste material can also be effected using cyclones, which
may make use of water or some other appropriate (heavier) medium. Occasionally,
shaking tables, launders and spirals are used.
Froth flotation could be made use of to clean coal fractions with a maximum
diameter of 0.5 mm. In the flotation cell, air is bubbled through the coal slurry,
which contains the collector reagents. The aerophyllic coal particles rise to the sur-
face, while the hydrophyllic shale and pyrite particles sink to the bottom of the cell.
7.2 PREPARATION OF METALLIC ORES
The metal content of ROM ores of non-ferrous metals is usually low (e.g. 1.014% Cu
in El Teniente, Chile; 0.87 g/t of Au in Cortez, Nevada, USA). Hence it is necessary
to concentrate the ores at mine site, and then send the concentrates to a smelter or a
hydrometallurgical plant for the extraction of metal concerned.
The marketable mineral species in the ore have to be separated from the undesir-
able and valueless gangue. This invariably involves a size reduction operation, called
comminution. Thus comminution has to precede the processes of beneficiation or
leaching. The size distribution of ROM may range from a few microns to several
hundred millimeters, whereas the liberation size of the sulphide minerals is usually
less than 100 microns. Thus ROM has to be ground down to about 100 microns or
lower, depending upon the grain size of the ore metal that needs to be liberated.
Research and Development in the process technologies is aimed at not only mak-
ing the processes efficient, but also environmentally benign.
The following techniques are used for the reduction of the grainsize:
(a) Crushinggrinding: Size reduction of dry solids of ore particles to about 10 mm
size is accomplished through primary crushing using a jaw crusher or gyratory
crusher, followed by one or two stages of secondary gyratory crushers. At each
stage, vibrating screens are employed to obtain materials of desired size. Water
is added to the size of the crushed material whose size is to be further reduced
by grinding in rod mills and/or ball mills.
(b) Autogenous grinding: After primary crushing, the ROM ore is made into a slurry
and fed to an autogenous (or semi autogenous) grinding mill. Further fine grind-
ing can be accomplished using pebble mills or conventional ball-mills.
(c) Classification: There could be upto three grinding stages, depending upon the
grainsize required and the capacity of the processing plant (ROM in some large
mines may be of the order of 100,000 tpd). Classifiers, including hydrocyclones,
Process technologies and the environment 147
rake classifiers, and spiral classifiers, are coupled with each grinding stage to
remove the ore grains of desired size dimensions.
Two innovative developments in comminution technology are summarized as
follows:
Microwave heating is being used for the liberation of minerals from the refrac-
tory ores of gold, copper and other metals (Wang & Forssberg, 2000). This tech-
nology has tremendous potential for use with sulphide flotation concentrates to
replace processes such as autoclaving, roasting and smelting. More importantly, the
technology is environmentally benign. The microwave heating behaviour and the
grindability of materials depend not only on the microwave energy intensity and
exposure time, but also on the grainsize. Dry milling of the microwave treated
coarser particles (9.50 mm, 4.75 mm) of limestone and quartz greatly improved
their fineness. When copper ores are subjected to microwave treatment (energy
intensity 7 kw, and exposure time 30 mins.), thermal stress fractures occurred
readily, resulting in better and cleaner separation of sulphide minerals from the ore
matrix. On the other hand, microwave heating did not induce stress fractures in sil-
icate and carbonate minerals, possibly because of their transparency to microwave
radiation.
Namdeb Diamond Corporation in Namibia (SW Africa) has a floating treatment
plant for the screening and concentration of diamondiferous gravels from an over-
burden dredging operation. The installed trommel screens were not effective in
achieving primary screening requirements at 2 mm apertures. If conventional
screening techniques are to be employed, a separate screening barge would have
been needed. This option has been ruled out as it is prohibitively expensive.
McDougall and Cooke (2000) used the principle of elutriation innovatively for
solving the screening problem. The flow in the feed pumping system is split in such
a way as to remove part of the 90% fines in the feed, thereby reducing the duty
required of the trommels. In the elutriator column, the overflow stream flows verti-
cally upwards. Thus, the feed from the dredge is split into two streams the under-
flow of coarse material goes to the trommel screens, whereas the overflow of fine
material bypasses the trommel screens and goes directly to the screen underpans.
A magnetic flow meter is used to monitor and control the upward velocity of the
stream in the elutriator column.
7.3 FLOTATION
Flotation is the most commonly used process for the beneficiation of the sulphide
and oxide ores of base metals, and ores of gold associated with sulphides (with the
exception of the oxide ores of nickel). It is a complex physico-chemical process, but
its basic principle can be explained as follows:
In froth flotation, air is blown through the solution containing flotation reagents.
The particles with water repellent surfaces stick to the air bubbles, and rise to the
surface, where they are collected. Particles, which are wettable, remain in suspen-
sion or settle down. In the case of dispersed air flotation, gas bubbles are generated
by introducing the air by mechanical agitation. In the case of dissolved air flotation,
bubbles are produced when air is released from a supersaturated solution under a
relatively high pressure. In vacuum flotation, wastewater is saturated by air, directly
in an aeration tank. A typical vacuum flotation unit consists of a covered cylindri-
cal tank under partial vacuum, with mechanisms for scum and sludge removal. The
floating material is got swept into scum trough, where from it is pumped out under
partial vacuum.
Finely ground ore is pulped with water and appropriate chemicals (or flotation
reagents). Flotation separation takes place in a series of cells or columns, which are
agitated by air to promote dispersion. The hydrophobic minerals (such as, sulphides)
are carried piggy-back on the bubbles formed in the cell, and rise to the top as scum.
The scum, which contains the minerals of value, is skimmed off. Often several
stages of flotation may have to be employed in order to obtain the desired concen-
tration. On the other hand, the wettable gangue minerals (such as magnetite and
quartz) sink to the bottom of the cell. They are collected and sent to disposal ponds.
Flotation has a number of advantages: the energy requirements are not high, and
the airflow can be controlled depending upon the characteristics of the wastewater.
The disadvantages are that chemicals are needed to be added to enhance process
performance, the operators have to be properly trained and attentive, and large
quantities of solid wastes are generated.
Ultrafiltration involves the use of pressure and semi-permeable polymeric mem-
branes, which allows the passage of water and low molecular weight materials,
while retaining emulsified oil droplets and suspended particles. A major limitation
of ultrafiltration is that for satisfactory operation, it has to be used in the narrow
temperature range of 1830 C. Higher temperatures increase the flux, but reduce
the life of the membrane. So a trade-off is inevitable. Strong oxidizing agents, sol-
vents and some organic compounds can dissolve the membrane, and hence waste-
waters containing them cannot be treated by ultrafiltration. Also, large particles are
capable of puncturing the membrane, and must be removed by gravity settling or
filtration, before the wastewaters are subjected to ultrafiltration. The membranes
must be periodically changed, and detergent solutions should be passed through the
system to remove oil and grease films that may accumulate on the membrane.
The chemicals (flotation reagents) used in the flotation process serve different
purposes: acids and alkalis (for pH control), frothers (for producing froth), collec-
tors (to collect the ore mineral by facilitating their separation from gangue miner-
als) and modifiers (to modify the characteristics of the pulp), etc.
The following flotation agents are used in Base Metal Concentrators:
1. Acids: Sulphuric acid,
2. Alkalis: Lime, Sodium Carbonate, Sodium hydroxide.
3. Modifiers: Copper sulphate, Sodium cyanide, Zinc sulphate, Sodium sulphide,
Sodium silicate, Sulphur dioxide, Starch.
Table 7.1 Typical ore processing reagents (source: Environment Canada, 1987).
Reagents Comments
Acids (H2SO4, HCl, HNO3)

Alkalis (CaO, Ca(OH)2, CaCO3,
Na2CO3, NaOH, NH4OH, NH3)
Frothers and collectors Surface active reagents
Modifiers Surface active organics and various inorganics, such as NaCN,
Na2SO3, CuSO4, ZnSO4, Na2S, AlCl3, Pb (NO3) 2, silicates and
chromates
Sodium Cyanide Used for the cyanidation of precious metals, and as depressants
in the flotation of copper, lead and zinc ores
Flocculants, Coagulants Aluminium and iron salts, and organic polymers
4. Collectors: Potassium amylxanthate, Potassium ethylxanthate, Potassium iso-

propylxanthate, Aniline Dicresyldithiophosphate, Diesel oil, Amine.
5. Frothers: Dowfroth 250, Hexylic Alcohol, Pine Oil, HBTA frother.
Depending upon the composition of the ore, and the component to be concentrated,
suitable combinations of flotation reagents are chosen (Table 7.1). Typical con-
sumption of flotation reagents is given in Table 7.2 (source: UNEP, 1991).
The concentrates are then dewatered in thickeners and filters. Figure 7.1 (source:
UNEP, 1991) gives the flow sheet of the PbZn concentrator.
Wastes are sent to the disposal ponds through ditches, launders and pipe systems.
Water in the disposal ponds is recovered by decantation it is either recycled in the
processing plants or released to the environment.
While the reagent suite is chosen on the basis of surface chemistry considera-
tions, the overall efficiency of the system of beneficiation would also depend upon
engineering aspects of the system, such as the type, design and operation of the
machines used in flotation, pre-classification of the flotation feed, and the applica-
tion of magnetic field to the flotation cells, etc.
Problems arise when concentrates of copper, lead and zinc are to be obtained
selectively from complex ores of these metals. Most often, the concentrates are pro-
duced from low-grade ores, and are characterized by low recoveries. There will be
penalties if the concentrates of one metal (say, copper) are contaminated with
excessive amounts of other metals (say) lead and zinc, because of the consequent
problems in smelting.
Electrochemical techniques have been developed for the collectorless flotation of
sulphide minerals of copper from their gangues. These methods have dual advan-
tages of being cost-effective and environment-friendly. For instance, in the case of
pulp containing chalcopyrite and galena, flotability of chalcopyrite reaches the high-
est level of 73%, at pH 10 and pulp electrochemical potential between 100 mV
and 120 mV. Flotation was depressed significantly if the electrochemical poten-
tials are outside the above range. Galena showed good flotability at pH 8, and
Table 7.2 Typical consumption of flotation reagents in Non-ferrous metal mills (g/t of ore) (source:
Weiss, 1985; McQuiston & Shoemaker, 1975, 1980).
Concentrator (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)
Acids
H2SO4 500600 5000 #
Alkalis
Lime 1000 2500 225400 1100 1200 3150
Sodium carbonate 550 3300
Sodium hydroxide 246
Modifiers
Copper sulphate 200 120 815 3560 330
Sodium cyanide 10 13 550 28
Zinc sulphate 60 91 1450
Sodium sulphide 2800
Sodium silicate 2700
Sulphur dioxide 700
Starch 100
Collectors
X-Amylxanthate 45 130 270 6085 35 220
X-Isopropyxanthate 30
X-Ethylxanthate 5 20
Diesel oil 69
Amine 250
R-242 * 60
Frothers
Dowfroth 250 2025 14
Hexylic alcohol 40
Pine oil 20
HBTA frother 85
Carbon 30
(1) PbZn sulphides Les Malines (France); (2) PbZn (oxide sulphides) Zellidja (Morocco), (3) CuPbZn
Brunswick Mining and Smelting (Canada), (4) Ni (sulphide) Falconbridge (Canada), (5) Cu (sulphide) Lornex
(Canada), (6) Au (Cyanidation CIF) Homestake (USA), (7) CuZn pyrite Pyhasalai (Finland).
* R242: Aniline Dicresyl dithiophosphate thiocarbonilide
#: Sulphuric acid is used for pyrite recovery
electrochemical potential between 190 mV and 230 mV. At pH 8, addition of

ferric nitrate minimized the flotation to about 3%.
Rutile and ilmenite are usually separated through a combination of gravity and
electromagnetic techniques. These techniques achieve their purpose if the particles
are coarser than 100 mesh. If the particles are fine (less than 45 microns), these
techniques are ineffective and uneconomical. Froth flotation techniques have been
developed to get over the problem. In the presence of 7.5 106 M of the cationic
collector Hydrogenated Tallow Amine Acetate (HTAA), pH 12 and temperature of
25 C, the flotation recovery of ilmenite reached 84%, while that of rutile remained
at only 16%.
Figure 7.1 A typical PbZn concentrator flowsheet (source: UNEP Tech. Rept., no. 5, 1991, p. 18).
The iron-ore mining industry in USA faces stiff competition from high-grade
imported iron ores. Cationic silica flotation of magnetic concentrates is a low-cost,
environmentally-benign flotation process which is capable of yielding a concen-
trate which satisfies the increasingly stringent specifications for the raw feed mate-
rials for blast furnaces and direct reduction processes (Iwasaki, 2000).
While the reagent suite is chosen on the basis of surface chemistry considera-
tions, the overall efficiency of the system of beneficiation would also depend upon
engineering aspects of the system, such as the type, design and operation of the
machines used in flotation, pre-classification of the flotation feed, and the application
of magnetic field to the flotation cells, etc.. This approach may be illustrated with
an example. In southern Sardinia, gold ores occur with enargite, which contains
arsenic. Alkali leaching of enargite in the sodium sulphide medium, achieves more
than 90% efficiency, with significantly higher extraction rates if the ore is finely
ground. The solid leach residue has the composition of covellite, which can be sub-
jected to pyrometallurgical treatment.
Maelgwyn Mineral Services developed more efficient techniques of Imhoflot pneu-
matic flotation for improved coal recovery. The key element in the flotation
process of coal is the bubble adhesion in a coal slurry and the nature of the bubble
particle interaction. The Imhoflot process makes use of intense pre-aeration using a
self-aspirated, multijet device to promote the interaction. The mineralized bubbles
are recovered in a relatively quiescent separator cell. The stage residence times are
generally less than three minutes. This process achieves high selectivity and the
consequent production of high grade concentrates in the primary flotation stages.
Multiple stages may be needed in the case of coal types with slow time recovery
response. This technique has been used successfully in coal and tailings processes
with unit feed capacities of 80 t/h or (800 m3/h) and cell sizes of 5 m diam. The
recovery efficiency may be optimized by adjusting the barometric conditions and
jet configurations in the self-aspirated aerator, the pulp level, froth height, disper-
sion characteristics of the distributor and jet nozzles, etc.
Enhanced Gravity Separation (EGS) involves the use of mechanically applied
centrifugal field to increase the efficiency of conventional gravity-based devices,
such as jigs, riffle tables, teeter-beds, and flowing film devices. The cleaning of
1000 44 micron coal through EGS can be considerably improved by use of a
dense medium comprising an ultrafine magnetite suspension. The EGS technology
helped in the reduction in the ash content from 16.9% to below 5% of fine no. 6
Illinois coal, while achieving organic efficiency value as high as 95%. High process
efficiencies are achievable over a whole range of particle sizes of coal from the coars-
est particle sizes (1000 600 microns) to the finest fraction (150 44 microns).
In the case of low-rank coal of El-Maghara, Egypt, it has been found that the use
of pine oil in the emulsification of the fuel oil collector resulted in better recover-
ies, particularly of fine coal particles.
Cyclones have been traditionally used for classification in the 50200 micron
range. Maelgwyn Mineral Services have developed a new kind of technology to
improve the efficiency of classification. The new technology developed by
Maelgwyn Mineral Services makes use of traveling pans each containing precisely
woven slotted mesh panels. The slurry bed is mobilized with fine, high velocity
water sprays above and below the mesh. The new process consumes less energy,
and provides for high process efficiency.
In the past, many process applications, including those for coal, have involved
two stages of flocculation, using first an anionic flocculant, followed by a cationic
flocculant. Ciba Speciality Chemicals has come up with a two-in-one flocculant,
TWINTEC, in which the anionic and cationic species exist together. TWINTEC is
said to have the advantages of reduced filter cake moisture, improved throughput,
reduced pH sensitivity, and increased life of the expensive filter cloth.
7.4 HYDROMETALLURGY
As the name indicates, hydrometallurgy is an industrial process for recovering met-

als using solutions, as against pyrometallurgy, which uses heat for the purpose.
Hydrometallurgical extraction is fast replacing pyrometallurgical extraction, as it is
environmentally less polluting, and involves lower energy consumption. A number
of case histories are cited to illustrate the trend.
For instance, when gold-bearing refractory ore, stibnite, is treated pyrometallur-
gically, toxic gases are generated. Ubaldini et al. (2000) found that pretreatment of
stibnite by chemical alkaline leaching followed by the cyanidation of residues, per-
mits the extraction of 75% of antimony in a high purity and quality form, and 80%
of the gold. Further efficiencies could be achieved by incorporating the gold purifi-
cation/gold electro-deposition step to the circuit.
Tungsten in the form of pure WO3 is usually recovered from scheelite and wol-
framite concentrates through a multi-step alkaline-based leaching process. Although
WO3 is acidic in character, it can be dissolved in the form of poly-tungstate ions by
changing the ligand mantle of WO3. Extraction efficiencies of 93% have been
achieved through chelate-added acid leach of concentrates below 325 mesh at
7080 C using 2M hydrochloric acid at solids to liquids ratio of 1 : 5.
It has become a common practice to extract gold from oxidized ores through the
heap leaching of cyanide solutions. The gold cyanide complex is adsorbed on acti-
vated carbon, and the solutions are then electrolysed using steel wool as cathode.
New flowsheets have been proposed whereby gold is directly won from pregnant
heap-leaching solutions, thus eliminating gold adsorption and desorption steps.
It has also been found that higher gold recoveries are achieved with a steel mesh cath-
ode relative to steel wool cathode. The superior performance of the steel mesh cath-
ode is attributed to its better surface area distribution and homogeneity, which
facilitates a better flow of electrolytic solutions.
The extraction of several metals involves Leaching, Solvent Extraction and
Electrowinning (LXSXEW) sequence. The overall objective of the LXSXEW
process is the maximization of the net revenue on the basis of the production
of commercial cathode of the prescribed quality. The performance of the various
units is optimized on the basis of the properties of the raw ore (mineralogy,
geochemistry, content of ore metals and their speciation, solid-state chemistry,
nature of the gangue minerals, etc.), feed rate, energy and reagent costs, metal
market prices.
Cognis has developed a full range of Solvent Extraction (SX) reagents, which
could be custom-blended to optimize metallurgical and physical performance regard-
less of the operating conditions. A good example of the application is the Cawse
Figure 7.2 Cawse flowsheet for nickel SX extraction (source: Mining Mag., Sept. 2001).
Nickel Operations in Queensland, Australia. Before the application of the new flow-
sheet involving LIX reagents of Cognis, the ore pretreatment involved gravity con-
centration, cycloning and scrubbing. The new Cawse flowsheet is based on High
Pressure Autoclave Acid Leaching (HPAL), followed by the ammonia leach of a base
metal hydroxide intermediate filter cake and nickel solvent extraction with LIX 84-I.
An important advantage of the Cawse flowsheet is that the process employs only one
SX circuit and extractant type. The process produces a high purity electrowon cath-
ode and cobalt sulphide. By recycling ammonia and metal containing intermediates,
the consumption of ammonia could be kept low, while ensuring very high metal
recovery (Fig. 7.2; source: Mining Mag., Sept. 2001).
Mintek had developed a plant-wide control system called Plantstar. This is pow-
erful software, which incorporates the milling and flotation control strategies. It has
a built-in Interpreting Expert System (IES). This constitutes Artificial Intelligence
solution, which provides on-line training to plant operator, by translating the
numerical results of the various algorithms used in the system in the form of under-
standable human sentences. This way, the operator becomes familiar with the
Plantstar system (Houseman et al., 2000).
7.5 BIOLEACHING
Bioleaching makes use of naturally occurring bacteria to facilitate the extraction of

precious metals (Au, Ag) and base metals (Cu, Pb, Zn) from sulphide ores or concen-
trates. In effect, bioleaching accelerates the natural processes of breakdown of sul-
phides into oxides. For a given level of production, bioleaching has minimal energy
consumption, pollution and waste generation. The bacteria involved do not affect
people, they feed on minerals, and they can be transported safely, they are resistant,
and can operate in temperatures ranging from freezing to 80 C. Bioleaching is not
only environmentally benign but also cost-effective. No wonder, it is fast replacing
the traditional technologies such as roasting, autoclaving and smelting which are not
only energy intensive but also cause environmental degradation, as they are associ-
ated with the emission of noxious gases (such as SOx), toxic residues and acid rain
(see the excellent update by Adiana Potts, Mining Mag., Sept. 2001, p. 128134, from
which this account is drawn).
The bacteria, Thiobacillus ferrooxidans, were earlier thought to be the only fac-
tor involved in the bioleaching of sulphides (each bacterium is 1.5 m long, and
0.4 m diam.). While this bacteria is undoubtedly the most important, subsequent
studies have brought to light a new group of organisms, called archae. Some archae
are mesophiles (requiring a moderate amount of heat to grow) and some are ther-
mophiles (which need higher temperatures to grow). Iron and sulphur-reducing
archae are widely used in the tank leaching processes, and in the extraction of base
metal sulphides.
The microorganisms that are used in bioleaching are no different from those that
occur in nature only, we choose those organisms that serve our purpose best.
Some organisms require the availability of iron and sulphur, particular temperature,
and particular pH (say, 2.5). Since such extreme conditions are rare in natural
environments, these organisms have no adverse effect on ecosystems.
The BHP Billiton-Codelco and BacTechMintek are leaders in bioleaching tech-
nologies.
Treatment of refractory ores by the traditional methods is not only expensive but
also polluting. Gencor of South Africa pioneered commercial tank bioleaching of
refractory gold-bearing sulphide ores. It was implemented in 1986 in the Fairview

goldmine of the Barberton gold fields of South Africa. Ten years of in-house research,
and a 750-kg/d pilot plant, led to the development of the patented process, BIOX,
which proved to be technically and commercially viable. Plants using this technology
were set up in Australia, Ghana, Brazil and Peru. In 1994, the Ashanti gold mine in
Ghana has switched over to BIOX technology, and presently, the 550,000 oz
(17.106 t)/y plant employs the new technology (after decommissioning the old
Pompora gold recovery plant). In 1997, the Gencor non-precious metals assets have
been taken over by Billiton, and in 1998, the Gencor gold assets have been merged
with Gold Fields Limited, which continues to market the BIOX technology.
BacTechs bioleaching technology for gold, BACOX, has been used in
Australia. Youanmi mine in western Australia (60,000 oz or 1.87 t/y) improved its
gold recovery from refractory ores from 40 to 92%. The 65,000 oz (or 2.02 t/y)
Laizhou plant in Shandong province in China is in the process of being commis-
sioned. Three more plants using BACOX technology, are being set up.
Newmont is making use of its patented bioleaching process, BIOPRO, to
recover refractory gold at the Carlin mine in Nevada, USA. The USD 8 million facil-
ity will treat 10.6 Mt stockpile of low grade (1.90 g/t) sulphide ore, and gold-bearing
liquor from a 150-day heap leach biooxidation cycle, to produce 645,000 oz or
20 t/y.
While the technical and commercial viability of bioleaching of gold is now
firmly established, the prospects of using bioleaching for base metals and molyb-
denum is even more exciting. Codelco, which is the state-owned mining company
of Chile, not only produces the largest quantity of copper (1.614 Mt in 1999), but at
the lowest price (USD 0.47/lb or 1.034 /kg) in the world. At Mansa Mina, Codelco
is inserting a bioleach plant between the existing flotation module producing cop-
per sulphide concentrates and the existing Solvent ExtractionElectro Winning
(SXEW) unit. Copper-bearing liquid from the bioleach plant and the liquor from
the heap leach operations, feed into the SXEW unit to produce cathode copper
(Fig. 7.3; source: Mining Mag., Sept. 2001). Apart from avoiding smelting, the
bioleach process takes care of a problem peculiar to Mansa Mina. The ore contains
significant quantities of arsenic in the form of enargite. BIOX technology pre-
cipitates arsenic from the gold-bearing arsenopyrite concentrates in the form of a
stable, environmentally-acceptable compound of arsenic.
While the viability of bioleaching of secondary sulphides is now firmly estab-
lished, considerable amount of research is going on to improve the economic via-
bility of bioleaching of refractory chalcopyrite. The copper recovery rates from
chalcopyrite using conventional bioleaching technologies at atmospheric pressures,
are low (2040%) and hence uneconomic. Bioleaching employing thermophilic
microorganisms operating at temperatures of 6085 C in stirred tanks, holds great
promise for enhancing the recovery rates to economic levels. BHP Billiton is exper-
imenting with bioleaching involving thermophilic microorganisms in stirred tanks,
for copper-nickel and zinc concentrates.
Figure 7.3 Integration of bioleaching with Solvent Extraction (SX) and Electrowinning (EW)
processes (source: Mining Mag., Sept. 2001).
There is little doubt that bioleaching will be increasingly put to use because of
the techno-economic and environmental benefits.
Nalco has developed a new line of polymers for water clarification. The strong points
of OPTIMER mineral processing flocculent are high settling rates of suspended
solids, superior overflow clarification, and maximum underflow compaction and
pumpability. The Nalco 98DF063 is a liquid polymer system which is custom-made for
the flocculation of red mud in the bauxite industry. The Nalco patented TRASAR tech-
nology has four components of tracer chemicals, control equipment, diagnostic capa-
bilities and on-site services. The system provides not only protection against scale
formation but the inert tracer allows continuous diagnostic monitoring of the system
volume, mixing studies, system flow, residence time/water travel time and environ-
mental compliance. Such a system not only helps in the efficient operation of the
process, but also allows remedial action to be taken before a problem becomes serious.
7.6 GOLD PROCESSING TECHNOLOGY A CASE STUDY
7.6.1 Introduction
Gold is one metal for which there has never been a diminishing of demand. The
world production of gold was about 1400 t in 1980s, and about 1800 t in 1990s. The
present world production of gold is about 2500 t, worth about USD 25 billion. More
countries are producing larger quantities of gold.
7.6.2 Where to look for gold

Gold occurs as (1) free gold ores, (2) gold with iron sulphides, (3) gold with arsenic
and/or antimony minerals (e.g. arsenopyrite), (4) gold tellurides, (5) gold with
copper porphyries, (6) gold lead and zinc minerals, (7) gold with carbonaceous
minerals, etc.
The processes of concentration of gold to form economic deposits are summa-
rized in Table 3.1.
Gold particles may range in size from dispersed (upto 10 m), small (upto
0.1 mm), medium (upto 1 mm) and large (upto 5 mm). Pure gold is said to have fine-
ness of 1000 (or 24 Karats). The generally lower fineness of gold in the greenstones
(600900) is attributed to AuAg alloy (electrum).
Gold occurs in a large variety of environments (Hutchinson, 1987).
Igneous: Basaltubiquitous, iron-tholeiitic; commonly found pillowed and
variolitic-spheruliitic, also magnesian and komatitic; Thin fragmental-pyroclastic
rock, Quartz and/or feldspar porphyritic stock.
Sedimentary: Polymict conglomerate, Turbiditic greywacke, Iron formation, any
facies, Carbonaceous graphitic-(pyritic) sediment.
The most important, numerous and largest major districts are of Archaen age.
The environments which are characteristic of large deposits of gold, are summa-
rized as follows (Cox & Singer, 1986):
1. Porphyry CuAu (Model 20 c): Central Cu, Au, Ag. Peripheral Mo. Peripheral
Pb, Zn, Mn anomalies may be present if late sericite pyrite alteration is strong. Au
(ppm): Mo (%) 30 in ore zone. System may have a magnetic high over intrusion,
surrounded by magnetic low over pyrite halo (e.g. Copper Mountain, Canada).
2. Hot Springs AuAg (Model 25 a): Au As Sb Hg Tl higher in the system.
Increasing Ag with depth. Locally NH4, W (e.g. McLaughlin, California, USA).
3. Creede epithermal vein (Model 25 b): Bleached country rock, goethite, jarosite,
alunite; supergene processes often an important factor in increasing the grade of
the deposit (e.g. Pachuca, Mexico).
4. Comstock epithermal vein (Model 25 C): Au As Sb Hg higher in the sys-
tem. Also Te & W (e.g. Comstock, Nevada, USA).
5. Epithermal quartzalunite Au: Au As Cu higher in the system. Increasing
base metals with depth. Also Te & W (e.g. Iwato, Japan).
6. Carbonate hosted Au (Model 26 a): Light brown to reddish brown iron oxide
stained jasperoid. Au As Hg W Mo. NH3 important in some deposits
(e.g. Carlin, Nevada, USA).
7. Quartz pebble conglomerate, AuU (Model 29 a): Braided stream channels in
broad unconformity surfaces in alluvial fans. Gold gets concentrated at the base
of the mature conglomerate beds deposited on an erosion surface. Anomalous
radioactivity (e.g. Witwatersrand, South Africa).
8. Low sulphide AuQz veins (Model 36 a): Arsenic best pathfinder. Association
with Ag, Pb, Zn and Cu. Abundant quartz chips in the soil. Gold may be recov-
ered from the soil by panning (e.g. Ballarat Goldfield, Australia).
9. Homestake Au (Model 36 b): Volcanogenic gold, iron formation hosted gold.
Archaean lode gold. Au Fe As B Sb (PGE in mafic volcanic terrains).
Bi, Hg and minor Cu Pb Zn Ag Mo (e.g. Vubachikwe, Zimbabwe).
10. Placer AuPGE (Model 39 a): Anomalously high amounts of Ag, As, Hg, Sb,
Cu, Fe and S. Heavy minerals, magnetite, chromite, ilmenite, haematite, pyrite,
zircon, garnet and rutile. Au nuggets have decreasing Ag content with distance
from the source.
7.6.3 How to look for gold

Since pyrite is a precursor for mineralisation of metals, such as gold, it follows that
the higher the content of pyrite in the host rock, the greater the possibility of gold
mineralisation. A 1:1 correlation has been found between the pyrite content of the
host rock and its Au content (Ferrow, 2001).
Mssbauer spectroscopy (MES) and Raman spectroscopy have emerged as use-
ful tools in looking for gold (Ferrow, 2001). MES is useful in determining the
valence state, coordination number, spin state, magnetic properties and structure of
the minerals. For instance, the MES spectra of Au-poor pyrite samples are charac-
terized by low-spin doublet, while Au-rich samples contain an additional magnetic
sextets (produced by the oxidation of pyrite substrate during the simultaneous
reduction and sorption of Au.) (Fig. 7.4; source: Zhenru et al., 1989). The Raman
spectrum of Au-rich quartz is markedly different from the spectrum for Au-poor
quartz the intensity of Raman emission for SiOSi and for crystal lattice vibra-
tions is higher for Au-rich quartz than for Au-poor quartz (Fig. 7.5; source: Zhenru
et al., 1989).
The most serious problem that hindered the prospecting for gold has been the
great difficulty and expense in determining the gold content in situ at ppm and sub-
ppm levels. The usual practice has been to pan for gold (which requires water) and
look for grains of gold visually. Fire assay of gold is accurate, but it cannot easily
be done in the field.
Portable XRF devices are available for the geologist to check the ore grade in the
drill core, or this could be done automatically. Nitons new XL-500 Prospector can
assay ore samples directly in situ (rock face or drill core). It is a single-piece, hand-
held analyzer weighing only one kg, including the battery. Typical in situ meas-
urements range from 3060 sec., and 5001000 measurements can be made per
Figure 7.4 Mssbauer spectra of Au-poor and Au-rich pyrite (left) (source: Zhenru et al., (1989).
Figure 7.5 Raman spectra of Au-poor and Au-rich quartz (right) (source: Zhenru et al., 1989).
day. About 1000 measurements can be stored in the instrument internally, and can
be downloaded as needed for mapping, grade control and other kinds of analyses.
Niton also markets a special device for precious metals (called Precious Metals
Analyser), for the analysis of Au, Ag. Pt, Rh, Ru, Ir, Pd, Cu, Zn, Ni, Co and Fe in
ores, and fire assay can be avoided. Details about Niton instruments can be had
from www.niton.com.
7.6.4 How to extract gold

McNulty (2001) gave an excellent update on cyanidation.
The cyanidation process was patented in UK on October 19, 1887 by
J.S. MacArthur and two brothers, W. and R.W. Forrest. Cyanidation changed for ever
the economics of gold industry. For instance, the application of cyanidation process
in the Rand goldfields of South Africa, led to a thousand-fold increase in gold pro-
duction in a matter of just three years from 300 oz (9.33 kg) in 1890 to 300,000 oz.
(9331 kg) in 1893. During the past 20 years, cyanidation accounted for about 92%
of the total world production of gold. Cyanidation has the following advantages:
(1) it requires only dilute solutions containing typically 3001000 ppm (0.31.0 g/l) of
sodium cyanide, (2) the pH range used (9.511.5) is such that only gold and silver
get mobilized, and (3) it is simple to operate and control.
Figure 7.6 (source: UNEP Tech. Rept., no. 5, 1991, p. 20) shows the gold con-
centrator flowsheet (used by Hecla Mining Co.) which combines flotation with
cyanidation.
Heap cyanidation of low grade ores has proved to be efficient and inexpensive,
and is extensively used all over the world. The great advantage of cyanide heap
leaching is that there would be no discharging of process solutions, and minimum
recycling of water. Treatment and discharge of process solutions would not be
needed during the operation. In effect, there would be a single permanent large heap
leach pad. Percolation of pregnant cyanide solutions downwards through hundreds
of metres of leached ore can take place, without the solutions undergoing chemical
Figure 7.6 Gold concentrator flowsheet (Hecla Mining Co.) (source: UNEP Tech. Rept., no. 5, 1991,
p. 20).
change. On the other hand, other lixiviants (such as, sodium hypochlorite stabilized
by sodium chloride, Bromine stabilized by sodium bromide, Ammonium thiosul-
phate stabilized by ammonia, and catalyzed by cupric ion, and Acidic thiourea)
require rigorous control of pH and Eh, and there is always the possibility of side
reactions and precipitation of gold.
Figure 7.7 Gold recovery flowsheet (Ortiz gold mine) (source: UNEP Tech. Rept., no. 5, 1991, p. 21).
Cyanidation may be used to extract gold from almost any kind of gold ore. It may
be done in different ways: (1) leaching of the ROM or crushed ore, (2) vat leaching,
and (3) leaching of ground ore, flotation concentrate, etc. in agitated tanks.
Activated carbon is being increasingly used to recover gold dissolved by cyanide in
ore pulps (carbon-in-pulp process) or in clear pregnant solutions (carbon-in-column
process).
Figure 7.7: (source: UNEP Tech. Rept., no. 5, 1991, p. 21) depicts the flowsheet
used by the Ortiz gold mine to recover gold from heap leaching solutions using
Carbon-in-pulp process.
The methods of treatment applicable for different kinds of gold associations are
summarized as follows (Weiss, 1985):
Alluvial gold: (1) Gravity concentration, (2) Amalgamation.
Free milling lode ores: (1) Gravity concentration, (2) Amalgamation, (3) Direct
cyanidation, activated carbon in pulp.
Free milling sedimentary ores: (1) Direct cyanidation, (2) Treatment of refrac-
tory carbon, direct cyanidation.
Gold tellurides: (1) Bulk flotation-roasting cyanidation, (2) Direct cyanidation
SO2 roasting of concentrate cyanidation, (3) Flotation cyanidation of concentrate-
roasting of residue recyaniding, (4) Direct cyanidation, with added bromocyanide.
Gold with pyrite and marcasite: (1) Flotation smelting of concentrates, (2)
Flotation cyanidation of concentrates.
Gold with pyrrhotite: (1) Direct cyanidation with pre-aeration at low lime alka-
linity, (2) Direct cyanidation flotation of cyanide tailings regrind and recyanide
flotation concentrate or roast and recyanide.
Gold with arsenopyrite: (1) Direct cyanidation, (2) Flotation roasting of con-
centrates, (3) Roasting ore washing cyanidation, (4) Autoclaving, (5) Nitric acid
oxidation.
Gold with copper ores: (1) Flotation smelting of concentrates recovery dur-
ing electrolytic refining, (2) Flotation cyanidation of molybdenum.
Gold in refractory: (1) Roasting cyanidation carbonaceous ores, (2)
Chlorination of ore cyanidation, (3) Flotation of graphitic material cyanidation
of tailings.
Gold with lead-zinc ores: (1) Flotation smelting of concentrates, (2) Jigging
amalgamation retorting.
Butyl diglyme extraction (developed by Ferro Corp., Louisiana, USA) is an envi-
ronment-friendly process to extract gold (III) from ores, concentrates, anode slimes,
cathode sludges, electrolytic plating operations, etc. Four steps are involved:
(1) oxidative leaching crude metallic gold or gold (I) to an aqueous solution of gold (III)
chloride, (2) solvent extraction of gold (III) chloride into the butyl diglyme phase,
(3) Reduction of gold (III) into metallic gold, which is collected and cast into ingots,
and (4) recycling butyl diglyme.
Degussa-Hls of Germany has developed proprietary technologies which has the
effect of making the gold recovery more efficient, while at the same time ensuring
minimum or nil adverse impact on the environment:
PAL Peroxide-assisted leach to increase gold recovery,
CCS Cyanide control system to optimize cyanide consumption,
DETOX Cyanide detoxification technology to meet the environmental standards.
From the environmental point of view, the peroxide-based detoxification tech-
nology is most relevant. The detoxification technology can be custom-made for any
kind of mining effluent. The chemistry of the detoxification process and the bene-
fits arising therefore are summarized in Table 7.3 (source: Degussa-Hls brochure).
A Nobel Prize winning concept has led to the development of a revolution-
ary technology, called Molecular Recognition Technology (MRT), for the rapid,
selective extraction and recovery of cations and anions from process and waste
streams. In specific cases, complete recovery of high purity (99.9599.99%)
marketable metals is possible after a single-pass process. MRT involves the use
of custom-designed organic crown molecules or other chemical ligands, which
Table 7.3 Chemistry of detoxification technologies.
Application Process Chemistry Benefits
In-situ pond Conventional CN H2O2 OC N H2O Ease of use, Environmentally

detoxification H2O2 safe, Economic reagent costs
with low capital costs
Heap rinse SILOX TM | | Reduces H2O2 usage,
solutions process H2O2 SiOH SiOOH H2O Enhances reaction kinetics,
| | In-situ formation of peroxy
CN SiOOH OCNSiOH silicate resulting in increased
CN H2O2 OCN H2O cyanide destruction efficiency
Barren Bleed Activated Activator Peroxygen-based activator
Solutions H2O2 CN H2O2 OCN H2O reduces treatment costs, Can
be used for pulps
High metal HOSO 2H2O2 O2 H2O Excellent for pulps, Superior
cyanide CN O2 H2 SO4 reaction kinetics over
solutions OCN HSO4 SO2/Air, Low operating costs
with no royalty fee
C.I.P. & Caros acid H2O2 H2SO4 H2SO5 H2O Excellent for pulps, min.
C.I.L. with Degox CN H2SO5 OCN H2O retention time required,
slurries equipment Extremely fast kinetics,
often 30 sec, Normally no
additional catalyst is required
selectively target specific metals. When such molecules are bonded to solid
hydrophilic supports (such as, silica or polyacrylate) and incorporated into resin
beads, porous membranes and gels, they are capable of extracting various metals (such
as, copper, gold, zinc, nickel, etc.) from bleed streams, acid mine streams, etc. MRT
has been used for the efficient treatment of copper-gold ores (source: BATEMAN
brochure).
7.6.5 Cyanidation without tears case study of Boliden, Sweden

Gold was discovered in Boliden, Sweden, in 1924. Boliden is currently using the
most advanced cyanidation process under the extremely stringent environmental con-
straints of discharge of cyanide prescribed by the Environmental Court: (1) The
content of cyanide and hydrogen cyanide (as CN) should not exceed 5 mg/m3, (2) the
content of total cyanide (as CN) in the processed slurry from the cyanide destruction
process may not exceed 2 mg/l over 14 days, and (3) the content of cyanide in the dis-
charge from the clarification pond may as a guiding value for free cyanide not to
exceed 0.5 mg/l at each sampling occasion and not to exceed 0.2 mg/l as a monthly
mean. The gold process flowsheet used by Boliden is shown in Figure 7.8 (source:
Lindstrom et al., 2001, p. 442).
Boliden uses the INCO SO2/Air technology (Robbins et al., 2001) to achieve
the destruction of cyanide from waste streams (Fig. 7.9; source: Robbins et al.,
Figure 7.8 Gold process flowsheet of Boliden, Sweden (source: Lindstrom et al., 2001, p. 442).
Figure 7.9 INCO SO2/Air technology for the destruction of cyanide in waste streams (source:
Robbins et al., 2001, p. 726).
2001, p. 726). The chemistry involved in the technology may be briefly described
as follows:
1. Oxidation: Weak Acid Dissociable cyanide (CNwad), which includes free
cyanide and weakly complexed metal cyanides, is oxidized to produce cyanate
(OCN) and sulphuric acid,
2. Neutralisation: Acid produced during oxidation is neutralized with lime in the
pH range of 710,
3. Precipitation: Iron cyanide is precipitated as insoluble salt, along with metals
which were dissociated during the oxidation reactions.
Stoichometrically, the reactions require approximately 2.5 g of SO2 per gm. of
CNwad to be oxidized.
CHAPTER 8
Control technologies for minimizing the mining

environmental impact
8.1 ACID MINE DRAINAGE (AMD)
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) is also called Acid Rock Drainage (ARD).
All aspects of the mitigation of the environmental impact from mining waste,
have been comprehensively dealt with in a state-of-the-art report by MiMi (1998),
a Swedish organization devoted to the study. MiMi stands for the Mitigation of the
environmental impact from Mining Waste.
8.1.1 What is acid mine drainage?

Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) gets generated due to the oxidative dissolution of the
iron-containing sulphide minerals, such as pyrite. Both purely chemical reactions
as well as microbially catalyzed reactions are involved. AMD may arise from the
mining of coal, lignite, metallic sulphides, uranium, etc. Under oxidizing condi-
tions, and in the presence of catalytic bacteria, such as Thiobacillus ferrooxidans,
sulphides are oxidized into sulphuric acid, as per the following equation:
4 Fe S2 15 O2 2 H2O 2 Fe2 (SO4)3 2 H2SO4 (8.1)
Pyrite Oxygen Water Iron sulphate Sulphuric acid
Surface runoff and groundwater seepages associated with waste piles tend to be
highly acidic, and corrosive, and contain high concentrations of iron, aluminum,
manganese, copper, lead, nickel and zinc. etc. in solution. The discharge of such
waters into streams destroys the aquatic life, and the stream water is rendered
non-potable.
An understanding of the physical, chemical and biological processes that lead to
the production of AMD is necessary for the following purposes: (1) to minimize the
production of AMD, (2) to dispose of AMD from the operating mines or for the
decommissioning of waste piles, as required by law, and (3) to ameliorate AMD to
allow it to be used for beneficial purposes, such as irrigation, industrial and domes-
tic purposes.
8.1.2 Element recycling in the sulphidic mine tailings

Apart from the primary mineralogy (e.g. sulphide/carbonate contents, alterations),
climate has a direct influence on the composition of the secondary minerals and
hence on the availability of certain metals for remobilization. Dold and Fontbote
(2001) gave schematic models for element recycling in porphyry copper mine tail-
ings for precipitation-dominated and evaporation-dominated climates (Figure 8.1;
source: Dold & Fontbote, 2001, p. 150).
Model A represents the precipitation-dominated climate such as that La Andina
(alpine climate, 700 mm/y of rainfall). Under these conditions, sulphide oxidation
leads to the liberation of bivalent cations (e.g. Fe2, Cu2, Zn2), oxyanions (e.g.
HMoO 2
4 , H2AsO4 and SO4 ), as well as protons (H ). with downwards mobiliza-
tion of the liberated elements to more reducing conditions.

FeS2 7/2 O2 H2O Fe2 2SO2
4 2H (8.2)
Fe 2 1/4 O2 H Fe3 1/2 H2O (8.3)
(this process goes on much faster, in the presence of bacteria, e.g. Thiobacillus
ferrooxidans)
FeS2 14 Fe3 8 H2O 15 Fe2 2 SO42 16 H (8. 4)
Model B represents Evaporation-dominated climates (such as those of El Salvador,
with precipitation of 20 mm/y) with upward mobilization to oxidizing conditions.
Figure 8.1 Element recycling in mine tailings in different climates (source: Dold & Fontbote, 2001,
p. 150).
Control technologies for minimizing the mining environmental impact 169
8.1.3 Leaching tests

Irrespective of whatever technology is used to mitigate the problem of acid mine
drainage, it is necessary to study the focuses of oxidation and flow-pattern of waters
in the mine, identification of sources of acid mine water, and the pattern of spreading
of mine water. Whole-rock analyses and leaching tests can be used to predict the
nature and extent of AMD that could develop in a given mine or from a waste pile.
Rock samples are leached with water, and the leachate is analyzed for parameters,
which indicate the pathways of weathering, namely, pH, specific conductance and sul-
phate. The mineralogical and chemical composition of the rock, the pyrite content and
the presence or absence of calcareous material are the determining factors (Table 8. 1).
Several countries have prescribed the allowable concentrations in mine effluents:
pH: 7, SS (Suspended Solids): 30 mg/l; BOD (Biochemical Oxygen Demand):
30 mg/l; Pb: 0.2 mg/l; Fe: 0.1 mg/l; Cu: 0.1 mg/l. In other words, the mining com-
panies are expected to treat the mine water in such a manner that the discharge stays
within the prescribed limits.
In many countries, a company responsible for noncomplying discharges is issued
a Notice of Violation by the Environmental Agency of the government concerned.
If the company does not take prompt remedial action, it is penalized.
The US Bureau of Mines has developed a simple, low-cost, portable and highly effi-
cient system to neutralize the acid mine drainage on site. The only drawback of the sys-
tem is that it requires at least 130-kPa water pressure, and may not be able to remove
manganese if the iron content is low. Apatite can be used to ameliorate AMD. Apatite
is soluble only in acid conditions. So it will act only when the AMD becomes suffi-
ciently acid. The phosphate ion can sequester and precipitate Fe3, Al3, Mn2, etc.
8.1.4 Decision making about AMD amelioration

The Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection divided mine drainage
into five sub-categories based on the net acidity (acidity minus alkalinity) or alka-
linity (alkalinity minus acidity) of the untreated mine drainage:
1. Very acid: net acidity300 mg/l as CaCO3
2. Moderately acid: net acidity 300 mg/l as CaCO3
Table 8.1 Guidelines for the choice of tests for acid mine drainage.
Pyrite content Leachate characteristic Method recommended
1% (C. M. absent) Slightly acidic, low SC WR or LT

11.5% (C. M. absent) Acidic WR or LT
1.5% (C. M absent) Acidic WR or LT
1% (C. M. present) Alkaline, low SC WR or LT
11.5% (C. M. present) Alkaline, high SC LT
1.5% (C. M. present) Slightly acidic LT
C.M. Calcareous Material; SC Specific conductance.

WR Whole rock; LT Leaching tests.
3. Weakly acid: net acidity100 mg/l as CaCO3

4. Weakly alkaline: net alkalinity80 mg/l as CaCO3
5. Strongly alkaline: net alkalinity 80 mg/l as CaCO3
Conventional treatment is the best available treatment for discharges of sub-
category 1. For the rest, the best available technology is wetlands treatment, which
is to be custom designed on the basis of chemistry and loading. Figure 8.2
(source: Hedin et al., 1994, quoted by Hellier, 1999, p. 109) gives the decision-
making chart about the design of mitigation measures for AMD.
Figure 8.2 Decision-making about AMD amelioration (source: Hedin et al., 1994, quoted by Hellier,
1999, p. 109).
Alkalinity is imparted to acid discharge by passing it over and through limestone

channel under aerated conditions. Anoxic limestone drains (ALD) are most effec-
tive when there is no dissolved [O2], [Fe3], and [Al3] in the influent. Figure 8.3
(source: Hellier, 1999, p. 113) gives the design of the anoxic limestone drain,
Figure 8.3 Design of anoxic limestone drain and other structures (source: Hellier, 1993, p. 113).
aerobic wetland, horizontal flow anaerobic wetland, and vertical flow anaerobic
wetland.
8.1.5 Principles of mitigation of acid mine drainage (AMD)

Since the supply of both oxygen and water is necessary for the generation of AMD,
an obvious way to prevent the formation of AMD is to block the entry of oxygen
and water to the mine or waste pile. This is easier said than done, for the simple rea-
son that Fe (III) that may be present in the partly oxidized waste, could serve as an
oxidant and still generate AMD. Also, if the pore water in the mine waste is acidic,
the mobility of heavy metals gets strongly increased due to their higher solubility
and lower tendency for sorption. Thus, if the waste dump contains buffering sub-
stances such as calcite, or if lime is added, the development of acid drainage, and
the release of heavy metals could be substantially mitigated.
Figure 8.4 (source: Hglund, 2001, p. 283) is a schematic illustration of the
causes of, and remedies for, acid mine drainage from sulphidic mine wastes.
MiMi (1998) and Angelos and Niskanen (2001) described several rehabilitation
options for the waste dumps. The common purpose of all of them is to limit the
transport of oxygen and air into the waste:
1. Changing the chemical properties of the waste (such as, separation of pyrite or
addition of a buffering substance, such as lime) or physical properties of the waste
(such as, compaction to reduce porosity and permeability). This is expensive.
2. Flooding of the waste, such that the water table is established above the disposed
waste, thereby limiting the transport of oxygen or air into the waste this is by far
the most cost-effective and efficient option, where it possible to implement.
3. Dry covering of the waste.
4. Treatment of the leachate with the objective of reducing the metal concentrations
in the water that is discharged from the waste pile.
8.1.6 Biologically supported water cover (BSWC)

The water cover has been found to be the most effective in preventing and controlling
AMD. This is so because he solubility of oxygen in water is quite low (11 mg/ l),
Figure 8.4 Schematic outline of the causes of, and remediation for, acid mine drainage(source:
Hglund, 2001, p. 283).
and the diffusion rate of oxygen through water is 10,000 times less than through air.
The placement of an organic/soil cover between the waste rock and the water cover
will not only reduce the oxygen infiltration into the waste rock, but also reduce the
metal flux from the waste rock into the water column.
Figure 8.5 (source: MEND, 1997) shows the processes affecting the sulphide
oxidation.
Eriksson et al. (2001, p. 220) evaluated the effectiveness of the water cover at the
Stekenjokk tailings pond in northern Sweden using sulphate as conservative tracer
for sulphide oxidation mass balance. The water balance for a pond is governed by
the equation
P R O L E S (8.5)
Where P is the precipitation on the pond surface (1187 mm), R is the recharge
through surface and subsurface flow (0.9 M m3), O is the outlet discharge (1.5 M
m3), L is the dam leakage (0.35 M m3 /y), E is the potential evaporation from the
pond surface (321 mm/y), and S is the net change in the stored volume (which is
essentially zero on an annual basis).
After the project was decommissioned, the sulphate concentration in the pond
effluent decreased steadily during 1992 to 2000 (Figure 8.6; source: Eriksson et al.,
2001, p. 220). The pronounced seasonal variations in the sulphate concentrations
have been attributed to freezing effect.
Based on the mass balance calculations, it has been found that the resulting
oxygen flux through the water cover to the sulphur-rich tailings is less than
1 1010 kg O2/m2/s. This is an order of magnitude less than the oxygen flux
of dry cover which is about 109 kg O2/m2/s. The study confirms the effect-
iveness of the water cover in impeding the formation of ARD. Besides, the water
cover cost of USD 2/m2 is much cheaper than dry covers which cost USD
12/m2.
Figure 8.5 Processes affecting the sulphide oxidation (source: MEND, 1997).
Figure 8.6 Seasonal variation in the sulphate concentrations in the pond effluent (source: Eriksson
et al., 2001, p. 220).
Table 8.2 Types of soil covers and their functions (source: MiMi, 1998).
Cover type Primary function
1. Oxygen diffusion barriers To limit the transport of oxygen by acting as a barrier against the
diffusion of oxygen to the waste
2. Oxygen consuming barriers To limit the transport of oxygen by consuming it before it could
reach the waste
3. Low permeability barriers To limit the transport of oxygen and the formation of leachate by
acting as a barrier against the diffusion of oxygen, as well as the
infiltration of precipitation
4. Reaction inhibiting barriers To provide a favourable environment to limit reaction rates and
metal release
8.1.7 Soil or dry covers

There are four types of soil cover depending upon the function (Table 8.2; source:
MiMi, 1998).
Experience in Sweden shows that a single layer cover of thickness of 1.0 m
results in the reduction of pyrite weathering rate and metal release, in the region of
8090%. A cover of 2 m of organic waste or lime stabilized sewage sludge can be
used as an oxygen-consuming barrier.
Clean (i.e. non-acid generating) wastes from other industries, which are mois-
ture-retaining and oxygen-consuming, can be used as barriers. For instance, in the
case of the Luikonlahti mine, magnesite tailings from talc industry, were proposed
as soil/dry cover.
Figure 8.7 (source: Angelos & Niskanen, 2001, p. 27) illustrates the principles of
the soil cover types.
Ayres et al. (2002) sought to evaluate three types of dry cover systems, namely,
geosynthetic clay liner (GCL), a 0.45 m thick compacted sand-bentonite mixture,
Figure 8.7 Types of soil covers (source: Angelos & Niskanen, 2001, p. 27).
Precipitation (PPT)
Atmosphere
Net Surface Actual

Run
off ( Infiltration Evapotranspiration
RO)
(NSI) (AET)
Cover
Material (S)
Oxygen
Change in
Ingress
Moisture Storage
La
Perc teral
olat
ion
Waste
Material
Net Percolation to
Waste Material (PERC)
Figure 8.8 Parameters affecting the performance of sloped cover system (source: MEND, 2001).
and 0.6 m compacted silt/trace clay material, for acid-generating waste rock at
Whistle Mine, Ontario, Canada. The waste rock (about 6.4 Mt) is essentially a
mafic norite, with an average sulphide content of 3%, and the final contoured sur-
face of the backfilled pit will have a slope of 20%. The parameters affecting the
field performance of a sloped cover system are schematically shown in Figure 8.8
(source: MEND, 2001). A state-of-art monitoring system has been installed to mon-
itor continuously various climatic parameters, gaseous oxygen/carbon dioxide con-
centrations, moisture/temperature conditions within the cover and the waste
materials, and the quantity of net percolation through each test cover. The observa-
tional data obtained from the test plots will be made use of to determine the opti-
mum design cover for the waste rock deposit.
8.1.8 Passive treatment of acid mine drainage

Passive treatment of AMD makes use of the naturally occurring chemical and bio-
logical processes to cleanse the contaminated mine waters, without requiring con-
tinuous chemical inputs. The principal passive treatment technologies include
constructed wetlands, anoxic limestone drains (ALD), successive alkalinity pro-
ducing systems (SAPS), limestone ponds, open limestone channels (OLC), etc.
(Angelos & Niskanen, 2001, p. 27). There are numerous permutations and combi-
nations of these techniques.
An open limestone channel followed by a settling pond and filter system has
been chosen for the Luikonlahti mine waters. AMD gets ameliorated when acid
waters flow through limestone channels, or ditches lined with limestone. The
design factors to be taken into consideration are the length of the channel, and the
gradient of the channel, which affects the turbulence, and the buildup of coatings.
Experience has shown that for channels with slopes of more than 20%, the flow
velocities will be sufficient to keep the precipitates in suspension and allow aeration
of water.
Filter dams are built with materials with large capacities for the adsorption of
heavy metals, such as Zn, Ni and Cu. The optimal absorption takes place at pH
levels higher than 6. The purpose of open limestone channels and the settling pond
is to remove as much iron as possible, so that the filter dam can take care of heavy
metals other than iron.
Gusek (1995) gave a lucid review of the techno-economic aspects of passive
treatment of acid rock drainage.
The conventional method of amelioration of acid rock drainage is the liming of
the runoff. Liming neutralizes the water and chemically precipitates the metals.
However, liming is expensive, leaves behind large quantities of sludge, and has to
be continued long after the mine ceased operating. For this reason, much R. & D.
effort has been concentrated in developing low-cost, low-maintenance, passive
treatments of AMD. These involve the utilization of vegetation and sediment micro-
bial communities found in wetlands to reduce the acidity and precipitate the metals.
The techno-economic viability of the passive treatment is now well established. For
instance, the Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA)s Fabius Mine in Alabama, USA,
replaced an earlier lime-treatment plant by a large, passive treatment system. The
latter treats 126 l/s (about 2000 gpm) of coal mine drainage. It has been operating
for several years and discharging compliant effluent.
Interestingly, wetlands established for water quality improvement have been
found to provide habitat for abundant development of herptofaunal wildlife (Lacki
et al., 1992).
It has been known that wetlands are capable of improving the water quality by
reducing the contaminants through the precipitation of metal hydroxides, sulphides
and carbonates and pH adjustments. Whether these reactions would occur under
oxidizing (aerobic) conditions or reducing (anaerobic) conditions would depend on
Figure 8.9 Design of constructed wetland (source: Kolbash & Romanovski, 1989).
the Eh of the environment, and the chemistries of soil and water. Where natural wet-
lands are not available, wetlands are constructed. The latter are engineered so as to
optimize the biogeochemical processes that take place in the natural wetlands.
Figure 8.9 (source: Kolbash & Romanovski, 1989) shows the design of a con-
structed wetland. The wetland plants that are most commonly used are Typha,
Schoenoplectus, Phragmites or Cyperus.
The important physical, chemical and biological mechanisms that operate in the
passive wetland treatment are as follows: (1) hydroxide precipitation catalyzed by
bacteria in the aerobic zones, (2) sulphide and carbonate precipitation catalyzed by
bacteria in anaerobic zones, (3) filtering of suspended material, (4) metal uptake
into live roots and leaves, (5) ammonia-generated neutralization and precipitation,
and (6) adsorption and exchange with plant, soil and other biological material.
The predominant mechanisms by which microorganisms remove soluble metals
from solution are as follows: (1) volatilization whereby microorganisms methy-
late metals, (2) extracellular precipitation whereby metals are immobilized by the
metabolic products produced by microorganisms. Sulphate-reducing bacteria
reduce H2SO4 to H2S, which would readily react with soluble metals to form insol-
uble metal sulphide minerals, (3) extracellular complexing and subsequent applica-
tion whereby chelating agents (known as siderophores) synthesized by
microorganisms have a high binding efficiency for some metals, resulting in the
generation of metal-binding polymers, (4) binding to bacterial, fungal and algal cell
walls, and (5) intra-cellular accumulation (Brierley et al., 1989). Studies made
by White and Gadd (1996) showed that the most efficient nutrient regime for
bioremediation using sulphate-reducing bacteria required both ethanol as a carbon

source and cornsteep as a complex nitrogen source.
Brierley (1990) gave a detailed review of the techniques of bioremediation of
metal-contaminated surface and groundwaters. Advances in biotechnology have
made it possible to make use of nonliving microorganisms immobilized in polymer
matrices to remove low concentrations (1 to about 20 mg/l) of heavy metal cations
in the presence of high concentrations of alkaline earth metals (Ca2 and Mg2)
and organic contaminants. The removal process is so effective that the effluent
more than satisfies the requirements of U.S. National Drinking Water Standards.
Davison (1993) describes a proprietary Lambda Bio-Carb Process which is an
in situ bioremediation system utilizing site-indigenous, mixatrophic cultures
hybridized for maximum effectiveness. Lambda has catalogued about 6000
microorganisms suitable for the purpose. The system is utilizable in conjunction
with wetlands, and is capable of self-adjustment in response to influent changes. It
has been successfully used to treat sites contaminated by heavy metals, hydrocar-
bons, organics, agricultural wastes and other hazardous compounds.
The economics of the passive treatment can be illustrated with a case (Eger &
Lapakko, 1989). Drainage from the Dunka mine in the mineralized Duluth complex
in northern Minnesota, USA, has increased upto 400 times, the concentration of
metals (Ni, Cu, Co and Zn) in the creeks in the proximity. This was naturally unac-
ceptable to Minnesota Pollution Control Agency, and the company concerned had
to give an undertaking to achieve the water quality goals. A feasibility study was
made of the options for treating 6 108 l/y of mine water:
1. A full-scale treatment plant (lime precipitation with reverse osmosis): capital
cost: $ 8.5 million, and annual operating cost: $ 1.2 million.
2. Passive treatment (combining infiltration reduction, alkaline treatment and wet-
land treatment): capital cost: $ 4 million; annual operating cost: $ 40,000.
8.1.9 In-pit disposal using sulphate reducing bacteria (SRB)

Sulphate Reducing Bacteria (SRB) has been found to be effective in reducing the
metal and sulphate concentrations in the mine water. Liquid manure and press-juice
from silage were used as nutrients. SRB was obtained from local lake sediments
and was enhanced before application. The costs are very low, but the catch in the
technology is that would take some years before the treated water is of quality that
would permit discharge into local water ways. If a site is an abandoned one, in a
remote area, and the costs have to be kept minimal, this technology may turn out to
be appropriate (Angelos & Niskanen, 2001, p. 27).
8.1.10 Case history of pyritic uranium tailings sites of Elliot Lake, Canada
As a part of the mine waste management and decommissioning studies, Dav and
Paktunc (2001) studied the hydrogeochemistry and mineralogy of the inactive and
rehabilitated pyritic uranium tailings at Stanrock and Lower Williams Lake sites
related to the Elliott Lake uranium mine, Ontario, Canada. The Stanrock sites holds
about 8 Mt of pyritic uranium tailings spread over an area of 71 ha. The water table
in the area fluctuated between 0.5 to 2 m., rising nearer to the surface in the central
section. The water table goes down by about 2 m during the dry summer and winter
months. The Lake Williams site is much smaller (2 ha) and contains about
20,000 t of tailings (Figure 8.10, source: Dav & Paktunc, 2001, p. 129, gives a gen-
eral view of the tailings site). The tailings contained 0.9 to 6.3% pyrite and 0.07 to
5.3% calcite. The pyrite content generally increased with depth. During 197677,
limestone amendment was applied to the exposed tailings at the surface. The dry
tailings were covered with 1 m. thick layer of glacial sand/gravel and till, which
was then vegetated with agronomic species of gases and legumes. The incoming
treated water was discharged into the downstream water pond which also serves as
a sludge-settling pond. The site was maintained till 1980, but was left on its
own since then. Dav and Paktunc (2001) report that the site supports dense, lush
vegetation.
The Stanrock tailings essentially consist of quartz, K-feldspar, muscovite, and
pyrite, with small quantities of rutile, La-Ce monazite, chalcopyrite, pyrrhotite and
galena. The pyrite content of the tailings varied from 0.1 to 12.4%, depending upon
the depth (Dav & Paktunc, 2001, p. 133). As the bulk of the unoxidised material
which has high acid generation potential is below the water table, its ability to pro-
duce AMD is negligible.
An examination of the geochemical characteristics of shallow groundwater along
the central longitudinal direction, of the Stanrock tailings (vide Figure 8.11;
source: Dav & Paktunc, 2001, p. 132) show that, except for one central site, the
groundwater is characterized by low pH (between 1.8 and 4), high total acidity
Figure 8.10 Elliott Lake uranium mine tailings site, Canada (source: Dav & Paktunc, 2001, p. 129).
Figure 8.11 Shallow zone groundwater quality profiles at Stanrock tailings site (source: Dav &
Paktunc, 2001, p. 132).
(100012,000 mg CaCO3/l), and high concentration of dissolved SO4 (2000

14,000 mg/l) and Fe (5006000 mg CaCO3/l). At the central site, near the surface
water streams (between 381400 and 381600), the pH of the groundwater is high (6),
and the concentrations of total acidity (50 mg CaCO3/l), SO4 (2200 mg /l), and
Fe (100 mg /l) are low.
The pH, total acidity, Fe and SO4 contents of the groundwater in the longitudinal
direction of the Lower Williams Lake site are shown in Figure 8.12 (source: Dav
& Paktunc, 2001, p. 134). Compared to the Stanrock site, the pH of the Williams
Lake site is much higher (6.08.0), and concentrations of total acidity, SO4, and
Fe much lower. The saturated conditions that developed within the tailings sub-
strate increased the pH, and the microbial degradation of the organic matter (caused
by vegetative cover in the soil layer), besides increasing the total available ground-
water alkalinity. Thus, the overall water quality has improved with time.
Dav & Paktunc (2001) conclude that covering the tailings with a vegetated
cover layer, and raising the water table can effectively suppress acid generation.
8.1.11 Remediation of acid lakes case history from former East Germany
The extensive opencast mining of lignite in the former East Germany, has created a
large number of acid lakes in the Lusatian mining district, after the mining was
Figure 8.12 Surface water quality profiles at Lower Williams lake site (source: Dav & Paktunc,
2001, p. 134).
abandoned. The pH range in the mining lakes ranged from 2.6 to 3.8. These acidic
water bodies were often toxic because of high metal concentrations. It was con-
cluded that increasing the pH by neutralization measures was the most promising
way to reduce the metal concentrations. Figure 8.13 (source: Klapper & Schultze,
1997, quoted by Stottmeister et al., 1999) illustrates the techniques for the abate-
ment of acidification through in-situ technologies.
8.2 TAILINGS DISPOSAL
The most serious problem facing the mining industry presently is the enormous
mass of the mine tailings (about 18 billion m3/y), which incidentally is the same
order as the quantity of sediment discharge into the oceans. As progressively lower
grades are worked, the mass of the mine tailings is expected to double in the next
2030 years. It is not without significance that the failure of the tailings dams fig-
ures prominently in the list of major accidents related to mining (vide Appendix D).
8.2.1 Environmental risks from mine tailings

Ellis and Robertson (1999) gave a concise account of the environmental risks from
mine tailings:
1. Chemical contamination: Tailings may cause acid rock drainage and other unde-
sirable geochemical processes. They may damage the ecosystem and resource
Figure 8.13 Abatement of acidification of mining lakes (source: Klapper & Schultze, 1997, quoted
by Stottmeister et al., 1999).
use downstream from site. Recovery from a degraded ecosystem is likely to be

very slow (of the order of decades or more).
2. Habitat smothering: The tailings may smother the living organisms and their
habitats. This occurs when the deposition is made at a rate greater than the
organisms could cope or grow through the deposits. Recovery of tree growth on
land is measured in decades, whereas the recovery underwater may be quicker,
i.e. 15 years.
3. Catastrophic system collapse: Earthquakes or torrential rains may undermine
the structural stability of the tailings deposit, and may cause sudden and exten-
sive loss of life and property.
4. Landform changes: Tailings may change the landforms and habitats.
5. Water turbidity and siltation: The tailings adversely affect the use of rivers and
lakes by changing the river channels and flood plains, biological productivity
and fisheries resources. Water quality may recover in a matter of days, but the
ecosystem consequences may last for years.
6. Socio-economic changes: Tailings may cause changes in resource use, and
thereby affect the quality of life of the people. The recovery may be complex.
8.2.2 Characteristics of tailings

Tailings can be considered as man-made soil with properties between those of
sand and clay. The grainsize distribution of the coal colliery spoils determine their
geotechnical properties, which in there turn influence the design of the tailings
deposit. The particle size distribution of colliery spoils from different countries is
given in Figure 8.14 (source: Skarzynska & Michalski, 1999, p. 185).
Figure 8.14 Grainsize distribution of colliery spoils (source: Skarzynska & Machalski, 1999,
p. 185).
Vermuelen, Rust and Clayton (2002) summarized the properties of the gold tail-
ings from the literature:
Slurry: low plasticity, fine, hard and angular rock flour, slurried with process
water in a flocculated, slightly alkaline state with soluble salts.
Rheology: (study of deformation and flow of matter): The rheological character-
istics of the mine tailings are intermediate between a Bingham plastic and a
Newtonian fluid.
Mineralogy: Quartz is by far the most abundant mineral, with small quantities of
phyllosilicates, pyrites and other sulphides. Specific gravity ranges between 2.5 and
3.0. Oxidation of pyrites (FeS2) leads to the production of sulphuric acid, and the
acidification of the tailings water. The low pH water is capable of leaching toxic
heavy elements from the tailings.
Grading: Generally of silt size range, with small percentages of fine sand and
clay-sized particles.
Particle shape and texture: The coarser or sand fraction of the tailings range in
shape from very angular to sub-rounded, whereas the fines are invariably angular,
with very sharp edges. The surface textures are described as harsh.
8.2.3 Methods of tailings disposal

Tailings from the beneficiation plants in the case of non-ferrous metals are gener-
ally in the form of slurry, which is discharged into specially constructed contain-
ment structures. The various tailing disposal methods are summarized as follows
(source: UNEP Tech. Report no. 5, 1991):
1. Subaqueous discharge into the tailings ponds: The great advantage of the
method is that transfer of oxygen to the tailings is impeded, thereby inhibiting
acid production from the tailings. The disadvantage is that sub-aerial discharge
involves lower in-situ densities,
2. Layered methods of tailings disposal: The tailings slurry is deposited in thin lay-
ers of uniform thickness (10150 mm). The slope of the deposited slurry layers
may vary from 0.5 to 1.0%, depending upon the characteristics of the slurry. The
fresh tailings are allowed to settle down, and dry this may take several hours or
a few days. The consolidated, gently sloping mass of tailings composed of uni-
form layers, formed in this manner, will greatly facilitate the de-commissioning of
the waste disposal site. Site preparation for this method involves high capital costs.
3. Thickened tailings disposal: Tailings may be deposited in the form of cones,
with slopes ranging from 2 to 8%, if the tailings slurry is thickened and dis-
charged from spigotting points within the tailings disposal area. For a slope of
6%, the solids content has to be in the range of 55 to 75%. This method allows
larger volumes of tailings to be disposed in a small area, but the thickening
process involves high operational costs.
4. Tailings disposal behind a dam: The dam is usually constructed from the coarse
fraction of the tailings. The tailings slurry can be discharged from a single point
through a series of spigots. Discharge of tailings through cyclones allows the

sands from the tailings to be mechanically separated and used for dam construc-
tion. If the beneficiation process involved fine grinding of the ore, the tailings
would not contain any coarse materials suitable for dam construction. In such a
situation, the dam has to be built with borrowed material. In one sense, this is
advantageous in that the quality of the materials and their properties can be con-
trolled, but it carries with it extra operational costs for the excavation and place-
ment of dam material.
8.2.4 Methods of construction of tailings dams

Figure 8.15 (source: UNEP Tech. Report no. 5, 1991, p. 37) shows different meth-
ods of constructing the tailing dams.
1. Upstream methods: Though this method was used extensively in the past, it is
not much in vogue now. A typical upstream section incorporates slimes fraction
Figure 8.15 Different methods of construction of tailings dam (source: UNEP Tech. Rept. 5, 1991, p. 37).
in the dam structure, and the resulting heterogeneous dam is susceptible to fail-
ure, particularly under seismic conditions.
2. Downstream methods: Under this method, the dam is built of coarse tailings.
When cycloned sand is used, the slope will be adequate, the sand will be prop-
erly drained, and the dam will retain its stability even under seismic conditions.
The drawback of this method is that a large quantity of sand is required.
3. Centreline method: As in the case of the downstream method, the centerline is
built with coarse fraction of tailings, but with the dam centre line being main-
tained in the same vertical plane as the dam height is increased. Downstream of
the centre line, the dam will have the same characteristics as the downstream
method, and therefore tends to be stable.
Decant towers, siphon systems and barge-mounted pumps are used to release the
supernatant water in the tailings disposal facilities.
A tailings dam fails when the peak flow exceeds the hydraulic capacity of the
spillways, decants and diversions. The resulting liquefaction and the release of the
stored tailings can cause great damage to life, property and the environment. It is
therefore essential that the design of the impoundment provides for the spillway
and decant structures to take care of the statistical probability of the rainfall/runoff
event occurring once in thousand years. If the risks are very high, it is better not to
install the tailings disposal facilities where such risks could occur.
8.2.5 Disposal of coal mine tailings

Coal mining industry produces enormous quantities of wastes, considering that the
world production of coal is 4600 Mt/y. Apart from the solid wastes (shale rock,
dolerite, burnt coal, etc.) produced in the course of coal mining, coal preparation
plants produce large quantities of coarse and fine particles, and contaminated water.
The usual practice is to impound the tailings and slurry in the lagoons. As breach-
ing of the lagoons constitute some of the most serious environmental disasters asso-
ciated with mining, great care should be taken in the design of the lagoons. The
stability of, and control of seepage from, the lagoons can be ensured by keeping in
mind the following design parameters: (1) Construction of the lagoon at or below
the ground level, (2) the banks should have a slope of 34 on the lagoon side, and
26.5 on the outer side, (3) there should be a toe drain to allow the water table draw-
down below the outer slope, (4) there should be a free board (water surface to the
crest of the lagoon bank) of at least one metre, (5) the inner surface of the bank
should be capable of withstanding erosion due to wave action, (6) there should be
provision for drawing off the supernatant, as also rainwater due to abnormally
heavy rainfall, etc. (Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 126127). The supernatant water
from the lagoons may be either recycled, or discharged into the natural waterways
after treatment.
In some countries, such as Germany and Poland, colliery spoils are tipped with
domestic wastes (Figure 8.16; source: Skarzynska & Michalski, 1999, p. 189).
Figure 8.16 Joint tipping of colliery spoils and domestic refuse (source: Skarzynska & Machalski,
1999, p. 189).
Figure 8.17 Design of trommel cutoff (source: Skarzynska & Machalski, 1999, p. 196).
Untreated coal colliery spoils are used as bulk material for various types of earth
works, such as embankments of roadways, railways, rivers and dams. The water
contained in the dumps and infiltrating through the dumps, is likely to be contami-
nated. In order to prevent such contaminated water from polluting bodies of fresh-
water, polyethylene sheeting or clay screens should be incorporated with drainage
to remove the infiltrating water (Figure 8.17; source: Skarzynska & Michalski,
1999, p. 196).
8.2.6 Disposal of gold mine tailings

The mode of disposal of tailings is illustrated with the case history of gold tailings
in South Africa (Vermuelen, Rust & Clayton, 2002).
The Witwatersrand Goldfields occurring in the Johannesburg area in South Africa
are the largest deposits of gold in the world. Despite the reduction in production
during the last decade, South Africa has been and continues to be the largest
producer of gold in the world. The mineral composition of the typical Witwatersrand
gold reef is as follows: Quartz: 7090%, Phyllosilicates (clays): 1030%,
Pyrites: 34%, Other sulphides: 12%, Grains of primary minerals: 12%, Gold:
45 ppm.
The mean and the range of the mineral abundances in the Witwatersrand gold
tailings (as determined by EDS and XRD analyses) closely follow those of the gold
reef (Vermuelen, Rust & Clayton, 2002): Quartz: 75% (5983%); Muscovite: 8%
(719%); Pyrophyllite: 5% (117%); Illite: 5% (311%), with small percentages of
clinochlore, kaolinite and pyrite. The specific gravity of the tailings is 2.74 Mg/m3.
The coarse particles (sands) are almost wholly composed of quartz. The slimes also
have a preponderence of quartz, with significant amounts of pyrophyllite, mus-
covite, illite, kaolinite and pyrite.
Grading study of the tailings shows that about 2% are coarser than 200 m (limit
of fine sand), 10% finer than 2 m (clay-sized), and at least 50% slimes. The
median particle size (D50) ranged between 6 and 60 m. The behaviour of the tail-
ings is largely dependent upon the fines fraction.
The shape of the particles (such as angularity) is as important as the size in deter-
mining the engineering behaviour of the tailings. Under load, the angular corners
break and crush and angular particles tend to resist displacement, whereas more
rounded particles are less resistant to displacement, but may be less likely to get
crushed depending upon the surface texture. The coarser tailings sands are charac-
terized by highly angular to subrounded, bulky but flattened particles. In contrast,
the slimes, which are composed of clay minerals, consist of thin and plate-like par-
ticles. The engineering behaviour of slimes is akin to that of clay of intermediate
plasticity. Also, the slimes can be flocculated, indicating the effects of the surface
forces.
Electron micrographs of coarser or sand tailings show either smooth surfaces or
rough or irregular surfaces. Some particles show the typical conchoidal fracture of
quartz. Sand particles with irregular surfaces may have developed as a consequence
of fines attaching themselves to these surfaces. Slime particles have invariably very
smooth and flat surfaces.
In South Africa, a typical gold tailings impoundment has two sections: the
embankment or daywall and the interior or nightpan. The daywall is meant to pro-
vide sufficient freeboard to retain the accumulated water from the deposited tail-
ings, besides taking care of storm water when it rains heavily. The daywall has a
number of sections or paddocks. A delivery station fills each paddock starting with
the midpoint. When the pulp is delivered into a daywall paddock during the
dayshift, it gets distributed by gravity, with the excess or supernatant water being
decanted into the nightpan. Since the pulp depth has to be closely controlled, the
filling of the paddocks is invariably done during the daytime hence the name day-
wall. During the night, the tailings are discharged into the nightpan, but this is done
from delivery stations located inside the daywall. The next day, the clear super-
natant water is pumped out or drawn off by penstock decant. A natural beach devel-
ops between the delivery point and the pond from which supernatant water is
decanted. The paddocks are filled according to a cyclic system, to allow sufficient
time for the desiccation, consolidation and densification of the embankment

material (Figure 8.18; source: Vermuelen, Rust & Clayton, 2002, p. 47).
As should be expected, the impoundment facility at Mizpah, which takes care of
the gold tailings of the Vaal River Operations west of Johannesburg, is very large.
It was commissioned in 1993 and receives about 5000 t of tailings per day. The dam
was designed for a final height of 60 m, with a total surface area of 165 ha. The
average rate of rise is 2.4 m per year, and one depositional cycle takes about ten
days. The dam is of the upstream daywall nightpan system.
The soil-forming processes on the gold tailings lead to a pronounced vertical lay-
ering, with coarse layers (sands) alternating with fine layers (slimes). Besides,
there may also be horizontal variability depending upon the properties of the slurry
and the depositional programme. In South Africa, the gold tailings impoundments
are usually constructed using the daywall-nightpan paddock system. Generally, the
more competent coarser material tends to get deposited near the embankment, with
Nightpan
Discharge
Beach
Pond
Penstock
Decant
Daywall Paddock
Daywall Discharge
Delivery Main
PLAN
Daywall
Beach Pond Penstock
Decant
Starter wall
Figure 8.18 Layout of typical gold tailings impoundment in South Africa (source: Vermuelen, Rust
& Clayton, 2002, p. 47).
finer material in the central part of the impoundment. However, it has been observed
in practice that a significant amount of fines are trapped in the daywall and settle on
the beach.
8.2.7 Use of paste technologies in tailings disposal

Environmental and economic considerations demand a reduction in the volumes
and sizes of the tailings dams. The dayfall nightpan system described above is a
case of manipulating the environment to accommodate the tailings. As against this,
thickened tailings and paste technologies are being increasingly used to design the
tailings disposal sites to suit the surrounding environment. Paste production process
is suitable for solids volume of 40 to 55%. Equipment is commercially available
(e.g. GL&V) to produce paste consistency material from mill tailings, for purposes
of backfill. Tailings are introduced with a flocculent into a feedwell. A mechanical
rake and helix concentrates the solid particles by inductive circulation in a com-
pression zone while preventing ratholing. The paste-like material can be withdrawn
from the bottom, and a clear liquid overflows into the launder at the top of the tank.
The paste consistency material can be stored indefinitely (Figure 8.19; source:
Technical brochure of GL& V).
Nalco has developed a new line of polymers for water clarification. The strong
points of OPTIMER mineral processing flocculent are high settling rates of sus-
pended solids, superior overflow clarification, and maximum underflow com-
paction and pumpability. The Nalco 98DF063 is a liquid polymer system is
custom-made for the flocculation of red mud in the bauxite industry. The Nalco
patented TRASAR technology has four components of tracer chemicals, control
equipment, diagnostic capabilities and on-site services. The system provides not
only protection against scale formation but the inert tracer allows continuous diag-
nostic monitoring of the system volume, mixing studies, system flow, residence
time/water travel time and environmental compliance. Such a system not only helps
in the efficient operation of the process, but also allows remedial action to be taken
before a problem becomes serious.
Figure 8.20 (source: Sofra & Boger, 2002, p. 132) shows the relationship
between shear rate and shear stress for Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids. The
inelastic Newtonian fluids exhibit a linear relationship between the applied shear
stress and shear rate (curve A). The flow in the case of the Newtonian fluids gets
initiated as soon as the shear stress is applied. On the other hand, concentrated min-
eral tailings often exhibit a non-Newtonian behaviour, in that they are characterized
by an yield stress (y). Thus, flow will occur in non-Newtonian fluids only after the
critical stress is exceeded (curves B, C and D). It can be seen from Figure 8.21
(source: Sofra & Boger, 2002, p. 133) that (1) the yield stress is a function of con-
centration for a number of industrial slurries, (2) though there is variation in yield
stress for different mineral tailings, all materials exhibit an exponential rise in yield
stress with concentration.
Figure 8.19 Production of paste from mill tailings (source: GL & V Tech. Brochure).
It is hence necessary to have a thorough understanding of the rheological char-

acteristics of the tailings for the planning, design, operation and optimization of the
dry disposal systems including dry stacking, thickened tailings disposal and paste
backfill (Sofra & Boger, 2002). The suggested approach for the determination of
Figure 8.20 Relationship between shear rate and shear stress (source: Sofra & Boger, 2002, p. 132).
1800
Manganese Tailings
1600 Gold Tailings
Nickel Tailings (165 m)
Nickel Tailings (135 m)
1400 Red Mud - Brazil (1)
Red Mud - Brazil (2)
Shear Yield Stress (Pa)
Red Mud - Pt Comfort

1200 Red Mud - Jamaica
Red Mud - Kwinana
Red Mud - Surinam
1000 Coal tailings - uncont.
Coal tailings - controlled
800
600
400
200
0
20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Concentration (% w/w)
Figure 8.21 Shear yield stress versus concentration (source: Sofra & Boger, 2002, p. 133).
the tailings disposal system and requirements is schematically shown in Figure 8.22
(source: Sofra & Boger, 2002, p. 131).
A number of parameters have to be manipulated in order that the tailings to be
deposited have the desired rheological characteristics: (1) material parameters,
such as solids concentration, viscosity and yield stress, (2) operational parameters,
such as the flow rate (which is determined by the pipe diameter and throughput),
and the shear to which the tailings are subjected (which depends upon the pump
type, flow regime, etc.). A tailings management system which is safe, environmen-
tally-responsible and cost-effective, can be designed on the basis of the study of (1)
the concentrations required to achieve the optimum spreading and drying of the
deposited tailings, (2) the optimum conditions for pipeline transport, and (3) the
optimum dewatering of the slurry (Sofra & Boger, 2002).
The higher the angle, the greater the volume that can be filled per unit surface
area for a constant dam height. A smaller surface area of a tailings disposal site has
a number of benefits. If the tailings are capable of generating AMD, multi-layer
capping may be needed, and the expenses for capping and decommissioning could
be considerable. Also, a smaller area means less evaporation, which may be an
important consideration in areas of water scarcity. Less water in the site improves
the dam safety many cases of dam failure are attributable to the presence of large
amounts of water in the disposal area.
Figure 8.22 Suggested approach for designing the tailings disposal system (source: Sofra & Boger,
2002, p. 131).
Thickened tailings, when discharged at solids concentrations by mass of about

60%, are self-supporting enough to attain a slope of about 5. Slope angles as high
as 10 could be attained when pastes are used (a paste is a tailings mixture with
extremely high solids concentration). Pastes have been used for backfilling in
underground mines with underground transportation in pipelines and boreholes,
and for the surface disposal of tailings of base metals and gold.
A paste should contain more than 50% solids, in order to avoid drainage of water
and segregation of particles. A small amount of water means less use of a binder for
attaining high strength. The average particle size varies from 20 to 100 m, with
more than 15% of the particles being smaller than 20 m. In order to attain high
solids concentrations, conventional thickeners are used in conjunction with
mechanical dewatering techniques. Centrifugal pumps are used for large flow rates
and low to moderate working pressures, whereas positive displacement pumps are
used for small flow rates and high pressures.
8.2.8 Paste technologies in mining backfill

Moellerherm and Martens (2002) gave an account of the use of the tailings as paste
backfill in the copper mining industry. Out of the total copper ore production of
about 2 billion tonnes in 1998, open pit mining and underground mining accounted
for 81% and 19%, respectively. Because of their low costs, block caving and room-
and-pillar mining have emerged as the most widely used mining methods.
The scheme of the backfill process is shown in Figure 8.23 (source: Moellerherm
& Martens 2002, p. 150).
tailings
processing settling
pipeline
plant pond
crude ore recycled thickener

thickened
water tailings
transport
hydraulic or paste fill

concrete
shaft pipeline
back fill sand transport
haulage transport plant other
gravity fill additives
overburden +
waste rock
transport crusher
overburden and waste rock
heap
Figure 8.23 Scheme of backfill process (source: Moellerherm & Martens, 2002, p. 150).
The share of the backfill techniques in copper mines is as follows: Gravity fill
(waste rock): 46%, Hydraulic fill (tailings): 28%, Paste fill (tailings): 16%, and
sand fill (sand): 10%. Thus, almost half of the mines (46%) use gravity backfill
involving waste rock because of the ready availability of overburden and waste rock
due to combined open pit and underground operations.
The parameters of the backfill techniques are summarized in Table 8.3 (source:
Moellerherm & Martens, 2002).
It may be seen from Table 8.2 that the paste backfill has two main advantages: (1)
the cavity is filled to the extent of 85%, and (2) it makes use of the tailings from the
processing plant, thus reducing the need for surface disposal of the tailings. Thus, the
use of backfill techniques has the advantage of minimizing the use of land on the sur-
face, but the disadvantage of higher operating costs because of energy consumption.
8.2.9 Underwater placement of mine tailings

The studies made under the Canadian MEND (Mine Environment Neutral Drainage)
programme have shown that the placement of tailings underwater can prevent or
reduce ARD (Acid Rock Drainage). The tailings disposal under river and lake water
is infeasible in most situations as it may adversely affect the productivity of the
intensively used ecosystems, and may come into conflict with traditional rights
(such as, fishing) of the communities. CCORE (1996) study has shown that after
defaunation events, the benthic diversity on the seabed may recover in about one
year in the case of fine-grained deposits of muds/silts/clays, and within about five
years in the case of coarse-grained deposits such as gravels. Thus deep seabed
emerged as a possible site for the placement of mine tailings.
The 1996 Protocol for the 1972 London Dumping Convention allows the dump-
ing in the sea of inert, inorganic geological materials. The submarine placement
of tailings is deemed to comply with this convention, because (1) the tailings con-
stitute inorganic, geological material, and (2) they would be inert (i.e. would not be
able to generate ARD) under submarine conditions.
Table 8.3 Parameters of the backfill techniques.
Parameter Gravity fill Hydraulic fill Paste fill
Solids content 7590% 5075% 6585%

Water content 711% 2535% 1225%
Concrete content 312% 315% 25%
Compressive strength 120 MPa 0.53.0 MPa 15 MPa
Density 1.82.5 t/m3 1.42.3 t/m3 2.12.35 t/m3
Fill grade (cavity 80% 85% (tailings backfill); 90%
utilization) 60% sand backfill
Solid Overburden, waste Fine-, and coarse grained Fine-, and silt
rock (coarse grained) tailings, sand grained tailings
Examples Kidd Creek, Norilsk Neves Corvo, Myra Falls Louvicourt,
Brunswick
Figure 8.24 Risk management process in tailings dams (source: Alexieva, 2002, p. 296).
Ellis and Robertson (1999) made a detailed study of a number of case histories
of underwater placement of tailings.
Potentially acid generating tailings from the Island Copper Mine of Canada were
discharged into a target basin within a fjord at a depth of 100 to 200 m. The bulk of the
tailings remained within a basin, and the seabed recovered its biodiversity within 12
years. The company used an outfall design, which is now standard for submarine tail-
ings placement. Where the tailings pipeline reached the edge of the sea, it discharged
into a tank where it is deaerated and mixed with seawater. This has the effect of mak-
ing the slurry denser and more coherent as it flowed on the seabed. The tailings from
the Kitsault Molybdenum mine in Canada were discharged at 50 m depth, with the
same outfall design as Island Copper. Here also recovery of moderate successional
biodiversity took place in 1 to 2 years, though the species present were not identical to
those at nearby reference stations. In the case of the Misima Gold and Silver mine,
Papua New Guinea, the tailings were placed in a 1000 to 1500 m deep near shore
basin in an area of tropical, open coast with coral reefs. The tailings were dispersed to
ensure a slow rate of deposition so that the organisms are able to cope with it.
Ellis and Robertson (1999) suggested the physical and risk assessments to be made
to determine the viability of submarine tailings placement at coastal and island mines.
8.2.10 Tailing operations and risk assessment

Tailings and waste disposal which are critical components of mine operation, are
associated with risks involving human health, loss of life and property, damage to
the ecosystem and biodiversity, etc. It is obviously prudent on the part of a mining
company to be aware of risks involved, to what extent they are acceptable, and how
to manage the risks at least cost. The risk management process is schematically
shown in Figure 8.24 (source: Alexieva, 2002, p. 296). In the case of mine tailings,
Figure 8.25 Acceptability of risk in tailings dam failure (source: Australian National Committee on
Large Dams).
the hazards are slope failure, contaminated seepage, overtopping due to insufficient
dam freeboard, etc. The possibility of a given risk occurring is evaluated qualita-
tively, ranging from Very likely to Very unlikely, on a scale of, say, 1 to 5. Risk
assessment involves deciding whether the estimated risk is tolerable. Figure 8.25
(source: Australian National Committee on Large Dams) presents the societal risk
criteria curves for dam failure, indicating the limit of tolerability. Risk management
has to be ongoing and proactive. Risk management strategy has to be updated
when, for instance, the design capacity of the tailings storage facility is increased,
or when a new depositional method, or embankment construction method is
thought of, and so on.
8.3 DUST CONTROL
Dust is a problem in almost all mineral industries, though the degree of severity of
the problem varies from industry to industry. Some generalizations may, however,
be made (source: Mining Mag., Sept. 2001, p. 124):
1. Loss of valuable material: Wind erosion from stockpiles may lead to the loss of
upto 5% of the stockpiles of (say) coal or mineral concentrates.
2. Environmental problems: Dust can cause air pollution. It can also enter soil and
water environments and pollute them.
3. Health hazard: Inhalation of certain kinds of dusts is known to cause diseases,
such as, silicosis and pneumoconiosis.
4. Reduced visibility: The haze caused by dust in the air can cause hazardous
working conditions for vehicle drivers and plant operators.
5. Explosion/oxidation: Very fine (1020 m) combustible particles are liable to
explode. Stockpiles of coal can oxidize and undergo spontaneous combustion.
6. Machine maintenance: Dust particles can clog machinery parts such as bearings
and air filters, and damage them.
7. Capital investment: Greater quantities of dust would require the use of expen-
sive dust control equipment, such as spray bars, pumps and bowsers.
8.3.1 Types of dust control techniques

In the case of the iron and steel industry, dust is produced in the process of unload-
ing, storage, recovery and transfer operations involving iron ore, coal, coke, lime-
stone, lime, slag, etc. Dust can be controlled by installing hoods over the conveyor
belts which suck in the air and extract dust from it, by smoothing and compacting
of coal in the stockyard using a bulldozer, by spraying the stockpiles with water
(with the addition of surfactants where available), enclosing the stockyards to pre-
vent dust from being blown away, etc.
Four types of dust control techniques are used in the mineral industries, includ-
ing the iron and steel industry (UNEP, 1986, p. 4849).
1. Mechanical dust catchers: These are based on the principle of precipitation of
heavy particles by settling (dust catchers) or centrifugal action (cyclones).
Mechanical dust produced in the handling of raw materials, particularly in con-
junction with blast furnaces.
2. Electrostatic precipitators: These consist of electron-emitting electrodes, and
electron-collecting electrodes, which are kept at a potential difference (say,
40,000 V). When the dust-laden waste gas circulates at low speed between these
electrodes, the particles of dust are bombarded with electrons. If the particles are
sufficiently conducting, they become negatively charged, and get precipitated
onto the collecting electrode. From the collecting electrode, the dust particles
are either knocked off (dry method) or washed off (wet method).
Electrostatic precipitation is a well-established technique of dust control in the
iron and steel industry (main gases in sinter plants, detarring in coking plants, oxy-
gen cutting and scarfing). The efficiency of trapping of fine particles and particles
with high resistivity has been improved by (1) adopting high voltages (Nippon Steel
uses a voltage of 150,000 V in their sinter strand), (2) redesigning both emitting and
electrode electrodes, (3) introducing partitions into precipitators, to minimize the
quantity of particles flying off on impact, (4) operating at higher temperatures, and
(5) in the case of wet precipitators, using an electrostatic device to improve the
spraying action of the liquid and the use wet precipitators which operate at high
speed (20 m/s).
The improvements in the dust control techniques may be illustrated with the
example of iron and steel industry (UNEP, 1986). A dust collector, which can
function effectively when a burden of good scrap is loaded into an electric arc fur-
nace, may fail if the charge is oily scrap. But the steel maker may not be in a posi-
tion to dictate the quality of scrap supplied by a merchant. So the steel maker
should be in a position to modify the dust control system as needed.
3. Filter media: Bag filters are extensively used in for dust control in industries. For
instance, the use of bag filters in the iron and steel industry have made it possible to
reduce dust content to less than 10 mg/m3 N. However, the relative equipment
is expensive, requires frequent maintenance and involves energy consumption of
45-kwh/t. Bag filters are used in electric steel plants, for treating the diffuse gases
produced by sintering, in blast furnace cast-houses and in steel-making shops. Bag
filters made of terylene cloth and felt are no doubt effective, but they can be used
only at lower temperatures (say, less than 130 C for terylene). If dust collection has
to be done at high temperatures (say 6001000 C), fabrics woven from stainless
steel fibres or refractory fibres made up of (say) aluminium oxide, have to be used.
4. High-energy scrubbers: There are three ways of using water to trap the dust: by
collision between water and the dust on the basis of either flow of water or droplets,
condensation of water on to the dust (on the analogy of fog), trapping by diffusion
(on the principle of Brownian motion involving very fine droplets of water and very
fine particles). Dedusting through fine spraying of water into the gas can be
achieved either by the gas (high energy scrubbers of, say, the Venturi type, involv-
ing a pressure drop of about 250 mb on the waste gas) or by the water (whereby is
injected under high pressure, of the order of 15 bars). Aerodynamic profiling of the
Venturis improves the efficiency of the scrubbers with a large pressure drop. A
number of new techniques have been developed for bringing the gas or fumes into
contact with water. These include a multicellular reactor which contains water
gates which the gases have to cross, thus causing a small drop in pressure. In other
cases, the classical Venturi device is replaced by a bulb-shaped combining nozzle.
The new technique of using columns with perforated plates can be used both for
dedusting and desulphurization in the sinter plants.
Aluminium industry discharges huge amounts of fluoride-loaded particulates
which can cause dental mottling and skeletal fluorosis in human being and animals.
Aluminium plants produce cryolite mud (at the rate of 0.02 t of cryolite mud per
tonne of cryolite used) which contains toxic heavy metals, such as, arsenic, cad-
mium, nickel, etc.
A. Bernatsky in his book, Tree Ecology and Preservation strongly advocates the
use of tree belts around industries to reduce particulate pollution, and noise. One ha
of spruce can collect about 32 t of dust from the atmosphere, one ha of pine 36.4 t,
and one ha of beech, 63 t.
8.3.2 Dust control chemicals

Cognis has developed a number of new surfactants to provide for improved dust
control on mine haulage roads while being compatible with solvent extraction and
leaching processes. EnviroWet DC-100 is highly biodegradable, and has superior

wetting properties relative to the traditional surfactants based on linear alkyl ben-
zene sulphonate and similar compounds.
Two reagents are now available commercially for dust control.
1. ALCOTAC DS1 is a chemical binder or encrusting agent. When sprayed on
fine particles of minerals such as coal, limestone, iron ore, etc., it forms an
adherent film, and prevents the creation of airborne dust from the surface of the
stockpiles, railcars and road wagons. The film is water resistant, and conse-
quently, there will be no channeling or slumping on the stockpile when there is
rain. The chemical also minimizes spontaneous fires in coal stockpiles.
2. ALCOTAC 1235 is a chemical wetting agent. When added to water, it will
drastically reduce the surface tension of water, and would thereby promote the
wetting of fine dust particles. The chemical is so formulated that it has a resid-
ual effect after initial application. Consequently, the fine particles are kept wet-
ter longer, thus reducing the frequency of application needed. This reagent has
been found to be useful to control the dust at the entrance to crushers, conveyor
transfer points or on unmade roads.
8.4 LOW-WASTE TECHNOLOGIES
The idea of low-waste technology originated with water that it is better not to pol-
lute the water during the manufacturing process rather than clean it up afterwards.
Low-waste technologies are those that are the least environmentally-degrading,
involving pollutants (dust, gas, odour), nuisance (noise, vibration), with least con-
sumption of energy and the use of raw materials.
Waste minimization techniques are schematically shown in Figure 8.26 (source:
Anonymous).
Low-waste technologies may be categorized into three types: (1) Internal action
this directly concerns the manufacturing process, whereby no waste is produced,
and all products are saleable, (2) External action whereby waste is transformed
into saleable products, and (3) Recycling action, whereby waste materials, after
intermediate treatment, are reusable as quality raw materials.
Low-waste technologies in the case of iron and steel industry consist of the fol-
lowing processes (UNEP, 1986):
1. Pre-reduction or direct reduction of ores: By this method, coking/sintering/blast
furnace stages can be avoided, thereby eliminating the generation of byproducts
from the coking plants, blast furnace slag and dust and sludges upstream of the
steel shop. Besides, the dusts recovered by gas cleaning can be directly recycled.
In Sweden, PLASMARED (SKF) process uses a plasma reactor to reduce
the ore.
2. Scrap preparation: Scrap can be recycled in the blast furnace and the melting
shop without any problem. But the scrap may carry pollutants, such as oils,
Figure 8.26 Techniques of waste minimization (source: Anonymous).
coatings and alloy elements, which are not environmentally acceptable. The
scrap can be cleansed of its pollutants before recycling, by shredding with mag-
netic separation, cryogenic grinding and preheating to burn off oils and plastic
coating (Ceretti process).
3. Continuous processing: The blast furnace technology can be considered to be
low-waste technology if the slag, dust and sludge could be made use of.
Continuous steel making by electrical and other methods, saves energy and is
environmentally less polluting. In some iron and steel mills, silica, sulphur and
phosphorus are removed in the pre-treatment processes in the blast furnace laun-
der. In Sweden, liquid pig iron is produced by the pre-reduction in a fluidized
bed of fine-grained concentrates, or injection of pre-reduced material by a hol-
low cathode electrode in an immersed arc furnace. If the furnace is operated by
D.C. current, there is reduction in noise.
4. Low-pollution pickling: Wastes produced by acid pickling (by HCl or H2SO4 for
ordinary steels, or HF-HNO3 for stainless steels) can be minimized in the fol-
lowing ways: (1) Ishiclean process, which is a mechanical-hydroprocess, is vir-
tually pollution-free, (2) Nitric acid pickling could be replaced by fluonitric
pickling for stainless steels, as is done in Sweden. If the reheating before pick-
ling is carried out in slightly reducing conditions, it will lead to the formation of
scales. Such scales dissolve rapidly in acid and soil the pickling baths. The foul-
ing of the pickling bath by scales can be avoided if the preheating done in an oxi-
dized atmosphere.
Common steels pickled in sulphuric acid produce ferrous sulphate (FeSO4.7 H2O)
which is used in agriculture as a weed killer, and in the treatment of water (floccula-
tion and dephosphorisation). In the hydrochloric acid pickling, ferrous oxide is
obtained as a product. This may be recycled in the sinter plant in the steel works.
5. Blast furnace dust and sludge: The top gas off the blast furnace is dry dedusted,
and then wet scrubbed. This leads to the production of dust and sludge rich in
ferrous oxides and carbon, but also containing volatile elements such as zinc and
lead. The previous practice has been to recycle the dust and the sludge in the sin-
ter line. This led to operational difficulties due to recirculation of large quanti-
ties of zinc. The coarser particles which are generally zinc poor, can be recycled
as before. Zinc which tends to be present in fine particles, can be recuperated by
cycloning of the top gas before it is wet-scrubbed. It can be either dumped, or
sent to the non-ferrous industry.
6. Remelting of waste materials for special steels: Valuable trace metals that may
be contained in the waste materials (such as, dust, sludge and scale) may be
recovered by a combination of the following processes: drying of sludge, blend-
ing and mixing with carbon, agglomeration (briquetting or palletizing), addition
to an arc furnace.
7. Correction of the composition of the slag: To suit the specifications of the market,
it may some times become necessary to adjust the mineralogical and chemical
composition of the slag. This may be accomplished during the manufacturing
process (e.g. slagging additions to the blast furnace) or by careful tapping or by
operating the furnace in a particular thermal regime.
8.4.1 Recycling of scrap

The recycling of scrap is explained in terms of the iron and steel industry. Steel pro-
duction in USA involves the use of 64% of scrap. Each tonne of steel scrap recycled
saves 1.1 t of iron ore, 0.6 t of coal and 54 kgs. of limestone, apart from savings in
energy.
There are three types of scrap in the steel industry: (1) Scrap arising in the indi-
vidual steel works, which can be recycled in the same steel mill, without being
involved in any commercial transaction, (2) Process scrap produced in the manu-
facture downstream of steel products, (3) Commercial scrap which helps the steel
industry to balance their scrap requirements. Recovery depends upon the useful life
of a manufactured product made of steel (for instance, 912 years, in the case of
automobiles). Figure 8.27 (source: UNEP, 1986, p. 109) shows the cycle of the
three types of scrap.
Figure 8.27 Cycles of three types of scrap (UNEP, 1986, p. 109).
The properties of different kinds of scrap, depending upon the source, are sum-
marized in Table 8.4 (source: UNEP, 1986, p. 110).
The waste is made use of in the works itself or is sold. Only a fraction of the ton-
nage (less than 10%) is dumped.
Table 8.4 Composition of scrap from different sources.
Type of scrap Fe(%) C(%) S(%) Density
Rolling mill off cuts (angles) 99 0.40 0.025 1 to 1.5

Demolition scrap (structure) 99 0.25 0.045 0.6 to 1.4
Shredded scrap (classic process) 95 0.50 0.045 0.9 to 1.1
Cryogenic scrap (shredded at low temperature) 97 0.17 0.040 0.8
92 1.9 0.050 2.6
Packets of used scrap 80 0.25 0.110
82 1.3 0.070
The ways in which the waste products in the iron and steel industry are recycled
are summarized as follows:
1. Sinter dust: Dust is produced during the process of sintering, and related han-
dling operations, at the rate of 30 kg/t of sinter. This dust can be recycled in the
sinter grate.
2. Blast furnace slag: Apart from liquid pig iron, 300 kg of slag per ton of pig iron
are produced. As the slag resembles a natural rock in its chemical composition,
it is used for building roads, production of cement and to a lesser extent, for
thermal and sound insulation.
3. Oxygen steel-making slag: Pig iron may be either high phosphoric (P 1.7%) or
low-phosphoric, haematitic (P 0.2%). Phosphoric slag has good market, as a
fertilizer in agriculture. The haematitic slag can be used as limestone adjuster in
agriculture, and in road-making, but there is not much market for it. Its low
value does not allow it to be transported for long distances. In such a situation,
there is no option except to dump the haematitic slag.
4. Electric arc furnace dust and sludge: Electric arc furnaces can remelt coated
scrap (e.g. galvanized or plastic-coated) and alloy scrap. The dust and sludge
recovered from the electric furnace often contain volatile elements, such as Zn
and Pb, and are hence useless in the case of steel industry. These elements can,
however, be recovered in the non-ferrous industries by various methods, such as
reduction in a rotating furnace, soda extraction, injection in a plasma, etc.
8.5 TREATMENT OF WASTEWATER
There are a number of ways of treating the large quantities of wastewater produced
in the iron and steel industry, namely, recycling, removal of suspended solids, oil,
and organic toxic pollutants, etc. (UNEP, 1986, p. 7082). These are applicable to
other mineral industries as well.
1. Recycle systems: Recycling will reduce the pollutant loads at low cost, besides
reducing the volume of wastewater that is discharged. However, if the wastewater
is recycled too many times, two problems may arise in the recycled water build-up
of dissolved solids and the rise of temperature. High concentration of dissolved solids
in the water can cause plugging and corrosion. This can be controlled by treatment
of wastewater prior to recycling through the addition of chemicals, which inhibit
scaling, or corrosion. If the recycled water is too warm to be used for its intended
purpose, it has to be cooled prior to use. This can be achieved by passing the water
through mechanical draft cooling towers. Most recycle systems require simple pump-
ing only. They do not need much attention, except routine maintenance. However,
if the wastewater concerned has arisen from wet air pollution control devices, the
maintenance costs will be high, as the recycled water has to be cleansed of the dis-
solved constituents, which can cause fouling and scaling.
2. Removal of suspended solids: Suspended solids in wastewater may be removed
by settling, clarification and filtration.
When a stream of wastewater is let into a large volume lagoon, the velocity of
water is reduced, and the gravitational settling of particles takes place. Settling is a
slow process and usually takes days. The process of settling can be speeded up by
the addition of settling aids, such as alum and polymeric flocculants. Sedimentation
is often preceded by chemical precipitation and coagulation. These enhance the set-
tling process by converting the precipitates into coarser particles, which will settle
down faster. The ability of the lagoon to remove the suspended solids (including
metal hydroxides) depends on the rate of overflow, density and particle size of the
solids, the effective charge of suspended particles and the types of chemicals used
for pre-treatment, etc. By allowing sufficient time for retention, by the proper con-
trol of pH, and by the regular removal of sludge, it is possible to have an efficient,
low-cost system of removal of suspended solids.
Relative to settling lagoons, clarifiers can remove suspended particles faster and
more efficiently. Besides, they occupy less space and provide for centralized sludge
collection. They are, however, more expensive to build and maintain. Conventional
clarifiers consist of a tank and an arrangement for sludge collection. The tank may
be circular or rectangular. The sludge may be collected by a mechanical device, or
the sludge may be allowed to accumulate along a sloping, funnel-shaped bottom. In
the case of advanced clarifiers, which use inclined plates for sludge collection, it is
necessary to prescreen the wastewater to eliminate any materials, which could clog
the system. As in the case of settling lagoons, clarifiers use flocculants to speed up
settling
Filtration is a highly reliable method of wastewater treatment. It is used to
remove suspended solids, oil and grease and toxic metals from steel industry waste-
waters. It has a number of advantages low initial and operating costs, small land
requirement, no need to add flocculant chemicals which add to the discharge
stream, and low solids concentrations in the effluent, etc. Filters may of pressure or
gravity type, and may involve one or more media, such as sand, diatomaceous
earth, walnut shells and others. Higher flow rates and efficiencies may be achieved
by the use of dual or multiple media. In the filtration process, suspended solids and
oil accumulate in the filter bed, and impede the movement of wastewater. In order
to ensure that the filter bed performs efficiently, it is necessary to backwash the fil-
ter. Auxiliary means, such as water jets and air jets, can be employed to scour the
bed free of solids and oils.
3. Removal of oil: This is done through skimming, air flotation and ultraflotation.
Pollutants, such as free oil, grease and soaps, float to the surface of the wastewater, and
can be removed by skimming. Air flotation and clarification when used in conjunc-
tion with skimming, can improve the removal of both settling and floating materials.
The removal efficiency of a skimmer depends upon the density of the material to be
floated, and the retention time of the wastewater in the tank. Depending upon the
wastewater characteristics, retention may take 1 to 15 mins. for phase separation and
skimming to be effected. Since skimming is effective in removing naturally floating
materials, it constitutes good pre-treatment and improves the performance of the
treatments downstream. Some pollutants, such as dispersed or emulsified oil, do not
float to the surface by themselves, and skimmimg alone cannot remove them. More
sophisticated methods have to be used for the purpose.
When directed to the filter, oils and greases, either floating or emulsified, are
adsorbed on the filter media. If high concentrations of oils are allowed to reach the
filter bed, it may get blinded, and should be promptly backwashed.
The purpose of flotation is to cause particles such as metal hydroxides to float to
the surface of the wastewater tank where they can be concentrated and removed.
The methods of flotation differ from one another in regard to the ways of generating
the minute gas bubbles, such as, froth, dispersed air, and dissolved air and vacuum
flotation.
Steel industry wastewaters may contain significant levels of toxic pollutants,
such as chromium, copper, lead, nickel, zinc, etc. They can be precipitated by
chemical means, and then removed by physical means, such as sedimentation, fil-
tration and centrifugation. Lime or sodium hydroxide can precipitate several toxic
metals as metal hydroxides, phosphate and fluoride as calcium phosphate and cal-
cium fluoride respectively. Hydrogen sulphide and sodium sulphide can precipitate
many metals as insoluble metal sulphides. The chemicals may be added to a flash
mixer or pre-settling tank or they may directly be added to the clarifier. After the
solid precipitates are removed, the pH adjustment is made. Chemical precipitation
is a simple and effective means of removing many toxic pollutants from waste-
water. Complications may, however, arise due to chelating agents, chemical inter-
ferences and the problems of storage of hazardous chemicals. When lime is used, it
should be in the form of well-mixed slurry.
4. Removal of organic toxic pollutants: Activated carbon is made from coal, wood,
coconut shells, petroleum base residues, etc. Its ability for adsorption arises from its
low pore size (10100 ) and consequent high surface area (5001500 m2/g).
Activated carbon is very effective in removing dissolved organics in the wastewater.
The activated carbon can be regenerated and reused through the application of heat
and steam or solvent. The wastewater is pre-filtered to remove excess suspended
solids, oils and greases before being subjected to carbon adsorption. Suspended
solids in the influent should be less than 50 mg/l to minimize backwash require-
ments. Oil and grease should be less than 15 mg/l. If the influent contains large con-
centrations of dissolved inorganic material, it may cause scaling, and loss of activity.
This can be taken care of by pH control or the use of acid wash on the carbon prior to
reactivation.
The advantages of the carbon treatment are its high removal efficiency, and appli-
cability to a variety of organic pollutants. Where the carbon cannot be regenerated
because of the high content of adsorbed compounds, it must be disposed off.
Microbial treatment involving activated sludge can be used for the removal of
pollutants such as ammonia-N, cyanide, phenols (4AAP) and toxic organics pres-
ent in the wastewaters. The activated sludge system is sensitive to hydraulic and
pollutant loadings, temperature and the presence of certain pollutants. Temperature
not only affects the metabolic activities of the microorganisms, but also gas trans-
fer rates. Some pollutants are extremely toxic to microbes, and could kill them.
The activated sludge system significantly reduces the toxic organic pollutants more
cheaply relative to the activated carbon. If wastewaters are properly pretreated
before being subjected to activated sludge treatment, this process should work well.
5. Advanced technologies for treatment of wastewaters include ion exchange and
reverse osmosis, but they may not be economical to treat large quantities of waste-
waters.
Figure 8.28 (source: UNEP, 1991, p. 53) depicts the method treatment of metal-
containing acid mine water. Metal hydroxide precipitation takes place in the tailings
ponds. The capital cost of the system was approx. C $ 800,000 (1985) and the annual
operating costs were C$ 550,000 (1985).
Figure 8.28 Treatment of acid mine water in Brunswick mine, Canada (UNEP, 1991, p. 53).
8.6 SUBSIDENCE
Mining involves the extraction of large quantities of rocks, liquids and gases from
the depths of the earth, and therefore causes damage not only on the surface but also
to depths of hundreds and thousands of metres.
The extent of subsidence varies from a few mm (due to withdrawal of waters
from underground aquifers) to more than 6 or 7 m (arising from the extraction of
coal from thick seams or due to underground fires). Subsidence may cause direct air
circulation due to goaved-out areas, and may cause spontaneous combustion and
fires within the goaf areas. Fires starting in one seam in a coal mine may spread to
seams above and below it, and to seams in the neighbouring mines (as has happened
in the Jharia Raniganj coalfields in India). The presence of faults and dykes/ sills
and abandoned old workings may accentuate the problem of underground fires. The
subsidence triggered by fires invariably spreads fast. As a consequence of subsi-
dence movements in the underlying seams, the overlying coal seams may be ren-
dered unworkable.
The following impacts of subsidence are common: formation of depressions in
the surface, abrupt changes in the road gradients, damage to underground pipelines
and cables, damage to surface buildings, plants and pylons, disturbance in the
aquifers leading to reduced and contaminated flows, retardation in the growth of
vegetation due to reduced availability of water, waterlogging in the central part of
subsided area, contamination of surface air due to emissions from the underground
fires, flooding of underground mines due to the development of ruptures in the
underground waterbodies, etc. (Sengupta, 1993, p. 28).
In the case of surface mining, the extent of geomorphic change is related to the
thickness of the overburden covering the deposit, the quantity of barren rock that
needs to be excavated per unit of the extracted mineral and the area of the mine.
Underground mining may lead to surface subsidence with consequent disturbance
to surface runoff, formation of water-filled depressions, and flooding in the coastal
areas or near lakes. Mining under water generally involves dredging of loose sedi-
ments under water. If the sediments involved are alluvial sediments, then river beds,
flood plains and river terraces will be affected. Dredging may leave behind waste
dumps and small valleys. The mining of estuaries and intertidal zones (usually for
heavy minerals, and diamonds in the case of Namibia) disturbs the balance between
land and sea, and may trigger beach erosion.
When the material is removed by underground mining, it triggers ground move-
ment and the consequential deformation of the surface. The nature and extent of
deformation depends upon the following parameters: (1) geometry of the mineral
deposit the mining of a massive, flat-bedded deposit will cause more deformation
than a vein deposit, (2) the method of mining longwall mining is more likely to lead
to subsidence than room-and-pillar mining, (3) the nature of the mineral deposit, and
the nature of the overlying strata there are less chances of deformation if the min-
eral deposit and overlying rock are competent, than when they are incompetent.
Subsidence may lead to the following damages:

1. Fractures: The fractures may be continuous or discontinuous, and may range in
size from millimeters to meters. They can cause severe damage to buildings and
installations.
2. Surface trough: Continuous deformation may lead to the formation of a surface
trough. Uniform displacement does not generally cause much damage. Differen-
tial displacement could adversely affect the groundwater flow, and could bring
about changes in the gradients of roads, railways, water or gas pipelines, etc.
Back filling of underground coal mines by hydraulic stowing of river sand is a com-
mon practice in India. Such a stowing reduces the surface subsidence below 10%,
protects the aquifers, habitats, farms and fields. The township of Raniganj and the
villages around it in the famous Jharia Coal Field in Bihar, India, did not suffer much
damage for 75 years so long as the pillars in the underground mines were preserved.
The unscientific depillaring of the thick coal seams (slaughter mining) triggered
subsidence, mine fires and environmental pollution in the area. Due to underground
mining in the Jharia Coal Field, surface subsidence took place over an area of
32 km2. The formation of goaf (void space) beneath the surface led to the formation
of cracks on the surface, 5 to 10 m long, and about 0.5 m wide. There are also depres-
sions caused by caves-in. At some places, smoke and gases emanate through the
cracks. It has been estimated that about 34 Mt of coking coal has already been lost
because of underground fires. About 70 fires (out of the initial 110) are still active
and blocked out about 50 Mt of coking coal which hence cannot be worked.
Singh, Mathur and Landge (1995) describe how subsidence is controlled in the
case of Chapri-Sidheswar mine in the Singhbhum copper belt, Bihar, India: (1) No
mining will be carried out at depths of less than 62.5 m in other words, a 62.5 m
cover will be left intact throughout the life of the mine, and (2) The Room and Pillar
stopes will be supported by 1.5 m long bolts at 1.2 m spacing. The mined out stopes
will be promptly backfilled with the sand fraction of the tailings from the concen-
trator plant. The slurry will have 70% solids by weight.
There may be failure of the pit walls after an open-pit mine is abandoned. For
instance, some of the open-pit copper mines in Zambia have steep walls of soft sed-
imentary rocks hundreds of metres in height, and driving in heavy vehicles near the
tip of the mine could easily induce wall collapse. It is therefore necessary to desig-
nate a safety zone around the mine.
The safety zones and other measures are designed taking into account the geo-
logical, structural, geotechnical and climatic conditions.
Cavities are formed underground when geotechnical methods of mining (such as,
leaching, dissolution, fusion) are used. This leads to increase in the porosity, and
decrease in the strength of the rocks. The area becomes prone to collapse of roofs
and surface subsidence. Instances are known of collapse of rock-salt mines when
water entered an abandoned mine and dissolved the salt pillars left there for roof
support. Underground gasification of coal in the former Soviet Union (involving a
coal seam 515 m thick at a depth of 100130 m, in an area of 1 km2) gave rise to
one of the biggest landslides in the world, with a volume of 0.8 km3 spread over an
area of 8 km2 (Vartanyan, 1989, p. 42).
Landslides and rock and mud flows are common in the mining areas, especially
when the wastes are dumped on the hillsides. For instance, the volume of the mud-
flow arising from the Yimen copper mine in China, was of the order of 200,000 m3.
Another mudflow of the volume of 100,000 m3 from a mine in Yunnan, China,
destroyed 6.2 km2 of fertile land on the plains.
Four types of remedial measures are available for mitigating the subsidence in an
abandoned mine: point support, local backfilling, areal backfilling and strata con-
solidation (Sengupta, 1993, p. 439). In the point support method, a large number of
grouting holes are drilled, and grouting materials are injected to form the grouting
piles and support the roof. Depending upon the engineering method used, the point
support method could take the form of gravel columns, grout columns, fly ash grout
injection, and fabric formed concrete.
The local backfilling does not involve drilling the grouting holes. In this method,
small, shallow potholes or surface cracks are filled with gravel, refuse and dirt, by
direct dumping.
Areal backfilling is meant to protect large urban areas (of the order of hundreds
of hectares) from subsidence. This is accomplished by injecting into the under-
ground openings large quantities of grouting materials, such as sand, gravel, coal
refuse, mine tailings, fly ash, etc. under pressure.
In the strata consolidation method, the shallow strata beneath the damaged surface
structure are grouted or bound into a single rigid unit. If the subsidence continues,
the consolidated structure will move as a rigid body without being damaged. There
are several ways of bringing about consolidation, such as the use of polyurethane
binder, cement grout pad or rock anchor.
8.7 NOISE AND VIBRATION
Reference has earlier been made to noise (section 6.3.1) and vibration (section
6.3.3) from the standpoint of health hazards. In this chapter, they are considered
from the stand point of damage to structures.
The primary purpose of blasting operations in mining is the fragmentation of the
rock. Fragmentation takes place when the potential energy contained in the explo-
sive is suddenly released. An unintended and undesirable consequence of the blast
is the displacement of the ground in the vicinity of the explosion.
Air blasts refer to air vibrations caused by blasting operations. The severity of the
air blast depends not only upon the type and quantity of the explosive used, the
degree of confinement and the method of initiation, but also on the climatic condi-
tions, local geology and topography and the distance and condition of the structure
that may be affected by the air blast.
Air blast waves may give rise to damage and nuisance. The effect of overpressure
on structures is summarized in Table 8.5 (source: UNEP, 1991, p. 40)
The ground vibrates as a consequence of blasting. The surface of the ground in
the vicinity of the blast undergoes displacement. The amplitude of such displace-
ment depends upon the distance of the point from the blast, the energy released in
the explosives and the local geological conditions. The extent of damage caused is
directly related to the peak particle velocity related to the ground vibration. The
lower the frequency of vibration, the greater is the damage for a given peak veloc-
ity. The relationship between the peak particle velocity and the damage to structures
is given in Table 8.6 (source: UNEP, 1991, p. 41):
Blasting can generate both dust and gaseous contaminants. The adverse conse-
quences of blasting can be controlled in the following ways: (1) wait for some time
before entering the area affected by the blast, (2) wetting down with water before
blasting, and (3) ventilation. It is necessary to mention that respirators for particles
protect against dust particles only, but not against gaseous emissions, which require
gas masks.
Planting of dense tree belt has been suggested as a way to reduce noise. It has
been reported in the literature (A. Bernetzky) that a tree barrier of 250 m depth can
achieve a reduction of 40dB.
In 1980, ILO has issued guidelines about protecting the workers from noise and
vibration.
In the case of the steel industry, there are three major categories of vibration,
namely, mechanical vibration, vibration by combustion, and aerodynamic vibration.
Table 8.5 Effect of overpressure on structures.
Overpressure (g/cm2) Structural effect
24 Loose window sash rattles

7 Failure of stressed or badly installed window panes
52 Failure of correctly installed window panes begins
140 All window panes fall
140 Plaster cracks begin, and, at higher pressure, masonry
cracks may be evident
Table 8.6 Relationship between peak particle velocity and damage to structures.
Peak particle velocity (mm/s) Damage
70 Nil
110 Fine cracking and fall of plaster
160 Cracking
230 Serious cracking
Technological solutions to mitigate the consequences of vibration depend upon how

the vibration is caused (UNEP, 1986, p. 103105):
1. Mechanical vibration: This kind of vibration arises from rotating and alternating
machines, such as, heavy duty fans, blowers and compressors. In the case of
rotating machines, the vibration is generally of low frequency. Vibration gets
excited when there is a lack of dynamic and hydrodynamic balancing. In the
case of reciprocating machines, high frequency vibrations are associated with
the movements of various components, such as rods and pistons. The problem
cannot be assessed from acoustic studies alone, as noise is caused not only by
mechanical vibration as transmitted by structures, but also due to the turbulent
flow of fluids. On the basis of theoretical and experimental studies about the
dynamic and acoustic behaviour of machines, techniques of reducing vibration
through balancing and elastic suspension have been developed.
2. Vibration due to combustion: This is particularly relevant to blast preheaters,
where vibration may result in unstable combustion. Theoretical studies have
shown that the combustion chamber behaves like a tube with one end closed,
and another end open (cupola). Vibration gets initiated when the ratio between
the length of the oscillation wave and the length of the air and gas ducts of the
combustion chamber, reaches a particular critical figure. The instability in com-
bustion gives rise to a pulsing phenomenon with an acoustic wave (
410 Hz) similar to that of the singing arc. In most cases, the vibration is not
only unpleasant, but it may be dangerous for the operation of the plant and there-
fore for the plant staff. The vibration due to combustion could generally be mit-
igated by using appropriate lengths of the duct. In actuality, the phenomena are
more complex. For instance, gas pressure, delay in combustion, holding temper-
ature in the cupola, fuel injection in the blast furnace, atmospheric conditions,
etc. have the effect of modifying the acoustic length, and thereby increasing the
possible zones of instability.
3. Aerodynamic vibration: Aerodynamic vibration is caused by the transport and
distribution of gas and fumes by numerous ducts equipped with regulation
valves. There are three specific causes of vibration: (1) flow turbulence created
by decreases in the velocity of the fluids along the inner side wall of the pipes,
with fluctuation of pressure at the outer limit, (2) periodic flow phenomena due
to pressure modulation by the ventilator or by pulsating combustion of a burner,
(3) phenomena of drag and aeroelastic coupling between the flow and the vibra-
tion of the obstacle (butterfly valve, for example) (UNEP, 1986, p. 104). The third
phenomenon may cause the structures to emit intense sound on one frequency,
if the cavities in which the flow is contained, have similar acoustic modes.
Apart from being an acoustic nuisance, resonance may endanger the safety of the
staff and cause serious damage to plant. The principal remedies for suppressing res-
onance are: (1) avoidance of resonance by appropriate design of piping and valves,
(2) mechanical decoupling of the source of vibration from the rest of the ducts, and
(3) use of appropriate silencers (such as, diffusion silencers which reduce turbulence,
absorption silencers, resonating silencers, which are based on the introduction of

uneven, multiple dephasing of the quarter of the length of the wave).
8.8 PLANNING FOR MINE CLOSURE
Instances are known of the mine owners just abandoning the mines when the ore runs
out. It is critically important that mine closure programme should be incorporated
into any mining proposal right at the outset. Proper closure of the mine is absolutely
essential, particularly if the mine wastes happen to be acid producing. The leachates
from them can play havoc with the waters, soils and biota of the area for many
decades, if not centuries. The issues of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) and tailings dis-
posal, have been dealt with earlier (under sections 8.1 and 8.2 of the Chapter).
All access to underground mine workings should be closed properly. Shafts are
recommended to be filled with inert material, and sealed with concrete. Adits
should be plugged with concrete. If long-term subsidence that could cause damage
to buildings is anticipated, appropriate subsidence control measures should be
undertaken, if feasible. In the case of mines worked by room-and-pillar method, the
vacant spaces inside the mine could be used for high-security storage, warehousing
and even for mushroom cultivation.
Open pits for coal and base metals can be very large, and backfilling them with
waste overburden may be infeasible or uneconomical. Such pits can be used for
purposes of water storage or recreation. An abandoned limestone pit in Vancouver,
Canada, has been innovatively developed into a spectacularly beautiful flower gar-
den with waterfalls and aviary.
Now-a-days, governments are under pressure from the public to enforce the mine
closure regulations more strictly. In most cases, it is not possible to trace the own-
ers of the abandoned mines, and make them pay for rehabilitation. So the govern-
ments concerned have no option except to rehabilitate the mine in public interest
with public money.
In some areas, mines constitute the most important economic resource. The clo-
sure of mine may have a strong adverse socioeconomic impact. The social disloca-
tion that the mine closure can cause can be mitigated in part through the retraining
of the work force to newer employment opportunities, and newer enterprises.
Sengupta (1993, p. 453477) gave detailed case histories of decommissioning of
gold heap-leaching operations. To plan for closure, it is necessary to model the
following aspects: migration routes, through surface water flow through the
underdrain, and the groundwater flow through the undersaturated zone, and envi-
ronmental fate (mixing, dilution/attenuation/precipitation, etc.) of the solutes. The
hydrologic event used for risk assessment is the maximum 24-hr rainfall over a
100-year interval.
Metal-complexed (WAD) cyanide, copper, zinc, arsenic, etc. are usually present
in the active heaps at levels which could adversely affect the environmental and
human receptors. Regulatory agencies invariably prescribe the permissible concen-

tration of WAD (Weak Acid Dissociable) cyanide in the heap effluent. Cyanide gets
strongly attenuated during unsaturated flow. Experience has shown that when the
cyanide levels are brought down to compliant level, heavy metals such as arsenic,
will invariably become attenuated and compliant.
Solutes within the immobile or slow flow region would tend to mix with the
solutes in the rapid flow or mobile region. The concentration outflow from the heap
is determined from the following equation:
Cout Cmobile (Cheap Cmobile) Jt (8.6)
Where
Cout concentration in outflow from the heap,
Cheap average cyanide concentration in the immobile region,
Cmobile average concentration in the mobile flow region,
J a diffusion term set by the user,
t elapsed time
The following case history of the Borealis Mine, Hawthorene, Nevada, USA (quoted
by Sengupta, 1993, p. 468470) is instructive. The general criteria for leach pad clo-
sure in Nevada are: (1) WAD cyanide levels of effluent rinse water must be less than
0.2 mg/l, (2) the pH level of the effluent rinse water should be between 6.0 and 9.0,
and (3) Contaminants in any effluent from the process water that result from mete-
oric events must not degrade state waters. The heap was rinsed with fresh water. It
was found that the free cyanide levels got reduced from 1.23.7 mg/l to 0.2 mg/l in
210 days, and the entire pad was detoxified in 60 days. Among the various detoxi-
fication agents tried (such as, ferrous sulphate, alkaline chlorination, etc.), hydrogen
peroxide has been found most suitable for the detoxification of heaps.
CHAPTER 9
Mitigation of mining impacts
9.1 MONITORING OF MINING IMPACTS
The purpose of the environmental monitoring in and around a mine is to identify

changes in the environmental parameters as a consequence of mining, in relation to
the baseline conditions that existed before the commencement of mining. The envir-
onmental conditions monitored include (1) physical characteristics, such as water
flow and geotechnical stability, (2) chemical characteristics, such as water quality
(pH, sulphate, alkalinity, acidity, iron, electrical conductance, major cations and
anions, etc.), and (3) biological characteristics (fauna and flora and biodiversity).
A monitoring programme involves two types of monitoring units: station(s) at the
point of effluent discharge which are generally located on site, and station(s) in the
receiving environment which are generally located outside the mine. There should
be at least one station located at the point of direct discharge from the mine to the
receiving environment, to monitor the surface water and/or groundwater discharge,
and to serve as an advance warning station. This station should be monitored
at least monthly, to detect any significant change in pH and sulphate content.
For instance, a lowering of pH alerts to the onset of formation of acid mine drainage,
allowing appropriate corrective action to be initiated. Stations are located along
the gradient of the surface and groundwater flows in the receiving environment.
By comparing the composition of the upgradient and downgradient waters, it would
be possible to identify the degree and spatial extent of impacts due to each compo-
nent. A simple visual inspection of iron stains in the seeps and stream courses in the
receiving area could provide useful information about what is going on (Sengupta,
1993, p. 216).
Now a days there is an increasing recognition of the usefulness of biological
monitoring (in the form of, say, the Index of Biological Integrity) in understanding
the environmental impact. Biocriteria integrate the effect of multiple stresses over
time and space, thus minimizing the need for a large number of samples. The mag-
nitude, frequency and duration of monitoring is critical to chemical criteria, but
may not be necessarily so for biological criteria.
9.1.1 Environmental monitoring of mine components

The ways of monitoring of the different mine components from the standpoint of
water and generation of AMD, are summarized as follows (see, a good summary by
Sengupta, 1993, p. 215224).
Environmental monitoring of open pits: The quantity of water would be the most
important component to be monitored. Water entering an open pit consists of pre-
cipitation, surface water drainage and groundwater discharge. By its very construc-
tion, a pit is open to the atmosphere. Rainwater hence collects in the pit. In wet
climates, precipitation may account for bulk of the pit water. Also, since a pit con-
stitutes a depression in the local water table, groundwater will seep into the mine
from the walls and from the bottom. Surface water drainage is usually diverted away
from the mine, to avoid the need to pumping it. All water entering the pit is led into
a sump, from where it is pumped out. The advance warning station is best located at
the sump, and is monitored at least once monthly during the operation of the mine.
The pit walls get weakened by the presence of water in them. The geotechnical
stability of the pit walls is crucial for the safety and productivity of the mine. Where
necessary, monitor wells may be installed around the perimeter of the pit, in order to
control the quantity of groundwater entering the pit. The seeps from the pit walls are
monitored once in every six months. An analysis of the water quality data of the
seeps from the pit walls could indicate how much each wall is contributing to AMD.
When the pit is closed, there will be no more pumping of the water from the
sump or retaining pond. The pit will get flooded, and the water level in it will rise
to the pre-operational level. The pit will then become a part of the local ground-
water system. After the closure of the mine, a monitoring station for the groundwater
for the receiving environment may be established, its location being dependent
upon the hydraulic conductivity of the subsurface strata. If the aquifers have high
permeability, the groundwater-monitoring network should be located downgradient.
There should be at least one monitoring station for each aquifer, and the monitoring
frequency should be at least once in six months (Sengupta, 1993, p. 219).
Environmental monitoring of underground workings: Groundwater is the most
important source of water in the underground mines. Some amount of surface water
may enter an underground mine through a shaft, adit or decline. The movement of
water in an underground mine is by infiltration, which is a slow process. Mine water
is pumped out from the workings. The presence of water in the strata increases the
pore pressure and adversely affects the geotechnical stability of the walls and roof,
which is important for the safety and productivity of the mine. The advance warn-
ing station may be located near the underground sump, and the monitoring should
be done at least monthly. The monitoring frequency for groundwater and surface
water in the receiving environment should be at least once in six months.
Environmental monitoring of waste rock dumps and ore stockpiles: Waste rock
dumps, ore stockpiles, and heap-leach sites are sited on the surface, and are there-
fore exposed to atmosphere. Precipitation therefore is the principal source of water.
Mitigation of mining impacts 217
Rainwater infiltrates through the dumps. At the base of the pile, the leach water may
completely enter the groundwater if the hydraulic conductivity is sufficiently high,
or it may partly exit at the base of the pile, and partly enter the groundwater.
Geotechnical monitoring is concerned with the physical integrity of the pile.
Consolidation or settlement of the pile could induce changes in the hydraulic con-
ditions within the structure of the pile, resulting in slumping or toe collapse.
Advance warning stations for groundwater and surface water should be located at
the point of discharge from the retention pond, and the monitoring should be done
monthly. The monitoring frequency for groundwater and surface water in the
receiving environment should be at least once in six months.
Environmental monitoring of tailing impoundments: The tailing impoundments
receive water from two sources: water in the mill tailings slurry, and precipitation.
The supernatant water in the tailings ponds would flow to the low-lying parts of the
impoundment and form ponds. Part of the water may percolate down through the
unconsolidated tailings and enter the groundwater. The advance warning stations
should be located at the direct discharge points from the impoundment, and should
be monitored monthly. The monitoring frequency for groundwater and surface
water in the receiving environment should be at least once in six months.
9.1.2 Comprehensive monitoring of mine impacts a case study

In order to design measures for mitigating the adverse impacts of mining, geotech-
nical, hydrogeological, topographical and geochemical, etc. parameters need to be
measured periodically. The procedure is illustrated with the case study of iron ore
mining in Nizhni Tagil area of Russia.
Iron ore mining in the Nizhni Tagil area (Middle Urals) in Russia, began in 1721
in the southern part in an area of 140 km2. In 1950, further iron ore mining com-
menced in the western part. Flux-grade limestone was mined from the eastern part
since 1925. In the late 1980s, detailed geotechnical, hydrogeological, topographical
and geochemical, etc. investigations have been made in the area, in order to assess
the extent of damage to geoenvironment caused by mining, and to use the resulting
information to mitigate the possible adverse impact in that mine and similar mines
elsewhere.
In the Nizhni Tagil area, surface mining takes place at depths of 120 to 220 m,
and underground mining at depths of 350 to 700 m. The open pits had fairly stable
slopes of 3236, but in some places, landslides and collapses have occurred.
The underground mines suffered major subsidences, with collapses 100 m deep and
slopes upto 70. The rock shifts on the ground surface reached a width of 500 m.
An area of about 23 km2 got degraded. The geotechnical consequences included
man-induced weathering, karst, landslides, sinks, erosion, etc. There was reduction
in run-off, and the river water got polluted. In the case of sulphate water, sulphate
concentrations increased by 2 to 5 times, nitrogenous compounds increased by 1.5 to
3 times, and oil products and phenols made their appearance. In the case of the
groundwater, the aggregate mineralization increased by 1.5 to 3 times, the pH became

acid (3.5), nitrogenous compounds increased by 1.5 times, and oil products and
some metals made their appearance. Soils in 46% of the total area were contami-
nated with heavy metals to the extent of 2 to 10 times the background values. Part
of the forest vegetation was destroyed.
Figure 9.1 shows the observation network. Figure 9.2 shows the changes in the
geotechnical conditions, and Figure 9.3 shows the changes in the hydrodynamic
and hydrochemical conditions in the mining area (source: Vartanyan, 1989).
The extent of damage to the geoenvironment may be looked at from the stand-
point of the area affected. Groundwater regime was disturbed over an area 9.3 times
the total area of mining; heavy metal contamination of the soils occurred over an
area 7.1 times larger than the mining area; intensive man-induced change on the sur-
face and rock mass covered an area 2.2 times larger than the mining area, and so on.
On the basis of the study, it has been recommended that the topographic-
geochemical observations (surveys) be made once or twice a year, geophysical sur-
veys two to four times a year, and hydrological surveys about three times a month.
9.2 WAYS OF REDUCING THE MINING IMPACTS
Since mining itself cannot be avoided, a practical and sensible approach would be
to plan the mining and extraction activities in such a manner that the impact on the
environment will be minimal. A possible cost-effective and environmentally-sound
strategy to reduce the adverse impact of mining on the environment, is described as
follows (Vartanyan, 1989):
1. Mining of the minerals, with backfilling of the openings (rather than natural and
forced caving of the roof): This prevents rock caving and formation of open joint-
ing. Besides, when the waste rock is used for back filling, it serves to reduce the
volume of the rock stored at the surface. This practice has a beneficial effect on
the aquifers and the general environment experience shows that the backfilling
reduces the dewatering of mine by 18 to 25%. If pillars are left behind under the
water bodies, surface subsidence is prevented and water resources are conserved.
An innovative approach is to mine ore-rich rock selectively so that lesser vol-
umes of wastes are generated. At present, the losses of coal in the underground
mining are as high as 30%.
2. Improvements in the process technology: Development of no-waste or low-
waste process technology options, which produce a minimum quantity of waste
water; use of improved technologies such as, high intensity magnetic fields,
sealing of the wastewater disposal systems, etc.
3. Water management activities: When the mine effluents are discharged into
streams, they have to be purified, so as to be below the level of the Maximum
Allowable Concentration (MAC); reuse of the mine effluents after purifica-
tion; prevention of pollution by siting the waste water lagoons on natural or
Figure 9.1 Diagram showing the observation network in regard to Nizhni Tagil mining area, Russia
(source: Vartanyan, 1989, p. 172).
Figure 9.2 Changes in the geotechnical conditions in the Nizhni Tagil mining area, Russia (source:
Vartanyan, 1989, p. 170). This figure appears on the cover page.
Figure 9.3 Changes in the hydrodynamic and hydrochemical conditions in the Nizhni Tagil mining
area, Russia (source: Vartanyan, 1989, p. 171).
introduced impervious material. The groundwater that is abstracted in the course

of the mining may be reinjected into the aquifers that are proposed to be used.
Polluted groundwater may be contained by the use of impermeable grout
curtains (called hydrocurtains). The height of the infiltration barriers ranges
from 15 to 200 m.
4. Improvements in extraction technology: The more comprehensively the compo-
nents of the ore are extracted, the less will be the volume of wastes that need to
be disposed. In polymetallic sulphide ores, for instance, the usual practice is to
extract two or three more abundant metals. There are cases whereby 15 elements
are extracted from the ore from which only three elements were being previ-
ously extracted. In effect, the tailings arising from the extraction of one metal
may constitute the feedstock for the extraction of another metal.
Mining produces about 18 billion cubic metres of mine tailings per year. Mining
affects the landscape and may cause landslides, subsidence, pollution of water and
soil, lowering of groundwater, etc. Dumping of overburden, disposal of tailings,
erosion brought about by rain and wind have an adverse impact on the biological
productivity of the area.
9.3 REHABILITATION OF MINED LAND
Though the mining companies are required by law to submit plans and commit funds
for the rehabilitation of the mined land when once the mine is closed, enforcement
has not always been strict enough. It is particularly difficult in the case of artisanal
miners (here today, gone tomorrow).
Figure 9.4 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 203) shows the steps involved in the
restoration of mined land.
Though the climate, soil and hydrological characteristics and methods of mining
vary greatly in different areas, there are some common elements in the techniques
of rehabilitation:
1. Removal and retention of top soil, to be respread in the area that is being
rehabilitated.
2. Reshaping the degraded areas and waste dumps in such a manner that they are
stable, well drained, and suitably landscaped for the desired long-term use.
3. Minimizing the potentiality for wind and water erosion.
4. Deep ripping of the compacted surface.
5. Revegetating with appropriate plant species in order to control erosion, and
facilitate the development of a stable ecosystem compatible with the projected
long-term use.
Amelioration methods can be custom-made for a given situation, as follows
(Chadwick et al., 1987).
Low pH (usually 5): Amelioration by liming. Acid-tolerant species may be
planted;
Additional planting
(trees, shrubs, etc)
Maintenance
(fertilizing, mowing, grazing
etc.)
Monitoring
(plant growth and soil
development)
Seeding
(choice of method)
Site preparation
(recontouring, drainage
ameliorant application)
Development of amelioration
programme Development of seed misture
(fertilizer, organic manures (grasses, legumes,
stabilizing agents, other herbs,
non-toxic wastes, tree and shrub seed,
sub-soil, microbial inocula)
soil, if available)
Formulation of ecological goal tor

revegetation(inrelation toultimate land use)
Appraisal of site and subs-

trate (climate, phisical pro-
perties, fertility, toxicity, etc)
Design of operation
(orientation of dumps, deployment of overburden,
shape of excavation, final landscaping, etc.)
Decision on ultimate land use

(in relation to environment, social, needs
financial return, possible reworking, planning
requirements)
Figure 9.4 Steps involved in the restoration of mined land (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 203).
High pH (usually 8): Salt content may be removed by leaching. Salt/alkali-

tolerant plants may be grown;
Low nutrient status: Nitrogen deficiency may be ameliorated by nitrogenous
fertilization or by growing legumes;
Low moisture levels: Ridging, furrowing and mulching, etc. and growing drought-
tolerant plants;
Soil amendment: use of other wastes, such as fly ash, slag, etc.;
Planting of artificial wetlands for the treatment of acid mine drainage and pol-
luted runoff.
Experience has shown that purely civil engineering techniques, such as terracing
and cementing, do not work, as mining wastes may be inhospitable and often toxic.
Rehabilitation through vegetation has a number of benefits, particularly with regard
to the developing countries in the tropics: (1) it is environment friendly and cost
effective; (2) it needs no costly or imported inputs or technology; (3) it can gener-
ate employment of unskilled people, particularly women; and (4) site beautification
can also be accomplished in the process.
Mining disfigures the landscape besides causing landslides, subsidence, pollution
of water and soil, lowering of groundwater, damage caused by explosions, etc.
Restoration of mined land involves landscaping and revegetating of spoil heaps, pits,
disused industrial areas and other kinds of dereliction caused by the mining activi-
ties (Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 173). In general, restoration is aimed at restoring the
productive features of the landuse, improving the aesthetic features of the landscape,
and reducing the possibility of further environmental degradation. The mechanics of
restoration would depend upon not only on the nature of the substrate, but also on the
intended purpose of restoration, such as, building an industrial estate, arable use,
pasture, woodland, etc.
It may not be possible, and sometimes it may not be even desirable, to restore the
landscape, vegetation and land use to the exact condition that obtained prior to min-
ing. Often the restoration modality will be determined by the economics of the
operations (expenditure on restoration as against the expected income from the new
vegetation), social priorities, and the government regulations. It may turn out that
the proposed restoration of the mined land may result in a better landuse than
before.
The following factors have to be taken into account in determining the restora-
tion procedure:
Climatic factors: Restoration in areas of dry or humid tropics is generally more
difficult than in temperate climates. This is so because the evapotranspiration
is high in tropical areas, and the rainfall is often unpredictable and uneven
for instance, half of the annual rainfall in an area may get precipitated in a matter
of hours. This would lead to flash floods and severe erosion in unvegetated
areas.
Nature of the substrate: In the humid tropics, the soils tend to be leached, poor
in nutrients and organic matter, and iron pans may develop in the soil structure.
Sub-surface soil may sometimes be richer in nutrients, and this factor should be
kept in mind in the process of restoration.
Vegetation: Choice of plants to be used in revegetation needs a detailed
knowledge of the needs for the establishment and maintenance requirements
Table 9.1 Characterisation of substrate for purposes of land restoration.
Parameter Measurement and use
pH Determine with pH meter after calibration with buffers of pH 4 and 7.

Pyrite content If the spoils are pyritic, measure the pyrite content, and make an estimate of
acid production.
Electrical Measure with a conductivity meter on a 1 : 1 or 1 : 2 soil to water extract of
Conductivity saturation paste. ECe is reported in mS/cm.
ECe ECe (mS/cm) Total salt content (%) Crop reaction
02 0.15 Salinity effects negligible, except for
the most sensitive plants
48 0.150.35 Yields of many crops restricted
815 0.350.65 Only tolerant crops yield satisfactorily
16 0.65 Only very tolerant crops possible.
Nitrogen Plant available nitrogen should be determined. Substrates with less than 10 g/g
of mineralizable nitrogen cannot support non-nitrogen fixing plants, without the
addition of nitrogen fertilizer.
Phosphate Phosphate content is determined by Olsens method of carbonate extraction.
Phosphate addition would be needed if the substrate contains 5 g/g of P.
There would be crop response if the phosphate addition is 515 g/g of P.
Cations A minimum requirement should be to determine soluble concentrations of K,
Ca, Mg and Na. In acid substrates, measure Al, Mn and Zn (all measurements
by AAS).
Anions Measure Cl, HCO3 and SO4 if the substrate is sodic or alkaline.
of the plants, but such knowledge is not available for non-crop tropical plants.
Vegetation chosen should be able to survive in nutrient-poor, acid and toxic
conditions.
Social and economic factors: Social and economic factors are of crucial impor-
tance. If the society prefers to restore the mined land as a woodland, the kind of
trees that need to be planted (fruit trees, timber trees, leguminous trees, etc.) and the
economics (investment versus the returns) have to be carefully chosen. If the soci-
ety favours the use of the restored land as a pasture, decision has to be chosen about
the kinds of grasses that need to be planted, and the kind of animals that would be
allowed to graze. In the Indian context, the mining companies simply plant lots of
acacia trees in order to satisfy the government regulations about reclamation of
mined land.
If right from the outset, the mining company makes a projection of how much
spoil, of what characteristics is likely to be produced, and maintains records where
the spoils have been tipped, it would greatly aid in planning the restoration.
9.3.1 Characterization of the substrate

The characterization of substrate for purposes of land restoration is given in Table 9.1
Table 9.2 Available water capacity (in mm/m)* versus texture and stone content (source: Chadwick
et al., 1987, p. 184).
Texture Stone-free Many stones Stones dominant
Coarse sand 70 40 10
Sand 80 40 10
Fine sand 100 50 10
Sandy loam 130 70 10
Loam 160 80 20
Clay loam 130 70 10
Sandy clay 100 50 10
Clay 140 60 10
Silty clay 140 70 10
*About two-thirds of the water capacity is readily available to plants.
9.3.2 Ground preparation prior to revegetation

In areas of both dry and humid tropics, there is the ever-present hazard of severe
erosion caused by episodes of heavy rainfall. The following steps are useful to con-
serve moisture and prevent sheet erosion in the early stages of revegetation:
Contour terracing, furrowing and trenching: When tips are deposited, they are
quite often compacted, to reduce the chances of formation of acid drainage.
Furrows are constructed by ripping and ploughing along the contours. By this
method, moisture is retained in the substrate. The furrows would give protection to
the plants planted in them. Erosion by wind is much reduced.
Terraces with bank and ditch downslope not only retain both silt and water, but
also can take care of excess water that may follow a heavy rain. The width of the
terraces depends upon the slope as shown below:
Slope Field width
15% 5 to 6 m
510% 4 to 5 m
1025% 2.5 m
Chemical stabilizers: These infiltrate into the substrate, bind the particles together,
and prevent their being dislodged and carried away. Chemicals used should not be toxic
to the plants. Chemicals using alginates are widely used because they are non-toxic.
Moisture conservation: The higher the content of clays, the larger the content of
organic matter, and the greater the bulk density, the greater will be the ability of the
substrate to hold moisture. The estimated available water capacity (in mm/m) of
subsoils in relation to their texture and stone content is summarized in Table 9.2.
9.3.3 Mulching
Mulching is a very effective method of improving the capacity of the substrate to
retain moisture. Often, bulky waste products, which are available locally in large
quantities, are used as mulches.
Table 9.3 Properties of some mulch used in land restoration (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 187).
Material Description pH Durability C : N Application* Anchor
Wheat straw Yellow fibre 5.67.1 1 season 128 : 1 1.54 t/ha Asphalt or
crimping
Hay Brown/green 5.5 1 season 25 : 1 24 t/ha Asphalt or
fibre crimping
Manure Brown fibre, 6.6 612 m 25 : 1 1540 t/ha Disced
slurry liquid into
or Solid surface
Hardwood Variable 46 fresh, 34 y 100 : 1 110 cm No
Bark colour milled 68 composted 400 : 1 depth of
or chipped mulch
Softwood Variable 3.55.5 fresh, 510 y 100 : 1 110 cm No
bark colour milled 68 composted 510 y 900 : 1 depth of
or chipped mulch
Hardwood White to 46 (oak) 515 y 600 : 1 0.610 cm No
chips yellow chips depth of
mulch
Softwood White to 45 515 y 600 : 1 0.610 cm No
chips yellow chips depth of
mulch
Sawdust Granular, green, 3.57.0 35 y 200 : 1 110 cm Asphalt
or composted 500 : ! depth of
mulch
Leaves Whole leaves, 6.5 composted 1 season 40 : 1 35 t/ha May need
shredded and crimping
composted
Compost Fibre 7.58.5 1 season 4555 : 1 20 t/ha Discing
refuse
* The rate of application is least when the mulch is applied while seeding, medium when the mulch is applied for
erosion control. Larger quantities of mulch are applied around already established plants. The same
considerations hold good where the depth of the mulch is indicated.
The properties of mulches that could be used in the restoration of the mined land
are given in Table 9.3 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 187).
Form: Long fibred mulches are recommended to be used if the ground to be
restored is sloping. Mulches, which are composed of large, coarse-textured solid
particles, increase the pore space. On the other hand, fine-textured mulches fill the
spaces between soil particles and impede movement of water.
Colour: Cold soils restrict plant growth. Black mulches, which absorb the radi-
ant heat, have a warming effect on the soils, and their application is therefore ben-
eficial to cold soils. Light coloured mulches reflect heat. They could be applied to
warm soils.
Durability: More durable mulches are to be preferred as their beneficial

effect lasts longer. However, if a durable mulch dries out, it could become a fire
risk.
Chemical: A mulch soil will decompose by itself if the C : N ratio is 15 or less.
If the C : N ratio is very large, the mulch will require extra nitrogen to decompose.
If extra nitrogen is not applied, a high C : N mulch will deplete the soil nitrogen, and
would impede plant growth. So mulches with C : N ratio of 2025 : 1 are recom-
mended to be used, to minimize the N depletion in the substrate. Composted mulch
is desirable as it is invariably characterized by higher pH, and is therefore more
effective in the restoration of acid substrate.
Biological: Care should be taken not to introduce any pathogens or seeds of
weeds with the mulches. Ideally, the mulch should inoculate the substrate with ben-
eficial microorganisms, which decompose slowly.
9.3.4 Amendments and fertilizers

As the substrate tends to be acid, the most common amendment is lime. Calcitic
limestone is most effective in facilitating the planting on acidic spoils. Most acidic
soils require 3050 t/ha of limestone, and some may require even 100400 t/ha.
Freshly exposed colliery spoil is invariably deficient in phosphorus and nitrogen.
These nutrients need to be added to the substrate for some years to promote the
growth of the vegetation. Regular supply of phosphorus is needed to maximize the
fixation of nitrogen by leguminous plants. Most sites requite at least 1 t of triple
superphosphate (45% P2O5). Then NPK 20 : 10 : 10 should be applied at the rate of
500625 kg/ha if the mined land is to be developed as crop land, or 325500 kg/ha
if it is to be developed as amenity grassland (source: Mine Environment and
Management, 1988, p. 143144).
Fly ash has emerged as an important amendment for soil conditioning of acidic
soils, and by extension, acidic substrates in the mined land.
Fly ash is the fine material (6070% of which has a size below 0.076 mm). It is
a waste, which is produced when pulverized coal is burnt in thermal power sta-
tions. Because of its fineness, it creates serious problem of dust pollution,
besides needing considerable storage space. In India, about 80 thermal power
stations produce 100 million tonnes of fly ash, about 15% of which is used in
civil constructions, building material (brick making) and for the amelioration of
wasteland. In the Industrialized countries, the percentage utilization of fly ash
is 65%.
Fly ash improves the soils in two ways: firstly, it improves the physico-chemical
properties of soils, such as hydraulic conductivity, bulk density, porosity, water
holding capacity, etc., and secondly, it contributes to the soil essential plant nutri-
ents such as Ca, Mg, K, P, Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe, B, Mo, etc. Fly ash is applied at differ-
ent doses, 25500 t/ha, depending upon the properties of the soil to be amended.
Amendment with fly ash has increased the crop yield from 2550%.
9.3.5 Ecotypes and cultivars

There are not many plants, which can tolerate the high-acid, low-fertility substrates.
Some grasses, such as Cynodon dactylon (Bermuda grass) and Agrostis capillaries
(Common bent) have been found to be able to grow on different kinds of mine
wastes. Chadwick et al. (1987, p. 194199) gave a long list of plants that have been
found useful in the reclamation of mined land for different kinds of tailings and
under different climatic conditions, in Africa, Australia, Canada, USA, etc. (vide
summary given below):
South Africa
Saline tailings: Atriplex lentiformis, Atriplex undulata, Atriplex rhagodiodes
Nickel tailings: Atriplex nummularia, Kochia brevifolia
Gold tailings: Tamarix pentandra, Tamarix aphylla
Rapid growth on tailings: Acacia saligna (tree), Cynodon dactylon, Cynodon
aethiopicus, Sporobolus virginicus, Panicum repens
Flooded areas: Paspalum vaginatum
Pyritic gold tailings

Grasses: Agrostic tenuis (Common bent), Choloris gayana (Rhodes grass), Cynodon
dactylon (Kweek, Couch or Bermuda grass), Dactylis glomerata (Cocksfoot or
Orchard grass), Eragrostis curvula (weeping love grass), Festuca arundinacea (Tall
fescue), Holcus lanatus (Yorkshire fog), Lolium perenne (perennial rye grass), pas-
palum dilatatum (Dallis grass).
Legumes: Medicago sativa (Lucerne), Melilotus alba (American white clover),
Trifolium repens var. latum (Italian clover), Trifolium repens (New Zealand wild
white clover).
Trees and shrubs: Atriplex semi-baccata (Creeping salt brush), Acacia baileyana
(Baileys wattle), Acacia melanoxylon (Tasmanian blackwood).
Rooted plant material: Cortaderia selloana (Pampas grass), Cynodon aethiopicus
(Star grass), Hyparrhenia hirta (Thatch grass), Pennisetum macrourum (Hippograss).
Australia
Acacias (e.g. Acacia saligna, Acasia sophorae, etc.) and Eucalyptus sp. (e.g.
Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Eucalyptus sargentii) are the dominant species used in
reclamation.
Grasses: Aristida sp. (wire grass), Axonopus affinis (carpet grass), Poa pratensis
(Kentucky bluegrass), etc.
Canada
Grasses: Agropyron desertorum (crested wheatgrass), Bromus intermis (Bromegrass),
Legumes: Coronilla varia (Crown vetch), Trifolium repens (white clover),
Trees: Acer saccharinum (Silver maple), Picea mariana (Black spruce), etc.
USA
Sub-humid, semi-arid and arid climates of western USA
Grasses: Festuca arundinacea (Tall fescue), Poa pratensis (Kentucky bluegrass)
Legumes: Coronilla varia (Crown vetch), Lotus corniculatus (Birdsfoot trefoil)
Tress and shrubs: Cornus amonum (Silky dogwood), Fraximus pennsylvanica
(Green ash)
Northern Great Plains

Grasses: Agropyron dasystachtyum (Thickspike wheatgrass), Panicum virgatum
(Switchgrass)
Legumes: Medicago sativa (Alfa alfa), melilotus alfa (Sweet clover),
Trees and shrubs: Caragana arborescens (Siberian peashrub), Salix sp. (willow)
Southern Great Plains

Grasses: Buchloe dactyloides (Buffalo grass), Sorghastrum nutans (Indian grass)
Legumes: Medicago sativa (Alfaalfa), melilotus alfa (Sweet clover),
Trees and shrubs: Cetlis sp. (Hackberry), Juniperus (Junipers)
Desert Southwest USA (saline and alkaline tailings)
Atriplex canescens (Four-wing saltbrush), Panicum antidotale (Blue panic)
9.3.6 Bioremediation
Bioremediation through metal-accumulating plants and crops has emerged as an
inexpensive and environmentally sound alternative. Stjerman and Ledin (2001,
p. 802) made pot experiments to determine the possibility of phytoremediation of
the tailings at Aitik copper mine in Sweden. The following are the physical and
chemical characteristics of the tailings: Sand (0.052 mm): 87.5%, silt (250 m):
7%, clay (2 m): 5.5%; pH, 1 : 1 water, 6.4; Elements (mg/kg): Fe 24,700;
Al 13,800, As 11, Cu 478, Cd 1.3, Pb 1.9, Zn 96, Mn 706, Mg-AL: 17,
P-AL: 51, K-AL: 65, etc. Three plant species, barley (Hordeum vulgare), red fes-
cue (Festuca rubra), and red clover (Trifolium pratense) were tested. Highest
growth was achieved in reduced (not weathered) sand mixed with 16 and 33% by
volume of sewage sludge, because pH was close to neutral and the content of nitro-
gen was high in these mixtures (Fig. 9.5; source: Stjerman & Ledin 2001, p. 802).
Berti and Cunningham (1994) have presented a case history of utilization of this
approach. Hazardous waste material is defined as having TCLP (Toxicity Charac-
teristic Leaching Procedure US EPA, 1990) Pb critical value of 5 mg/l. To bring
down the soil Pb toxicity from 30 mg Pb/l in a dump to 5 mg/l level, two approaches
were attempted: (1) use of lead accumulator plants, such as common ragweed
(Ambrosia artemisiifolia), hemp dogbane (Apocynum cannabinum), musk or nod-
ding thistle (Carduus nutans), and Asiatic dayflower (Commelina communis): these
exhibited shoot concentrations of 4001,250 mg Pb/kg; and (2) use of soil amend-
ments, such as lime, fertilizers, biosolids, industrial byproducts, to promote plant
Figure 9.5 Above-ground biomass after two months of growing plant species in pots filled with
reduced tailings treated with 0, 16 and 33% by volume of organic matter. The treatments are: a moss
peat, b sewage sludge, and c paper mill sludge. Bars represent confidence interval at 0.05 level
(source: Stjerman & Ledin, 2001, p. 802).
growth, enhance the intake of metals by plants, prevent migration of metals, reduce
soil erosion and downward flow of soil water. Efforts are being made to develop
more efficient soil remediation methodologies by breeding or bioengineering
plants, which have the ability to absorb, translocate, and tolerate Pb while produc-
ing sufficient biomass.
There have been some spectacular developments in biotechnologically creating
bacteria, which can remediate almost any kind of waste. The bacterium, Dienococus
radiodurans, has extraordinary resistance to radioactivity it can survive exposure
to one million rads, whereas a human being exposed to 1000 rads of radiation dosage
will die within a week or two. Though the radiation damages the bacteriums genetic
material, the bacterium can repair its DNA completely in 12 to 24 hours, as if noth-
ing has happened. The bacterium, pseudomonas, can remediate chemical wastes, but
it cannot survive exposure to highly radioactive environment. By introducing toxin-
degrading genes from Psuedomonas, into D. radiodurans, a new super bug has been
created which can remediate the toxic chemicals in a highly radioactive environ-
ment. The new bacterium is capable of remediating special types of waste disposal
sites, such as the one near Richland, Washington, D.C., USA, where the wastes
contain both toxic chemical and radioactive wastes (Sciences, July/Aug. 1998,
p. 1619).
The US EPA has been trying to develop cost-effective, green engineering
solutions for the remediation of metal mining sites (Compton et al., 2001). Studies
by the US Department of Agriculture have shown that the application of biosolids
can render many heavy metals less bioavailable, besides improving the soil tilth,
total organic carbon, and water holding capacity, fertility and cation exchange
capacity. The contaminants in tailings to be remediated were Zn, Pb, Cd, Cu,
and Mn, with Zn concentrations ranging from 50,000 to 100,000 ppm. Biosolids
from the Denver Metro Waste Water Treatment Authority (at the rate of 224 t/ha)
and equal amounts of lime were spread over 4.5 ha test plot. The consequences
of the application of biosolids were checked after one year. Though the total
metal concentrations did not show significant decrease, there was increase in
pH and organic content and decrease in the bioavailability of metals. Conse-
quently, soil toxicity to plants and invertebrates was generally eliminated. The pos-
sible risks to herbivorous mammals and omnivorous avian communities are being
studied.
9.3.7 Miscellaneous revegetation methods

Where a opencast mine exists near a town or city, the municipal garbage can be
dumped into the open pit, and covered with soil. The pit can be slowly filled up, and
then revegetated.
Van Wyk (1978) suggested a single treatment whereby soil stabilization, seeding
and fertilizing can be accomplished, and maintenance minimized. Soil is mixed
with sawmill dust, wood chips, hay and other plant material, and made into bricks
of the dimensions 30 10 10 cm. These bricks should be strewn around so as to

cover about 30% of the area. Such bricks prevent surface erosion, and conserve the
topsoil, and may be used for seeding the plant/grass material.
Revegetation could be accomplished by the use of self-contained pellets. These
are made by mixing the grass seeds with tank silt, farmyard manure, fertilizer,
paper pulp waste, etc. and then spread around at the time of the onset of the rainy
season. Instead of planting the seeds, a more practical approach would be to grow
saplings of trees in polythene bags, and plant them when they are 912 months old,
just before the onset of the rainy season.
9.3.8 Restoration of an iron ore mine site a case history from Goa, India
Noronha (1995) gave a case study of afforestation for the ecological management
of an iron ore mine in Goa, India. He recommended the following measures for pre-
venting degradation and facilitating reclamation: (1) drawing up of plans right at
the outset for rehabilitation of the areas after mining; (2) stocking of top soil for
reuse; (3) construction of check dams and water filter beds at high contour levels
to prevent suspended solids from reaching water bodies and agricultural fields;
(4) impervious barriers at the toes of waste dumps to prevent fine particles and
slime from being washed out during heavy rains; (5) construction of tailing ponds;
and (6) continuous water sprinkling to prevent dust from being blown away from
the waste dumps, etc.
The economic value of a tree is estimated not only in terms of biomass yield
(timber, fuelwood, forage, etc.) and its market price, but also in terms of its envi-
ronmental benefits, such as soil maintenance, dust suppression, recycling of wastes,
sheltering of birds and production of oxygen, etc.
Acacia and Casuarina are useful as fuelwood and timber. They have no food
value. A comparison in tree growth (8 years) between normal soil and dumpsite,
shows that the tree growth on dumpsites is reasonably good.
Tree crop (after 8 years) Normal soil dumpsite
Acacia auriculiformis Height: 14 m 8m
Girth: 87 cm 58 cm
Casuarina equisetifolia Height: 16 m 12 m
Girth: 71 cm 39 cm
A viable alternative is to grow cashew trees on waste dumps in coastal areas.
Cashew yields excellent economic returns, while providing the same kind of envi-
ronmental benefits as other trees. The cashew tree has a life span of 30 years. It is
usually planted with spacing 8 m 8 m. It yields highly valuable nuts (150 kg/ha in
the fifth year, going up to 750 kg/ha in the tenth year). The expense incurred for
preparing the land for cashew cultivation (leveling, grading, drainage, digging pits,
use of fertilizers and pesticides etc.) can be easily recovered. Technoeconomic eval-
uation shows that at discount rates of 5%, 10% and 12%, the current net value of
cashew is 3 times more than that of Acacia.
In India, since the mined land reverts to the Government, the mining company has
no further interest in it. As the mining companies are required to provide vegetal cover
on the mined land, they tend to go in for fast-growing Acacia. The tree has good pH
tolerance, good nitrogen-fixing ability, shallow root system, and can grow on the
irregular, holey soil typically found on dumpsites. By allowing property/tenancy
rights to the growers of the plant cover on the mined land, incentive could be created
to grow economically valuable tree crops such as cashew and fruit trees.
9.3.9 Sudbury Nickel: A case history of successful reclamation

The Sudbury Nickel Irruptive is a well-known geological feature in the province of
Ontario, Canada. A gigantic nickel coin installed by the mining companies atop a
promontory in Sudbury, symbolizes what the area is famous for. Currently Inco
Ltd., and Falconbridge Ltd. produce 51,000 t of nickel ore per day from 15 active
underground mines in the Sudbury area. Another 50,000 t per day is produced in
five other mines in the same belt. Nickel and copper are the principal metals
extracted. By-products are: cobalt, platinum group metals, gold, silver, selenium,
tellurium, sulphuric acid, etc. The slag produced is used for road construction.
The nickel-copper ore was discovered in mid-nineteenth century by a blacksmith
during the building of the Canadian Pacific Railroad. Production of ore started in
1886. Though the ore was rich in nickel, there was hardly any demand for the metal
the world demand for nickel in 1887 was less than 1000 tonnes! Nickel became
a marketable commodity only in the twentieth century (incidentally, the case of
nickel illustrates the validity of Zimmermans dictum, Resources are not, they
become).
The mining, stripping, sintering and smelting operations had a profound envir-
onmental impact. The forests all around got destroyed, and the area became bar-
ren. The emissions of sulphur dioxide arising from the smelting of the sulphide ores
of nickel copper were so intense that the soils were severely acidified. So much
so when the restoration work began in 1969, germinating seeds died on contact with
the acidified soils, and tree seedlings planted died within two years. The residents
then tried a different approach. They applied lime to the soil, and planted grasses
and clover. This worked. Slowly and steadily, the area got vegetated. Wildflowers,
shrubs, poplars and birches started growing.
The mining companies adopted a two-track approach: reduce the sulphur emis-
sions, and plant trees. In 1972, Inco completed the construction of a giant smoke-
stack, which drastically reduced the sulphur dioxide emissions, and planted the
millionth tree. By 1994, further improvements in the process technology reduced
the sulphur dioxide emissions to 10%. Falconbridge planted 600,000 trees on its
properties in the Sudbury area. It recycles about half the water it uses, and treats
wastewater to control acidity, heavy metal content and suspended solids. Using the
treated water, Falconbridge could ameliorate an acidic wasteland into a wetland,
which has now become a wildlife sanctuary.
Thus, more than 3000 ha of land in the Sudbury area has been restored. An addi-
tional two million trees were planted under a job-creation programme funded by the
Sudbury Regional Municipality, government and industry. The environmental trans-
formation that has been accomplished in Sudbury attracted international attention
at the Rio Summit in 1992, Sudbury received the United Nations Local Government
Honors Award (source: Metal Mining and the Environment a brochure of the
American Geological Institute, 1999).
Two lessons could be learnt from the Sudbury case: (1) it is indeed possible
to reverse and ameliorate even the most intensive and extensive environmental
degradation, (2) biological methods, such as the vegetation, are not only cost-effective
but are also environmentally and aesthetically appropriate.
9.3.10 Reclamation of Manganese spoil dumps, India

Manganese Ore India Limited (MOIL), a public sector company, has rehabilitated
about 400 ha of manganese spoil dumps, through an innovative combination of
restoration methods (Sahni, 1995): (1) a supportive and nutritive rhizosphere was
built up through the use of sugar mill waste (pressmud), sewage sludge, etc. (2) use
of cultures of Rhizobium, Azobacter, Mycorrizhae etc. which enables the plants
to tolerate high manganese concentrations, and accumulate atmospheric nitrogen,
(3) Inoculation of the plants with cultures of endomycorhizal fungi of Glomus spp.
to promote root development and stress tolerance. The amendment of spoil with
100 t/ha of pressmud and the use of VAM-Rhizobium increased the water holding
capacity of the spoils from 10.8% to 46.4%, reduced the bulk density from
1.84 g/cm3 to 1.42 g/cm3, improved the nutrient status in regard to N, P and K, and
resulted in 1315 fold increase in the rate of plant growth, in relation to growth in
unamended spoil. Among the various amendment materials, pressmud proved to be
the most effective probably because it is not only rich in organic matter, but also
contain sugars, which provide good substrate for microbial proliferation.
Till 199495, about a million trees were grown on the amended spoils, prominent
among them being: teak (Tectona grandis), shishum (Dalbergia sissoo), neem
(Azadirachta Indica), cassia (Cassis fistula), karanji (Pongamia pinnata), bamboo
(Dendrocalamus strictus), etc. In 1989, 40,000 mulberry trees were planted on the
manganese spoils, which not only rehabilitated the degraded land, but also facili-
tated the development of employment-generating sericulture.
9.4 BENEFICIAL USE OF MINING WASTES
The volume of wastes generated in the process of mining increases with increased
volume of mining activities, and increased mechanization. No-waste and low-waste
mining technologies can in principle bring down the volume of wastes that need
to be disposed of, but there is little doubt that wastes in mining cannot be avoided
altogether. The use of waste rock for back-filling, recycling, and the large-scale use
of wastes for the construction of roads, buildings and other civil engineering struc-
tures are some of the ways by which the wastes can be used beneficially.
Coal mining wastes: Taking the mining industry as a whole, there is little doubt
that coal mining produces the largest volume of solid wastes. Mine gangue and
coal-washing tailings are being increasingly used as filling materials, additives in
concrete and for agricultural purposes.
The gangue material in coal waste tips generally has a porosity of about 35%.
The relatively high combustible content of the waste coupled with its high porosity,
makes the waste liable for spontaneous combustion. It has been estimated that 40% of
the 17,000 rock waste tips in the world, are burning. Smoke from the burning tips pol-
lutes large areas around them. An ingenious way to reduce the porosity of the waste
tips and thereby reduce their proneness for spontaneous combustion, is the addition
of fly ash from the wastes of the thermal power plants. In this manner, one kind of
waste is made use of to reduce the environmental harm from another kind of waste!
After strengthening, the gangue material from the coal mining industry can be
used in the construction of road embankments and railway lines, landscaping of
building sites, and earth dams, etc. The porosity of the gangue is reduced and the
strength increased by compaction with bulldozers, and addition of pore-filling
materials, such as fly ash from power plants, sand, and flotation tailings. By this
process, the porosity can be reduced to 20%, and the density increased to 2.1 t/m3.
Clays with high content of organic matter can be used to make a material called
karamzite. In Belgium and France, mine gangues and coal washing tailings are made
use of to fabricate commercial building materials, trademarked AGRAL. The gangue
material can also be made use of to make bricks, and as aggregates for light weight
concrete. For instance, the brick-works of Lvovstrojmaterialy in Ukraine which pro-
duces 300 million bricks a year, found that the use of 10% coal wastes has reduced
the consumption of fuel by 2025%, besides improving the quality of bricks.
The CSIR Laboratories in India (principally, the Central Building Research Insti-
tute, Roorkee, and the Regional Research Laboratory, Bhopal) have developed inno-
vative approaches for the use of fly ash from the coal industry and red mud wastes
from the aluminium industry (vide CSIR Rural Technologies, 1995, p. 8388).
Clay may be mixed with fly ash (to the extent of 1040%) and made into bricks,
which can then be fired in conventional Bulls kiln, or intermittent type kilns at a
temperature of 950 to 1050 C. The use of fly ash permits the production of 40%
more additional bricks from the same quantity of soil. The clay-fly ash bricks have
lower bulk density, better thermal insulation and reduced dead load on the brick
masonry structure. These bricks can be used for all types of construction, where
normal clay bricks are used.
In areas where good quality clay is not available, fly ash-sand-lime bricks can be
made. Fly ash could be used to the extent of 70%. The bricks will have a wet compres-
sive strength of 100200 kg/cm and water absorption of 10 to 20%. Drying shrinkage
(0.010.05%) and thermal conductivity are comparable to those of the clay bricks.
Unlike the clay bricks, the fly ash lime sand bricks do not need drying.
The lime-fly ash blends can be used as stabilizers in road construction. For gran-
ular soils, 36% lime and 1025% fly ash should be used. For clayey soils, 59%
lime and 1025% fly ash, need to be used.
Bricks can be made with red mud wastes from the aluminium industry. Red mud
improves the quality of bricks made from clay-deficient soils. When fired, bricks
made with red mud develop a pleasing pale brown, orange or golden yellow colour,
depending upon the composition of the raw material, and firing temperature.
They therefore have a good architectural value as facing bricks. The presence of
45% alkalis in red mud makes for good fluxing action. Consequently, the red mud
bricks have better plasticity and bonding than the normal bricks. They may be fired
in the usual Bulls trench kiln.
Black coal flotation sludges can be dried to reduce their moisture content to 8 to
10%, and the resulting product can be burnt in the thermal power plants. Brown
coal sludges are finding numerous uses in agriculture. When added to the soil, the
humic acids contained in coal form organo-mineral humus and sorption complexes
and becomes repositories of nutrient elements. This improves the structure, pH and
fertility of the soil. In Russia, the combination of manure and high-ash coal (the
so-called mineral manure) proved very successful. In Hungary, brown coal dust
mixed with manure is used as a fertilizer. Coal waste can be used as bio-organic
mineral fertilizer.
Acid mine effluent often contains copper which can be recovered cheaply by
treating the effluent with scrap iron. Methane generated in the underground mining
can be collected and used to feed the boilers.
Other kinds of mining wastes: Nepheline tailings in the production of apatite
concentrates can be used in the production of glass, and as a binder for silica bricks.
Wastes of chalcopyrite ore concentrates can be used for the manufacture of silicate
wall and facing materials, glass, etc.
Solid wastes from mining could be used as fillers in concrete and other cement-
based materials (Moosberg, 2001). The following properties of the waste materials
are tested in order to determine their suitability for the purpose:
1. Isothermal calorimetry measurements they show the heat of hydration in fresh
concrete and thus also the effect of the added byproducts,
2. Flowability a rheology test that depends on material characteristics,
3. Strength measurements how compressive and flexural strengths are affected
by the addition of the filler,
4. Shrinkage and expansion how the durability is affected.
Three commercial quartz products from the mineral processing industry were
chosen for the investigation. An examination of the relation between the water/
cement (w/c) ratio and compressive strength at 28 days showed that the more the
filler replaced the aggregates, the higher the strength that was obtained (Fig. 9.6;
source: Moosberg, 2001, p. 541).
Harrison et al. (1999) report that mine soil fill material can be effectively used for
the renovation of wastewater. Red mud waste is produced when bauxite is
Figure 9.6 Water/cement ratio vs. compressive strength when quartz is used as a filler (source:
Moosberg, 2001, p. 541).
processed to produce alumina, and is available in large quantities around the baux-
ite mines. It contains compounds of Al (2237%), Fe (2426%), Ca (24%), Na
and Si. It has been found that red mud mixed with medium-sized sand is highly
effective in removing P, BOD, suspended solids and faecal coliforms from domes-
tic sewage (Brandes et al., 1975).
Residential and municipal wastewaters contain numerous pathogens, such as
enteric viruses (which can cause meningitis and hepatitis), bacteria (which can
cause typhoid fever and gastroenteritis), protozoans (which can cause amoebic
dysentery and giardiasis), and helminthes (which can cause a number of chronic
diseases such as anaemia and gastroenteritis). Size-wise, the enteric viruses are the
smallest, and the helminths the largest. Considerations of size enter the picture
because the larger the organism, the more readily it is trapped and retained when
wastewater containing the pathogen percolates through the soil. Consequently, the
greater the percentage of fines (silt- and clay-sized particles) in the soil, the greater
is its capacity to retain bacteria. Besides, the charged nature of bacteria and viruses
facilitates their adsorption on soil constituents. As it is difficult to detect viruses in
soils and waste disposal systems, the abundance of faecal streptococci, and faecal
coliforms are used as indicators of pathogenicity.
Excess amounts of NO 3 may be toxic to infants and young animals, and both
NO 3 and P promote eutrophication of surface waters. NH 4 concentrations have
decreased to background levels after percolating through 76 cm of soil fill.
The mine soil-fill has been found to be very efficient at removing PO 4 P from the
wastewater.
Wastewater could be applied at the rate of (say) 19.3 l/m/d on at least 0.76 m
of mine soil-fill. Uniform distribution of effluent could be ensured by using low-
pressure distribution or drip irrigation system (Harrison et al., 1999).
Tailings have been used in USA as bulk fill in highways, embankment material,
as aggregate for sub-base and bituminous paving mixtures, in building bricks and
blocks, and in the manufacture of low-grade glass (Collins & Miller, 1979). Chinas
largest gold producer, Shangdong Gold Group Co. Ltd, has recently commissioned
a 4 million m3 tailings brick manufacturing plant it is expected to generate annual
profits of Yu 12 million and pay back the companys investment in five years
(Mining Journal, Aug. 18, 2000 issue).
Zambia converted the abandoned open pits to fish ponds.
9.5 REUSE OF MINE WATER
Mine water is invariably highly acidic, besides containing undesirably high quanti-
ties of toxic metals (Table 9.4).
There is severe scarcity of drinking water in the coalfield areas of eastern
India. On one hand, the water-table has gone down to 200250 m due to mining
activities, thus making the tapping of groundwater prohibitively expensive. On the
other hand, there is abundance of mine water, which, however, is not potable
because of its high acidity, and the high content of metals, such as iron. The Central
Mining Research Institute, (CMRI), Dhanbad, Bihar, 826 001, India, has developed
a treatment process which is claimed to render the mine water potable (item 6.2.13,
CSIR Rural Technologies, New Delhi, India, 1995). Filtration is done adjacent to
the settling pond. Two filter beds are used to work alternatively at the time of
changing the bed. A slow or rapid filtration may be employed depending upon the
situation. A disinfectant is incorporated in the treatment process to destroy the
pathogens.
The presence of high iron content in groundwater is objectionable because
of discoloration, turbidity, bad taste and tendency to form deposits in the distribu-
tion mains. The National Environmental Engineering Research Institute, Nagpur
440 020, India, developed a simple plant to remove iron from groundwater by pre-
cipitating the iron impurity as a ferric sludge (item 6.2.4, CSIR Rural Technologies,
1995). The plant is to be attached to a hand pump. It has a capacity of 2500 l/d (10-hr
operation) and costs about USD 500. The plant has three chambers. The water from
the hand pump is sprayed over an oxidation chamber. The aerated water flows over
baffle plates to a flocculation chamber and then to sedimentation chamber. The water
then passes through plate settlers and to the filter from where the filtered water is
drawn through a tap after chlorination. The ferric sludge needs to be scoured out
twice a month.
9.5.1 Treatment of mine water

Brjesson (2001) described a pilot-scale natural treatment system for the heavy
metal drainage related to the alum shale tailings from Mount Billingen in southern
Table 9.4 Range of chemical characteristics of raw mine water from lead and zinc mines (source:
Hustrulid, 1982).
Mines with acidic characteristics Mines without acidic characteristics

Parameter (concentrations in mg/l) (concentrations in mg/l)
pH (units) 3.08.0 7.48.1

TSS * 2 to 5.8 2 to 138
COD ** 15.9 to 95.3 10 to 631
Oil & grease 0 to 3 3 to 29
P 0.002 to 0.075 0.03 to 0.15
Ammonia 0.05 to 4.0 0.05 to 1.0
Hg 0.0001 to 0.0013 0.0001 to 0.0001
Zn 1.38 to 38.0 0.03 to 0.69
Cu 0.02 to 0.04 0.02
Cd 0.016 to 0.055 0.002 to 0.015
Cr 0.17 to 0.42 0.02
Mn 0.02 to 57.2 0.02 to 0.06
Fe 0.12 to 2.5 0.02 to 0.90
Sulphate 48 to 775 37 to 63
Chloride 0.01 to 220 3 to 57
Fluoride 0.06 to 0.80 0.3 to 1.2
* Total Suspended Solids; ** Chemical Oxygen Demand.
Figure 9.7 Natural treatment system for mine water (source: Brjesson, 2001, p. 53).
Sweden. The natural treatment system consists of the following components: aera-
tion steps, sedimentation pond, sludge separator, pre-treatment filter, passive filter
and an infiltration area (Fig. 9.7; source: Brjesson, 2001, p. 53). The sedimentation
pond (8 m 12 m) was dug with slopes of 1 : 4. The bottom of the pond is covered
with an impermeable mat to prevent infiltration. The pre-treatment filter consists of
coarse gravel (2532 mm). A geotextile mat was placed on the top of the drainage
layer. As natural peat is an excellent scavenger of metals, it is used for the filter. The
test run shows that there is complete removal of iron and arsenic. The reductions in
zinc, cobalt and nickel were of the order of 5065%, whereas the reduction of ura-
nium was lower (36%). Improvements are being made in the natural treatment of
mine water.
Figure 9.8 Water process scheme in Tara mines, Ireland (source: UNEP, 1991, p. 33).
Mine water, surface runoff, tailings from the beneficiation plant, etc. can be
collected at one point, for possible treatment before release to the environment.
Figure 9.8 (source: UNEP, 1991, p. 33) gives the water process scheme in Tara
mines in Ireland.
Figure 9.9 (source: UNEP, 1991, p. 54) gives the flow diagram of the treatment of
acidic seepages at Norandas Waite Amulet mine. Sludge from the clarifier (about
4% by weight solids) is permanently disposed of in sludge drainage beds underlain
by sands.
Figure 9.9 Treatment of acidic water at Norandas Waite Amulet mine (source: UNEP, 1991, p. 54).
9.5.2 Lime neutralization and high-density sludge processes

Lime neutralization is the most effective process to remove metals such as Fe, Zn, Al,
Cu, Mn, Cd, Co and Pb, and sulphate from the mining and metallurgical effluents.

Me2 SO2
4 H Ca
2
3OH Me(OH)2 CaSO4 H2O (9.1)
The resulting precipitate, which consists of metal hydroxides and gypsum, is called
the sludge. Lime may be used as quicklime (CaO) or hydrated lime (Ca(OH)2).
Constituents such as arsenic, mercury and cyanide could be removed by a modified
lime neutralization process. Depending on site factors, lime neutralization can vary
greatly in sophistication, from basic to HDS (High Density Sludge) process. Figure
9.10 shows four types of lime neutralization, including Type-IV stage HDS
Figure 9.10 Lime neutralization method involving HDS (High Density Sludge) (source: Kuyucak
et al., 2001, p. 356).
Figure 9.11 The layout of the HDS treatment plant at Kristineberg mine, Sweden (source: Kuyucak
et al., 2001, p. 360).
Figure 9.12 Two-stage treatment of Aznalcollar pit water, Spain (source: Kuyucak et al., 2001, p. 373).
neutralization method for neutralizing acid water using more than one reactor
(source: Kuyucak, 2001, p. 356). The layout of the HDS treatment plant in the
Kristineberg mine site is given in Figure 9.11 (source: Kuyucak et al., 2001, p. 360).
All tanks, except the polymer preparation tanks, are made of mild steel covered
with epoxy paint. Since the clarifier is the most expensive part of the plant, the size
of the clarifier has been kept as small as possible.
During the grinding and flotation of complex sulphide ores in alkaline media,
oxidation of sulphide minerals produces a series of sulphur oxyanions, collectively
called thiosalts. Figure 9.12 (source: Kuyucak et al., 2001, p. 373) shows the two-
stage process whereby the thiosalts in the Aznalcollar (Spain) pit water have been
oxidized using H2O2, and the final treatment involving lime neutralization.
CHAPTER 10
Socio-economic dimensions of the mining impact
Collection, treatment and disposal of wastes (particularly industrial wastes), and

remedial action in regard to land contaminated by such wastes, constitutes the most
serious problem that the industrialized countries face (good part of the annual
budget of USD 78 billion of US EPA is devoted to the rehabilitation of the waste
sites). Most countries have laws to regulate the environmental impact of industries,
including the mining industry. Mine operators should familiarize themselves with
the environmental regulations as applicable to their facility. They should be able to
recognize whether any non-compliance with the regulations is occurring in day-to-
day operations, and if so how to remedy the situation. This is necessary to protect
the company from being penalized by the regulating agency, and/or public interest
litigation. Regulatory requirements continue to be made more and more stringent, as
the public are increasingly concerned with the quality of environment as an integral
part of the quality of life. The going is not expected to be easy for the mining industry,
with its image as a gross despoiler of environment. The dilemma facing the society
and the government is how to balance the need for resource development with the
need for conservation and protection. Wisdom therefore lies in designing reason-
able and sensible trade-offs among the interested parties.
The International Standards Organization (ISO), Geneva, has issued a docu-
ment (ISO 14001) setting up of standards to be followed by the mining industry.
Appendix E gives the Environment Management System (EMS) that is consistent
with ISO 14001.
10.1 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT ASSESSMENT
The main environmental consequences of the mining projects are shown in Figure
10.1 (source: UNEP Tech. Rept. No. 5, 1991, p. 84).
Environmental Impact Analysis (EIA) may be described as a process for iden-
tifying the likely consequences for the biophysical environment and for mans
health and welfare while implementing particular activities, and to convey this
information to the decision makers (Wathern, 1989, p. 6). EIA has been made the
246 Mineral resources management and environment
Figure 10.1 Main environmental consequences of mining projects (source: UNEP Tech. Rept. No. 5,
1991, p. 84).
requirement under the provisions of the US National environmental Policy Act

(NEPA) of 1969. Many industrialized countries followed suit, and in July, 1985, the
European Community formally made EIA mandatory for certain categories of proj-
ects, including Extractive Industry, Energy Industry, Production and preliminary
processing of metals, Manufacturing of non-metallic mineral products, Chemical
Industry, Metal Manufacture, etc. In almost all countries, EIA is obligatory for the
whole range of industries covering mining, treatment, transportation, processing,
etc. of ores.
The procedure for Environmental Impact Assessment in the coal mining industry
is shown in Figure 10.2 (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 150).
An Environmental impact may be defined as a change in the environmental
parameters, over a specified period, and in a specified geographical area, resulting
from a particular activity compared to the situation which would have existed had
the activity not been activated.
EIA may be considered as a data management process, with three components:
(1) Identification and if possible, collection of appropriate information necessary
for a particular decision to be taken, (2) projection of changes in environmental
parameters arising from the implementation of the project, compared with the situ-
ation that could exist without the proposal, (3) recording and analysis of actual
change (Wathern, 1989, p. 17). Nijkamp (1980) proposed a framework for integrat-
ing the environmental analysis with economic and social issues.
The term scoping entered the EIA picture in 1979 as a result of the regulations
under NEPA of USA. Lead agencies are required to undertake an early and open
process for determining the scope of the issues to be addressed and for identifying
the significant issues related to the proposed action. According to Beanland and
Duinker, scoping may be defined as a very early exercise in an EIA in which an
Socio-economic dimensions of the mining impact 247
Figure 10.2 Procedure for EIA in the coal mining industry (source: Chadwick et al., 1987, p. 150).
attempt is made to identify the attributes of the components of the environment for
which there is public (including professional) concern upon which EIA should be
focused. There has been a great deal of litigation and public campaigns in USA
and European Community countries, with regard to scoping.
10.1.1 Matrix diagrams

The EIA process starts with the screening of the projects for their likely conse-
quences. This is followed by scoping which is concerned with the identification
of the main issues that should be examined. The matrix diagram is one of the most
useful aids available for the EIA process.
The purpose of the matrix diagram is to identify which environmental parameters
will be affected by the activities of the project and to what extent. All human activ-
ities that the project would involve are listed along one axis, and all natural factors
that are likely to be affected as a consequence of such activities are listed on another
axis. Thus, if there are x number of human activities, and y number of environmen-
tal factors, there will be xy number of matrix slots. All slots corresponding to the
recognized impacts are first slashed. Evidently, all impacts would not be of the
same magnitude. So the magnitude of impact in the scale of 1 (least impact) to 10
(greatest impact) is indicated in each slashed slot.
Figure 10.3 (source: UNEP Tech. Rept. No. 5, 1991, p. 83) is a matrix diagram
which enables the visualization and estimation of how various mining activities,
such as, exploration, opencast mining, underground mining, ore processing, tailings,
Figure 10.3 Matrix diagram for the visualization of mining impacts (source: UNEP Tech. Rept. No. 5,
1991, p. 83).
rehabilitation of the mined land, etc. in regard to a given mining project have impacts
in terms of social environment, physical environment and biological environment.
Matrix diagrams are undoubtedly useful, but they suffer from the shortcoming
that they cannot bring out the linkages and interactions between various environ-
mental parameters.
The environmental effects of mining, such as the release of the pollutants, degra-
dation of the landscape, disturbance in the habitat, etc. are inter-related. Consequently,
change in one particular environmental component (e.g. process technology) will
often cause direct and indirect changes in other components (e.g. tailings disposal).
So it is necessary to adopt a holistic approach in the EIA process.
EIA is a dynamic process of examination, review and reformulation of project
options until a consistent view emerges as the likely impact of the various options
(UNEP Tech. Rept. No. 5, 1991, p. 78). Four key steps are involved in this cyclic
process: (1) Identification of the kind of consequences that the project could lead to,
(2) Prediction of the extent of changes in the environmental parameters that could
arise from the project, (3) Evaluation of the significance of the changes, and (4)
Mitigation of the environmental impact.
EIA documents are usually prepared by multi-disciplinary teams. The personnel
involved should have both environmental expertises, as well as technical knowl-
edge of the project itself. They should evaluate various techno-socio-economic
options, and come up with their recommendation for the most practicable option.
The EIA for a mining project should include a detailed description of the project,
projected development of the area and sites for waste disposal. Particular attention
should be paid to the location and design of the tailings ponds to take care of poten-
tial overflows and runoff of rainwater. Remedial measures, such as control of
AMD, rehabilitation of the mined land, and mine closure, should be planned for,
and integrated into the mine plan.
10.1.2 Environmental monitoring

Environmental monitoring serves several useful purposes. It is necessary to have
baseline information about the environment before the operations begin. By peri-
odical monitoring, it would be possible to measure the impact of the operations on
the quality of air and water (surface and underground), chemical contamination of
soils, impact on fauna and flora and biodiversity, impact on human and animal
health, etc. This kind of monitoring would enable the mine management to pinpoint
the source(s) of environmental degradation such as, poor performance of the
treatment plant, inadequacy of facilities for the collection of dust and gases, unsafe
waste disposal, poor maintenance of the safety equipment, etc.. Monitoring has also
an economic angle. For instance, an examination of the chemical composition of the
wastewater could indicate whether any valuable raw material or refined material
(e.g. gold) is being lost due to inefficient process technology. This would permit
appropriate changes to be made in the process chemicals and flowsheet.
A mining company should have an environmental policy and a management

plan, to ensure that the key impacts are effectively minimized. A management struc-
ture needs to be created whereby the environmental and production personnel work
harmoniously together. The company should maintain transparency in liaising with
the media, public and governmental agencies.
Accidents do happen in mining, but they involve the mineworkers. They do not
normally endanger the general population. But there are instances, such as, the fail-
ure of the tailings dams, which affect the whole community. When such failure
occurs, the public should be immediately informed about the ways to cope with the
emergency. For this purpose, UNEP Industry and Environment Programme in Paris
has developed systems for APELL (Awareness and Preparedness for Emergencies
at the Local Level).
10.1.3 Issues to be addressed by EIA

The issues that need to be addressed in EIA are summarized as follows (source: The
World Bank, as quoted by UNEP Tech. Rept. No. 5, 1991, p. 81). The list is reason-
ably comprehensive, but not exhaustive.
1. Natural hazards: Whether the area is affected by natural hazards, such as
floods, volcanism, earthquakes, tidal waves? If so, what is the extent of risk,
and what specific measures need to be taken to be prepared for them, and min-
imize the damage from them?
2. Biological diversity: Will the project threaten the endangered plant and animal
species, critical habitats and protected areas?
3. Tropical forests: Will the project degrade the tropical forests? What steps need
to be taken to protect and manage the flora and fauna, and provide compensa-
tion to those affected by it?
4. Wetlands: If there are wetlands (including estuaries, lakes, mangroves and
other swamps or marshes) in the area, what steps will be taken to avoid damage
to them?
5. Coastal and marine resources management: How will the project be designed
to protect coastal resources, including coral reefs, mangroves, and wetlands?
6. Watersheds: If there are dams, reservoirs, or irrigation systems in a watershed
where the mining will be undertaken, how will the project assist in protecting
and managing them?
7. Land settlements: How will the mining project involve changes in the patterns
of land use? What steps are envisaged to harmonies the physical, biological,
socio-economic and cultural issues involved in land settlement?
8. Mining hazards: Does the project design include the prevention and manage-
ment of hazards (such as rock bursts, roof collapse, methane emissions, etc.)?
9. Hazardous and toxic materials: If the project involves the use or production of
hazardous and toxic materials, how will it be ensured that they are used, trans-
ported, stored and disposed in a safe manner?
10. Cultural properties: How will the project protect archeological sites, historical
monuments or religious shrines in the area?
11. Tribal people: How would the project affect the traditional rights (such as,
hunting, forest and water rights) and way of life of the tribal people? Will the
project result in induced development (secondary growth of settlements and
demand for infrastructure)?
12. Transboundary effects: Will the project have any transboundary impacts in
regard to water and air, movement of wildlife, etc.?
13. International treaties and agreements: Will the project have any impact on the
existing or pending international agreements on environment, natural resources,
quality and quantity of water flows, navigation on international waterways, etc.?
10.1.4 Outline of EIA

A sample outline of the Environmental Assessment Report is as follows (source:
The World Bank, as quoted by UNEP Tech. Rept. No. 5, 1991, p. 82).
Environmental Assessment Reports should be concise, and limited to the envi-
ronmental issues of direct concern to the project. The level of detail provided in
regard to a given item, should be commensurate with the importance of the item.
The Reports are aimed at project designers, project decision-makers and project
financing agencies.
1. Executive summary: A summary of significant findings and recommended
actions.
2. Environmental regulations: The policy, legal and administrative framework in
which the project will be implemented. This is particularly necessary in the case
of projects, which are co-financed by institutions from different countries with
different legal requirements.
3. Project description: This constitutes the core of the document. It should cover
the technical, geological, geographic, ecological, economic, social, cultural, etc.
dimensions of the project. It could include particulars regarding roads, pipelines,
power plants, water supply, and housing, storage facilities that are relevant to the
project.
4. Baseline data: Description of the relevant biophysical (quality of water, soil, air,
land use, etc.) and socioeconomic (cost of living, quality of life, etc.) situations
at the time of the commencement of the project.
5. Analysis of alternatives: Alternatives to the proposed project, including the
option of No action. Potential environmental impact, capital and recurring
costs, institutional capacity building, personnel and monitoring requirements for
all the options of design, site, technology and operational alternatives.
6. Environmental impacts: The negative and positive impacts likely to result from
the proposed project, and comparison with alternatives. An assessment should
be given of the quality of the available data, additional key data that are needed,
estimates of uncertainties and confidence limits for predictions, etc.
7. Mitigation plan: Scenarios for possible techno-socio-economically viable meas-

ures of mitigation, so that the environmental impact could be brought down to
acceptable levels. If compensation is recommended to be granted where mitiga-
tion cannot be implemented effectively, an estimate of such a compensation
should be indicated.
8. Monitoring plan: Description of the technical, managerial and administrative
structure for the monitoring activities to ensure compliance with environmental
regulations. The monitoring may be carried out by an individual or an agency.
The cost estimates and other requirements, such as training, should be provided.
9. The following Appendices should be provided:
(1) Personnel and organizations involved in the environmental assessment,
(2) Persons and organizations contacted, including their addresses, telephone
and fax nos., e-mail etc.,
(3) References to written material used in preparation (published papers,
unpublished/openfile documents, etc.),
(4) Record of interagency/forum meetings: This includes the list of invitees as
well as persons who actually attended. Summary of the discussions.
10.2 ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATIONS
Almost all the countries have environmental regulations. In the case of some devel-
oping countries, the regulations just remain on paper, for the simple reason that the
state does not have either the equipment or skilled personnel to monitor the envi-
ronment, and enforce the regulation by penalizing the polluter. This is particularly
so in the case of some organic pollutants, which are toxic even in extremely small
concentrations, but which are very expensive to measure.
The US Congress passed a number of Acts to regulate the environment. The
following is the summary of environmental regulations, which are relevant to the
mining industry (see Sengupta, 1993, p. 2931).
In 1980, the US Congress passed the Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), better known as Superfund, to address
the issue of the collection, treatment and disposal of wastes (particularly industrial
wastes), and remedial action in regard to land contaminated by such wastes. This
regulation is based on Polluter Pays principle. A related regulation is the Resource
Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). Under the provisions of CERCLA
RCRA regulations, liability for cleanup costs and damages accrue not only to the
current owners but also to former owners and lenders. Under the provisions of these
Acts, US EPA could call for a Remedial Investigation Feasibility Study (RI-FS)
or Resource Conservation Investigation (RCI).
CERCLA has prescribed procedures for the immediate cleanup of hazardous
waste contamination, accidental spills or chronic contamination (from abandoned
mines or hazardous waste disposal sites). Under the provisions of CERCLA, US EPA
has promulgated regulations making it mandatory to report concentrations of haz-

ardous substances in the environment (water, soil, air, etc.) beyond the allowable
limits.
The Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA) have two main
components. Subtitle A is concerned with the setting up of a state emergency
response commission to handle emergencies. Subtitle B requires certain facilities to
provide information to the prescribed official authorities, the type, amount, loca-
tion, use, disposal and release of specified chemicals. Section 311 applies to facili-
ties covered by the Occupational Safety and Health Act. Section 312 establishes the
list of toxic chemicals whose emissions must be reported by the facilities meeting
certain criteria.
The RCRA Hazardous Waste programme deals with all aspects of management
of hazardous wastes. The companies, which treat, transport, store, and dispose such
wastes, have to get permits for the purpose, and comply with the standards.
The Clean Air Act (1971) provides the framework for air quality control. Under
the provisions of the Act, EPA prescribed two sets of air quality standards: primary
standards which are meant for the protection of human health, and secondary stan-
dards which refer to the ambient levels considered safe for the environment (plants,
materials, etc.).
The Clean Water Act (1972) envisages the maintenance of freshwaters in fishable
and swimmable condition. The Act covers both point sources (such as industrial
discharges) and non-point sources (such as mining) that cause runoff into streams.
EPA regulates the point sources through NPDES (National Pollutant Discharge
Elimination System) permits, which requires the dischargers to comply with effluent-
based standards for criteria pollutants. States are responsible for the control of non-
point sources, through appropriate land use regulations. The attainment of the water
quality standards of both point and non-point sources was sought to be monitored
through the TMDL (Total Maximum Daily Load) approach which is based on various
chemical, physical and biological criteria (incidentally, the author had the privilege
of reviewing in the journal, Eos of AGU, Dec. 25, 2001, a document prepared by NRC
at the request of US Congress, entitled, Assessing the TMDL Approach to Water
Quality Management, National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 2001).
The Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) is meant to protect public health through the
conservation and regulation of supplies of drinking water. Under this Act, EPA estab-
lished a series of drinking water standards to protect public health. These standards are
revised as new data become available (for instance, the Maximum Contaminant Level
prescribed by EPA of arsenic in drinking water, 50 g/l, is in the process of being
reduced to 10 g/l). As defined, the EPA regulations are applicable to industrial estab-
lishments, which have more than 25 employees. SDWA empowers EPA to protect
usable aquifers from contamination by leachates from hazardous wastes, toxic efflu-
ents, and underground injection of brines, etc. which arise from the mining industry.
The Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA) gives authority to EPA to regulate the
chemical substances that are entering or have entered the environment. It strengthens
the existing toxic substance regulations (such as sections 112 and 307 of the Clean
Water Act and Section 6 of the Occupational Safety and Health Act). Section 6(a)
of TSCA empowers EPA to take steps to phase out PCBs.
10.3 ENVIRONMENTAL AUDITS
Environmental auditing involves not only the biophysical monitoring of the envi-
ronment, but also the monitoring of the administrative and managerial factors. An
assessment is made as to whether the environmental control personnel are perform-
ing their jobs (e.g. chemical analytical services) efficiently, whether the company
policies and directives are being implemented competently, etc. Thus the environ-
mental audit enables the company to determine whether the environmental control
is cost-effective, and whether the emissions and effluents are in compliance with the
regulations.
All industries, including the mining industry, are required to provide a detailed
account of how they propose to address the projected environmental impact of their
operations, to ensure compliance with the environmental regulations regarding
the emissions. The regulatory agencies (such as, the US Environmental Protection
Agency) make use of the environmental audits to ensure that the companies comply
with the environmental regulations (regarding, say, the waste emissions and effluents).
Philbrook (1991) gave an account of the different kinds of environmental audits,
which could be tailored to suit the requirements of a mining company. The follow-
ing summary is reproduced from Sengupta (1993, p. 32):
Site assessment audits: This consists of a thorough examination of previous and
current environmental hazards and physical conditions on or surrounding facility-site.
Its purpose is to assess potential on-site problems or sources of external encroach-
ment, contamination, or threat. This audit includes measures to remediate or reduce
such problems before they affect the operations. A site assessment audit is particu-
larly useful as a planning and predevelopment decision-making tool for suspected
problem sites. It is necessary before property transfer or asset sale/acquisition.
Permit performance audits (compliance and monitoring): This is a review of the
environmental quality assurance plans, environmental permits, and agency-required
operating instructionsprocedures. It assesses possible or actual nonconformance
(especially regarding air and water emissions and hazardous materials management).
This type of audit also interprets regulatory agency permit conditions and suggests
measures for ongoing permit conformance. It may also involve long-term monitoring
of environmental activities.
Regulatory requirement audit: This provides a detailed evaluation of facility
operations that are or may be governed by local, state and federal environmental
regulations. It identifies applicable regulations to pinpoint potential noncompliance
or conflict with such regulations. Procedures are also recommended for coming
into compliance.
Environmental management practice audits: This type of audit examines the

existing management structure, procedures and policies used by the client to imple-
ment environmental compliance and to communicate environment-regulatory
awareness (including health and safety) to work-force personnel. Recommendations
are also provided for remediation of deficient practices.
Technical processes-practices audits: Production practices and facility condi-
tions are reviewed to determine whether design or practice modifications should be
made to accomplish specific environmental goals (such as, minimizing hazardous
waste, waste stream treatment, or technology transfer).
Risk management audits: Practices, procedures and policies are surveyed to iden-
tify sources of risk. It suggests how risks of environmental (health and safety) inci-
dents, accidents, and liability exposure can be reduced or eliminated. A risk
management audit may also include a formal risk assessment study or contingency
planning component.
Special purpose audit: This is a one-time audit conducted in response to unusual
circumstances or requirements, such as an EPA consent decree, determination of
insurance-liability impairment, or emergency response plan.
Phase-one site assessment audit will help the regulatory agency to determine
whether any contamination problems could be expected from the proposed mining
activity. Site audit would be useful to the present and future property owners and
the lender to reduce their financial exposure, under the terms of CERCLA RCRA
investigations.
Phase-two and phase-three assessments are more detailed and deal with the alter-
natives for remedial action. Phase-three audits are performed as a consequence of
regulatory requirements.
10.4 ENVIRONMENTAL CODE THE SWEDISH MODEL
Very few countries in the world care for the quality of the environment as Sweden
does. The Swedish Environmental Code, which came into force on January 1, 1999,
is almost unique in the world in its perception of sustainable development and ways
and means of achieving it. It is explained here in some detail as it sets a good exam-
ple for other countries to follow. The Code is based on the premise that the right of
humans to alter and utilize nature is linked to the responsibility to protect nature
(Carlsberg, 2001). It seeks to achieve the following fifteen environmental quality
objectives: (1) Clean air, (2) High-quality groundwater, (3) Sustainable lakes and
watercourses, (4) Flourishing wetlands, (5) Balanced marine environment and sus-
tainable coasts and archipelagos, (6) No eutrophication, (7) Natural acidification
only, (8) Sustainable forests, (9) A varied agricultural landscape, (10) A magnifi-
cent mountain landscape, (11) A good built environment, (12) A non-toxic environ-
ment, (13) A safe radiation environment, (14) A protective ozone layer, and (15)
Limitation of climate change.
A precautionary approach which is linked to the burden of proof, underlies all

the provisions of the Code. This is designed to ensure that whatever activity is to be
carried on by an operator, will not result in any environmental harm. Before the
operation starts, the operator has to prove that he has the required knowledge to
determine the environmental effects that may arise from his activity. He will also
have to spell out the preventive measures that he will take in order to avoid damage
to human health and environment. If an activity can be carried out at different loca-
tions, the location that allows the activity to have minimal environmental impact
must be chosen. The Code also stipulates that all operations must conserve raw
materials and energy and utilize all opportunities for reuse and recycling. The use
of hazardous chemicals must be avoided. Every effort should be made to replace
hazardous chemicals by harmless chemicals.
The liability for remedying polluted sites rests with the operator (polluter pays
principle). Environmental Impact Assessment has to be done statutorily to help in
decision-making.
A novel feature of the Environmental Code is the provision for environmental
courts. There are regional environmental courts located in five cities in Sweden, and
a court of appeal. The Supreme Court is the final arbiter.
The provisions of the Minerals Act are implemented in conjunction with the
Environmental Code. The Code introduces a new charge, called Environmental
Sanction Charge, which has to be paid by the operator who has violated the regula-
tions of the Code. It makes no difference whether the violation is intentional or
accidental, or whether the operator got any benefit from the violation.
10.5 INTERNATIONAL INITIATIVES
All mining companies are signatories to the UNEPs International Declaration of

Cleaner Production. In June 2000, UNEP set up the Global Reporting Initiative
(GRI) Sustainability Reporting Guidelines, to which all the mining companies
agreed to adhere. The vision of UNEP (Hoskin, 2001) to achieve environmentally-
sustainable mining industry in the early part of the twenty-first century, has the fol-
lowing components:
1. Recycling of metals should approach 100% recycling of metals reduces dis-
posal pressures, and results in great energy savings. The limited amount of virgin
metal that may be needed should be obtained from highest-grade reserves.
2. Technological improvements: (1) Application of remote sensing and hydrospectral
analysis in exploration, and monitoring of tailing impoundments, closed mines,
and compliance with environmental regulations, (2) minimization of mine wastes,
reducing air and water pollution to essentially zero level, and fabrication of
lighter, stronger and more durable materials, and secondary recovery of useful
materials from mine wastes, (3) Remediation of abandoned mine sites to increase
arable land for agricultural production.
3. One of the major sources of accidents in the mining industry is the failure of tail-
ings dams (vide Appendix D). This problem can be mitigated by (1) new tech-
nologies to dewater waste slurries production of paste-consistency material from
mill tailings, (2) A thorough analysis of all the design components including site
selection, drainage systems, impoundments, measurements and inspections needed
with respect to water balance, taking into consideration unusual conditions aris-
ing from rain, ice and snow and seismic activity.
4. Training and assistance to small-scale miners, particularly in Africa, Asia and
Latin America, to improve the commodity recovery, reduce environmental dam-
age, and improve local health and safety conditions. Phasing out of the use of
mercury in artisanal gold mining.
10.5.1 Mining industry in the context of globalization

The process of globalisation involves movement of investment, technologies and
expertise where they can get the best returns. Globalisation has created new stresses,
which can only be solved by international cooperation (for instance, trade in endan-
gered species cannot be controlled effectively by a country, if open markets existing
in other countries provide attractive incentives for their exploitation). Globalisation
has created both challenges and opportunities for the mining sector. Opinion Polls
show that mining companies have about the same kind of negative image as (say) the
tobacco companies. This has profound economic implications, such as, whether the
best graduates would choose the mineral industries as a career, whether investors
would choose to hold mining stocks, whether markets are open or closed for mineral
industries, how hard it is to get concessions or permits, and so on.
The Mining Minerals and Sustainable Development (MMSD) project is sponsored
by about thirty leading mining companies, and a variety of labour, environmental,
governmental and international organizations, with the objective of bringing about
sustainable development in the minerals sector. Danielson & Leyton (2001) suggest
an international framework for cooperation for sustainable development in the min-
ing sector, based on voluntary initiative. This initiative will define (1) norms (such
as, guidelines, standards, code of conduct, etc.) that can define the level of practice
which we seek to achieve, (2) Facility an organizational structure to serve as
forum, develop norms, determine compliance with norms, etc., and (3) Incentives and
Consequences which constitutes an expression of corporate social responsibility.
The European Union and associated countries have set up Ore Mining and
Environmental Technology Information Network (OMENTIN) project to raise the
public awareness and understanding of ore mining.
10.6 TOTAL PROJECT DEVELOPMENT A VISIONARY APPROACH
The Total Project Development (TPD) is a new holistic approach to mining

(Struthers, 2001, p. 814823). Under this approach, a mining project is developed
as a part of much wider, multi-activity regional development. All the material

extracted by a mining company is put to productive use. Waste rock, mine tailings,
excess mine water, etc. are used as raw material for a variety of downstream ancil-
lary industries. Tailings are used for underground backfill, embankments and
sealants for reactive waste rock, and production of construction materials for mine
use. All excess tailings are used for soil development. Excess process water (after
use in recycling) is treated for being used in fish farm ponds and crop irrigation.
The TPD approach benefits the various entities in the following ways:
1. Mining company benefits from (1) increased metal recoveries and additional
revenue through the retrieval and sale of non-target minerals, (2) reduced oper-
ational expenses through the maximum utilization of tailings in backfill, prepa-
ration of tailings/concrete blocks for underground and surface constructions,
and replacement of topsoil, (3) reduced mining costs by saving on the construc-
tion of tailing ponds and waste rock dumps, (4) reduced rehabilitation costs, and
(5) income from productive use of post-mine land use. The mining company
would also have some intangible benefits such as good public image, making it
easier to get the required environmental permits.
2. The local community benefits from increased employment and income levels,
long-term food security and livelihood after the closure of the mine. The
improved infrastructure helps in communications, and access to wider markets.
TDP benefits the environment through the elimination of waste rock dumps,
drastic reduction in AMD and contamination from dust, heavy metal contami-
nation of soil and water, etc.
As Struthers (2001) pointed out, most companies have been practicing some element
or other of the TDP. What is needed is to plan and implement all the components
of TDP for every mine, through the cooperation of the government, mining compa-
nies, local communities, and technical experts (such as, engineers, mineral econo-
mists, etc.).
References
*Suggested reading
Akagi, H. 1998. Studies on mercury pollution in the Amazon, Brazil. Global Environmental Research
2(2): 193202.
Akagi, H. & A. Naganuma 2000. Human exposure to mercury and the accumulation of methyl mercury
that is associated with gold mining in the Amazon Basin, Brazil. J. Health Sci. 46(5): 323328.
Alexieva, T. 2002. The benefits of the risk assessment to the mining industry: p. 295301. Proc. Int.
Symp. on Tailings and Mine Waste 02.
Aleva, G.J.J. 1978. Exploration for placer tin deposits offshore Thailand: p. 5965. In M.J. Jones (ed.),
Proc. 11th Commonwealth Mining & Metallurgical Congress, Hong Kong, 1978.
Angelos, M. & P. Niskanen 2001. Research into the rehabilitation of the Luikonlahti copper mine:
p. 2130. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Archer, A.A., G.W. Luttig & I.I. Snezhko (eds) 1987. Mans Dependence on the Earth. NairobiParis:
UNEPUNESCO.
Aswathanarayana, U. 1988. Natural radiation environment in the Minjingu phosphate area, Northern
Tanzania. In Jul Lg (ed.), Health Problems in connection with Radiation from Radioactive Matter
in Fertilizers, Soils and Rocks: p. 7985. Oslo: Norwegian University Press.
Aswathanarayana, U. 1995. Geoenvironment: An Introduction. Rotterdam: A.A. Balkema.
Aswathanarayana, U. 1999. Soil Resources and the Environment. Enfield, N.H., USA & New Delhi,
India: Science Publishers & Oxford-IBH.
Aswathanarayana, U. 2001. Water Resources Management and the Environment. Lisse, Holland:
A.A. Balkema.
Attewell, P. 1993. Ground Pollution Environment, Geology, Engineering and Law. London: E & FN
Spon.
Ayres, B.K., M. OKane, D. Christensen & L. Lanteigne 2002. Construction and instrumentation of
waste rock test covers at Whistle Mine, Ontario, Canada: p. 163171. Proc. Int. Symp. on Tailings
and Mine Waste 02.
Bartlett, P.J. & A. Croll 2000. Cave mining at Premier Diamond mine. Proc. Massmin Conf.,
Brisbane, 2000.
Berti, W.R. & S.D. Cunningham 1994. Remediation of soil lead with green plants. In C. Richard Cothern
(ed.), Trace Substances, Environment and Health: p. 4351. Northwood, U.K.: Science Reviews.
Brjesson, E. 2001. Natural treatment system for heavy metal drainage in Ranstad, Sweden a case
study: p. 5157. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Brandes, M., N.A. Chowdhry & W.W. Cheng 1975. Experimental study on removal of pollutants from
domestic sewage by underdrained soil filters: p. 2936. Proc. National Home Sewage Disposal
Symp., Chicago, IL, Dec. 910, 1974.
Brierley, C.L. 1990. Bioremediation of metal-contaminated surface and groundwaters. Geomicro-
biology J. 8: 202233.
Brierley, C.L., J.A. Brierley & M.S. Davidson 1989. Applied microbial processes for metals recovery and
removal from wastewaters. In T.J. Beveridge & R.J. Doyle (eds), Metal Ions and Bacteria.
260 References
Carlsberg, T. 2001. The Swedish Environmental legislation with focus on mining. Appendix to the Proc.
Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
CCORE 1996. Proposed mining technologies and mitigation techniques: A detailed analysis with respect
to mining of specific offshore commodities. CCORE Publ. 96-C15.
*Chadwick, M.J., N.H. Highton & J.P. Palmer 1987. Mining Projects in the Developing Countries
A Manual. Stockholm: Beijer Inst.
Chadwick, J. 2001. Mining chemicals. Mining Mag., Sep. 2001, 185(3): 120126.
Chen, C.J. et al. 1999. Emerging epidemics of arseniasis in Asia. In W.R. Chappell, C.O. Abernathy &
R.L. Calderon (eds), Arsenic Exposure and Health Effects: p. 113121. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Collins, R.J. & R.H. Miller 1979. Utilisation of mining and mineral processing waste in the USA. In
M.J. Jones (ed.), Minerals and the Environment: p. 819. Inst. of Mining & Metallurgy.
Compton, H. et al. 2001. Pilot-scale biosolids remediation of a base metal mining site: p. 8596. Proc.
Cox, D.P. & D.A. Singer 1986. Mineral Deposit Models. US Geol. Surv. Bull. 1693.
Cummins, A.B. & I.A. Given 1973. Mining Engineering Handbook. New York: SME.
Danielson, L. & P. Leyton 2001. An international framework for cooperation in sustainable development:
*Das, A. & S.K. Chatterjee 1988. Environmental pollution caused by coal mining and coal related
industries: An appraisal. In S.C. Joshi & G. Bhattacharya (eds), Mining and Environment in India:
p. 108120. Himalayan Research Group, Nainital, U.P., India.
*Dav, N.K. & A.D. Paktunc 2001. Hydrogeochemistry and mineralogy of inactive and rehabilitated
pyritic uranium tailings case histories of Stanrock and Lower Williams lake tailings sites, Elliot Lake,
Ontario, Canada: p. 127136. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June
25July 1, 2001.
Davison, J. 1993. Successful acid mine drainage and heavy metal site bioremediation. In G.A. Moshiri
(ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Water Quality Improvement, Chap. 16. Boca Raton, Fl., USA: CRC
Press.
Day, M.G., K.J. Rirk & L.E. Welborn 1984. An assessment of OSMs upgraded numerical model for
evaluating the impact of mining operations: p. 263274. Proc. National Water Well Association
Conference of NWWA, Ohio.
Diaz, G. & P. Tobar 2000. Panel caving experiences and Macrotrench (Macrojzanja) an alternative
explosion method at the El Teniente Mine, Codelco, Chile. Proc. Massmin Conf., Brisbane, 2000.
Dold, B. & L. Fontbote 2001. Schematic models of element cycling and secondary mineralogy in por-
phyry copper tailings: p. 147157. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June
25July 1, 2001.
Dowon, C.G. & H. Stocks 1977. Environmental Impact of Mining. London: Applied Science
Publishers.
Duffield, S. 2000. Design of second block cave at Northparkes E26 mine. Proc. Massmin Conf.,
Brisbane, 2000.
Eger, P. & K. Lapakko 1989. Use of wetlands to remove nickel and copper from mine drainage. In
O.A. Hammer (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment Municipal, Industrial and
Agricultural, Chap. 42e. Boca Raton, Fl., USA: Lewis Publishers.
El-Hinnawi, E. Essam 1981. The environmental impacts of production and use of energy. Nat. Res.
Environ., Ser. 1, IXV, 1-322, Dublin.
*Ellis, D.V. & J.D. Robertson 1999. Underwater placement of mine tailings: case examples and princi-
ples. In J.M. Azcue (ed.), Environmental Impacts of Mining Activities, Chap. 9: p. 123140. Berlin:
Springer-Verlag.
Eriksson, N., M. Lindvall & M. Sandberg 2001. A quantitative evaluation of the effectiveness of the water
cover at the Stekenjokk tailings pond in northern Sweden: Eight years of follow-up: p. 216227.
Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Farmer, J.W. 1983. Engineering Behaviour of Rocks. London: Chapman and Hall.
References 261
Fergusson, J.E. 1990. The Heavy Elements: Chemistry, Environmental Impact and Health Effects.
Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Ferrow, E.A. 2001. Application of Mssbauer spectroscopy in mining and geochemical prospecting:
*Frstner, U. 1999. Introduction. In J.M. Azcue (ed.), Environmental Impacts of Mining Activities,
Chap. 1: p. 13. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
*Grayson, R.L. 1999. Mine Health and Safety: Industrys march towards continuous improvement
the United States experience. In J.M. Azcue (ed.), Environmental Impacts of Mining Activities,
Chap. 7: p. 8399. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Gusek, J.A. 1995. Passive-treatment of acid rock drainage: what is the potential bottom line? Mining
Engg. 97: 250253.
Harrison, A-L, R.B. Reneau, Jr. & C. Hagedorn 1999. Wastewater renovation with mine-derived fill
material. In J.M. Azcue (ed.), Environmental Impacts of Mining Activities, Chap. 11: p. 163177.
Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
*Hellier, W.W. 1999. Treatment of coal mine drainage with constructed wetlands. In J.M. Azcue (ed.),
Environmental Impacts of Mining Activities, Chap. 8: p. 103120. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Heslop, T.G. 2000. Block caving controllable risks and fatal flaws. Proc. Massmin Conf., Bribane, 2000.
Hglund, L.O. 2001. MiMi Research to meet future demands: p. 280291. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining
and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
*Hoskin, M.A. Wanda 2001. Environment and Mining in the 21st century. Appendix to the Proc. Int. Conf.
on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Houseman, L. et al. 2000. A plant-wide control system for mineral processing. Proc. 10th Annual
Minerals Engineering Conf., Cape Town, South Africa.
Hustrulid, W.A. (ed.) 1982. Underground Mining Methods Handbook. New York: SME.
*Hustrulid, W.A. 2000. Method selection for large scale underground mining. Proc. Massmin Conf.,
Brisbane, 2000.
Hutchinson, R.W. 1987. Metallogeny of Precambrian gold deposits space and time relationships.
Econ. Geol. 82: 19932007.
Iwasaki, I. 2000. Iron ore beneficiation in the USA: past and future. Proc. 8th Int. Mineral Processing
Symposium, Antalya.
Jensen, M.L. & A.M. Bateman 1979. Economic Mineral Deposits (3rd ed.). New York: John Wiley.
Kay, D. 2000. Digital blasting an opportunity to revolutionise mass underground mining. Proc. Massmin
Conf., Brisbane, 2000.
Khanna, T. 1999. Mining and the environmental agenda. Mining Mag. 183(1): 158163.
*Klapper, H. & M. Schultze 1997. Sulfur acidic mining lakes in Germany ways of controlling
geogenic acidification. In Canadian Mine Environmental Neutral Drainage Program (MEND)
(ed.), Proc. IV Int. Conf. on Acid Rock Drainange, Vancouver, May 31June 6, 1997, Vol.
IV: 17271744.
Kolbash, R.L. & T.L. Romanovski 1989. Windsor Coal Company Wetland: An overview. In
O.A. Hammer (ed.), Constructed Wetlands for Wastewater Treatment Municipal, Industrial and
Agricultural, Chap. 42e. Boca Raton, Fl., USA: Lewis Publishers.
Kuyucak, N., M. Lindvall, T. Sundquist & H. Sturk 2001. Implementation of High Density Sludge
(HDS) treatment process at the Kristineberg mine site: p. 353362. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and
the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Kuyucak, N., J.R.A. Serrano, J. Hultqvist & N. Eriksson 2001. Removal of thiosalts from mill efflu-
ents Studies conducted at the Boliden Apirsa site: p. 363373. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the
Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Lacki, M.J., J.W. Hummer & H.J. Webster 1992. Mine-drainage treatment as habitat for herptofaunal
wildlife. Environ. Management 16(4): 513520.
*Laconte, P. & Y.Y. Haimes (eds) 1982. Water Resources and Land-use Planning: A Systems Approach.
The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.
262 References
Lindstrm, P., K.E. Isaksson, J. Ljungberg & M. Lindvall 2001. The gold leach plant expansion at the
Boliden Mill Design considerations, baseline investigations and approval process: p. 438445. Proc.
Matsui, K. & H. Shimada 2001. Development of coal mines considering environmental issues in
Indonesia: p. 482491. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1,
2001.
Maxwell, P. & S. Govindarajalu 1999. Do Australian companies pay too much? Reflections on the burden
of meeting environmental standards in the late twentieth century. In J.M. Azcue (ed.), Environmental
Impacts of Mining Activities, Chap. 2: p. 717. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
McDougall, S. & R. Cooke 2000. Elutriation a novel way of solving a screening problem. Proc. 10th
Annual Minerals Engineering Conf., Cape Town, South Africa.
*McNulty, T. 2001. Cyanide substitutes. Mining Mag. 184(5): 256261.
McQuiston, P.W. & R.S. Shoemaker 19751980. Gold and Silver Cyanidation Plant Practice. v. 1 (1975),
v. 2 (1980). New York: SME.
MEND (Mine Environment Neutral Drainage Program) 1997. Evaluation of techniques for preventing
Acid Rock Drainage. Final Report no. 2.35.2b. Natural Resources Canada, Ottawa.
Mengxiong, C. & D. Alsong 1989. Impact of mine development on the geological environment in China:
p. 5171. Proc. Int. Workshop on Impact of Mining on Environment, Moscow.
*Miller, R.O. 1999. Mining, environmental protection, and sustainable development in Indonesia. In
N.J. Vig & R.S. Axelrod (eds), The Global Environment: Institutions, Law and Policy. Washington,
D.C.: Congress Quar. Inc.
*MiMi 1998. Prevention and control of pollution from mining waste products, State-of-the-art Report.
Compiled by P. Elander, M. Lindvall & K. Hkansson.
Moellerherm, S. & P.N. Martens 2002. Use of copper mine tailings as paste backfill material in min-
ing operations Approach to minimize land occupation?: p. 149153. Proc. Int. Symp. on Tailings
and Mine Waste 02.
Moosberg, H. 2001. Filler in concrete: p. 536545. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment,
Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Mpendazoe, F.M.T. 1995. Towards sustainable small-scale gold mining in Tanzania: p. 251265. Proc.
First World Mining Congress, New Delhi, India.
Nijkamp, P. 1980. Environmental Policy Analysis: Operational Methods and Models. Chichester,
U.K.: Wiley.
*Nordstrm, K. 2001. Environmental impacts of pelletising at LKAB: p. 604614. Proc. Int. Conf. on
Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Noronha, L. 1995. Ecological management in a mine in Goa, India a case study of afforestation.
Geoscience & Development 2: 1318.
*Pai, B.H.G. & B.V. Shenoi 1988. Occupational hazards of deep-level hard-rock mining on the Kolar
Gold Fields. In S.C. Joshi & G. Bhattacharya (eds), Mining and Environment in India: p. 206212.
Himalayan Research Group, Nainital, U.P., India.
Philbrook, J.N. 1991. Environmental audits: Determining the need at mining facilities. Min. Eng. 43(2):
207209.
Puhakka, T. 2000. Optimising mobile equipment resources in mining. Proc. Massmin Conf., Brisbane,
2000.
Pukkila, J. & P. Sarkka 2000. Intelligent Mine Technology Program and its implementation. Proc.
Massmin Conf., Brisbane, 2000.
Reed, W.R., E.C. Westman & C. Haycocks 2001. An improved model for estimating particulate emissions
from surface mining operations in the eastern United States: p. 693702. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining
and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Redford, M.S. & P.J. Terbrugge 2000. Vertical pit mining a novel alternative to open pit or under-
ground methods for mining of appropriate shallow orebodies. Proc. Massmin Conf., Brisbane, 2000.
References 263
Robbins, G. et al. 2001. Cyanide management at Boliden using the Inco SO2/AIR process: p. 718728.
Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
*Sahni, D.K. 1995. Environmental management of Manganese Ore (India) Limited, with special refer-
ence to mined land reclamation: p. 339352. Proc. First World Mining Congress, New Delhi, India.
Salomons, W. & U. Frstner 1984. Metals in the Hydrocycle. Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
Saxena, S.K. & P.C. Chatterjee 1988. Ecological imbalances caused by mining in Rajasthan and their
restoration. In S.C. Joshi & G. Bhattacharya (eds), Mining and Environment in India: p. 223241.
Himalayan Research Group, Nainital, U.P., India.
*Sengupta, M. 1993. Environmental Impacts of Mining. Boca Raton, Fl., USA: Lewis Publishers.
Sikka, B.K., R. Swarup & S.P. Saraswat 1988. Impact of limestone quarrying on the village economy
and the environment a study of U.P. hills. In S.C. Joshi & G. Bhattacharya (eds), Mining and
Environment in India: p. 260269. Himalayan Research Group, Nainital, U.P., India.
Singh, B., G.B. Mathur & P.R. Landge 1995. Environmental management for the proposed Chapri
Sidheswar mine at ICC: p. 203213. Proc. First World Mining Congress, New Delhi, India.
Skarzynska, K.M. & P. Michalski 1999. Environmental effects of the deposition and reuse of colliery
spoils. In J.M. Azcue (ed.), Environmental Impacts of Mining Activities: p. 179200. Berlin:
Springer-Verlag.
*Smirnov, V.I. et al. 1983. Studies of Mineral Deposits. Moscow: Mir Publishers.
*Sofra, F. & D.V. Boger 2002. Planning, design and implementation strategy for thickened tailings and
pastes: p. 129137. Proc. Int. Symp. on Tailings and Mine Waste 02.
Stjerman, L. & S. Ledin 2001. Growth of barley, red fescue and red clover in tailings mixed with dif-
ferent kinds of organic material: p. 795805. Proc. Int. Conf. on Mining and the Environment,
Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Stottmeister, U. et al. 1999. Strategies for the remediation of former opencast mining areas in Eastern
Germany. In J.M. Azcue (ed.), Environmental Impacts of Mining Activities, Chap. 16: p. 263294.
Berlin: Springer-Verlag.
*Struthers, S. 2001. Total Project Development A new approach to mining: p. 814823. Proc. Int. Conf.
on Mining and the Environment, Skellefte, June 25July 1, 2001.
Sun, G.F. 1999. The present situation of chronic arsenism and research in China. In W.R. Chappell,
C.O. Abernathy & R.L. Calderon (eds), Arsenic Exposure and Health Effects: p. 123125. Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
Szabo, M.F. 1978. Environmental assessment of coal transportation. PEDCO Environmental Inc.,
Cincinnati, Ohio, USA.
*Tewary, B.K., R.S. Singh & B.B. Dhar 1995. Ecological stability and biodiversity of disturbed land:
p. 675686. Proc. First World Mining Congress, New Delhi, India.
Tiwary, R.K., J.P. Gupta, N.N. Banerjee & B.B. Dhar 1995. Impact of coal mining activities on water
and human health in the Damodar River basin: p. 595604. Proc. First World Mining Congress,
New Delhi, India.
*Thomas, Larry 1992. Handbook of Practical Coal Geology. Chichester: John Wiley.
Ubaldini, S., C. Abbruzzese, F. Veglio & M. Trifoni 2000. Leaching pretreatment for gold-bearing
refractory stibnite. Proc. 8th Int. Mineral Processing Symp., Antalya.
*UNEP, 1986. Tech. Rev., Environmental aspects of Iron & Steel production.
*UNEP, 1991, Tech. Rept. No. 5, Environmental aspects of selected non-ferrous metals ore mining.
Van Stratten, P. 2000a. Human exposure to mercury due to small scale gold mining in northern
Tanzania. The Science of the Total Environment (Elsevier) 259: 4553.
Van Stratten, P. 2000b. Mercury contamination associated with small-scale gold mining in Tanzania
and Zimbabwe. The Science of the Total Environment (Elsevier) 259: 105113.
*Vartanyan, G.S. (ed.) 1989. Mining and Geoenvironment. ParisNairobi: UNESCOUNEP.
*Vermuelen, N.J., E. Rust & C.R.I. Clayton 2002. Variations in composition on South Africa gold tail-
ings dam: p. 4552. Proc. Int. Symp. on Tailings and Mine Waste 02.
264 References
Wadhwan, S.K. 1988. Some aspects of the environmental impact of salt and beach sand mining on the
coastal fringe of south Gujarat, India. In S.C. Joshi & G. Bhattacharya (eds), Mining and Environ-
ment in India: p. 254259. Himalayan Research Group, Nainital, U.P., India.
Wang, Y. & E. Forssberg 2000. Microwave assisted comminution and liberation of minerals. Proc. 8th
International Mineral Processing Symposium, Antalya.
Wathern, P. (ed.) 1989. Environmental Impact Assessment. London: Allen and Unwin.
Weiss, N.L. (ed.) 1985. Mineral Processing Handbook. New York: SME.
White, C. & G.M. Gadd 1996. A comparison of carbon/energy and complex nitrogen sources for bac-
terial sulphate reduction: potential applications to bioprecipitation of toxic metals as sulphides.
J. Industr. Microbiology 17: 116123.
Wood, P.A. 1981. Hydrological Problems of Surface Mining.
Wyk, J.P. Van 1978. Opencast mining and reclamation in South Africa. Ecology and Coal Resources
Development 1: 490501.
Zhenru, Z., Z. Enjing & C. Wei 1989. The spectroscopies as new methods for gold exploration.
J. Cent. South Inst. Min. Metall. 20(4): 339345.
Appendix A
Prefix names of units of multiples and submultiples.

Prefix Symbol Factor by which unit is multiplied
Exa E 1018
Peta P 1015
Tera T 1012
Giga G 109
Mega M 106
Kilo k 103
Hecto h 102
Deka dk 101
Deci d 101
Centi c 102
Milli m 103
Micro 106
Nano n 109
Pico p 1012
Femto f 1015
Atto a 1018
Base units in Systme International (SI).

Property SI unit Symbol
Length Meter m
Mass Kilogram kg
Time Second s
Electric current Ampere A
Temperature Kelvin K
Amount of substance Mole mol
In this book, t means tonne (106 g 103 kg). When m is used as a prefix (as in
mg milligram, or mmol millimole), it means milli (103). When m is used as
a suffix (as in 97.8 m), it means meter. M means million.
266 Appendix A
Physical quantity Name of SI unit Symbol for SI unit Definition of unit

Force Newton N kg m s2
Pressure Pascal Pa kg m1 s2 (Nm2)
Energy Joule J kg m2 s2
Power Watt W kg m2 s3 (Js1)
Frequency Hertz Hz s1 (cycles per second)
Conversion of older units into SI units.

Quantity SI unit Old unit Value of old unit in SI unit
Force Newton (N) Dyne 105 N
Pressure Pascal (Pa) Atmosphere 101.325 kPa
Energy Joule (J) Calorie 4.184 J
1 bar 105 Pa 106 dynes/cm2 750 Torr 0.98692 atm 14.504 lb/in2
(psi: pounds per square inch).
1 MN/m2 1 N/mm2 1 MPa approx. 145 psi;
1 Mg m3 62.4 pcf (pounds per cubic foot).
Some commonly used units (in relation to SI base units).
Property Unit Symbol SI relation
Charge concentration Moles of charge per molc m3
cubic meter
Concentration Moles per cubic meter mol m3
Electric capacitance Farad F m2 kg1 s4 A2
Electric charge Couloumb C As
Electric potential Volt V m2 kg s3 A1
difference
Electrolytic Siemens per meter S m1 m3 kg1 s3 A2
conductivity
Energy Joule J m2 kg s2
Force Newton N m kg s2
Mass density Kilogram per cubic meter kg m3
Molality Moles per kilogram of mol kg1
solvent
Pressure Pascal Pa m1 kg s2
Specific adsorbed Moles of charge per mol c kg1
charge kilogram of adsorbent
Specific surface area Hectare per kilogram ha kg1 104 m2 kg1
Viscosity Newton-second per N s m2
square meter
Appendix A 267
Values of some important physical constants.

Constant Symbol Value
Atomic mass unit u 1.6606 1027 kg
Avogadro constant NA 6.022 1023 mol1
Boltzmann constant kB 1.3807 1023 J K1
Diffuse double-layer b 1.084 1016 m mol1
parameter(at 298.15 K)
Faraday constant F 9.6485 104 C mol1
Molar gas constant R 8.3144 J K1 mol1
Useful conversion coefficients:

1 BTU (British Thermal Unit) 1.055 103 Joules (J)
1 erg 1 dyne/cm 2.39 108 calorie 1 107 Joule 9.4805 1011 BTU
Fuel value of 1 m3 of fuelwood 9.4 gigajoules (GJ); 1 t of coal 28.9 GJ
1 ton of oil 41.7 GJ 1.44 t of bituminous coal
1 million tonnes coal equivalent 1 million tonnes of coal at 28.0 MJ/kg, or
6692 kcal/kg gross calorific value.
1 t of coal at 25.1 MJ/kg or 6000 kcal/kg can produce 7.59.0 t of cement,
1 t of coal at 25.1 MJ/kg or 6000 kcal/kg can produce 2400 kwh of electricity.
A 1000 MW power station would require annually 3 Mt of coal, at 25.1 MJ/kg.
1 t of coal with 28.0% volatile matter, after coking, will reduce approximately 1.5 t
of iron.
1 micron (m) 106 m 104 cm 103 mm 104
1 ngstrom () 104 m 108 cm 1010 m; 1 nm 109 m 10
1 metre 100 cm 1000 mm 3.2808 ft 1.0936 yd
1 sq. metre (m2) 10.764 sq. ft 1.196 sq. yd.
1 cubic metre 1 m3 106 cm3 35.31 cu. ft 1.308 cu.yd
1 hectare (ha) 100 m 100 m 104 m2 2.47 acres
1 sq. km (km2) 100 ha 247 acres; 1 acre 4840 sq. yd 4046.8 m2
1 cu. km (km3) 105 ha. m; 1M ha m 10 km3; 1 ha.m 8.1 acre-ft
1 acre-ft 0.1235 ha.m 1235 m3; 1 Maf (million acre-ft) 1.235 km3
1 L 1 dm3 103 m3; 1 m3 103 L 106 mL
1 US gallon 3.875 L; 1 Imperial gallon 4.546 L
1 barrel (crude oil) 42 U.S. gallons 35.80 Imp. Gallons 162.75 L
1 acre-ft 326,000 gallons
1 m3 s1 0.03156 km3 y1; 1 km3 y1 31.68 m3 s1
1 Ld 1 0.365 m3 y1; 1 m3 y1 2.74 L d1
1 L s1 15.48 gpm (gallons per minute); 1 gpm 0.0646 L s1
268 Appendix A
1 tonne (t) 103 kg 106 g; 1 kg 2.2046 lb 32.150 oz

1 troy.oz 31.10348 g 20 pennyweights (dwt) 480 grains 1.0971 av.oz
1 pennyweight (dwt) 1.5517 g 24 grains
1 part per million (ppm) 106 g g1 1 g t1 0.032 oz t1 0.644 dwt t1
1 part per billion (ppb) 109 g g1 1 mg t1
K T C 273.15
1 year 365.25 days 8,766 hours 5.26 105 min 3.156 107 sec
1 day 24 hours 8.64 105 sec.
Appendix B
Particulars of metal mines in the world with production of 1.0 Mt/y (source:
Mining Magazine, Jan. 2000). Capacity A: 7.0 Mt/y; B: 3.07.0 Mt/y;
C: 1.53.0 Mt/y; D: 1.01.5 Mt/y; Methods OP: open pit; UG: underground.
Name Province Methods Capacity Products
Canada
Bouchard-Hebert Quebec UG D Zn, Cu, Au, Ag
Brewery Creek Yukon OP B Au
Brunswick New Brunswick UG B Zn, Pb, Cu, Ag
Carol Lake Newfoundland OP A Fe
Copper Cliff North Ontario UG D Ni, Cu, Co, PGM
Copper Cliff South Ontario UG D Ni, Cu, Co, PGM
Creighton Ontario UG D Ni, Cu, Co, PGM
Dome Ontario OP, UG B Au, Ag
Doyon Quebec UG D Au
Golden Giant Ontario UG D Au, Ag
Huckleberry British Columbia OP B Cu, Mo, Ag, Au
Kidd Creek Ontario UG C Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn
Lac de Iles Ontario OP D PGM, Cu, Au
Levack Ontario UG D Ni, Cu, Co, PGM
Louvicourt Quebec UG C Cu, Au, Ag, Zn
McGreedy East Ontario UG D Ni, Cu, Co, PGM
Mount Polley British Columbia OP B Au, Cu
Mount Wright Quebec OP A Fe
Musselwhite Ontario UG D Au
Myra Falls British Columbia UG D Zn, Ag, Cu.
Au, Pb
Pamour Ontario OP, UG D Au, Ag, Cu
Polaris NW Territories UG D Zn, Pb
Ruttan Manitoba UG C Zn, Au, Ag, Cu
Selbaie Quebec OP B Ag, Au, Cu, Zn
Stobie Ontario UG B Ni, Co, Cu, PGM
270 Appendix B
Sudbury Operations Ontario UG C Ni, Cu, Co

Sullivan (Cominco) Ontario UG C Zn, Pb, Ag
Thompson Manitoba UG C Ni, Cu, Co
Troilus Quebec OP B Au, Cu
Wabush Newfoundland OP B Fe
Williams Ontario UG C Au
USA
Bagdad Arizona OP A Cu
Bald Mountain Nevada OP C Au
Balmat New York UG C Zn, Pb
Barneys Canyon Utah OP C Au
Battle Mountain Nevada OP B Au, Ag
Beartrack Idahop OP B Au
Betze-Post Mine Nevada OP B Au
Bingham Canyon Utah OP A Cu, Au, Ag, Mo
Briggs California OP B Au, Ag
Carlin Nevada OP, UG A Au
Castle Mountain Nevada OP B Au
Chino New Mexico OP A Cu
Cortez Nevada OP B Au
Doe Run Missouri UG A Pb, Zn
Empire (Inland Steel) Michigan OP A Fe
Eveleth Minnesota OP B Fe
Florida Canyon Nevada OP A Au, Ag
Fort Knox Alaska OP A Au
Golden Sunlight Montana OP C Au, Ag
Gordonsville Tennessee UG C Zn, Cu
Griffon Nevada OP C Au
Henderson Colorado UG B Mo
Hibbing Minnesota OP A Fe
Homestake South Dakota UG C Au
Hoyt Lakes Minnesota OP A Fe
Iron Mountain Wyoming OP D Fe
Jerritt Canyon Nevada OP, UG D Au
Johnson Camp Arizona OP B Au
Kinsley Mountain Nevada OP C Au
Lone Tree Complex Nevada OP B Au
Marigold Nevada OP D Au
McCoy/Cove Nevada OP B Au
McLaughlin California OP C Au, Ag
Appendix B 271
Meikle Nevada UG D Au
Mesquite California OP A Au
Miami Arizona OP A Cu
Mineral Ridge Nevada OP D Au
Minntac Minnesota OP A Fe
Mission Complex Arizona OP, UG A Cu, Ag
Montana Tunels Montana OP B Au, Ag, Pb, Zn
Morenci Arizona OP A Cu, Ag, Au, Mo
National Steel Pellet Minnesota OP A Fe
North Shore Minnesota OP B Fe
Paradise Peak Nevada OP D Au, Cu
Pikes Peak Colorado OP A Au, Ag
Rand California OP B Au
Randburg California OP B Au
Raw Hide Denton Nevada OP B Au, Ag
Red Dog (Cominco) Alaska OP C Zn, Pb, Ag
Ridgeway South Carolina OP B Au, Ag
Rochester Nevada OP A Au, Ag
Round Mountain Nevada OP C Au
Ruby Hill Nevada OP D Au
Sierrita Arizona OP A Cu, Mo
Silver Bell Arizona OP B Cu
Smith Ranch Wyoming OP D U
Sweetwater Missouri UG D Co, Cu, Pb, Zn
Tennessee Tennessee UG C Zn
Tilden Michigan OP A Fe
Twin Creeks Nevada OP A Au
Tyrone New Mexico OP A Cu, Ag, Au
Victor (Anglo) Colorado OP A Au, Ag
West Fork Missouri UG D Zn, Pb
Wharf South Dakota OP B Au
Yankee Nevada OP B Au
Yerington/MacArthur Nevada OP B Au
Yuba California OP B Au
Mexico
Cananea Sonora OP A Cu, Au, Ag, Mo
Fresnillo Zatecas UG B Ag, Au, Cu,
Pb, Zn
Eldorado Sonora OP C Au, Ag
La Caridad Sonora OP A Cu, Au, Ag, Mo
272 Appendix B
La Herradura Sonora OP C Au
Moris Chihuahua OP D Au, Ag
San Francisco Sonora OP B Au
Santa Barbara Chihuahua UG C Zn, Pb, Au,
Ag, Cu
Taxco Guerrero UG D Ag, Au, Cu,
Pb, Zn
Argentina
Aguilar Jujuy UG C Zn, Pb, Au
Bajo de Alumberra Catamarca OP A Cu, Au
Bolivia
Kori Kollo Western Bolivia OP A Au, Ag
Brazil
Aguas Claras Minas Gerais OP B Fe
Brucutu Espito Santo OP C Fe
Capitao do Mato Rio de Janeiro OP D Fe
Caraiba Bahia OP, UG B Cu
Corrego de Feijao Minas Gerais OP A Fe
Corumba Mato Grosso(Sul) OP D Fe
Fabrica Minas Gerais OP A Fe
Fazenda Brasilero Minas Gerais UG D Au
Germano Minas Gerais OP A Fe
Igarape Bahia Minas Gerais OP C Au, Ag
Itabira Minas Gerais OP A Fe
Morro do Ouro Minas Geris OP A Au
Mutuca Rio de Janeiro OP A Fe
Northern System Para OP A Fe
Papagaio plato Rio de Janeiro OP A Baux.
Pico RJ OP A Fe
Rio de Norte Para OP A Baux.
Sao Bento Minas Geris UG D Au
Southern System Espirito Santo OP A Fe
Tamandua Rio de Janeiro OP C Fe
Chile
Andacollo (Aur) IV Region OP C Cu
Andacollo (Dayton) IV Region OP, UG B Au
Andina Region V OP, UG C Cu, Mo
Candelaria Region III OP A Cu, Au, Ag
Appendix B 273
Cauquenes Metropolitan Reg. OP A Cu, Mo

Cerro Colorado Region I OP A Cu
(Rio Algoma)
Chuquicamata Region II OP A Cu, Au, Mo, Ag
Collahusi Region I OP, UG A Cu, Ag, Mo
East Boulder Montana UG C PGM
El Abra Region II OP A Cu
El Algarrobo Region III OP B Fe
El Romeral Regional IV OP B Fe
El Soldado Region V OP, UG A Cu
El Teniente Region VI UG A Cu, Mo
Escondida Region II OP A Cu, Mo, Au, Ag
La Cascada Region I OP, UG D Cu
La Coipa Region III OP B Au, Ag
La Aguirre Metropolitan Reg. OP D Cu
Lomas Bayas Region II OP A Cu
Los Bronces Metropolitan Reg. OP A Cu, Mo
Los Colorados Region III OP B Fe
Los Pelambres Region IV OP A Cu, Au, Ag, Mo
Mantos Blancos Region II OP, UG A Cu, Ag
Mantoverde Region III OP B Cu
Michilla Region II OP, UG B Cu
Punta del Cobre Region III UG C Cu, Ag, Au
Quebrada Blanca Region I OP B Cu
Redomiro Tomic Region II OP A Cu
Refugio Region III OP A Au
Salvador Region III OP, UG A Cu, Mo
Zaldivar Region II OP A Cu
Guyana
Aroaima Georgetown OP B Baux.
Omai Georgetown OP A Au
Peru
Andaychagua Junin UG C Zn, Pb, Ag
Carahuacra Junin OP, UG C Zn, Pb, Ag
Casapalca Lima UG D Zn, Pb, Cu, Ag
Cerro de Pasco Pasco OP, UG C Zn, Pb, Ag, Cu
Cerro Verde Arequipa OP A Cu
Marcona Ica OP C Fe
Pierina Ancash OP A Au, Ag
San Cristobal (Peru) Junin UG C Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag
274 Appendix B
Tintaya Cusco OP B Cu, Au

Uchucchacua Lima UG C Ag, Pb, Zn
Yanacocha Cajamarca OP A Au
Suriname
Coermotibo Paramaribo OP C Baux.
Lelydorp Para OP C Baux.
Venezuela
Cedeno Bolivar OP B Baux.
Cerro Bolivar Estado Bolivar OP C Fe
Cerro LasPailas Estado Bolivar OP B Fe
Cerro Los Barrancos Estado Bolivar OP C Fe
El Pao Estado Bolivar OP C Fe
San Isidro Estado Bolivar OP A Fe
Dominican Republic
Falcondo Santa Domingo OP B Ni
Pueblo Viejo Cotui OP D Au, Ag
Honduras
San Andres Copan OP B Au
Jamaica
Clarendon Clarendon OP D Baux.
Discovery Bay St. Ann OP B Baux.
St. Elizabeth St. Elizabeth OP D Baux.
Nicaragua
La Libertad Managua OP C Au
Botswana
Phoenix Francistown OP C Ni, Cu
Demo. Repub. Congo
Kambove Shaba OP C Cu, Co
Kamoto-Diva Shaba OP/UG B Cu, Co
Kolwezi Shaba OP B Cu, Co
Ghana
Ayanfuri Dunkwa-on-Offin OP D Au
Bibiani Bibiani OP C Au
Damang Tarkwa OP B Au
Idupriem Tarkwa OP B Au
Appendix B 275
Obotan Accra OP C Au
Obuasi Obuasi OP, UG B Au, Ag
Tarkwa Accra OP, UG B Au
Teberebie Accra OP A Au
Guinea
Boke Conkry OP A Baux.
Fria Conkry OP C Baux.
Lero Conkry OP D Au
Siguiri Koron OP B Au
Mali
Sadiola Hill Bamako OP B Au
Syama Bamako OP C Au
Namibia
Navachab Karibib OP B Au
South Africa
Afrikander Lease Northwest Prov. OP D Au
Amandelbult Section Chromite UG B PGM, Rh, Ni, Cu
ARM1 Orkney UG D Au
ARM2 Orkney UG D Au
ARM4 Orkney UG D Au
Atok Atok UG D PGM
Bafokeng/ Rustenburg UG A PGM, Au,
Wildebeestfontein Ag, Ni, Cu
Beatrix Orange Free State UG C Au, Ag
Beeshoek Postmasburg OP B Fe
Black Mountain Northern Cape UG C Ag, Cu, Pb, Zn
Blyvooruitzicht Transvaal UG C Au
Buffelsfontein Transvaal OP, UG B Au, Ag
Daggafontein Brakpan OP A Au, Ag
Division
Deelkraal Transvaal UG D Au
Dreifontein Transvaal UG B Cu, Au, Ag
Durban Roodepoort Roodeport OP, UG B Au, Ag
Eastern Platinum Mooinooi UG B PGM
Elandsrand Transvaal UG C Au, Ag
ERGO Division Brakpan OP A Au, Ag
ERPM Boksburg UG D Au, Ag
Evander Evander UG C Au
Freegold (Ops) Orange Free State OP, UG A Au
276 Appendix B
Gold Stockpile1 OP C Au
Goldridge Mareetsane OP C Au
Great Noligwa Vaal Reefs UG C Au
Grootylie Springs UG C Au, Ag
Harmony Gold Orange Free State OP, UG B Au, Ag
Hartebeestfontein Stilfontein UG B Au
HJ Joel Virginia UG D Au
Kloof Transvaal UG C Au
Kopanang Vaal Reefs UG C Au
Kroondal Rustenburg OP, UG D PGM
Libanon Transvaal UG C Au
Loraine Orange Free State OP, UG C Au, Ag
Mponeng Transvaal UG C Au
Northham Thabazimbi UG C Au, Os, Ir, PGM
Oryx Eerstemyn UG D Au
Palabora Phalaborwa OP, UG A Cu, Ni, U3O8
Pering North Cape Prov. OP D Zn, Pb
Potgietersrust Potgietersrus OP B PGM, Ni, Cu
Randfontein Randfontein OP, UG D Au, Ag
Rustenburg Rustenburg OP, UG A PGM, Ni, Cu
Savuka Transvaal UG D Au
Sishen Northwest OP A Fe
Tau Lekoa Vaal Reefs UG C Au
Tautona Transvaal UG C Au
Thabazimbi Northern Prov. OP C Fe
Venterpost Gauteng UG D Au
Western Platinum Marikana UG B PGM
Zambia
Baluba Luanshya UG D Cu, Co
Bwana Mkubwa Ndola OP C Cu, H2SO4
Konkola UG C Cu
Mufulira UG C Cu
Nchanga Chingola OP, UG A Cu, Co
Nkana OP, UG D Co, Cu
Nkana Slag Dump OP D Co, Cu
Zimbabwe
Blanket OP, UG D Au
Cam & Motor Harare OP D Au
Dalny Bulawayo OP, UG D Au
Freda-Rebecca Bindura UG D Au
Appendix B 277
Shangani Shangani OP, UG D Ni

Trojan (Bindura) Bindura UG D Ni
Armenia
Ararat Yerevan OP C Au
China
Dexing Jiangxi OP A Cu
Gongchangling Liaoning OP, UG A Fe
Xiaotiashan Lanzhou UG D Cu, Zn, Pb
Yongping Jiangxi OP B Cu
Georgia
Madneuli Bolnisi region OP D Cu, Au, Ag
India
Bailadilla no.14/11 Madhya Pradesh OP A Fe
Bailadilla no. 5 Madhya Pradesh OP B Fe
Donimalai Karnataka OP B Fe
Gua Bihar OP A Fe
Khetri Copper Rajasthan OP, UG D Cu
Malanjkhand Madhya Pradesh OP C Cu
Panchpatmali Orissa OP C Baux.
Zawar Rajasthan UG D Zn, Pb
Indonesia
Batuhijau Sumbawa OP A Cu, Au, Ag
Gebe Island Maluku OP C Ni
Grasberg/Ertsberg Irian Jaya OP, UG A Cu, Au, Ag
Kelian Kalimantan OP A Au, Ag
Minahasa Sulawesi Utara OP D Au
Mount Muro Central OP D Au, Ag
Kalimantan
Soroako South Sulawesi OP A Ni
Iran
Sarcheshmeh Kernan province OP A Cu, Au, Ag
Tohoghart OP B Fe
Kazakhstan
Nikolayevski OP C Cu, Zn
Sayaksky OP B Cu
Sokolovsko-
Sarbaiskoye OP A Fe
Zyryanovski Ust-Kamenogorsk OP C Zn, Pb
278 Appendix B
Kyrgyzstan
Kumtor Bishkek OP B Au
Mongolia
Erdenet Copper Orkhon OP A Cu, Mo
Myanmar
Monywa Yangon OP B Cu
Philippines
Antamok Baguio City OP C Au
Bulawan Sipalay OP, UG D Au, Ag
Padcal Bonguet UG B Cu, Au
Santo Tomas II Tuba UG B Cu, Au, Ag
Saudi Arabia
Sukhaybarat OP C Au, Ag
Tajikistan
Zeravshan Sogdiana OP C Au, Ag
Uzbekistan
Kalmakyr Tashkent OP A Cu, Au, Mo
Zarafshan Kyzylkum OP A Au
Australia
Agnew Western Australia UG D Au
Ballarat-Last Chance Western Australia OP D Au
Bardoc-Davyhurst Western Australia UG C Au
Big Bell Consolidated Western Australia OP, UG C Au, Ag
Blue Bird Western Australia OP B Au
Boddington Western Australia OP, UG A Au
Bounty Western Australia OP, UG D Au
Brocks Creek Northern Territor. OP D Au, Ag
Broken Hill New South Wales OP, UG C Zn, Pb, Ag
Bronzewing Western Australia UG C Au
Bullfinch Western Australia OP, UG D Au
Cadia New South Wales OP A Au, Cu
Cannington Queensland UG C Zn, Pb, Ag
Channar Western Australia OP A Fe
Dalgaranga Western Australia OP D Au
Elura New South Wales UG D Zn, Ag, Pb
Ernest Henry Queensland OP A Cu, Au, Co
Fortnum Western Australia OP D Au
Appendix B 279
Fosterville Victoria OP D Au
Golden Feather Western Australia OP C Au
Goldsworthy Western Australia OP A Fe
Gove Northern Territor. OP A Baux.
Granny Smith Western Australia OP B Au
Greenfields Western Australia OP, UG D Au
Hedges Western Australia OP B Au
Hellyer Tasmania UG D Zn, Cu, Pb, Ag
Huntly Western Australia OP A Baux.
Jumblebar Western Australia OP B Fe
Jubilee Western Australia OP D Au
Jundee Western Australia OP B Au
Kambalda Nickel Western Australia UG D Ni
Kanowana Belle Western Australia UG C Au
Kidston Queensland OP A Au
Kookynie Western Australia OP D Au
Koolyanobbing Western Australia OP B Fe
Lawlers Western Australia OP, UG D Au
Leinster Nickel Ops. Western Australia OP, UG C Ni
Marvel Loch Western Australia OP, UG C Au
McArthur River Northern Territor. UG D Zn, Ag, Pb
Middleback Ranges Southern Austral. OP C Fe
Mount Charlotte Western Australia UG C Au
Mount Isa Queensland UG B Cu, Pb, Zn, Ag
Mount Keith Western Australia OP A Ni
Mount Leyshon Queensland OP B Au, Cu
Mount Lyell Tasmania UG C Cu, Au
Mount Magnet Western Australia OP C Au
(ex Metana)
Mount McClure Western Australia OP, UG C Au
Mount Pleasant Western Australia OP C Au
Mount Tom Price Western Australia OP A Fe
Mount Whaleback Western Australia OP A Fe
Murrin Murrin Western Australia OP B Ni, Co
New Celebration Western Australia OP, UG C Au
Nifty Western Australia OP D Cu
Nimary Western Australia OP B Au
Northparkes New South Wales OP, UG B Au, Cu, Ag
Olympic Dam South Australia UG A Ag, Au, Cu, U
Ora Banda Western Australia OP D Au
Osborne Queensland UG C Cu, Au, Ag
280 Appendix B
Paddington Western Australia OP B Au

Pannawonica Western Australia OP A Fe
Pillara Western Australia UG C Zn, Pb
Plutonic Western Australia OP, UG B Au
Ranger Northern Territor. OP C U
Ravenswood Queensland OP C Au
Sons of Gwalia Western Australia OP, UG D Au
St.Ives Western Australia OP, UG B Au
Sunrise Dam Western Australia OP D Au
Super Pit Western Australia OP A Au
Tanami (Normandy) Northern Territor. OP, UG D Au
Tanami (Otter/Acacia) Northern Territor. OP D Au
Tarmoola Western Australia OP B Au
Telfer Western Australia OP, UG A Au
Union Reefs (Acacia) Northern Territor. OP C Au, Ag
Weipa Queensland OP A Baux.
Willowdale Western Australia OP C Baux.
Worsely Western Australia OP A Baux.
Yandi Western Australia OP A Fe
Yimuyn Manjerr Northern Territor. OP A Au
New Caledonia
Kouaoua/Thio OP B Ni, Co
New Zealand
Macraes South Island OP B Au, Ag
Papua New Guinea
Lihir OP B Au
Misima Milne Bay Provi. OP B Au, Ag
OK Tedi Western Province OP A Au, Cu
Porgera Mount Hagen OP B Au
Austria
Erzberg OP D Fe
Finland
Pyhasalmi Pyhasalmi UG C Cu, Zn
Greece
Kassandra Chalkidiki OP, UG B Au, Ag, Zn, Pb
Ireland
Lisheen County Tipperary UG D Zn, Pb
Tara County Meath UG A Zn, Pb
Appendix B 281
Poland
Lubin Lubin UG A Cu
Polkowi. Ul. Kopalniana 1 UG A Cu
Sieroszowice
Rudna Rudna UG A Cu
Portugal
Neves Corvo UG D Sn, Cu
Spain
Los Frailes Sevilla OP B Zn, Cu, Ag, Pb
Sweden
Altik Gallivare OP A Cu, Au, Ag
Bjorkdal Bjorkdalsgruven OP C Au
Boliden Boliden OP, UG C Zn, Cu, Pb, Au, Ag
Kiruna Kiruna UG A Fe
Laisvall Norbotten District UG C Ag, Pb, Zn
Appendix C
World Production of minerals/metals in 1998 (source: Minerals Yearbook, 1998, v.1,

US Geological Survey, 2000) (t tonnes; Mt millions of tonnes; kg kilogram).
Metals, mine basis
Antimony (t) 140,000
Arsenic trioxide (t) 40,800
Bauxite (Mt) 122
Beryl (t) 7,220
Chromite (Mt) 12.7
Cobalt (t) 26,300
Columbium & tantalum concentrate (gross weight) (t) 44,800
Copper (Mt) 12.2
Gold (kg) 2,480,000
Iron ore (gross weight) (Mt) 1,020
Lead (Mt) 3.1
Manganese ore (gross weight) (Mt) 18.7
Mercury (t) 2,320
Molybdenum (t) 135,000
Nickel (Mt) 1.14
Platinum Group Metals (kg) 287,000
Silver (t) 16,400
Tin (t) 206,000
Titanium concentrates (ilmenite, including leucoxene) (Mt) 4.65
Rutile (t) 426,000
Tungsten (t) 32,200
Vanadium (t) 42,000
Zinc (Mt) 7.54
Metals, refinery basis
Aluminium (Mt) 22.1
Bismuth (t) 3,780
Cadmium (t) 19,600
Cobalt (t) 30,900
Copper, primary & secondary (Mt) 14.1
Iron & steel
Direct-reduced iron (Mt) 37.5
284 Appendix C
Iron, pig (Mt) 541

Steel, raw (Mt) 781
Lead, primary & secondary (Mt) 5.88
Magnesium, primary & secondary (t) 468,000
Nickel (Mt) 1.05
Selenium (kg) 1,450,000
Tellurium (kg) 115,000
Tin, smelter (t) 225,000
Zinc, smelter, primary & secondary (Mt) 8.23
Industrial minerals
Asbestos (Mt) 1.84
Barite (Mt) 5.89
Boron minerals (Mt) 4.44
Bromine (t) 514,000
Celestite (t) 276,000
Cement, hydraulic (Mt) 1,520
Clays
Bentonite (Mt) 9.33
Fullers earth (Mt) 3.32
Kaolin (Mt) 39.8
Diamond, natural (1,000 carats) 115,000
Diatomite (Mt) 2.15
Feldspar (Mt) 8.08
Fluorspar (Mt) 4.7
Graphite, natural (t) 578,000
Gypsum (Mt) 107
Iodine (crude) (t) 21,300
Lime (Mt) 115
Magnesite, crude (Mt) 10.7
Mica, including scrap & flake (t) 288,000
Nitrogen, N content of ammonia (Mt) 106
Peat (Mt) 25.5
Perlite (Mt) 1.84
Phosphate rock, gross weight (Mt) 145
Potash, K2O equivalent(Mt) 25.1
Pumice (Mt) 11.5
Salt (Mt) 192
Sand and gravel, industrial, silica (Mt) 110
Soda ash (Mt) 31.7
Sulphur, all forms (Mt) 57.8
Talc & pyrophyllite (Mt) 8.14
Vermiculite (t) 292,000
Appendix D
Chronology of Reported major mining-related environmental incidents since 1975

(source: Hoskin, 2001) M million.
Type of
Year Country Cause of release operation Quantity Deaths Cyanide
1975 USA Dam overtopping Lead/zinc 150,000 m3 0 No
1976 Yugosla. Dam failure Lead/zinc 300,000 m3 0 No
1977 USA Pipe failure Uranium 30,000 m3 0 No
1978 Japan Dam failure Gold 80,000 m3 1 No data
1978 Zimbab. Dam overtopping Gold 30,000 t 1 No data
1980 USA Dam failure Copper 2 M m3 0 No
1982 Philippi. Dam failure Copper 27 M m3 0 No
1985 USA Dam failure Gold 25,000 m3 0 No data
1985 Chile Dam failure Copper 500,000 m3 0 No
1985 Chile Dam failure Copper 280,000 m3 0 No
1985 USA Dam overtopping Sand & 11,000 m3 0 No
gravel
1985 Italy Pipe failure Fluorite 200,000 m3 268 No
1986 Brazil Dam failure Iron 100,000 t 7 No
1988 USA Pipe failure Coal 250,000 m3 0 No
1988 China Dam overtopping Molybden. 700,000 m3 20 No
1991 USA Dam overtopping Gold 39,000 m3 0 Yes
1992 Philippi. Dam failure Copper 80 Mt 0 No
1994 South Dam failure Gold 600,000 m3 0 Yes
Africa
1995 Guyana Dam failure Gold 4 M m3 0 Yes
1995 Australia Dam failure Gold 40,000 m3 0 Yes
1995 Australia Dam overtopping Gold 5,000 m3 0 Yes
1995 Philippi. Dam failure Gold 50,000 m3 12 No
1996 Philippi. Pipe failure Copper 1.5 Mt 0 No
1996 Bolivia Dam failure Pb/Zn/Ag 400,000 t 0 No
1997 USA Dam failure Copper 230,000 m3 0 No
1998 Kyrgystan Transportation Gold 1,800 kg NaCn 0 Yes
Accident
1998 USA Pipe failure Gold Several 0 Yes
tonnes
286 Appendix D
Type of
Year Country Cause of release operation Quantity Deaths Cyanide
1998 Spain Dam failure Pb/Zn/ 5 M m3 0 No
Cu/Ag
1998 Philippi. Pipe failure Gold 700,000 t 0 Yes
2000 Romania Dam failure Gold 100,000 m3 0 Yes
2000 Romania Dam failure Base metals 22,000 m3 0 No
2000 PNG Transportation Gold 150 kg 0 Yes
Accident NaCn
2000 Romania Dam failure Cyanide 100,000 m3 0 No
2000 Romania Dam failure Pb/Zn/Cu 20,000 t 0 No
2000 PNG Transportation Cyanide 2 t NaCn 0 Yes
Accident
2000 Peru Transportation Mercury 150 kg 1? No
Accident
2000 Romania Pipe failure Zinc/lead N/a 0 No
2000 Sweden Dam failure Copper 6.8 M m3 0 No
2000 PNG Transportation Diesel 4,000 L 0 No
Accident
2000 China Gas explosion Coal N/a 160 No
2000 China Transportation Cyanide 5,200 t NaCn 0 Yes
Accident
2000 USA Dam failure Coal 250,000,000 0 No
gallons of
liquefied
coal waste
2000 China Rock slide Phosphate N/a 20 No
2000 China Explosion Coal N/a 25 No
2000 China Tunnel failure Kaolin N/a 4 No
2000 China Dam failure Copper N/a 29 No
2000 China Fire Coal N/a 13 No
2000 India Collapse Coal N/a 12 No
2000 China Tunnel failure Gold N/a 21 No
2000 Ukraine Explosion Coal N/a 9 No
2001 India Flooding Coal N/a 30 No
2001 Philippi. Landslide Gold N/a 8 No
triggered
by storm
2001 China Explosion Coal N/a 29 3 No
missi.
2001 China Explosion Coal N/a 93 No
missi.
2001 Russia Explosion Nickel N/a 2 No
2001 Ukraine Explosion Coal N/a 4 No
Appendix E
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) ISO 14001 Guidance

Manual (1998)
(prepared by Dr. Raymond Martin, National Centre for Environmental Decision-
making Research, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennesse, USA, 1998, 97 pp.).
The Manual deals with the following components:
1. Policy: Internal review or gap analysis, management commitment, define pro-
gramme intent,
2. Planning: Aspects, Impacts, regulatory issues, Internal Performance Criteria,
Environmental Management programme,
3. Implementation: Responsibility/Accountability, staff physical and scientific
capabilities, EMS integration,
4. Measure and Evaluate: Operational control, Communication/Reporting/
documentation, Performance Indices,
5. Review and Improve: Problem reports, management issues, problem resolution,
6. Environmental Opportunity: Process improvements, cost savings, enhanced image.
ISO 14001-4.5.1 Monitoring and Measurement
The organization shall establish and maintain documented procedures to monitor
and measure, on a regular basis, the key characteristics of its operations and activi-
ties that can have a significant impact on the environment. This shall include the
recording of information to track performance, relevant operational controls and
conformance with the organizations environmental objectives and targets. Moni-
toring equipment shall be calibrated and maintained and records of this process
shall be retained according to the organizations procedures. The organization shall
establish and maintain a documented procedure for periodically evaluating compli-
ance with relevant environmental legislation and regulations.
ISO 14001-4.5.4 Environmental Management System Audit
The organization shall establish and maintain programmes and procedures for
periodical environmental management systems audits to be carried out, in order to:
(a) determine whether or not the environmental management system
1. conforms to planned arrangements for environmental management includ-
ing the requirements of this International Standard,
2. has been properly implemented and maintained; and
(b) to provide information on the results of audits to management.
288 Appendix E
The organizations audit programme, including any schedule, shall be based on

the environmental importance of the activity concerned and the results of previous
audits. In order to be comprehensive, the audit procedures shall cover the audit
scope, frequency and methodologies, as well as the responsibilities and require-
ments for conducting audits and reporting results.
ISO 14001 EMS Registration
In USA, the terms certification and registration are used interchangeably.
Certification is a procedure by which a third party gives written assurance that
a product, process or service conforms to specified requirements. Certification to
ISO 14001 stipulates that a company is in compliance with an environmental man-
agement system (EMS) that meets all requirements of ISO 14001.
The evaluation by an Accredited body will include an examination the companys
environmental policy, environmental management system and its documentation,
EMS auditing programme and procedures, and environmental records. It will
include a thorough on-site audit to determine conformance to the ISO 14001
Standard. When the companys environmental management system is verified to
conform to the requirements of ISO 14001, the Certifier will issue a certificate
describing the scope of the environmental management system that has been certi-
fied. The certification is then listed in a register or directory that is available to the
public. The Registrar allows the company to display the Registrars mark on adver-
tising, stationery, etc. as evidence that it has achieved certification.
Author index
Abbruzzese, C. 263 Chappell, W.R. 260, 263 Farmer, J.W. 112, 260
Abernathy, C.O. 260, 263 Chatterjee, P.C. 102, 104, 263 Fergusson, J.E. 64, 120, 125,
Akagi, H. 63, 259 Chatterjee, S.K. 99, 260 261
Aleva, G.J.J. 61, 259 Chen, C.J. 129, 260 Ferrow, E.A. 159, 261
Alexieva, T. 196, 259 Cheng, W.W. 259 Fontbote, L. 168, 260
Alsong, D. 110, 262 Chowdhry, N.A. 259 Frstner, U. 1, 113, 120, 121,
Angelos, M. 172, 174, 175, Christensen, D. 259 261, 263
176, 178, 259 Clayton, C.R.I. 184, 187, 188, Forssberg, E. 147, 264
Archer, A.A. 5, 124, 259 189, 263
Aswathanarayana, U. 64, 79, Collins, R.J. 239, 260 Gadd, G.M. 177, 264
112, 259 Compton, H. 232, 260 Given, I.A. 48, 260
Attewell, P., 78, 259 Cooke, R. 147, 262 Govindarajalu, S. 11, 12, 262
Axelrod, R.S. 262 Cox, D.P. 158, 260 Grayson, R.L. 142, 261
Ayres, B.K., 174, 259 Croll, A. 57, 259 Gupta, J.P. 263
Azcue, J.M. 260, 261, 262, 263 Cummins, A.B. 48, 260 Gusek, J.A. 176, 261
Cunningham, S.D. 230, 259
Banerjee, N.N. 263 Hagedorn, C. 261
Bartlett, P.J. 57, 259 Danielson, L. 257, 260 Haimes, Y.Y. 113, 114, 116,
Bateman, A.M. 60, 66, 77, 79, Das, A. 99, 260 261
164, 261 Dav, N.K. 178, 179, 180, Hkansson, K. 262
Berti, W.R. 230, 259 181, 260 Hammer, O.A. 38, 134, 260,
Beveridge, T.J. 259 Davidson, M.S. 259 261
Bhattacharya, G. 260, 262, Davison, J. 178, 260 Harrison, AL. 237, 238, 261
263, 264 Day, M.G. 112, 260 Haycocks, C. 119, 262
Boger, D.V. 190, 191, 192, Dhar, B.B. 121, 263 Hellier, W.W. 170, 171, 261
193, 263 Diaz, G. 57, 260 Heslop, T.G. 56, 261
Brjesson, E. 239, 240, 259 Dold, B 168, 260 Highton, N.H. 260
Brandes, M. 238, 259 Dowon, C.G. 133, 134, 135, Hglund, L.O. 172, 261
Brierley, C.L. 177, 178, 259 260 Hoskin, Wanda M.A. 256,
Brierley, J.A. 177, 178, 259 Doyle, R.J. 259 261
Duffield, S. 56, 260 Houseman, L. 155, 261
Calderon, R.L. 260, 263 Hultqvist, J. 261
Carlsberg, T. 255, 260 Eger, P. 178, 260 Hummer, J.W. 261
CCORE 195, 260 Elander, P. 262 Hustrulid, W. 44, 45, 54, 97,
Chadwick, J. 12, 260 ElHinnawi, Essam E. 119, 240, 261
Chadwick, M.J. 2530, 120, 260 Hutchinson, R.W. 158, 261
3234, 3649, 51, 123, 140, Ellis, D.V. 181, 196, 260
141, 143, 186, 222227, Enjing, Z. 264 Isaksson, K.E. 262
229, 246, 247, 260 Eriksson, N. 173, 174, 260, 261 Iwasaki, I. 151, 261
290 Author index
Jensen, M.L. 77, 79, 261 Nordstrm, K. 262 Stjerman, L. 230, 231, 263
Jones, M.J. 259, 260 Noronha, L. 233, 262 Stocks, H. 133135, 260
Joshi, S.C. 260, 262. 263, 264 Stottmeister, U. 181, 182, 263
OKane, M. 259 Struthers, S. 257, 263
Kay, D. 56, 261 Sturk, H. 261
Khanna, T. 8, 14, 15, 261 Pai, B.H.G. 123, 127, 136, 262 Sun, G.F. 129, 263
Klapper, H. 181, 182, 261 Paktunc, A.D. 178, 179, 180, Sundquist, T. 261
Kolbash, R.L. 177, 261 181, 260 Swarup, R. 263
Kuyucak, N. 243, 244, 261 Palmer, J.P. 260 Szabo, M.F. 100, 263
Philbrook, J.N. 254, 262
Lacki, M.J. 176, 261 Puhakka, T. 54, 262 Terbrugge, P.J. 58, 262
Laconte, P. 113, 114, 116, Pukkila, J. 54, 262 Tewary, B.K. 121, 263
261 Thomas, L. 80, 263
Lg, J. 259 Redford, M.S. 58, 262 Tiwary, R.K. 118, 263
Landge, P.R. 209, 263 Reed, W.R. 119, 262 Tobar, P. 57, 260
Lanteigne, L. 259 Reneau, Jr., R.B. 261 Trifoni, F.M. 263
Lapakko, K. 178, 260 Richard Cothern, C. 259
Ledin, S. 230, 231, 263 Rirk, K.J. 260 Ubaldini, S. 153, 263
Leyton, P. 257, 260 Robbins, G. 64, 165, 263 UNEP, 8, 25, 26, 49, 50, 53,
Lindstrm, P. 262 Robertson, J.D. 181, 196, 260 8487, 89, 91, 92, 95, 96,
Lindvall, M. 260, 261, 262 Romanovski, T.L. 177, 261 98, 100, 101, 128, 132134,
Ljungberg, J. 262 Rust, F. 184, 187, 188, 189, 137, 138, 149, 151,
Luttig, G.W. 259 263 160162, 184, 185, 198,
200, 202204, 207, 211,
Martens, P.N. 194, 195, 262 Sahni, D.K. 235, 263 212, 241, 242, 245, 246,
Mathur, G.B. 209, 263 Salomons, W. 120, 121, 263 248, 249251, 256, 263
Matsui, K. 43, 44, 262 Sandberg, M. 260
Maxwell, P. 11, 12, 262 Saraswat, S.P. 263 Van Stratten, P. 64, 263
McDougall, S. 147, 262 Sarkka, P. 262 Vartanyan, G.S. 8, 105108,
McNulty, T. 16, 17, 160, 262 Saxena, S.K. 102, 104, 263 112, 210, 218221, 263
McQuiston, P.W. 150, 262 Schultze, M. 181, 182, 261 Veglio, F. 263
MEND 1, 173, 175, 195, 261, Sengupta, M. 7, 40, 41, 208, Vermuelen, N.J. 184, 187189,
262 210, 213, 214, 215, 216, 263
Mengxiong, C. 110, 262 252, 254, 263 Vig, N.J. 262
Michalski, P. 183, 186, 187, Serrano, J.R.A. 261
263 Shenoi, B.V. 123, 127, 136, Wadhwan, S.K. 60, 264
Miller, R.O. 262 262 Wang, Y. 147, 264
Miller, R.H. 239, 260 Shimada, H. 262 Wathern, P. 246, 264
MiMi 1, 167, 172, 174, 262 Shoemaker, R.S. 150, 262 Webster, H.J. 261
Moellerherm, S. 194, 195, Sikka, B.K. 263 Wei, C. 264
262 Singer, D.A. 260 Weiss, N.J. 150, 162, 264
Moosberg, H. 237, 238, 262 Singh, B. 121, 263 Welborn, L.E. 260
Moshiri, G.A. 260 Singh, R.S. 209, 263 Westman, E.C. 119, 262
Mpendazoe, F.M.T. 65, 262 Skarzynska, K.M. 183, 186, White, C. 177, 264
Naganuma, A. 63, 259 187, 263 Wood, P.A. 112, 264
Nijkamp, P. 246, 262 Smirnov, V.I. 69, 263 Wyk, Van J.P. 232, 264
Niskanen, P. 172, 174176, Snezhko, I.I. 259
178, 259 Sofra, F. 190193, 263 Zhenru, Z. 159, 160, 264
Subject index
Acid Mine Drainage 1, 25, Beneficial uses of mine wastes reserves in different
69, 81, 96, 98, 111, 113, 235239 countries 6
141, 167, 169, 172, 176, agriculture 237 status 5
213, 215, 224 brick-making 236, 237 Coal mining 5, 25, 26, 29, 40,
acid formation 15 construction industry 236, 43, 44, 108110, 117, 123,
acid lakes 180 237 142, 186, 236, 246, 247
acid potential 15 embankments 236 environmental impacts 100
anoxic limestone drains glass 237 methods 2532
(ALD) 171, 176 Biodiversity 102, 121 washing 145, 146
biologically-supported biomass 102104 wastes 113118
water cover 172, 173 plant species 102104 Coal preparation flowsheet 33
causes 167 Bioremediation 230, 231 Coke-making 100
covers and seals 174, 175 Bioleaching 14, 155157 flow-sheet 101
decision-making 170 environmental benefits 157 pollution 100
Elliot Lake uranium tailings Block caving 5357, 194 Cut-and-fill process 50
178 Cyanidation 3, 16, 98, 149,
leaching tests 169 Coal 2, 5, 6, 7, 15, 2529, 150, 153, 160, 162164
passive treatment 176, 178 3236, 3844, 4753, 58, alternative lixiviants 16
sulphidic mine tailings 68 7981, 83, 85, 86, 89, 90, environmental mitigation
wetlands 176, 177 9395, 99, 100, 102, 164166
Aerosols 125, 126, 129 106111, 113, 115, 117,
Aluminium industry 78, 83, 118, 120, 121, 123, 124, Diamond drilling 25, 26
9294, 199, 236, 237 127131, 136138, Dragline excavators 43
environmental impacts 93 140143, 145, 146, 152, Drift mine 45, 46
pollutants from Al-smelters 167. 176, 183, 186, 187, Dust control technologies 91
94, 95 197, 198, 200, 202, 206, dust control chemicals 199
red mud 83, 93, 94, 114, 208210, 213, 218, 228, electrostatic precipitators
157, 190, 236238 236, 237, 246, 247 91, 92, 95, 198
Artisanal mining 3, 54, 62, mode of formation 79 high-energy scrubbers 91,
6466 post-depositional changes 199
innovative technologies 64 81 mechanical dust catchers 198
mercury pollution 62, 64 rank of coal 7981 Dusts 110, 124, 128, 130,
sedimentary sequences 9 197, 200
Backfill 14, 52, 190, 181, syn-depositional changes analytical methods 130
194, 195, 209, 210, 213, 80 carcinogenic effects 129,
218, 235 Coal industry in the world 2, 5 130
Base metals 5, 69, 9598, energy contribution 5, 7 characterization 131
147, 155, 156, 158, 194, production in different fibrogenetic effects 129
213 countries 6 pathological effects 128
292 Subject index
e-Business 1724 Toxic Substances Control Highwall mining 44

definition 17 Act 253 Hydrometallurgy 153
economics 19 Explosions in mines 8
future 23 Impact of mining 12, 102,
how to start new e-business Falls in mines 137 105107, 110, 111, 218
19 Ferrous metals 69, 71, 72 atmosphere 110, 111
Internet 20 Flotation 36, 60, 66, 69, 96, biosphere 111
linkages 18 98, 99, 134, 146152, hydrosphere 107110
mining industry 17, 21 155, 156, 160, 162, 163, lithosphere 106107
present status 21 206, 236, 237, 244 Industrial minerals 2, 5, 62,
Quadrem 21, 22, 24 chemicals 50 70, 76, 77, 102
value/volume relationships environmental impacts 149
20 principles 148 ISO 14001 10, 245
Electrostatic precipitators 90, procedures 152
91, 92, 95, 198 Flowsheets Liquid effluents from mining
Emissions due to mineral Cawse flowsheet 154 115
industries 118121 gold concentrator flowsheet LKAB Iron ore mine case
Environmental audits 254 160, 161 study 66
Environmental Code 255, 256 gold recovery flowsheet 62 Longwall method of mining 48
Environmental Impact Pb-Zn concentrator 151 Low-waste technologies in
Assessment 245249 steel industry 200202
matrix diagrams 248, 249 Globalization and Mining continuous processing 201
outline 251 industry 257 direct reduction of iron ore
procedures 252, 254, 255 Gold 3, 10, 11, 1417, 21, 55, 200
scoping 246248 56, 59, 6266, 69, 70, 79, low-pollution pickling 201
Environmental monitoring 96, 99, 109, 111, 123, remelting of wastes 202
215, 217, 249 127, 136, 147, 152, 153, scrap preparation 200
geotechnical monitoring 2, 156165, 184, 187189,
17 194, 196, 213, 229, 234, Mass mining 5356,
hydrochemical monitoring 239, 249, 257 case histories 56, 57
217 cyanidation 3, 16, 98, 149, equipment automation 54
observation network 218, 150, 153, 160, 162, 163, Matrix diagrams 248, 249
219 164 Mercury pollution 62, 64
open pits 216, 217, 239 how to extract gold 160 Metal mining industry in the
tailings dams 250, 257 how to look for gold 159 world 1
underground mines 216, mineral deposit models important metal mines
217, 234 158, 159 269281
waste rock dumps & mineralogical association mineral production 283,
stockpiles 216 159, 160 284
Environmental Protection mode of occurrence 70 Metallic minerals 2, 5, 53, 62,
Agency of USA 252 where to look for gold 157 69, 76
Environmental regulations of Microorganisms 155, 156,
USA Health hazards due to mining 177, 178, 207, 228
CERCLA 252, 255 123140 Dienococus radiodurans 232
Clean Air Act 253 biological hazards 140 sulphate-reducing bacterria
Clean Water Act 253, 254 chemical hazards 137 177, 178
NPDES permits 253 dust hazards 124 Thiobacillus ferrooxidans
RCRA 252, 253, 255 mental hazards 140 155, 167, 168
Safe Drinking Water Act 253 other physical hazards 124 typha 177
SARA 253 Heat problems in mining 135 wetlands 170
Superfund 252, 253 Kolar gold fields, India 136 Mine closure, 8, 213, 249
Subject index 293
Mine design process 2640 advantages 40 ground preparation prior to

geographical factors 28 mine layout 41 revegetation 226
geological & structural projected advances 44, 45 miscellaneous vegetation
setting 29 Ores 5, 13, 15, 17, 69, 7276, methods 232
geotechnical considerations 79, 86, 87, 95, 96, 98, 99, mulching 224, 226
36 115, 145147, 149, Rehabilitation case histories
meteorological factors 29 151153, 155157, 160, 233235
stripping ratio 38 162164, 200, 222, 234, iron ore mine, Goa, India
technoeconomic viability 244, 246 233
32, 36 manganese ore spoils, India
Mining and the Environmental Paste technologies 15, 190, 235
agenda 7 194 Sudbury nickel, Canada 234
economics of environmental mine backfill 194, 195 Room-and-pillar method of
protection 11, 12 rheological characteristics mining 48, 49
environmental challenges 184, 191, 193
7, 8 shear rate vs. shear stress Scrubbers 69, 90, 91, 92, 199
ISO 14001 certification 10 190 Slope mine 45, 46
public image of the mining slope of tailings pile 197 Solid wastes from mining
industry 8 thickened tailings 184, 190, 113, 114, 237
technology trends 12 191, 194 Steel industry 78, 83, 85,
Mining industry in the underwater placement of 8789, 91, 92, 94, 117,
developing countries 8 pastes 195, 196 128, 132134, 136, 137,
dilemmas 10 Planning for mine closure 213 139, 188200, 202,
implementation of Pollution 8, 9, 11, 14, 62, 64, 204206, 211
regulations 11 65, 67, 79, 8792, 94, 97, Strip mining 41, 42, 59
Mining-related environmental 98, 100, 111114, 131, Subsidence 8, 9, 28, 36, 40,
incidents 8, 285 136, 139, 141, 155, 178, 52, 80, 106109, 111,
Mitigation of mining impacts 197, 199, 205, 209, 218, 112, 141, 208210, 213,
218222 222, 224, 228, 256 218, 222, 224
Monitoring of mining impacts Precious metals, 69, 70, 71 back-filling 209
215218 Preparation of coal 145 impacts 208
Preparation of metallic ores remedial measures 210
Noise 9, 11, 37, 67, 92, 110, 46 Sustainable mining 8, 10
123, 131136, 141, 143, Indonesia case study 10
199, 200, 201, 210212 Quadrem 21, 22
risk of loss of hearing 132, Tailings dams 17, 181, 185,
134 Radioactive elements 69, 76 190, 196, 250
sound frequencies 132 Recycling 16, 87, 100, 139, centre-line methods 186
threshold of audibility and 154, 160, 163, 168, downstream methods 186
pain 132, 133 200202, 204, 205, 233, upstream methods 185
Non-ferrous metals 69, 73, 74 235, 256 Tailings disposal 124, 181,
Recycling of wastes in steel 184, 186, 190, 191, 193,
Offshore mining 58, 59 industry 87, 204 195, 213, 249
environmental impact 58 Rehabilitation of mined land characteristics of tailings
floating plants 59 11, 222235 183, 184
land-based plants 59 amendments and fertilizers coal mine tailings 186
marine placers 72 228 environmental risks 181
Opencast mining 3, 14, 15, bioremediation 178, 230 gold mine tailings 187
29, 36, 40, 42, 43, 45, 49, characteristics of substrate methods of disposal 184,
93, 110, 123, 137, 180, 225 185
248 ecotypes and cultivars 229 paste technologies 190, 194
294 Subject index
risk assessment 196, 197 methodologies, special Washing 35, 59, 94, 95, 99,
underwater placement 195, problems 52 100, 114, 131, 141, 163,
196 UNEP 8, 25, 26, 49, 50, 53, 216
Total Project Development 8487, 89, 91, 92, 95, 96, Wastes 5, 8, 15, 25, 69, 78,
258 98, 100, 101, 128, 87, 94, 107, 111,
Treatment of mine water 239, 132134, 137, 138, 149, 113117, 124, 139. 140,
240 151, 160162, 184, 185, 148, 149, 172, 174, 178,
microbial treatment 207 198, 200, 202204, 207, 186, 210, 213, 218, 222,
recycle systems 204 211, 212, 241, 242, 245, 224, 229, 232, 233, 235,
removal of oil 206 246, 248251, 256 237, 245, 252, 253, 256
removal of suspended solids international initiatives Wetlands 69, 170, 176178,
205 256 224, 250, 255
World mining industry 1
Underground mining 13, 14, Vertical shaft mine 4548 list of important metal
25, 28, 36, 3840, 43, 45, Vibration 9, 136, 141, 143, mines 269281
48, 52, 54, 56, 104, 106, 200, 210212, production of coal 6
108, 110, 123, 127, 137, aerodynamic vibration 136, production of industrial
142, 194, 208, 209, 218, 211, 212 minerals 5, 284
237, 248 mechanical vibration 136, production of metallic
advantages 40, 45 211, 212 minerals 283, 284
automation 1314, 54, vibration due to combustion production of metals 1, 4,
136 212 283, 284

Mineral Resources Management and The Enviroment

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Mineral Resources Management and The Enviroment

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

MINERAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT AND THE ENVIRONMENT

A.A. BALKEMA / LISSE / ABINGDON / EXTON (PA) / TOKYO

Copyright 2003 U. Aswathanarayana

All rights reserved. No part of this publication or the information contained

Published by: A.A. Balkema Publishers, a member of Swets & Zeitlinger

ISBN 0-203-97122-1 Master e-book ISBN

ISBN 90 5809 545 2 (hardback)

COPYRIGHT ACKNOWLEDGEMENT xvii

2. MINING METHODS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 25

3. MODE OF OCCURRENCE OF MINERAL DEPOSITS 69

4. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF MINERAL INDUSTRIES

4.2 Aluminium Industry 92

5. IMPACT OF MINING ON THE ENVIRONMENT WASTE-WISE 105

6. MINING AND HEALTH HAZARDS 123

7. PROCESS TECHNOLOGIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT 145

8. CONTROL TECHNOLOGIES FOR MINIMIZING

9. MITIGATION OF MINING IMPACTS 215

9.2 Ways of Reducing the Mining Impacts 218

10. SOCIO-ECONOMIC DIMENSIONS OF THE MINING IMPACT 245

APPENDIX A CONVERSION CONSTANTS 265

APPENDIX B PARTICULARS OF IMPORTANT OF

APPENDIX C WORLD PRODUCTION OF MINERALS/METALS 283

APPENDIX D LIST OF MAJOR ACCIDENTS RELATED

APPENDIX E INDUSTRY STANDARDS (ISO 14001) 287

AUTHOR INDEX 289

SUBJECT INDEX 291

I have known my good friend, Professor Uppugunduri Aswathanarayana, since

During many years of my association with the International Union of Geological

Sau Paulo, Brazil Umberto Cordani

Hyderabad, India U. Aswathanarayana

Grateful acknowledgement is made to the publishers, authors and editors of jour-

1.1 STATUS OF THE WORLD MINING INDUSTRY

sustainable development, so much so that Ranger Uranium in Australia has placed

1.1.2 Status of the metal mining industry

Fe Au, Ag Cu, Pb, Zn Ni, PGM Baux

OP UG OP, UG Total OP UG OP, UG Total OP UG OP, UG Total OP

1.1.3 Status of coal mining industry

Oil Natural gas Coal Total

North America(1) 652/1065 683/691 613/600 225 57 2638(2)

USA 111,338 135,305 246,643 934.20 80.00 1014.20

* Serbia/Montenegro; ** Iran; *** Thailand.

1.2 MINING AND THE ENVIRONMENTAL AGENDA

1.2.1 Environmental challenges facing the mining industry

environmentally-sensitive habitats (e.g., corals, mangroves), parks, reserves, histori-

Surface water Underground Noise and

1.2.2 Mining, environmental protection and sustainable development a case

Mining activity in Indonesia faces formidable problems heavy monsoon rain-

1.2.3 Economics of environmental protection in mining

1.3 TECHNOLOGY TRENDS IN THE MINING INDUSTRY

Chadwick (2001) highlighted the implications of technological improvements on

1.3.1 Automation in the mining industry

1.3.2 Technology-driven developments in the mining industry

1.4 EXTRACTION COSTS VS. ENVIRONMENTAL ACCEPTABILITY

Table 1.5 Comparison of the effectiveness of different leaching systems.

Cyanide, pH: 10.511.0 NaCN 0.15 73 23

Lixiviant system Total cost of water treatment (USD million)

1.5 e-BUSINESS IN THE MINING INDUSTRY

add-on, to be handled separately by the technical department. If e-business is to suc-

Table 1.7 Potential e-savings in cash costs.

Total cost e-savings e-savings e-savings Savings (AT)

1.5.1 How to start new e-business?

A company, which wants to introduce e-business methods, must be willing to

1.5.2 Present status of e-business in the mining sector

* Serbia/Montenegro; Iran; * Thailand.