Report Dinesh Finished

B.
Tech Major Project 2014
Contents
I. Executive summary ................................................................................................................ 5
1. Process summary ................................................................................................................ 6
2. Cost summary..................................................................................................................... 6
3. Employment potential ........................................................................................................ 7
4. Profitability of the project .................................................................................................. 7
II. Project Details ....................................................................................................................... 8
1. Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.1 Problem statement and description .............................................................................. 9
1.2 Introduction to the format of the project ...................................................................... 9
2. Project description ............................................................................................................ 11
2.1 Gasification processes ................................................................................................ 11
2.2 Description of specific gasifiers ................................................................................. 13
2.3 Description of reactors ............................................................................................... 18
2.4 Water-Gas Shift Reaction ........................................................................................... 19
2.5 Selection of technology/ Basis of selection ................................................................. 21
2.6 Raw material............................................................................................................... 23
2.7 Present status of the product ...................................................................................... 29
3. Material & Energy balance .............................................................................................. 30
4. Detailed design of process equipment .............................................................................. 63
4.1 Process design ............................................................................................................ 63
4.2 Mechanical design of units ....................................................................................... 130
4.3 Equipment specifications .......................................................................................... 149
5. Major engineering Problems of the Plant ....................................................................... 156

1 Production of methanol from coal
B.Tech Major Project 2014
5.1 Heat exchanger ......................................................................................................... 156
5.2 Pumps ....................................................................................................................... 158
5.3 Distillation column ................................................................................................... 165
6. Material storage and handling facilities ......................................................................... 168
6.1 Methyl alcohol MSDS ............................................................................................... 168
6.2 Carbon Monoxide MSDS .......................................................................................... 173
6.3 Hydrogen Sulfide MSDS ........................................................................................... 178
7. Process Instrument control and safety aspect ................................................................. 182
III. Environmental Protection & Energy Conservation ......................................................... 194
1. Environmental aspects.................................................................................................... 195
1.1Air pollution............................................................................................................... 195
1.2 Liquid pollution ........................................................................................................ 198
1.3 Sulfur ........................................................................................................................ 201
1.4 Solid waste disposal.................................................................................................. 202
1.5 Noise pollution.......................................................................................................... 202
2. Energy Integration and Conservation ............................................................................. 205
2.1 Conservation ............................................................................................................. 205
2.2 Instrumentation ......................................................................................................... 209
2.3 Energy management ................................................................................................. 210
2.4 Alternate energy resources ....................................................................................... 210
IV. Plant Utilites .................................................................................................................... 214
1. Types of Utilities: ........................................................................................................... 215
2. Air for process and instrumentation ............................................................................... 216
3.Heat transfer media ......................................................................................................... 217
4. Water .............................................................................................................................. 218
5. Electricity and power requirements................................................................................ 224
6.Refrigeration.................................................................................................................... 225

7.Air conditioning .............................................................................................................. 225
V. Organizational Structure & Manpower Requirement ....................................................... 226
1. Organizational structure ............................................................................................. 227
1.1 Hierarchy .................................................................................................................. 228
2. Manpower requirement............................................................................................... 231
VI. Market Prospects ............................................................................................................. 234
1. Demand and Supply ....................................................................................................... 235
1.1 Growth forecast of methanol .................................................................................... 236
1.2 Present production of methanol in India .................................................................. 236
2. Areas of consumption..................................................................................................... 237
3. Uses of methanol ............................................................................................................ 238
VII. Site Selection & Project Layout ..................................................................................... 241
1. Site selection .................................................................................................................. 242
1.1 Special incentives ..................................................................................................... 245
1.2 Mineral resources .................................................................................................... 246
2. Plant Layout ................................................................................................................... 249
VIII. Economic Evaluation and Profitability of the Project .................................................. 250
1. Purchased equipment cost .............................................................................................. 251
2. Other direct costs ............................................................................................................ 253
2.1 Total direct costs ...................................................................................................... 255
2.2 Indirect plant cost ..................................................................................................... 256
3. Total product cost ........................................................................................................... 256
3.1 Cost of raw materials ............................................................................................... 258
3.2 Cost of power and utilities ........................................................................................ 258
3.3 Total annual direct production cost ......................................................................... 258
3.4 Fixed charges ........................................................................................................... 259
3.5 Total manufacturing cost (M) .................................................................................. 259

3.6 Total product costs (TPC) ........................................................................................ 260
4. Profitability analysis ....................................................................................................... 260
5. Break even analysis ........................................................................................................ 267
6. Cash flow pattern ........................................................................................................... 268
IX. REFERENCES ................................................................................................................ 270
References for figures and tables ........................................................................................... 270

I. Executive summary

1. Process summary
This project report is an attempt towards making a techno-economic evaluation of installing a
plant for production of Methanol from Coal.
The primary raw material chosen for this production is Coal coming from Talcher in
Orissa.The proposed location of the plant is also likely in the same location.
This coal first undergoes gasification process then undergoes shift reaction to obtain the
desired ratio of hydrogen to carbon mono-oxide. Then it undergoes a reaction in Lurgi
methanol reactor and is further distilled to obtain AA grade methanol.
2. Cost summary
Economic consideration
Total Fixed Capital Investment ₹ 3913697076
Total Working capital ₹ 587054561
Total Fixed Charges ₹ 234821825
Direct Production Cost ₹ 28192003781
Total Indirect Cost ₹ 1141494980
Manufacturing Cost ₹ 28642494435
General Expenses ₹ 435566459
Total Plant Overhead Cost ₹ 215668829

3. Employment potential
Board of
Directors
CEO CFO COO
Personnel & Product

Finance
Administration Operation Marketing &
Department
Department Sales
4. Profitability of the project

A minimum return rate of 26.573% is assured.
The Pay Back period is 3.5years which is close to the acceptable payback period.

II. Project Details

1. Introduction
1.1 Problem statement and description

The project demands a Technical and Economic Feasibility checking for a proposed project
which will produce Methanolby the gasification of Coal. As a part of this project, the
following are to be detailed out.
1.2 Introduction to the format of the project

The complete project report consists of ten chapters each focusing on a specific dimension of
the report
 Chapter 1 contains the summary of the project and the problem statement.
 Chapter 2 is subdivided into six sections, each dealing with a distinct topic. This
chapter covers a brief literature review on various available processes for production,
techno-economic appraisal of alternative process and basis of final process selection,
Requirement of raw material, Availability of raw material, specification and testing
procedures for the raw materials are also mentioned.
 Chapter 3 is fully devoted to material and energy flow information which includes
material and energy balance flow sheet.
 Chapter 4 includes exhaustive process designing of all major equipment in the plant.
Mechanical designs of some of the equipments have also been presented.
Specifications of all process equipments and their material of construction have also
been discussed. Besides, the major engineering problems of the plant and their
possible remedies are also discussed here.
 Chapter 5 deals with the Material handling and storage facilities.
 Chapter 6 consists of Process Instrumentation and Control and Safety aspects of a
plant.
 Chapter 7 deals with the Environmental protection and Energy conservation in the
plant. It includes the possible sources of pollutants of all kinds are investigated and
their mitigating measures are also suggested. Use of alternative sources of energy is
assessed. Several energy conservation schemes pertaining to the plant are also put
forward.
 Chapter 8 gives in full detail of the utilities involved in the plant. Consideration
regarding various types of utilities and their application range are taken.

 Chapter 9 encompasses the Organizational structure and Man power requirement of
the plant are detailed.
 Chapter 10 covers the market prospects of the product with pivotal focus on analysis
of demand and supply, export potential and marketing network.
 Chapter 11 deals with site selection and Project layout. Alternative feasible sites are
weighted and the best site selected. A plant layout of the works showing mandatory
requirements are also attached
 Chapter 12 deals with the assessment of the economic feasibility of the project. It
shows in detail the project cost estimates, cash flow diagram, and break even analysis
and implementation schedule.
 Chapter 13 consists of a reference list of books, journals, standard codes and
encyclopedia which have been used for the project work.
Drawings of process flow sheet material, material and energy information, process
Instrumentation and control. Mechanical design and plant layout are included in the
report.

2. Project description
2.1 Gasification processes

Coal gasification is a process by which coal is converted into a gaseous form composed of its
component parts and oxygen, primarily forming CO and H2. Coal gasification processes are
generally classified as one of three categories: moving bed, fluid bed and entrained flow
gasifiers. Each type of gasification process can be characterized by several properties:
oxidant demand, steam demand, process temperature and the actual physical method of
processing which may or may not lead to complications such as clogging and various safety
concerns.
2.1.1 Moving-bed gasifier

A moving-bed gasifier uses a bed of coal moved downward through a reactor by gravity. A
counter-current flow of oxygen is pumped in through the bottom of the reactor. Combustion
occurs in the bottom of the reactor moving heat to the central region of the reactor where
gasification occurs. This type of reactor uses the smallest amount of oxidant of the three, and
because the gases leaving the gasifier make contact with the cooler fuel, the syngas leave the
reactor at a lower temperature than the other two processes. While this process is the
cheapest in terms of oxidant and safest due to the low temperature range, the syngas is
heavily contaminated with hydrocarbons which must subsequently be removed.
Main features
 Counter-current flow of coal and oxidizing blast

 Blast composed of air and hot syngas, so low oxygen consumption
 Operates on reactive carbon sources
 Good heat transfer heats the carbon source creating methane and tar
 Post production cleaning and scrubbing requires greater energy use
The most prominent examples of moving bed gasifiers are:
 Lurgi
 BGL

2.1.2 Fluid-bed gasifiers
Fluid bed gasifiers are characterized by the quick mixing of fuel particles with oxidant and
steam in a fluid bed. All three components are pumped in from the bottom of the reactor and
are mixed with materials already undergoing gasification. This mixing leads to a uniform
distribution of solids and gases within the reactor. Only non-caking coals can be used in
these reactors, making this group‘s choice of Montana sub-bituminous coal incompatible with
this reactor type.
Main Features
 Air fluidizes a bed and carbon containing particles added

 Proper mixing of fuel and oxidant provide good mass transfer and heat transfer
 Fine particle will escape with syngas and needs to be cleaned
 Very good heat/mass transfer so partially reacted carbon may settle with ash
 Slagging will reduce fluidization, so temp remains below softening point for ash
The most prominent examples of fluid-bed gasifiers are:
 High Temperature Winkler (HTW)

 SES-Tampella-U-Gas
 Kellogg Rust Westinghouse (KRW)
 Mitsubishi
2.1.3 Entrained flow gasifiers

Entrained flow gasifiers are plug-flow type reactors where a mixture of finely ground coal
and steam flow co-currently through a high temperature process to obtain good conversion.
The gasifiers accept ash conditions which are in the slagging range. An entrained-flow
gasifier may handle any type of coal as feedstock, and produce clean, tar-free gas. However,
coals with a high moisture and ash content will increase the demand for added oxidant, which
increases the cost. The carbon conversion is almost 100% because the ash leaves the reactor
as slag and is very low in carbon. Since this process is compatible with sub-bituminous coal,
and produces high carbon conversion, it was determined to be the best fit for the process.

Main features
 Carbon source is made of very fine particles in a liquid or slurry for very good mass
transfer
 Very little residence time
 Co-current flow with oxygen where high temperatures can be reached
 Low heat transfer means hot exiting gas with no methane or tar, but more oxygen
required.
 High temperature and very small carbon sources make it an ideal process for coal
gasification.
 High temperatures without charring
 No agglomeration because of fine particle size preparation
The most prominent examples of entrained flow gasifiers are:
 GE Energy-Texaco
 Shell
 Siemens-Future Energy
 Prenflo (Krupp-Uhde)
 Conoco Phillips-E-Gas-DOW
2.2 Description of specific gasifiers
2.2.1 Lurgi gasifier
Recent modification of the Lurgi process called slagging Lurgi gasifier has been developed
to process caking coals. Therefore, the operating temperature of this gasifier is kept higher
and the injection ratio of steam is reduced to 1–1.5 mol/mol of oxygen. These two factors
cause the ash to melt easily and, therefore, the molten ash is removed as a slag. Coal is fed to
the gasifier through a lock hopper system and distributor. It is gasified with steam and
oxygen injected into the gasifier near the bottom. The upward movement of hot product gases
provides convective heat transfer and makes the preheating and devolatilization of coal

easier. Both volatile matter liberated from coal and devolatilized char react with gasifying
media, i.e., steam and oxygen. The molten slag formed during the process passes through the
slag tap hole. It is then quenched with water and removed through a slag lock hopper. The
amount of unreacted steam passing through the system has to be minimized in this process
for high energy efficiency. Also, the high operating temperature and fast
removal of product gases lead to higher output rates in a slagging Lurgi gasifier than a
conventional dry ash Lurgi unit. The conventional Lurgi gasification is widely recognized for
its role as the gasifier technology for South Africa‘s Sasol complex. The H2-to-CO ratio is
higher than 2:1. It is also noted that a relatively large amount of CO2 is present.Coal
gasification is a process by which coal is converted into a gaseous form composed of its
component parts and oxygen, primarily forming CO and H2. Coal gasification processes are
generally classified as one of three categories: moving bed, fluid bed and entrained flow
gasifiers. Each type of gasification process can be characterized by several properties:
oxidant demand, steam demand, process temperature and the actual physical method of
processing which may or may not lead to complications such as clogging and various safety
concerns.
Fig.1 Lurgi gasifier [1]

The most important section of the methanol synthesis process is the methanol reactor. As the
synthesis reaction is strongly exothermic, heat removal is an important process . High
average heat flux leads to fewer tubes, smaller furnances and thus reduced costs. There are
various type of reactors are available for the synthesis of methanol .
The methanol reaction is exothermic, so the primary task of the reactor is to control the
temperature. The reactor technologies that have been used extensively in commercial settings
fall into two categories; multiple catalyst bed reactors and single bed converters.
2.2.2 Winkler gasifier
This is the oldest commercial process employing fluidized bed technology. The process was
developed in Europe in the 1920s. There are more than 15 plants in operation today all over
the world with the largest having an output of 1.1 million scf/d. In this process, pulverized
coal is dried and fed into a fluidized bed reactor by means of a variable speed screw feeder.
The gasifier operates at atmospheric pressure and a temperature of 815–1000°C. Coal
particles react with oxygen and steam to produce offgas rich in carbon monoxide and
hydrogen. The relatively high operating temperature leaves very little tar and liquid
hydrocarbons in the product gas stream. The gas stream
that may carry up to 70% of the generated ash is cleaned by water scrubbers, cyclones,and
electrostatic precipitators (ESPs). Unreacted char carried over by the fluidizing gas stream is
further converted by secondary steam and oxygen in the space above the fluidized bed. As a
result the maximum temperature occurs above the fluidized bed. To prevent ash fines from
melting at a high temperature and forming deposits in the exit duct, gas is cooled by a radiant
boiler before it leaves the gasifier. Raw hot gas leaving the gasifier is passed through a waste
heat recovery section. The gas is then compressed and goes through WGS reaction. The
product gas has a heating value of about 275 Btu/scf. The thermal efficiency of the process
runs approximately 75%.

Fig.2 Winkler gasifier [2]
2.2.3 Texaco gasifier
The Texaco process also uses entrained flow technology for gasification of coal. It gasifies
coal under relatively high pressure by injection of oxygen (or air) and steam with concurrent
gas/solid flow. Fluidized coal is mixed with either oil or water to make it into pumpable
slurry. This slurry is pumped under pressure into a vertical gasifier, which is basically a
pressure vessel lined inside with refractory walls. The slurry reacts with either air or oxygen
at high temperature. The product gas contains primarily carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide,
and hydrogen with some quantity of methane. Because of high temperature, oil or tar is not
produced. This process is basically used to manufacture CO-rich synthesis gas. This gasifier
evolved from the commercially proven Texaco partial oxidation process10 used to gasify
crude oil and hydrocarbons. Its main feature is the use ofcoal slurry feed, which simplifies the
coal-feeding system and operability of the gasifier. The gasifier is a simple, vertical,
cylindrical pressure vessel with refractory linings in the upper partial oxidation chamber. It is
also provided with a slag quench zone at the bottom, where the resultant gases and molten

slag are cooled down. In the latter operation, large amounts of high-pressure steam can be
obtained, which boosts the thermal efficiency of the process. Another important factor that
affects
the gasifier thermal efficiency is the water content of the coal slurry. This water content
should be minimized because a large amount of oxygen must be used to supply the heat
required to vaporize the slurry water. This gasifier favors high-energy dense coals so that the
water-to-energy ratio in the feed is small. Therefore, eastern U.S. bituminous coals are
preferable to lignites for this gasifier. The gasifier operates at around 1100–1370°C and a
pressure of 20–85 atm. The product gases and molten slag produced in the reaction zone pass
downward through a water spray chamber and a slag quench bath, where the cooled gas and
slag are then removed for further treatment. The gas, after being separated from slag and
cooled, is treated to remove carbon fines and ash. These fines are then recycledto the slurry
preparation system, while the cooled gas is treated for acid gas removal and elemental sulfur
is recovered from the hydrogen sulfide (H2S)-rich stream.
Fig.3 Texaco gasifier [3]

2.3 Description of reactors

2.3.1 Multiple bed reactors
The multiple catalyst bed reactors controls the reaction temperature by separating the catalyst
mass into several sections with cooling devices placed between the sections. Bed sizes are
generally designed to allow the reaction to go to equilibrium. In the following, three different
multiple bed reactors will be presented
1)Haldor Topsoe collect, mix, distribute converter: This reactor have catalyst beds separated
by support beams. The gas that is leaving the upstream catalyst is then collected and mixed
with a quench gas for cooling. The mixed gas stream is evenly spread over the downstream
catalyst bed. The reaction temperature is lowered and the conversion per pass rate is
increased.
2) Kellog, Brown and Root’s adiabatic reactors in series: In these reactors, which are in
series, each catalyst layer is accommodated in a separate reactor vessel with intercoolers
between each reactor. The feed gas is fed directly into the first reactor which increases the
kinetic driving force for the reaction. This leads to a reduced catalyst volume compared to a
quench-type reactor.
3) Toyo Engineering Corporation’s MRF-Z reactor: This reactor is a multi-stage radial flow
reactor with intermediate cooling. This indirect cooling keeps the temperature close to the
path of the maximum reaction rate curve (when the methanol concentration is plotted against
temperature). Maximum, or close to maximum, conversion per pass is then achieved.
2.3.2 Single bed reactors
In single bed reactors, heat is continuously removed from the reactor by transfer to a heat-
removing medium. The reactor runs effectively as a heat exchanger.
2.3.2.1 Linde isothermal reactor

In this reactor design helically-coiled tubes are embedded in the catalyst bed. It is very much
similar to LNG (liquefied natural gas heat enchangers) with catalyst around the tubes. The
Linde isothermal reactor allows for up to 50% more catalyst loading per unit of reactor
volume. Compared to reactors with the catalyst inside the tubes, the heat transfer on the

catalyst side is significant higher for a Linde isothermal reactor. As a result, material costs are
saved since less cooling area is required.
2.3.2.2 Lurgi methanol reactor

The Lurgi Methanol Reactor is much like a heat exchanger; it has a vertical shell and tube
heat exchanger with fixed tube sheets. The catalyst in the tubes rests on a bed of inert
material. Steam is generated by the heat of reaction and drawn off below the upper tube sheet.
To achieve presice control of the reaction temperature, steam pressure control is applied.
Operating at isothermal conditions enables high yields at low recycles. In addition the amount
of by-products produces is minimized .
For plant capacities above 3000 tonnes per day, a two-stage converter system using two Lurgi
methanol reactors in combination has been developed. As it needs to achieve only partial
conversion of synthesis gas to methanol, the first converter can operate at higher space
velocities and temperatures than a single-stage converter. Operating at higher temperatures
enable the production of high-pressure steam. Also, the converter can be made smaller. The
exit gas is led into the second converter, which operates at a lower reaction rate.
2.3.2.3 Mitsubishi gas chemical/Mitsubishi heavyi industri superconverter

This superconverter has double-tubes with the catalyst packed between the inner and the
outer tubes. The feed enters the inner tubes and is heated when flowing through the tubes.
The gas then enters the space between the inner and the outer tubes and flows through the
catalyst bed. In addition to being cooled by the gas in the inner tubes, the catalyst is also
cooled by boiler water outside the double-tube. Since the catalyst bed temperature is higher
near the inlet of the reactor, then lowers towards the outlet, the gas proceeds along the
maximum reaction rate line. This means that a higher conversion per pass rate is achieved.
2.4 Water-Gas Shift Reaction

The water-gas shift reaction (WGSR) describes the reaction of carbon monoxide and water
vapor to form carbon dioxide and hydrogen (the mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen is
known as water gas)
The WGSR is an important industrial reaction that is used in the manufacture of ammonia,
hydrocarbons, methanol, and hydrogen. It is also often used in conjunction with steam

reformation of methane and other hydrocarbons. In the Fischer–Tropsch process, the WGSR
is one of the most important reactions used to balance the H2/CO ratio. It provides a source
of hydrogen at the expense of carbon monoxide, which is important for the production of
high purity hydrogen for use in ammonia synthesis.
The water-gas shift reaction may be an undesired side reaction in processes involving water
and carbon monoxide.
The equilibrium of this reaction shows significant temperature dependence and the
equilibrium constant decreases with an increase in temperature, that is, higher carbon
monoxide conversion is observed at lower temperatures
In order to take advantage of both the thermodynamics and kinetics of the reaction, the
industrial scale water gas shift reaction is conducted in multiple adiabatic stages consisting of
a high temperature shift (HTS) followed by a low temperature shift (LTS) with intersystem
cooling.[2] The initial HTS takes advantage of the high reaction rates, but is
thermodynamically limited, which results in incomplete conversion of carbon monoxide and
a 2-4% carbon monoxide exit composition. To shift the equilibrium toward hydrogen
production, a subsequent low temperature shift reactor is employed to produce a carbon
monoxide exit composition of less than 1%. The transition from the HTS to the LTS reactors
necessitates intersystem colling.
2.4.1 Low temperature shift (LTS)
The typical composition of commercial LTS catalyst has been reported as 32-33% CuO, 34-
53% ZnO, 15-33% Al2O3. The active catalytic species is CuO. The function of ZnO is to
provide structural support as well as prevent the poisoning of copper by sulfur. The Al2O3
prevents dispersion and pellet shrinkage. The LTS shift reactor operates at a range of 200 oC
to 250 oC. Low reaction temperatures must be maintained due to the susceptibility of copper
to thermal sintering. These lower temperatures also reduce the occurrence of side reactions
that are observed in the case of the HTS.
2.4.2 High temperature shift catalysts
The typical composition of commercial HTS catalyst has been reported as 74.2% Fe2O3,
10.0% Cr2O3, 0.2% MgO (remaining percentage attributed to volatile components). The
chromium acts to stabilize the iron oxide and prevents sintering. The operation of HTS

catalysts occurs within the temperature range of 310 oC to 450 oC. The temperature increases
along the length of the reactor due to the exothermic nature of the reaction. As such, the inlet
temperature is maintained at 350 oC to prevent the exit temperature from exceeding 550 oC.
Industrial reactors operate at a range from atmospheric pressure to 8375 kPa.
2.5 Selection of technology/ Basis of selection

2.5.1 Texaco entrained-flow gasifier
The entrained-flow gasifier which uses the top-fired coal-water-slurry-feed gasifier is

used in the Texaco process. In addition to being the most inexpensive design available, this
process is ideal for producing syngas for further processing. There is no requirement of
additional added steam in this process, since the water present in the slurry will vaporize in
the high-temperature reactor.
In the Texaco process, slurry is prepared by combining crushed coal feedstock and
water in a slurry tank. The slurry is introduced with oxygen through the feed-injector (burner)
into the refractory-lined gasifier. The gasification process occurs generally around 1500 ºC,
which is in the slagging temperature range. The pressure requirement is between 30-70 bar.
The syngas is cooled in a water quench because it is suitable for providing conditions
for CO shift reaction, required in the coal-to-methanol process. In using the quench process
for syngas cooling, the gaseous effluent leaves through the bottom of the reactor with the
liquid ash and enters the cooling vessel. In the Texaco quench setup, a total quench occurs
where the leaving cooled gas is entirely saturated with water and at a temperature between
200 to 300 ºC. Once cooled, the liquid ash is solidified into slag and is separated by a lock
hopper. The water that leaves the water is recycled and may be used again in feed
preparation.
2.5.2 Lurgi Methanol reactor

Efficient syngas to methanol conversion is essential for low cost methanol production .In
addition , optimum utilization of reaction heat offers cost advantages and energy savings for
the overall plant.
The choice of the methanol reactor is the Lurgi Methanol Reactor. There are other options
that are interesting, but the Lurgi reactor is believed to have a high level of temperature

control. The choice is also based on the fact that the methanol industry has a very high level
of experience with the Lurgi Methanol reactor, among others.
Methanex, United states(1992)

Statoil, Norway (1992)
CINOPEC, China(1993)
KIMI, Indonesia (1994)
NPC, Iran(1995)
Sastech,South Africa( 1996)
Titan,Trinidad(1997)
PIC , Kuwait(1998)
YPF,Argentina(1999)
Atlas,Trinidad(2000)
Methanex,Chile(2002)
ZAGROS II,Iran(2004)
Hainam Methanol,China (2004) . QAFAC ,Qatar (2004)
In the process offered by the Lurgi Corporation for the synthesis of methanol , the converter
or synthsis reactor is operated at
Temperatureranging from 220 -260 degree celcius
Pressure ranging from 50- 100bar
The Lurgi Methanol reactor is basically a vertical shell and tube heat exchanger with fixed
tube sheets. The catalyst is accommodate in tubes and rests on a bed of inert material. The
water/steam mixture generated by the heat of reaction is drawn off below the upper tube
sheet .Steam pressure control permits exact control of the reaction temperature .This iso
thermal reator achieves verfy high yields at low recycle ratios and minimizes the production
of by products.

2.6 Raw material

Due to the objective of creating methanol as a reasonable alternative to crude oils,
minimizing the cost was crucial in the selection of the coal. These include choosing the
feedstock which is the cheapest based on the amount of carbon present. Due to environmental
regulation, the gas, liquid, and solid effluents must be treated. Hydrogen Sulfide (H2S),
carbon dioxide (CO2), and ash have high costs associated with their removal. The figures
comparing the different types of coal are featured.
Table 1 Talchar, Orissa [4]
Property Talchar, Orissa

Calorific Value Basis
4300
(kcal/kg )
Total Moisture 4.68%
Carbon 61%
Ash 21.0%
Sulphur 0.49%
Nitrogen 1.53%
Table 2 Bokaro, Jharkhand [5]
Property Bokaro, Jharkhand
Calorific Value Basis 4098

(kcal/kg )
Carbon 52.3%
Ash 36%
Sulphur 0.41%
Nitrogen 1.23%

Table 3 Kobra, Chattisgarh [6]
Property Korba, Chhattisgarh
Calorific Value Basis 4020

(kcal/kg )
Carbon 42.93%
Ash 38%
Sulphur 0.4%
Nitrogen 1.06%
The coal from Talchar, Orissa is selected as it has high calorific value and low moisture
content and relative lower ash content. Low moisture content is basic requirement for coal as
the gasification of coal is to be done and low moisture content coal will not require any pre -
treatment like drying before gasification process.
Other parameter that was considered is the location of availability of coal. Based on these
parameter we have chosen the coal from Talchar Orissa.
2.6.1 Lignite
Another possible source of raw material is Lignite. Despite being cheaper than coal what
discouraged the use of this as the source of raw material is
 Low carbon content (25% to 35%)

 High moisture content (45 % to 55 %)
 High Ash content (6% to 19%)
 High Sulfur Content
A technical – economic analyses was conducted Institute for Chemical Processing of Coal
(IChPW), Zabrze, Poland was conducted based on the assumed conditions and the results

thus far are not fully encouraging; the most viable form of lignite utilization is the traditional
production of electrical energy.
(http://www.chemikinternational.com/)
2.6.2 Availibility of coal
In India, many Coal reserves are there. Still Coal is imported to meet the needs of the
country. As a result of exploration carried out up to the maximum depth of 1200 metre by
the GSI, CMPDI, SCCL, MECL, DGM(Maharashtra) and DGM(Chhattisgarh) etc., a
cumulative total of 2,93,497 Million Tonnes of Geological Resources of Coal have so far
been estimated in the country as on 1.4.2012. The details of state-wise geological resources
of coal are given as under:
2.6.2.1 Gondwana coalfields
Table 4 Gondwana Coalfields [7]
State Geological Resources of Coal (million tonnes)
Proved Indicated Inferred Total
Andhra Pradesh 9566.31 9553.91 3034.34 22154.86
Assam 0 2.79 0 2.79
Bihar 0 0 160.00 160.00
Chhattisgarh 13987.85 33448.25 3410.05 50846.15
Jharkhand 40163.22 33609.29 6583.69 80356.20
Madhya Pradesh 9308.70 12290.65 2676.91 24376.26
Maharashtra 5667.48 3104.40 2110.21 10882.09

Orissa 25546.66 36465.97 9433.78 71447.41
Sikkim 0 58.25 42.98 101.23
Uttar Pradesh 884.04 177.76 0 1061.80
West Bengal 12425.44 13358.24 4832.04 30615.72
Total 117551.01 142069.51 32383.99 292004.51
2.6.2.2 Tertiary Coalfields
Table 5 Tertiary Coalfields [8]
Geological Resources of Coal
Proved Indicated Inferred Inferred Total

(Exploration) (Mapping)
Arunachal
Pradesh 31.23 40.11 12.89 6.00 90.23
Assam
464.78 42.72 0.50 2.52 510.52

Meghalaya
89.04 16.51 27.58 443.35 576.48

Nagaland
8.76 0 8.60 298.05 315.41

Total
593.81 99.34 49.57 749.92 1492.6

The coal import data (in million tonnes) for the time period of 1998 to 2001 are given below
Table 6 Coal Import Data [9]
Coal 1998-99 1999-2000 2000-01
Coking Coal 10.02 10.99 11.06
Non-Coking Coal 6.51 8.71 9.87
Coke 1.57 2.41 2.42
Total Import 18.10 22.11 23.35
Above data shows that import of Coal has increased in each year.
2.6.3 Government policies for import of Coal
As per the present Import Policy, coal can be freely imported (under Open General Licence)
by the consumers themselves considering their needs and exercising their own commercial
judgements. The duty on import of oal is as under
Table 7 Import Duty Structure for Coal [10]
Present import duty structure for coal
Type of Coal Basic Duty Other Duties Total (effective)

Import Duty
Coking having up to 12% ash 5% 4.2% 9.2%

Coal
Having ash 12% and 15% 4.6% 19.6%
more
Coke 15% 4.6% 19.6%

Non Coking Coal 25% 5% 30%
2.6.4 Testing procedures for Coal
Different standards for testing of Coal are mentioned below
ASTM Standards for Coal
ASTM stands for American Society for Testing and Materials. The ASTM standards for Coal
are mentioned below
 D121 Terminology of Coal and Coke
 D388 Classification of Coals by Rank
 D2013/D2013M Practice for Preparing Coal Samples for Analysis
 D3173 Test Method for Moisture in the Analysis Sample of Coal and Coke
 D3174 Test Method for Ash in the Analysis Sample of Coal and Coke from Coal
 D3175 Test Method for Volatile Matter in the Analysis Sample of Coal and Coke
BIS Standards for Coal
BIS stands for Bureau of Indian Standards. The BIS standards for Coal are mentioned below
 IS 1350 (Part 4/Sec 1) : 1974 Methods of test for coal and coke : Part IV Ultimate
analysis, Section 1 Determination of carbon and hydrogen (first revision)
 IS 1350 (Part 4/Sec 2) : 1975 Methods of test for coal and coke : Part IV
Ultimate analysis, Section 2 Determination of nitrogen (first revision)

2.7 Present status of the product

Methanol is one of the most heavily traded chemical commodities in the world, with an
estimated global demand of around 27 to 29 million metric tons. In recent years, production
capacity has expanded considerably, with new plants coming on-stream in South America,
China and the Middle East, the latter based on access to abundant supplies of methane gas.
Even though nameplate production capacity (coal-based) in China has grown significantly,
operating rates are estimated to be as low as 50 to 60%. No new production capacity is
scheduled to come on-stream until 2015.India accounted for four percent of the overall Asia-
Pacific methanol market demand share in the year 2012. In India, methanol fills an important
niche in the pharmaceutical sector market. With the expected increase in the production in
this industry the demand for methanol is on the rise. Production capacity as well as
production of methanol is expected to surge in the following years

3. Material & Energy balance
Stream No. 3 44 4
Temperature (K) 303.1 503.1 1500
Mole Flow (kmol/sec)
WATER 3.13 0 1.346
NITROGEN 0.027 0 0.027
OXYGEN 0.113 0.5 0.167
SULFUR 0.008 0 0
HYDROGEN 1.021 0 2.797
CARBON MONOXIDE 0 0 2.421
CARBON DIOXIDE 0 0 0.127
HYDROGEN SULFIDE 0 0 0.008
CARBON 2.549 0 0
Total Mole Flow (kmol/sec) 4.299 0.5 6.894
Mass Flow (kg/sec)
COAL 0 0 0
ASH 10.54 0 10.54
Total Mass Flow (kg/sec) 104.235 15.999 120.234
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr) -3091.05 10.289 -2660.21

Stream No. 4 5
Temperature (K) 1500 1113.63
WATER 1.346 1.346
NITROGEN 0.027 0.027
OXYGEN 0.167 0.167
SULFUR 0 0
HYDROGEN 2.797 2.797
CARBON MONOXIDE 2.421 2.421
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.127 0.127
HYDROGEN SULFIDE 0.008 0.008
CARBON 0 0
Total Mole Flow (kmol/sec) 6.894 6.894
Mass Flow (kg/sec)
COAL 0 0
ASH 10.54 10.54
Total Mass Flow (kg/sec) 120.234 120.234
Heat Load = 137849.4616 KW

Stream No. 5 6
Temperature (K) 1113.63 983.1
WATER 1.346 1.346
NITROGEN 0.027 0.027
OXYGEN 0.167 0.167
SULFUR 0 0
HYDROGEN 2.797 2.797
CARBON MONOXIDE 2.421 2.421
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.127 0.127
HYDROGEN SULFIDE 0.008 0.008
CARBON 0 0
Total Mole Flow (kmol/sec) 6.894 6.894
Mass Flow (kg/sec)
COAL 0 0
ASH 10.54 10.54
Total Mass Flow (kg/sec) 120.234 120.234
Heat Load = 50258.49261 KW

Stream No. 6 7 45
Temperature (K) 983.1 983.1 983.1
WATER 1.346 1.346 0

NITROGEN 0.027 0.027 0
OXYGEN 0.167 0.167 0
SULFUR 0 0 0
HYDROGEN 2.797 2.797 0
CARBON MONOXIDE 2.421 2.421 0
CARBON DIOXIDE 0.127 0.127 0
HYDROGEN SULFIDE 0.008 0.008 0
CARBON 0 0 0
Total Mole Flow (kmol/sec) 6.894 6.894 0
Mass Flow (kg/sec)
COAL 0 0 0
ASH 10.54 0 10.54
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr) -1686.95 -1681.93 -5.029

Stream No.
7 8
Temperature (K)
983.1 760
WATER
1.346 1.346
NITROGEN
0.027 0.027
OXYGEN
0.167 0.167
SULFUR
0 0
HYDROGEN
2.797 2.797
CARBON MONOXIDE
2.421 2.421
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.127 0.127
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
0.008 0.008
Total Mole Flow (kmol/sec)
6.894 6.894
Total Mass Flow (kg/sec)
109.695 109.695
Heat Load = 65926.77225 KW

Stream No.
8 9
Temperature (K)
760 537
WATER
1.346 1.346
NITROGEN
0.027 0.027
OXYGEN
0.167 0.167
SULFUR
0 0
HYDROGEN
2.797 2.797
CARBON MONOXIDE
2.421 2.421
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.127 0.127
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
0.008 0.008
6.894 6.894
109.695 109.695
Heat Load = KW

Stream No.
9 10
Temperature (K)
537 312.9
WATER
1.346 1.346
NITROGEN
0.027 0.027
OXYGEN
0.167 0.167
SULFUR
0 0
HYDROGEN
2.797 2.797
CARBON MONOXIDE
2.421 2.421
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.127 0.127
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
0.008 0.008
6.894 6.894
109.695 109.695
Heat Load = 66222.408 KW

Stream No.
10 11 12
Temperature (K)
312.9 312.9 312.9
WATER
1.346 0 1.346
NITROGEN
0.027 0 0.027
OXYGEN
0.167 0 0.167
SULFUR
0 0 0
HYDROGEN
2.797 0 2.797
CARBON MONOXIDE
2.421 0 2.421
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.127 0 0.127
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
0.008 0.008 0
6.894 0.008 6.887
109.695 0.261 109.433
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr)
-2393.22 -0.867 -2392.74

Stream No.
11 13
Temperature (K)
312.9 305.6
WATER
0 0
NITROGEN
0 0
OXYGEN
0 0
SULFUR
0 0
HYDROGEN
0 0
CARBON MONOXIDE
0 0
CARBON DIOXIDE
0 0
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
0.008 0.008
0.008 0.008
0.261 0.261
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr)
-0.867 -0.867

Stream No.
13 14
Temperature (K)
312 1273
WATER
0 0
NITROGEN
0 0
OXYGEN
0 0
SULFUR
0 0
HYDROGEN
0 0
CARBON MONOXIDE
0 0
CARBON DIOXIDE
0 0
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
0.008 0.008
0.008 0.008
0.261 0.261

Stream No.
14 15 16
Temperature (K) 305.6 312.9 1273.2
WATER 0 0 0.002
NITROGEN 0 0 0
OXYGEN 0 0.007 0.006
SULFUR 0 0 0.002
HYDROGEN 0 0 0
CARBON MONOXIDE 0 0 0
CARBON DIOXIDE 0 0 0
HYDROGEN SULFIDE 0.008 0 0.005
Total Mole Flow (kmol/sec) 0.008 0.007 0.016
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr)
-0.867 0 1.756

Stream No. 16 45
Temperature (°C) 1000 150
Mole Flow (mol/s)
Hydrogen Sulphide 0.002733 0.002733
Water 0.00492 0.00492
Sulphur 0.003592 0.003592
Oxygen 0.001208 0.001208
Sulphur Dioxide 0.001328 0.001328
Total Mole Flow (mol/s) 0.01378 0.01378
Mass Flow (kg/sec) 0.421 0.421

Stream No. 45 47 46
Temperature (°C) 150 150 150
Mole Flow (mol/s)
Hydrogen Sulphide 0.002733 0.002733 0
Water 0.00492 0.00492 0
Sulphur 0.003592 0 0.003592
Oxygen 0.001208 0.001208 0
Sulphur Dioxide 0.001328 0.001328 0
Total Mole Flow (mol/s) 0.01378 0.010189 0.003592
Mass Flow (kg/sec) 0.421 0.306 0.115

Stream No. 47 48
Mole Flow (mol/s)
Water 0.00492 0.00492
Sulphur 0 0
Oxygen 0.001208 0.001208

Stream No. 48 49
Mole Flow (mol/s)
Water 0.00492 0.007078
Sulphur 0 0.003238
Oxygen 0.001208 0.001208

Stream No. 49 50
Mole Flow (mol/s)
Water 0.007078 0.007078
Sulphur 0.003238 0.003238
Oxygen 0.001208 0.001208

Stream No. 50 52 51
Mole Flow (mol/s)
Hydrogen Sulphide 0.000574 0.000574 0
Water 0.007078 0.007078 0
Sulphur 0.003238 0 0.003238
Oxygen 0.001208 0.001208 0
Sulphur Dioxide 0.000249 0.000249 0
Mass Flow (kg/sec) 0.306 0.202 0.104

Stream No. 52 53
Mole Flow (mol/s)
Water 0.007078 0.007078
Sulphur 0 0
Oxygen 0.001208 0.001208

Stream No. 53 54
Mole Flow (mol/s)
Hydrogen Sulphide 0.000574 9.76E-05
Water 0.007078 0.007555
Sulphur 0 0.000714
Oxygen 0.001208 0.001208
Sulphur Dioxide 0.000249 1.06E-05

Stream No. 54 55
Mole Flow (mol/s)
Hydrogen Sulphide 9.76E-05 9.76E-05
Water 0.007555 0.007555
Sulphur 0.000714 0.000714
Oxygen 0.001208 0.001208
Sulphur Dioxide 1.06E-05 1.06E-05

Stream No. 55 56 57
Mole Flow (mol/s)
Hydrogen Sulphide 9.76E-05 9.76E-05 0
Water 0.007555 0.007555 0
Sulphur 0.000714 0 0.000714
Oxygen 0.001208 0.001208 0
Sulphur Dioxide 1.06E-05 1.06E-05 0
Mass Flow (kg/sec) 0.202 0.179 0.023

Stream No.
12 21
Temperature (K)
312.9 314.6
WATER
1.346 1.346
NITROGEN
0.027 0.027
OXYGEN
0.167 0.167
HYDROGEN
2.797 2.797
CARBON MONOXIDE
2.421 2.421
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.127 0.127
6.887 6.887
109.433 109.433
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr)
-2392.74 -2392.74

Stream No.
21 22
Temperature (K)
314.6 644.1
WATER
1.346 1.346
NITROGEN
0.027 0.027
OXYGEN
0.167 0.167
HYDROGEN
2.797 2.797
CARBON MONOXIDE
2.421 2.421
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.127 0.127
6.887 6.887
109.433 109.433
Heat Load =137849.4616 KW

Stream No.
22 23 24
Temperature (K)
644.1 393.1 627.1
WATER
1.346 1.1 1.841
NITROGEN
0.027 0 0.027
OXYGEN
0.167 0 0.167
HYDROGEN
2.797 0 3.403
CARBON MONOXIDE
2.421 0 1.816
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.127 0 0.733
6.887 1.1 7.987
109.433 19.817 129.25
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr)
-1945.92 -895.794 -2904.71

Stream No.
24 25
Temperature (K)
627.1 473
WATER
1.841 1.841
NITROGEN
0.027 0.027
OXYGEN
0.167 0.167
HYDROGEN
3.403 3.403
CARBON MONOXIDE
1.816 1.816
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.733 0.733
7.987 7.987
129.25 129.25

Stream No.
25 26 27
Temperature (K)
200 393.1 473.1
WATER
1.841 0.45 2.2
NITROGEN
0.027 0 0.027
OXYGEN
0.167 0 0.167
HYDROGEN
3.403 0 3.494
CARBON MONOXIDE
1.816 0 1.725
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.733 0 0.824
7.987 0.45 8.437
129.25 8.107 137.357
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr)
-3596.43 -366.461 -3422.38

Stream No.
27 28
Temperature (K)
473.1 423.1
WATER
2.2 2.2
NITROGEN
0.027 0.027
OXYGEN
0.167 0.167
HYDROGEN
3.494 3.494
CARBON MONOXIDE
1.725 1.725
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.824 0.824
8.437 8.437
137.357 137.357

Stream No.
28 29 29
Temperature (K)
423.1 423.1 423.1
WATER
2.2 2.2 2.2
NITROGEN
0.027 0 0
OXYGEN
0.167 0 0
HYDROGEN
3.494 0 0
CARBON MONOXIDE
1.725 0 0
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.824 0 0
8.437 2.2 2.2
137.357 39.633 39.633
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr)
-3665.62 -2081.7 -2081.7

Stream No.
33 35
Temperature (K)
810 486
1.4005 1.4005
WATER
0.029 0.029
NITROGEN
0.0135 0.0135
OXYGEN
0.0835 0.0835
HYDROGEN
0 0
CARBON MONOXIDE
0.033 0.033
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.3825 0.3825
METHANOL
0.859 0.859
1.4005 1.4005
48.862 48.862

Stream No.
35 35 39
Temperature (K)
1273.2 1273.2 1273.2
1.4005 1.4005 0.888
WATER
0.029 0.029 0.029
NITROGEN
0.0135 0.0135 0
OXYGEN
0.0835 0.0835 0
HYDROGEN
0 0 0
CARBON MONOXIDE
0.033 0.033 0
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.3825 0.3825 0
METHANOL
0.859 0.859 0.859
1.4005 1.4005 1.4005
48.862 48.862 28.01
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr)
-840.17 -840.17 -840.17

Stream No.
34 36
Temperature (K)
810 486
1.4005 1.4005
WATER
0.029 0.029
NITROGEN
0.0135 0.0135
OXYGEN
0.0835 0.0835
HYDROGEN
0 0
CARBON MONOXIDE
0.033 0.033
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.3825 0.3825
METHANOL
0.859 0.859
1.4005 1.4005
48.862 48.862
Heat Load = 31843.50086 KW

Stream No.
36 38 40
Temperature (K)
1273.2 1273.2 1273.2
1.4005 0.5125 0.888
WATER
0.029 0 0.029
NITROGEN
0.0135 0.0135 0
OXYGEN
0.0835 0.0835 0
HYDROGEN
0 0 0
CARBON MONOXIDE
0.033 0.033 0
CARBON DIOXIDE
0.3825 0.3825 0
METHANOL
0.859 0 0.859
1.4005 1.4005 1.4005
48.862 20.852 28.01
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr)
-840.17 -840.17 -840.17

Stream No.
41 42 43
Temperature (K)
1273.2 1273.2 1273.2
1.776 1.719718 0.058
WATER
0.058 0.001718 0.058
NITROGEN
0 0 0
OXYGEN
0 0 0
HYDROGEN
0 0 0
CARBON MONOXIDE
0 0 0
CARBON DIOXIDE
0 0 0
METHANOL
1.718 1.718 0
2.801 2.801 2.801
56.02 54.976 1.044
Enthalpy (MMBtu/hr)
-1680.34 -1680.34 -1680.34

4. Detailed design of process equipment
4.1 Process design

4.1.2 Process Design Of Heat Exchanger
Step 1 .Collection of data

Cold fluid
Shell side
Temperature in (Tin)( o K) 312
Temperature out (Tout) (o K) 664
Viscosity, (Ns/m2) .001
Density, (kg/m3) 23.14
Conductivity , (W/m2o C) .108
heat Capacity, ( KJ/kg o C) 3.027
Hot fluid
Tube side
Temperature in (tin)( o K) 1550
Mass flow rate (kg/s) 122.859
Heat capacity ( KJ/kg o C) 2.15
density (kg/m3) 18.78
Viscosity (Ns/m2) 0.00013
Conductivity (W/m2o C) 0.09

Step2. Heat loads
Heat load=m *Cp*∆T = 111962.838 KW
Temperature of Cold fluid after heat exchange is 1126.13 K
Step 3. Calculation of Mean temperature difference
1550 − 644 − (1126 − 312)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 1550 −644
= 807 ℃
𝑙𝑛 1126 −312
For a 1 shell – 4 tube pass split ring floating head heat exchanger
Tube side: Hot fluid
Shell Side: Cold Fluid
Tin − Tout
𝑅= = .7832
tout − tin
tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.3423
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.93
Actual LMTD = 759.23 ℃
Assumption U = 500 W/m2-K
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦
Trial Area = = 277.24 m2
𝑈∗𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷
Assuming Tube Outer Diameter O.D = 25 mm
Tube Inner Diameter I.D = 21 mm
Length (Allowing for tube thickness) = 4.83 m

𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Number of Tubes = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 1472
1/n1
 Nt 
Bundle Diameter = Db  do  
 K1 
For Triangular Pitch K1 = 0.249 & n1 = 2.207 (Ref Table 12.4 , C&R Vol 6)
Db = 1.305 m
Step 4. Tube Side Heat Transfer Coefficient
Actual No. of tubes used = 1472
Tubes per pass = 368
Total flow area = 0.127 m2
Tube side velocity = 2.567 m/sec
𝐷𝑒 𝐺𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 20241
𝜇
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = =23.88
𝑘
For Re > 2100 turbulent flow
1 𝜇 0.14
𝑕𝑖 = 0.027 𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 3
𝜇𝑤
Jh = 0.004 hi = 988.8669 W/m2o C
hio= 830.648 W/m2o C

Step 5. Shell Side Heat Transfer Coefficient
Shell Diameter Ds = 2.61 m
Baffle spacing = 0.2766 m
Tube Pitch Pt = 1.25* tube I.D = 0.03125 m
Cross flow area = 0.0767 m2
Mass velocity (G) = 1457.3 kg/s m2(Ref section 12.7.2, Page 660, C&R vol 6)
Equivalent Diameter = 0.01775 m
Reynolds Number = 25868
Jh = 0.0032
Heat transfer coefficient h0 = 1533 W/m2o C
Step 6. Calculation of Overall Coefficient

Tube material will be plain carbon steel,
Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1
 
1
  di   d o 1  d 0 1
U o ho hod 2kw di hid di hi
Uo = 538 W/m2oC

Acceptable, error less than 30%
Step 7. Pressure Drop
Tube side Pressure drop
From figure 12.24, 𝑗𝑓 =0.0038
𝐿 𝜇 −𝑚 𝜌𝑢2
∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 10.634 kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
Shell-side Pressure drop
𝐷𝑆 𝑙 𝜌𝑢 2
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8 × 𝑗𝑓 × × × = 256.34 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (Ref. Eq. 12.26 C&R Vol 6)
𝑑 𝑒 𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝐵 𝑚 2
This is acceptable.
4.1.2 Process Design Of Cooler C-1

Cold fluid
Shell side
Temperature in (Tin)( o C) 20
Temperature out (Tout) (o C) 80
Density, (kg/m3) 985

Hot fluid
Tube side
Temperature in (tin)( o C) 870
Temperature out (tout) (o C) 710
Step2. Heat loads
Flow rate of water can be calculated using enthalpy balance:
Mass flow rate of water = 113.42 Kg/sec
1142 − 373 − (983 − 293)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 1142 −373
= 692.485 ℃
𝑙𝑛 2983−293
For a 1 shell - 2 tube pass split ring floating head heat exchanger

Tin − Tout
𝑅= = 0.502
tout − tin
tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.1873
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.95
Trial Area = = 90.3068m2
Number of Tubes = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑜𝑓𝑜𝑛𝑒 = 478
𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
1/n1
 Nt 
 K1 
For Triangular Pitch K1 = 0.249& n1 = 2.207(Ref Table 12.4 , C&R Vol 6)
Db = 0.798m
Tube side velocity = 3.75428kg/s m2

𝐷𝑒 𝐺𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 27827
𝜇
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = =30.714
𝑘
1 𝜇 0.14
𝑕𝑖 = 0.027 𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 3
𝜇𝑤
Jh = 0.0035 hi = 1005.1916W/m2o C
hio= 844.361 W/m2o C
Reynolds Number = 65644
Jh = 0.0025
Heat transfer coefficient h0 = 10438 W/m2o C

Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1
 
1
  di   d o 1  d 0 1
Uo = 781.1715W/m2oC
∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 10.049 kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
This is acceptable.

4.1.3 Process design of cooler C-2
Cold fluid
Shell side
Hot fluid
Tube side

Step2. Heat loads
Heat load=m *Cp*∆T = 52593.26775KW
710 − 80 − (487 − 20)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 710−80
= 517.21 ℃
𝑙𝑛 487−20
Tin − Tout
𝑅= = 0.269
tout − tin
tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.3231
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.95
Trial Area = =169.4750616m2

1/n1
 Nt 
Bundle Diameter = Db  do
 K1 

Db = 1.052m
𝐷𝑒 𝐺𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 14779.68379
𝜇
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = =26.87
𝑘
1 𝜇 0.14
0.8
𝑕𝑖 = 0.027 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
3
𝜇𝑤
Jh = 0.0037 hi =617.1952215W/m2o C
hio= 518.4439861 W/m2o C

Shell Diameter Ds = 2.104405876m
Mass velocity (G) = 4148.876774kg/s m2(Ref section 12.7.2, Page 660, C&R vol 6)
Equivalent Diameter =0.01775125m
Reynolds Number = 73647.74884
Jh = 0.004
Heat transfer coefficient h0 = 18737.73272W/m2o C

Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1
 
1
  di   d o 1  d 0 1
Uo= 504.485651W/m2oC


∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 2.966786271 kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8 × 𝑗𝑓 × × × =89.78230263𝑘𝑃𝑎(Ref. Eq. 12.26 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable.

Cold fluid
Shell side
Hot fluid

Tube side
Step2. Heat loads
487 − 80 − (264 − 20)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 487−80
= 302.65 ℃
𝑙𝑛 264−20
Tin − Tout
𝑅= = 0.269
tout − tin

tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.477
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.94
Trial Area = = 289.6252328m2
1/n1
 Nt 
 K1 
Db = 1.331m
𝐷𝑒 𝐺𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 17274.95508
𝜇

𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = =26.875
𝑘
1 𝜇 0.14
0.8
𝑕𝑖 = 0.027 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
3
𝜇𝑤
Jh = 0.0037 hi = 721.3970122W/m2o C
hio= 605.9734902 W/m2o C
Jh = 0.0036


Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1
 
1
  di   d o 1  d 0 1
Uo = 573.9197909W/m2oC
∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 40.53123426kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
This is acceptable.

Cold fluid
Shell side
Hot fluid
Tube side
Temperature in (tin)(K) 537
Temperature out (tout) (K) 313

Step2. Heat loads
537 − 80 − (313 − 20)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 537−80
= 350.497 ℃
𝑙𝑛 313−20
Tin − Tout
𝑅= = 0.2678
tout − tin
tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.4332
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.96
Trial Area = = 251.2099902m2

1/n1
 Nt 
 K1 

Db = 1.251m
𝐷𝑒 𝐺𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 19912.74763
𝜇
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = =26.875
𝑘
1 𝜇 0.14
0.8
𝑕𝑖 = 0.027 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
3
𝜇𝑤
Jh = 0.0037 hi = 831.5504482W/m2o C
hio= 698.5023765 W/m2o C

Jh = 0.003

Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1
 
1
  di   d o 1  d 0 1
Uo = 653.7849264W/m2oC

∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 10.77080964kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8 × 𝑗𝑓 × × × =47.41171384𝑘𝑃𝑎 (Ref. Eq. 12.26 C&R Vol
6)
This is acceptable.
4.1.6 Process design of reactor R-1

Properties of Catalyst
Catalyst used = Al2O3
Appearance 4-6mm white granule
Specific surface area, m2/g >300
Pore volume, ml/g >0.40
Average crushing strength, N/granule >140
Bulk density, g/ml 0.6-0.80
Abration, %(m/m) < 1.0

Density of inlet stream to reactor (ρ) = 1.341355 kg/m3
Since total mass flow rate (F) = 939.6 kg/hr
GHSV = 2000 hr-1
(ref: Toward elimination of discrepancies between theory and experiment: The rate constant
of the atmospheric conversion of SO3 to H2SO4 by Thomas Loerting and Klaus R. Liedl)
Volume of catalyst = Inlet volumetric flow rate/ GHSV = 0.350242924 m3

Bulk density of catalyst = 752.87 kg/m3
Mass of catalyst (kg) = volume of catalyst * bulk density = 263.6873905 kg
Porosity of bed (ɛ) = 0.8094
Volume of cylindrical portion of reactor = Volume of catalyst/ (1-ɛ) = 1.837580926 m3
L/D (length to diameter ratio) = 2.5
So, D = 0.978 m
Cross sectional area = πD2/4 =0.75155 m2
Depth of reactor head =D/4 = 0.2445 m
Volume of reactor head =1.9601 m3.
Height of cylinder (L) = L/D* D = 2.445 m.
Height of head = Height of Lower + Upper head = D/2 = 0.489 m.
Total height = L+ (D/2) = 2.934 m.
Height with 10% margin = 3.2275 m.

Pressure drop calculation
∆P = pressure drop, lb./in.2, or psi
L = depth of the packed bed, ft.
G = ρV = mass velocity, lb./hr.-ft.2
V = superficial linear velocity, ft./hr.
ρ = fluid density, lb/ft.3
µ = fluid viscosity, lb./hr.-ft.
D = effective particle diameter, ft.
ε = interparticle void fraction, dimensionless
g = gravitational constant, 4.17 x 108 lb.-ft./lb.-hr.2
Using these formulae we calculate the value of C, f and finally ΔP
C = 0.104754526
f = 1.000067172
ΔP = 0.00177 lb/in2

4.1.7 Process design of condenser Con 1
Cold fluid
Shell side
Hot fluid
Tube side
Conductivity (KW/m2o C) 0.00041
Step2. Heat loads
Heat load=m *Cp*∆T + m*λ = 757.01785 KW

1000 − 80 − (150 − 20)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 1000 −80
= 375.45 ℃
𝑙𝑛 150−20
Tin − Tout
𝑅= = 0.07
tout − tin
tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.867
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.97
Trial Area = = 20.16281773 m2

1/n1
 Nt 
 K1 
For Triangular Pitch K1 = 0.249 & n1 = 2.207 (Ref Table 12.4 , C&R
Vol 6)
Db = 0.307 m
Tubes per pass = 27
Tube side velocity = 1.813794513 m/s
𝐷𝑒 𝐺𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 945.3859759
𝜇
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = =5.124
𝑘
Jh = 0.003
hi = 94.95 W/m2o C (Ref section 12.15 Page , C&R vol 6)
hio= 79.75468111 W/m2o C

Jh = 0.006

Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1 1
    di   d o 1  d 0 1
Uo = 77.96950761 W/m2oC

∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 1.451156492 kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8 × 𝑗𝑓 × × × =7.3034 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (Ref. Eq. 12.26 C&R Vol6)
This is acceptable.

Since total mass flow rate (F) = 1101.6 kg/hr
GHSV = 2000 hr-1

So, D = 0.9369 m
Volume of reactor head = 1.7229 m3.

C = 0.104754526
f = 1.00005981
ΔP = 0.00182 lb/in2

Cold fluid
Shell side

Hot fluid
Tube side
Step2. Heat loads
305 − 80 − (155 − 20)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 305−80
= 167.983 ℃
𝑙𝑛 150−20

Tin − Tout
𝑅= = 0.387
tout − tin
tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.543
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.97
Trial Area = = 13.07945892 m2
1/n1
 Nt 
 K1 
Db = 0.257 m
Tubes per pass = 18

𝐷𝑒 𝐺𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 1030.717727
𝜇
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 7.859
𝑘
Jh = 0.0031
hio= 65.94178341 W/m2o C
Jh = 0.0058
Heat transfer coefficient h0 = 618.4975307 W/m2o C

Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1 1
    di   d o 1  d 0 1
Uo = 59.58867261W/m2oC
∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 1.507068006 kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8 × 𝑗𝑓 × × × =3.3018 𝑘𝑃𝑎 (Ref. Eq. 12.26 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable.


Since total mass flow rate (F) = 727.2 m3/hr
GHSV = 2000 hr-1

So, D = 0.8047 m
Height of cylinder (L) = L/D* D = 2.0118m.

C = 0.104754526
f = 1.000105484
ΔP = 0.000764 lb/in2

Cold fluid
Shell side
Hot fluid
Tube side

Step2. Heat loads
305 − 80 − (155 − 20)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 305−80
= 134.61 ℃
𝑙𝑛 150−20
Tin − Tout
𝑅= = 0.8
tout − tin
tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.365
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.98
Trial Area = = 5.410954077 m2

1/n1
 Nt 
 K1 
Db = 0.237 m
Tubes per pass = 15
𝐷𝑒 𝐺𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 816.4901208
𝜇
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = = 11.065
𝑘
Jh = 0.0031
hio= 44.76170113 W/m2o C

Cross flow area = 0.00398m2
Reynolds Number =621.0859879
Jh = 0.021

Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1 1
    di   d o 1  d 0 1
Uo = 42.47018891 W/m2oC

∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 0.586613712 kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
This is acceptable.

Cold fluid
Shell side

Hot fluid
Tube side
Step2. Heat loads
354 − 80 − (200 − 20)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 354−80
= 208.05 ℃
𝑙𝑛 200−20

Tin − Tout
𝑅= = .389
tout − tin
tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.461
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.93
Trial Area = = 334.9975346m2
1/n1
 Nt 
 K1 
Db = 1.044m
Tube side velocity = 3.398503854m/sec

𝐷𝑒 𝐺𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 17729.60689
𝜇
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = =17.86
𝑘
1 𝜇 0.14
𝑕𝑖 = 0.027 𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 3
𝜇𝑤
Jh = 0.003 hi = 771.213404W/m2o C
hio= 647.8192593 W/m2o C
Shell Diameter Ds =2.087950548 m
Baffle spacing = 0.2244m
Jh = 0.003

Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1
 
1
  di   d o 1  d 0 1
Uo = 612.8080927W/m2oC
∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 77.91777537kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
This is acceptable.

4.1.13 Process design of High Temperature Shift Reactor R-3
It is a fixed bed reactor and catalyst is used for the shift reaction. Shift Reaction takes place
in presence of water. The feed enters at 370 C from top and passed through bed of catalyst.
Density of the inlet stream = 15.06325564 kg/m3
Since total mass flow rate (F) = 393958.8 kg/hr ,
So volumetric flow rate = F/ρ = 26153.62904m3/hr.
GHSV = 4000 hr-1
Bulk density of catalyst = 750 kg/m3
L/D(length to diameter ratio) = 4
so, D =1.4243114 m
Height of cylinder (L) = L/D* D =5.697245512 m.
Height of head = Height of Lower + Upper head = D/2 =0.712155689 m.
Total height = L+ (D/2) = 6.409401201 m.
Height with 10% margin =7.050341321 m.

Cold fluid
Shell side
Hot fluid
Tube side

Step2. Heat loads
200 − 80 − (150 − 20)

𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = 200−80
= 117.437 ℃
𝑙𝑛 150−20
Tin − Tout
𝑅= = 1.2
tout − tin
tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.277
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.94
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝐷𝑢𝑡𝑦
Trial Area = = 244.579549m2

𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Number of Tubes = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 1298
𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
1/n1
 Nt 
 K1 

Db = 1.235m
𝐷𝑒 𝐺𝑝
𝑅𝑒 = = 12832.07603
𝜇
𝐶𝑝 𝜇
𝑃𝑟 = =20.54
𝑘
1 𝜇 0.14
0.8
𝑕 𝑖 = 0.027 𝑅𝑒 𝑃𝑟
3
𝜇𝑤
Jh = 0.004 hi = 674.6229276W/m2o C
hio= 566.6832592 W/m2o C

Equivalent Diameter =0.01775125 m
Jh = 0.005

Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1
 
1
  di   d o 1  d 0 1
Uo = 506.1491128W/m2oC

∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 3.01328753kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
∆𝑃𝑠 = 8 × 𝑗𝑓 × × × =8.702267462𝑘𝑃𝑎 (Ref. Eq. 12.26 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable.
4.1.15 Process Design of Low Temperature Shift Reactor R-4
It is a fixed bed reactor and catalyst is used for the shift reaction. Shift Reaction takes place
in presence of water. The feed enters at 200oC from top and passed through bed of catalyst.
Since total mass flow rate (F) = 465300 kg/hr ,
So volumetric flow rate = F/ρ = 7077.509203 m3/hr.
GHSV = 4000 hr-1

L/D(length to diameter ratio) = 2.5
so, D = 1.0629631 m
Height of head = Height of Lower + Upper head = D/2 =0.531481535 m.
Total height = L+ (D/2) = 3.188889212 m.
Height with 10% margin =3.507778134 m.
4.1.16 Process design of methanol reactor R-5
It is a fixed bed reactor and catalyst of Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 is used for the methanol synthesis. The
reaction takes place at 220oC and at a pressure of 80 bar passed through bed of catalyst.
Since total mass flow rate (F) = 48.862kg/hr ,
So volumetric flow rate = F/ρ = 3.375533546 m3/hr.

L/D(length to diameter ratio) = 4
so, D = 1.3363958 m
Total height = L+ (D/2) = 6.01378095 m.

Cold fluid
Shell side

Hot fluid
Tube side
Temperature in (tin)(K) 537
Temperature out (tout) (K) 313
Step2. Heat loads
𝐿𝑀𝑇𝐷 = ((537 − 80) − (313 − 20))/𝑙𝑛[(537 − 80)/(313 − 20)] = 350.497 ℃


Tin − Tout
𝑅= = 0.2678
tout − tin
tout − tin
𝑆= = 0.4332
Tin − tin
Ft = 0.96
Trial Area = 122.2027407m2
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
Number of Tubes = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 652
𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒
1/n1
 Nt 
 K1 
Db = 0.914m

𝑅𝑒 = (𝐷_𝑒𝐺_𝑝)/𝜇 = 18175.00165
𝑃𝑟 = (𝐶_𝑝𝜇)/𝑘 =22.867
1 𝜇 0.14
𝑕𝑖 = 0.027 𝑅𝑒 0.8 𝑃𝑟 3
𝜇𝑤
Jh = 0.0037 hi = 923.5794972W/m2o C
hio= 775.8067777 W/m2o C
Equivalent Diameter =0.01775125 m

Jh = 0.003

Kw = 50W/moC
d 
do ln  o 
1 1
 
1
  di   d o 1  d 0 1
Uo = 686.2565W/m2oC
∆𝑃𝑠 = 𝑁𝑝 8𝑗𝑓 + 2.5
𝑑𝑖 𝜇𝑤 2
= 8.635415591kPa (Ref. Eq. 12.20 C&R Vol 6)
This is acceptable
From figure 12.30, 𝑗 𝑓 =0.038
This is acceptable.

4.1.18 Process design of distillation column
Design for Minimum Number of Trays and Reflux Ration using short cut method (Fenske and
Underwood Equation)
Components X (top) X (bot)
CH3OH(LK) 0.999 0.01
H2O(HK) 0.001 0.99
Step 1.Calculating Relative Volatilities based upon heavy key components
Components αitop αi bot α avg.
CH3OH 4.1 3.93 4.01
H2O 1 1 1
Step 2.Calculating minimum number of trays
log[( xLK / xHK ) d  ( xHK / xLK )b ]

Nm 
log  LK
Nm = 8.28
Nm = 9
Step 3.Calculation of Minimum Reflux
Using Colburn and Underwood Equation,
 i xi , f
  1 q Ref: Eqn 11.60, Page 525, C&R,Vol. 6
i 
For the current feed, q=0 (as feed is liquid)

 i xi ,d
  Rm  1 Ref: Eqn 11.61, Page 525, C&R,Vol. 6
i  
αi =the relative volatility of component I with respect to heavy key component
Rm= the minimum reflux ratio
xi,d= concentration of component i in the tops at minimum reflux
xi,f= concentration of component i in the field
Components ϴ=1.2 ϴ=1.015 ϴ=1.937
CH3OH 1.400446121 1.313941102 1.898337482
H2O -0.0932 -1.242666667 -0.019893276
So ϴ = 1.015 is selected.
Components Rm + 1 (calculated )
CH3OH 1.33755925
H2O -0.066666667
So Rm + 1 = 1.2708
So, Rm = 0.02708
Now , taking R = 2* Rm
So, R = 0.5417
Hence, R/(R+1) = 0.3514 and Rm/( Rm+1) = 0.213

Now, Nm/N = 0.24 Ref: Fig.11.11 , page 524 , C&R , Vol 6
Or N = 34.5 (ideal plates)
Assuming efficiency of plates to be 60 %, then the real no. of plates will be :
N (real) = 58
Step 4.Feed point location
𝑁𝑟
𝑙𝑜𝑔 = .206 𝑙𝑜𝑔((𝐵/𝐷)(𝑥_(𝑓_𝑕𝑘)/𝑥_(𝑓_𝑙𝑘) )(𝑥_(𝑏_𝑙𝑘)/𝑥_(𝑑_𝑕𝑘) )(𝑥_(𝑏_𝑙𝑘)
𝑁𝑠
/𝑥_(𝑑_𝑕𝑘) ) )
B 58 mol/s
D 1719.72 mol/s
Xf (hk) 0.01864
Xf (lk) 0.98136
Xb (lk) 0.01
Xd(hk) 0.001
Hence Ns = 21, Nr=37

Step 5.Determination of Column Diameter and Height
FLV=(Lw/Vw)(ρv/ρl).5 Ref: Eqn 11.82, Page 572, C&R,Vol.
Top stage Bottom stage
Lw 17.95 Lw 1.08
Vw 74.45 Vw 0.01
ρl 980 ρl 975
Ρv 1.5 ρv 2
Flv top 0.00943262 Flv bottom 4.891437
Restrictions:
 Hole size less than 6.5mm. Entrainment may be greater with larger hole sizes.
 Weir height less than 15% of the plate spacing.
 Non-foaming systems.
Taking Std. Plate spacing as 0.6m

K1 (top) 0.1
K1(bot) 0.042 From fig 11.82, Page 568, C&R,Vol. 6
𝜌𝑣
uf = K1 𝜌𝑙 − 𝜌𝑣Ref Coulson Richardson vol 6.eq 11.81
Base uf 0.926388
Top uf 2.554081
Design for 85% flooding max flow rate

Hence
Base u' f = 0.787426 m/s
Top u' f = 2.17096 m/s
Step 6. Max volumetric flow rate
Base = 0.05m3/s
Top = 49.63333333m3/s
Net area required
Bottom Area = 0.0635 m2
Top Area = 22.86229013 m2
Step 7.Column cross-sectional area
Bottomarea
Base =  0.07216m2
0.8
Toparea
Top =  25.97987515m2
0.8
Ab * 4
Column diameter ( Base ) =  0.95875m

At * 4
Column diameter ( Top ) =  5.8 m

Hence
Column diameter = 5.8 m chosen.
Step 8: Plate Design
Column Diameter, DC = 5.8 m

Column Area, Ac = 26.420856m2
Downcomer Area, Ad  0.12 Ac  3.17050272m2
Net Area, An  Ac  Ad  23.25035328m2
Active Area, An  Ac  2 Ad  20.07985056m2
Hole Area, Ah  0.1Aa  2.007985056m2
Weir Length, lw  0.77 * Dc  4.466m Ref Fig 11.31, Page 572, C&R,Vol. 6
Assuming Weir Height = 50 mm
Hole Diameter = 5 mm
Plate Thickness = 5 mm
L' m * MW
Maximum Liquid Rate =  1.08 kg/s
3600
Minimum Liquid Rate = 0.7 * Maximum Liquid Rate = 0.756kg/s
Lw max 2/3
Maximum how  750[ ] = 2.96070323mm
llw
Lw min
Minimum how  750 = 2.334140016mm
llw
At minimum rate, hw  how = 52.33414002mm
From Figure 11.30, Page 571, C&R, Volume K2=30.1
 k 2  0.9(25.4  dh 
uh(min)    = 8.301433611m/s
 v ^1 / 2 
0.7 * uh
Actual Minimum vapor velocity = = 17.30258561 m/s
Vapour density
So, minimum operating rate is above weeping point.

Step 9 .Plate Pressure Drop
Maximum Velocity, uh = 24.71797944m/s
From Figure 11.34, C&R, Volume 6, Co=0.84
 uh  v
2
Hence, hd  51  = 80.44144mm liquid
 C 0  l
Ref Fig 11.88, Page 575, C&R,Vol. 6
12.5 *10^3
Residual Head, hr  =12.7551mm

Total Pressure Drop = 146.1572 mm liquid
Step 10.Downcomer liquid backup
Downcomer Pressure loss
Take hap  hw  10  40 mm
Area under Apron, Aap  lw * 40 *10^3 = 0.17864m2
This is smaller than Ad, so Ad is used. Ref Fig 11.92, Page 577, C&R,Vol. 6
2
 Lwd 
Hence, hdc  166   = 0.06382472 mm
 lAm 
Back up in downcomer,
hb  hd + hr + hdc = 199.1243 mm
Since, 199.1243< 0.5 (plate spacing+ weir height)
Ref Fig 11.94, Page 578, C&R,Vol. 6
Hence, tray spacing is acceptable.

Step 11. Residence time
Adhbcl
R = 56.99454913s which is acceptable
Lwd
Area of holes = 0.000019635 m2
No. of holes = Area available/ area of holes = 10226.56 holes.
Assuming
Cartridge type construction ,
Unperforated edge strip = 50 mm
Wide calming zones = 50 mm
As Lw/Dc = 0.77
So , ϴc = 102 degree
Angle subtended by edge of plate 78
Mean length ( unperforated edge strips) 7.8890812
Area of unperforated edge strips 0.039445406
mean length of calming zones 3.820306302
Area of calming zones 0.38203063
Total area for perforations Ap 19.65837452
So (Ah/Ap) 0.102144
Lp/dh = 2.9 Ref: Fig.11.33, page 575 , C& R , Vol 6.
So, all results are in satisfactory limit.

4.2 Mechanical design of units

4.2.1 Mechanical design of cooler C1 for capacity 4750 MT/day
Heat Exchanger is assumed to be a cylindrical vessel under Internal Pressure:
Shell thickness calculations
Operating Pressure = 5.17 MPa
Design Pressure (PD) = 1.05 * 5.17 =5.4285 MPa
Shell inside Diameter (Di) = 1.5953 m(From Process Design)
Material of Construction:IS 1570-1961 05 Cr 18 Ni 11Mo 3
f= 34 MN/m2(From IS: 4503)
Length of vessel (L) = 4.83 m
Weld joint efficiency factor, J = 0.85 (Ref: Art 2.8, Pg 20, BCB)
Minimum Wall Thickness (t) = 0.131 m
Corrosive Allowance (CA) = 3 mm
Thus, Thickness (t) = t +CA = 0.134 m
Thus, Do = Di + 2*t =1.863 m
t/Di = 0.082<0.25
Hence, assumption is valid; the vessel can be taken as membrane under internal pressure.
Head design
For the cylindrical design of exchanger, we have chosen Torispherical head
Ri =Do = 1.863 m
ri = 0.06*Do = 0.1118 m
Sf = 40 mm
1
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑜
𝑅𝑜 − × 𝑅𝑜 + − 2𝑟𝑜 2
ho (Excluding straight flange) = 𝑅𝑜 − 2 2
= 0.3155 m

𝐷o*𝑟𝑜
= 0.3227 m
2
𝐷2
𝑟0 = 0.4658 m
4
Out of these three values the minimum value is taken as effective height (hE)
hE = 0.3155 m
hE/Do = 0.1693
𝑝𝐶
t/Do =2𝑓𝐽 Where C=Stress Concentration Factor
=0.0604*C
From Table 4.1(A) C = 1.639
t=0.2185
Final thickness (tf) (with Allowances) = 0.2348 = 0.24 m
Shell Nozzle
Material of construction: same as that of the shell.
f = 38 MN/m2
ts =0.134 m
tr= 0.11814 m
CA = 0.003 m
dnozzle = 0.25m
Outside diameter of shell = 1.8633 m
Design Pressure (PD) = 5.4285 MPa
Area to be compensated (A) = (d+2c) tr = 0.03024557 m2
Area available from shell (As) = (d+2c) (ts-tr- CA) =0.00329043 m2
Area available from nozzle for reinforcement
An = Ao(no inside protrusion) = 2 H1*(tn-tr'-c)
tr'= 𝑝𝑑𝑜 /(2𝑓𝐽 + 𝑝)= .00672
tn=0.072 m

Actual Length of Nozzle (H1) = 𝑑 + 2𝑐 ∗ 𝑡𝑛 − 𝑐

= 0.13290598m
Area available from nozzle for reinforcement (An) = 2H1*(tn-tr'-c)

=0.016554 m2
Area remaining to be compensated (A0) = A-(As+An)
=0.010400615 m2
Design of flange for opening
Taking solid metal gasket of stainless steel.

y = 180 MN/m2
m=6.5 (Ref. Pg.no.103, BCB)
Minimum actual gasket width = 6 mm.
For determination of gasket width:
𝑑𝑜 𝑦−𝑝∗𝑚
=
𝑑𝑖 𝑦 − 𝑝 ∗ (𝑚 + 1)
= 1.01802894
di = 1.882 m
do = 1.916 m
𝑑𝑜 −𝑑𝑖
Gasket Width = 2
=0.01696523 m
Hence a gasket width (N) of 17 mm is selected.
Basic gasket seating width (bo) = N/2= 8.5 mm
Diameter at location of gasket load reaction is (G)= di+N= 1.89899 m
Estimation of bolt loads
𝜋𝐺 2
Load due to design Pressure (H) = p
4
=14.565 MN
Load to keep Joint tight under Operation (Hp) = πG*(2b)*m*p

= 3.39 MN
Total Operating Load (Wo) = H+Hp = 17.955 MN

Load to seat gasket under bolting up condition (Wg) = πGby

= 9.1231 MN
Controlling Load=15.613MN
Calculation of minimum bolting Area (Am) = Wo/So=0.17955 m2
Thickness of hub at back of flange (g1) = 1.415*g0

= 0.18961
Bolt Root Area Min. No. of Actual R(m) Bs(m) C1=𝑛𝐵𝑠 C2=I.D C1-C2
𝜋
Size (m2) Bolts No. of +2*(g1+R)
(m)
Bolts(n) (m)
0.06 0.00212264 61.29511201 64 0.075 0.126 2.568153 1.824606 0.743547
0.064 0.00246176 52.8513976 56 0.08 0.134 2.389809 1.834606 0.555203
0.068 0.002826 46.03943969 48 0.085 0.142 2.170701 1.844606 0.326095
0.072 0.00321536 40.46435129 44 0.089 0.15 2.101911 1.852606 0.249305
0.076 0.00362984 35.84385443 36 0.093 0.158 1.811465 1.860606 -0.04914
0.08 0.00406944 31.97183312 32 0.096 0.166 1.69172 1.866606 -0.17489
With Minimum positive difference 72 x 4 b olts are selected.
No. of bolts = 44
Bolt circle diameter(C2) = 1.86 m
Flange outside diameter, A = C + bolt diameter + 0.02 = 1.952 m
Rounding off Flange outside diameter = 1.95
Saddle Support
Length, L = 2.4 m
No of tubes = 478
ID = 0.021 m
OD = 0.025 m
Volume of one tube = 0.00034666 m3

2
Density of material of construction of tubes = 7900 kg/m
Density of material of construction of Shell = 8400kg/m2
Weight of tubes = 12841.7048 N =12.841 kN
Weight of Shell = 20.781 kN
Total Load = 47.099 kN
No. of Saddles = 2
Load per Saddle = 23.549 kN
Width of Saddle (B)= 10*t = 2.1852 m
H= 0.3195 m
A= 0.2*L=0.534 m
R= 1.5953/2=0.7976 m
Saddle angle (θ) =150o
Longitudinal bending moments in vessel shell
(a) At mid –Span
2 𝑅 2 −𝐻 2
𝑊1 ∗𝐿 1+ 𝐿2 4𝐴
M1 = 4𝐻 −
4 1+ 𝐿
3𝐿
= 1649.83381
(b) At supports
𝐴 𝑅 2 −𝐻 2
1− +
𝐿 2𝐴𝐿
M2 = -W1A 1 − 4𝐻
1+
3𝐿
= -4092.7175
Longitudinal bending stresses at mid –span
(a) At the Highest point of cross-section

𝑝𝑅 𝑀
f1 = − 𝜋𝑅12 𝑡
2𝑡
=15307565.4 N/m2

(b) At the Lowest Point

𝑝𝑅 𝑀
f1'= + 𝜋𝑅12 𝑡
2𝑡
=15319890.1 N/m2
Longitudinal bending stresses at Saddles
(a) At the Highest point of cross-section

𝑝𝑅 𝑀2
f2= −𝐾 2 𝑡)
2𝑡 1 (𝜋𝑅
= 15408676.8 N/m2
(b)At the Lowest Point
𝑝𝑅 𝑀2
f2'= +𝐾 2 𝑡)
2𝑡 2 (𝜋𝑅
= 15368519.1 N/m2
All above stresses are less than allowable Design stress (180MN/m2).Thus condition satisfies.
Tangential shearing stress

𝐾3 𝑊1 𝐿−2𝐴−𝐻
q= 𝑅𝑡 𝐿+𝐻
= 131072.425 N/m2
q < 0.8*f q < 0.8*132MN/m2 i.e, 0.131 MN/m2<105.6 MN/m2
Hence condition satisfies.

4.2.2 Mechanical design HT Shift Reactor for capacity 4750 MT/day
Reactor is assumed to be a cylindrical vessel under Internal Pressure:
Design Pressure (PD) = 1.05 * 5.17 = 5.4285 MPa
Material of Construction:IS 1570-1961 15 Cr 90Mo 55
Design Temperature (TD) = 69.4 °C
f= 34 MN/m2(From IS: 4503)
Thus, Do = Di + 2*t = 1.6783 mm
t/Di = 0.08705 <0.25
Head design
For the cylindrical design of Desulfuriser, we have chosen Torispherical head
Ri =Do = 1.6783 m
ri = 0.06*Do = 0.100699 m
Sf = 40 mm 1
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑜
𝑅𝑜 − × 𝑅𝑜 + − 2𝑟𝑜 2
= 0.2842 m
𝐷o*𝑟𝑜
= 0.29069 m
2
𝐷2
𝑟0 = 0.4196 m
4

hE = 0.2842 m
hE/Do = 0.16933
𝑝𝐶
t/Do =0.07388
t=0.20767 m
Final thickness (tf) (with Allowances) = 0.23m
Shell Nozzle
f = 38 MN/m2
ts =0.127 m
tr= 0.11189 m
CA = 0.003 m
dnozzle = 0.25m
Design Pressure (PD) = 2 MPa
Area available from shell (As) = (d+2c) (ts-tr- CA) = .003101 m2
An = Ao(no inside protrusion) = 2H1*(tn-tr'-c)
tr'= 𝑝𝑑𝑜 /(2𝑓𝐽 + 𝑝) = 0.007066 m

tn=0.072 m

= 0.132906 m

=0.01646264 m2

=0.009079 m2
y = 180 MN/m2
=
𝑑𝑖 𝑦 − 𝑝 ∗ (𝑚 + 1)
= 1.01930059
di =1.01*D0=1.69509 m
do =1.72781 m
Gasket Width = 2
= 0.016358 m
𝜋𝐺 2
Load due to design Pressure (H) = 4 p
= 12.491223 MN
=3.224775 MN
Total Operating Load (Wo) = H+Hp

=15.716 MN

= 8225244.46 N

Controlling Load=9.09 MN
Actual
Bolt Root Min. no. no. no. of
size area(m2) Bolts bolts(n) R(m) Bs(m) C1 C2 C1-C2
M 0.00246176 46.26123175 48 0.08 0.134 2.04841 1.663551 0.384856
64x4
M 0.002826 40.29867299 44 0.085 0.142 1.98981 1.673551 0.316258
68x4
M 0.00321536 35.41875556 36 0.089 0.15 1.71975 1.681551 0.038194
72x4
M 0.00362984 31.37439939 32 0.093 0.158 1.61019 1.689551 -0.07936
76x4
M 0.00406944 27.98518958 28 0.096 0.166 1.48025 1.695551 -0.2153
80x4
With Minimum positive difference 72 x 4 bolts are selected.
No. of bolts = 36
Bolt circle diameter(C) = 1.68155 m
Skirt Support
Important Consideration: Tensile stress in the skirt will be maximum when the dead weight is
minimum i.e. Shell of vessel is just erected and the shell is empty without any internal
attachments. The compression stress is to be determined when the vessel is filed up with
water for hydraulic test. Maximum wind load may be expected and this factor is always to be
considered.
Period of vibration
Minimum weight of the vessel with 2 heads and shell.
Di = 1.6783 m
ta = 0.127 m
H= 7.05034 m
Density of shell (λ)= 8400 kg/m3
Wmin. = π(Di+ta)*ta*H*λ+2(wt. of head)

= 47114.0122 N

Wmax = Ws+Wi+Wl+Wa
Where,
Ws = Weight of shell during test

= 36637.1584 N
Wi = Weight of Insulation
=17254.89 N
Wl = Weight of water during test

= 6357.355 N
Wa = Weight of attachments
= 52379.943 N
Therefore, Wmax = 112629.345 N
Period of vibration at minimum dead wt.:

3 1
-5 𝐻 2 𝑊 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
Tmin= 6.53 x10 (Eq9.3.23, BCB)
𝐷 𝑡𝑎
=0.78063 >0. 5s
Hence, K2=1 (Eq.9.3.9, BCB)
Period of vibration at maximum dead wt.:

3 1
𝐻 2 𝑊 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
Tmax = 6.53 x10-5 𝐷 𝑡𝑎
=1.20697 >0.5s
Hence, K2=1
Wind Load
(a)Minimum wind load:
Pw(min.) = K1*K2*pw*H*D
= 9990.44542 N
(b)Maximum wind load:
Pw(max.) = K1*K2*pw*H*D
= 10473.4454 N

Wind Moments
(a)Minimum wind moment =

𝐻
Mw(min.)= Pw(min.) x 2
= 57445.06
𝐻
(b)Maximum wind moment = Pw(max.) x 2
= 60222.3111
Wind Stress
(a)Minimum wind stress

4𝑀 (𝑚𝑖𝑛 .)
σzwm(min.) = 𝜋𝐷𝑤2 𝑡
𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡
= 0.0259799/tskirt
(b)Maximum wind moment

4𝑀 (𝑚𝑎𝑥 .)
σzwm(max.) = 𝜋𝐷𝑤2 𝑡
= 0.027236/tskirt
Dead Load stress
(a)Minimum dead load stress

𝑊 𝑚𝑖𝑛
σzw(min.) = 𝜋𝐷 𝑡 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡
= 0.00894021/tskirt
(b)Maximum dead load stress

𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥
σzw(max.) = 𝜋𝐷 𝑡 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡
= 0.021372/tskirt
Allowable stress for skirt = 96 MN/m2 (From Material- IS:2062-1962 Gr. St 42-W)
Tensile stress (fJ) = 96x0.7= 67.2 MN/m2

Maximum tensile stress
σz(tensile) = σzwm(min.) - σzw(min.)

= 0.01704/tskirt
Now substituting,
σz(tensile) = fJ =67.2 MN/m2
We get
tskirt = 0.25357 mm
Maximum Compressive stress
σz(compressive) =σzwm(max.) - σzw(max.)

= 0.04861/tskirt
Now substituting,
σz(compressive) = 0.125 E(tskirt/Do)

=19638*t
We get
tSkirt= 1.97197 mm
As per IS:2825-1969 minimum corroded skirt thickness is 7 mm.
So final skirt thickness (with corrosion allowance)= 8 mm

4.2.3 Mechanical design of methanol reactor for capacity 4750 MT/day
Reactor is assumed to be a cylindrical vessel under Internal Pressure:
Design Pressure (PD) = 1.05 * 5.5 = 5.775 MPa
Material of Construction:IS 1570-1961 15 Cr 90Mo 55
Design Temperature (TD) = 69.4 °C
f= 34 MN/m2(From IS: 4503)
Thus, Do = Di + 2*t = 1.592396 mm
t/Di = 0.093535 <0.25
Head design
For the cylindrical design of Desulfuriser, we have chosen Torispherical head
Ri =Do = 1.592396 m
ri = 0.06*Do = 0.095543748 m
Sf = 40 mm 1
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑜
𝑅𝑜 − × 𝑅𝑜 + − 2𝑟𝑜 2
= 0.26965 m
𝐷o*𝑟𝑜
= 0.27581 m
2

𝐷2
𝑟0 = 0.3981 m
4
hE = 0.26965 m
hE/Do = 0.16933
𝑝𝐶
t/Do =0.078498
t=0.20962 m
Final thickness (tf) (with Allowances) = 0.23m
Shell Nozzle
f = 38 MN/m2
ts =0.128 m
tr= 0.112456 m
CA = 0.003 m
dnozzle = 0.25m
Design Pressure (PD) = 2 MPa
Area available from shell (As) = (d+2c) (ts-tr- CA) = .0032113 m2
An = Ao(no inside protrusion) = 2H1*(tn-tr'-c)
tr'= 𝑝𝑑𝑜 /(2𝑓𝐽 + 𝑝) = 0.007486 m

tn=0.076 m

= 0.136704 m

=0.0179121 m2

=0.007665331 m2
y = 180 MN/m2
=
𝑑𝑖 𝑦 − 𝑝 ∗ (𝑚 + 1)
= 1.0209063
di =1.01*D0=1.60832 m
do =1.64194 m
Gasket Width = 2
= 0.016812 m
𝜋𝐺 2
Load due to design Pressure (H) = 4 p
= 11.976 MN

=3.257 MN
Total Operating Load (Wo) = H+Hp

=15.233 MN

= 7808361.181 N

Controlling Load=9.09 MN
Actual no.
Bolt Root Min. no. no. of
size area(m2) Bolts bolts(n) R(m) Bs(m) C1 C2 C1-C2
M 0.00246176 44.83769912 48 0.08 0.134 2.04841 1.575636 0.472772
64x4
M 0.002826 39.0586179 40 0.085 0.142 1.80892 1.585636 0.223281
68x4
M 0.00321536 34.32886339 36 0.089 0.15 1.71975 1.593636 0.126109
72x4
M 0.00362984 30.40895857 32 0.093 0.158 1.61019 1.601636 0.008555
76x4
M 0.00406944 27.12404021 28 0.096 0.166 1.48025 1.607636 -0.12738
80x4
With Minimum positive difference 76 x 4 bolts are selected.
No. of bolts = 32
Bolt circle diameter(C) = 1.601636 m
Skirt Support
Important Consideration: Tensile stress in the skirt will be maximum when the dead weight is
minimum i.e. Shell of vessel is just erected and the shell is empty without any internal
attachments. The compression stress is to be determined when the vessel is filed up with
water for hydraulic test. Maximum wind load may be expected and this factor is always to be
considered.
Period of vibration
Minimum weight of the vessel with 2 heads and shell.
Di = 1.5924 m
ta = 0.128 m
H= 6.61516 m
Density of shell (λ)= 8400 kg/m3

Wmin. = π(Di+ta)*ta*H*λ+2(wt. of head)

= 42136.9186 N
Wmax = Ws+Wi+Wl+Wa
Where,
Ws = Weight of shell during test
= 32705.265 N
Wi = Weight of Insulation
=15533.199 N
Wl = Weight of water during test

= 6357.355 N
Wa = Weight of attachments
= 47095.149 N
Therefore, Wmax = 101690.968 N
Period of vibration at minimum dead wt.:

3 1
-5 𝐻 2 𝑊 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
Tmin= 6.53 x10 (Eq9.3.23, BCB)
𝐷 𝑡𝑎
= 0.76032 >0. 5s
Hence,K2=1 (Eq.9.3.9, BCB)
Period of vibration at maximum dead wt.:

3 1
-5 𝐻 2 𝑊 𝑚𝑖𝑛 2
Tmax = 6.53 x10 𝐷 𝑡𝑎
=1.18115 >0.5s
Hence, K2=1
Wind Load
(a)Minimum wind load:
Pw(min.) = K1*K2*pw*H*D
= 9102.6843 N
(b)Maximum wind load:
Pw(max.) = K1*K2*pw*H*D
= 9568.8843 N

Wind Moments
(a)Minimum wind moment
𝐻
Mw(min.)= Pw(min.) x 2
= 50519.898 J
𝐻
(b)Maximum wind moment = Pw(max.) x 2
= 53107.308 J
Wind Stress
(a)Minimum wind stress :
4𝑀 (𝑚𝑖𝑛 .)
σzwm(min.) = 𝜋𝐷𝑤2 𝑡
= 0.02537995/tskirt
(b)Maximum wind moment:

4𝑀 (𝑚𝑎𝑥 .)
σzwm(max.) = 𝜋𝐷𝑤2 𝑡
= 0.0266798/tskirt
Dead Load stress
(a)Minimum dead load stress :
𝑊 𝑚𝑖𝑛
σzw(min.) = 𝜋𝐷 𝑡 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡
= 0.0084272/tskirt
(b)Maximum dead load stress :

𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥
σzw(max.) = 𝜋𝐷 𝑡 𝑠𝑘𝑖𝑟𝑡
= 0.02033769/tskirt
Allowable stress for skirt = 96 MN/m2 (From Material- IS:2062-1962 Gr. St 42-W)
Tensile stress (fJ) = 96x0.7= 67.2 MN/m2
Maximum tensile stress
σz(tensile) = σzwm(min.) - σzw(min.)

= 0.0169528/tskirt
Now substituting,
σz(tensile) = fJ =67.2 MN/m2

We get
tskirt = 0.252273 mm
Maximum Compressive stress
σz(compressive) =σzwm(max.) - σzw(max.)

= 0.047017/tskirt
Now substituting,
σz(compressive) = 0.125 E(tskirt/Do)

=19638*t
We get
tSkirt= 1.93943 mm
As per IS:2825-1969 minimum corroded skirt thickness is 7 mm.
So final skirt thickness (with corrosion allowance)= 8 mm
4.3 Equipment specifications
4.3.1 Heat exchanger design specifications
1. Heat Exchanger
Type Shell and Tube

No. of Shell passes 1
No. of Tube passes 4
Tube length 2.4 m
Tube Internal Diameter 21 mm
Tube External Diameter 25 mm
Pitch 31.25 mm
Number of Tubes 1472
Shell Inside Diameter 2.6099 m

2. Cooler C-1
Type Shell and Tube
Tube length 2.4 m
Tube Internal Diameter 21mm
Pitch 31.25 mm
Number of Tubes 478
3. Cooler C-2
Type Shell and Tube
Tube length 2.4 m
Pitch 31.25 mm
Number of Tubes 900
4. Cooler C-3
Type Shell and Tube
Tube length 2.4 m
Pitch 31.25 mm

5. Cooler C-4
Type Shell and Tube
Tube length 2.4 m
Pitch 31.25 mm
6. Cooler C-5
Type Shell and Tube

Tube length 2.4 m
Pitch 31.25 mm
Number of Tubes 144
7. Cooler C-6
Type Shell and Tube

Tube length 2.4 m

Pitch 31.25 mm
Number of Tubes 884
Shell Inside Diameter 2.88 M
8. Cooler C-7
Type Shell and Tube

Tube length 2.4 m
Pitch 31.25 mm
Shell Inside Diameter 2.47M
9. Cooler C-8
Type Shell and Tube

Tube length 2.4 m
Pitch 31.25 mm
Number of Tubes 652

4.3.2 Reactor design specifications

1. Clauss Reactor R-1
Material of construction Carbon steel

Pressure 4 bar
Temperature 10000C
Diameter 0.978 m
Height 3.227 m
Volume 1.96 m3

Pressure 4 bar
Temperature 3000C
Diameter 0.937 m
Height 3.092 m
Volume 1.723 m3

Pressure 4 bar
Temperature 2250C
Diameter 0.805 m
Height 2.66 m
Volume 1.092 m3
4. High Temperature Water Gas Shift Reactor

Pressure 5.17 MPa
Temperature 370 0C
Diameter 1.424 m

Height 7.05 m
GHSV 4000 hr-1
Catalyst weight 4904 kg
5. Low Temperature Water Gas Shift Reactor

Pressure 5.17 MPa
Temperature 200 0C
Diameter 1.063 m
Height 3.508 m
GHSV 4000 hr-1
6. Methanol Reactor

Pressure 6 MPa
Temperature 250 0C
Diameter 1.336 m
Height 6.615 m
GHSV 5400 hr-1
4.3.3 Condenser design specifications
1. Condenser (Con-1)
Type Shell and Tube

Tube length 4.83 m

Pitch 31.25 mm
Number of Tubes 54
Type Shell and Tube

Tube length 4.83 m
Pitch 31.25 mm
Number of Tubes 36
Shell Inside Diameter 0.514m
Type Shell and Tube

Tube length 2.4 m
Pitch 31.25 mm
Number of Tubes 30

5. Major engineering Problems of the Plant
5.1 Heat exchanger
Heat exchangers can have a range of problems which can cause them to perform poorly or
stop working all together. Much of the time performance issues within heat exchangers can
be fixed with some solutions which will ensure your process plant will continue to get the
performance it needs. However, in some cases the most common heat exchanger
problems can be a lot harder to improve. In these cases the heat exchanger problems can lead
to heat exchangers been closed down while repairs are been carried out.
The most common heat exchanger problem for many chemical engineers is fouling which
can occur within the inside of a tube wall and decrease performance and even damage the
heat exchanger in the long run. Fouling is a term used to describe material which builds up on
the inside of a tube wall within heat exchangers and in turn affects the performance of the
heat exchanger. Material or fluids which might collect on the side wall will build up over
time and, if not taken care of, can reduce the heat transfer within your heat exchanger and
increase the pressure drop which can cause more problems in your heat exchangers.
Fouling is known as the most common heat exchanger problem because of the issues it can
cause within any process plant. There are some things which can cause fouling to occur a lot
more within exchangers and some things which can be done to help decrease the risk of
fouling as well as remove it from your heat exchanger without having to close your process
plant down.
The most common causes of fouling within any sort of heat exchangers are listed below
 Crystallization
 Decomposition
 Polymerization and or oxidation
 Settlement of sludge, rust or dust particles
 Biological deposits
 Corrosion
Fouling can build up very quickly and cause many problems; however there are some heat
exchanger solutions which can help reduce the risk of fouling occurring.
The removal rate for fouling is assumed to be proportional to the main fouling layer thickness
and the sheer stress at the surface. Once measured the sheer stress at the main tube wall was

considerably higher when comparing to plain empty tube values which results in a much
higher removal rate of fouling.
Severe fouling in heat exchangers presents a common problem with an obvious solution —
providing more area for heat transfer. The idea is that the larger area will allow adequate heat
transfer even with the exchanger fouled.
Unfortunately, making a heat exchanger with a larger area has physical implications. For
shell-and-tube exchangers, the situation is simplest for the tube-side.
Extra area comes from some combination of more tubes and longer tubes in a pass. More
tubes lower tube velocities, which make most fouling mechanisms more rapid. The faster
fouling quickly reduces, or eliminates, the benefit of more surface area, as many a plant has
discovered.
The lower velocities affect the required exchanger size for clean operation, as well. Most
heat-transfer coefficients drop with lower velocities. The impact may vary from relatively
unimportant to very important depending upon the contribution of shell-side heat-transfer
effects versus tube-side ones.
A larger exchanger with more tube passes increases pressure drop. Typical practice in buying
a new exchanger is for the vendor to use all available pressure drop. This normally gives the
lowest cost exchanger.
However, if you specify pressure drop at a maximum value and a particular over-surface ratio
(say, 25%), you may end up with a final exchanger different than you expect. To get the
pressure drop at the higher surface area requires lower velocities, forcing the exchanger
toward some combination of both more flow area and more flow length.
As a prudent engineering practice with high fouling services, always include a specification
for velocity as well as pressure drop. Consider putting two pressure drops on the specification
for the
New-exchanger — one for the "standard" conditions and a second for the "over-surface
required." Additionally, think about the effect of highly fouling conditions on film thickness
and the impact of extra pressure drop on the exchanger.
Shell-side situations are more complex. Modifying the baffle cut and spacing can compensate
for overall pressure drop in larger exchangers resulting from extra area. Longer exchangers
use baffles further apart and cut more to prevent pressure drop from getting too high. Larger

diameter exchangers can compensate with baffles closer together and cut less to keep
pressure drop up.
Most services will have baffle cut and spacing that gives a minimum fouling rate for a given
shell diameter. Extreme spacing or baffle cut, either too much or too little, creates velocity
changes in the shell-side fluid. This leads to eddy currents in the flow pattern. Most shell-side
fouling results from extremely low velocities in areas around the baffles near the shell. More
eddy currents in the flow pattern worsen the fouling in these areas. Figure 1 compares too
much flow restriction, just right, and too little flow restriction for a shell-and-tube exchanger.
Making the baffle cut or spacing tighter uses pressure drop for no benefit. Needing a larger
cut or spacing to meet pressure drop requirements increases fouling rate.
The combination of constraints on the shell-side and the tube-side can impose extremely
difficult trade-offs. No combination of conventional choices may allow for improved
exchanger performance.
In recent years, vendors have introduced a range of proprietary and semi-proprietary designs
that offer considerable flexibility on the shell-side. Each is attractive in certain situations but
not others. Nowadays, the helical baffle exchanger is generally favored which now is
available in several variants. In all of these, a set of partial baffles are angled to eliminate the
dead areas where fouling occurs. The baffle arrangement also improves heat transfer by
increasing the fluid velocity in the dead areas. In addition, the exchangers have lower
pressure drops on the shell-side for the same heat transfer.
The helical baffle expands the range of operability for improving heat transfer in shell-side
fouling services. Even if you don't take credit for reduced fouling rates, the lower pressure
drop permits adding more surface area while keeping average shell-side velocities up.
5.2 Pumps
In most pumping systems, pumps are likely to be the most vulnerable components. The
symptoms frequently show the pump to be at fault regardless of what may be wrong. The
problem is usually caused by inadequate control of the pumped fluid or a change in operating
requirements of which the system or pump is not capable of handling or a component
malfunction.

5.2.1 Loss of flow
A simple cause of this could be incorrect direction of shaft rotation, which although obvious
is often overlooked. Loss of flow can be caused by excessive discharge pressure and/or by a
change in fluid viscosity.
In general terms:
 For a rotary lobe pump if the viscosity is significantly reduced, the pump‘s rated flow
will be reduced, more so for higher-pressure operation.
 For a centrifugal pump if the viscosity is increased, the pump‘s rated flow will be
decreased.
5.2.2 Loss of suction

Loss of suction can be minor, causing little short-term damage or sufficiently major tocause
catastrophic damage. Loss of suction means fluid is not reaching the pumpingelements or not
reaching them at a sufficiently high pressure to keep the fluid beingpumped in a fluid state.
Loss of suction can be interpreted as the inability to prime,cavitation or a gas content
problem. The rotary lobe pump can be classed as ‗self-priming‘. This means that within
limits, it is capable of evacuating (pumping) a modest amount of air from the suction side of
the pump to the discharge side of the pump. Filling the inlet system with fluid or at least
filling the pump (wetted pumping elements) will make a major improvement in the pump‘s
priming capability. The liquid ring pump can also be classed as self-priming when the pump
casing is half filled with fluid and the LKHSP centrifugal pump range is specially designed to
be self priming. Cavitation is caused by insufficient system inlet pressure to the pump. This
can be caused by an inlet system restriction, excessive fluid viscosity or excessive pump
speed. Inlet restrictions can include dirty or clogged inlet strainers, debris floating in the fluid
supply that covers the inlet piping intake, or rags. If the fluid is cooler than design
temperature, its viscosity may be too high causing excessive friction (pressure loss) in the
inlet piping system. Cavitation is frequently accompanied by noise, vibration and significant
increase in discharge pressure pulsation. If a pump is allowed to cavitate over long periods
this will cause damage to the pump head components. The surface of these components is
typically perforated and pitted. Gas in the inlet pipe work has the same impact on pump
operation and creates the same symptoms as cavitation. This can occur under other
circumstances such as a pump operating at an inlet pressure below local atmospheric
pressure. In this instance it is quite likely that air is being drawn into the pipe work through a

loose pipe connection or pump casing joint, leaking inlet valve stem, defective or otherwise
damaged joint gasket in the pipe work system. In recirculating systems, such as an lubrication
system where the fluid pumped is continuously returned to a supply source or tank, if the tank
and return lines arenot adequately designed, located and sized, air is easily entrained in the oil
and immediately picked up by the pump inlet system. Be sure fluid level at its source is at or
above minimum operating levels. Lines returning flow to a supply tank should terminate
below minimum fluid level.
5.2.3 Low discharge pressure

Low discharge pressure can only be caused by loss of flow. Pump discharge pressure
iscaused only by the system‘s resistance to the flow provided by the pump. Either the pump is
not providing the flow expected or the system is not offering the expected resistance to that
flow. It is possible that flow is being restricted into the pump (cavitation), usually
accompanied by noise and vibration, the pump is not producing its rated flow (pump worn or
damaged), or the pump flow is bypassing rather than being delivered into the system as
intended.
5.2.4 Excessive noise or vibration

Excessive noise and/or vibration can be a symptom of cavitation, mechanical damage topump
assembly, misalignment of drive or harmonics with other elements of the system.
Cavitation is especially true if the discharge pressure is fluctuating or pulsating.
Mechanical causes of noise and vibration include shaft misalignment, loose couplings, loose
pump and/or driver mountings, loose pump and/or driver guards, worn or damaged driver or
pump bearings or valve noise that seems to be coming from the pump. Valves, especially on
the discharge side of the pump can sometimes go into a hydraulic vibration mode caused by
operating pressure, flow rate and the valve design. Resetting or a change in an internal valve
component is usually sufficient to solve the problem.
5.2.5 Excessive power

Excessive power consumption can be caused by either mechanical or hydraulic problems.
Mechanical causes include imminent bearing failure, pumping elements rubbing which can
lead to a pump seizure and poor shaft alignments. Too high viscosity can result in the motor
overloading.

 For a rotary lobe pump too high discharge pressure can cause the motor to overload.
 For a centrifugal pump too high capacity (too low discharge pressure) can cause the
motor to overload.
5.2.6 Rapid pump wear

Rapid wear of pump head components is either caused by abrasives being present in the fluid,
chemical corrosion, loss of shaft support (bearing failure), or operation at a condition for
which the pump is not suitable i.e. cavitation, excessively high pressure or high temperature.
To avoid any abrasive foreign material entering the pump, strainers or filters should be
employed wherever possible and practical. Rapid wear is sometimes not wear in the sense of
a non-durable pump, but really a catastrophic pump failure that occurred very quickly.
Looking at the pump internal parts alone may not provide much help in identifying the cause,
thus the importance of knowing what was occurring in the time period immediately preceding
detection of the problem.
5.2.7 Seal Leakage

Mechanical seals fitted to centrifugal, rotary lobe and liquid ring pumps can be seen as the
weakest point for any pump leakage and special care should be taken to ensure the correct
seal for the application is installed i.e. mounting attitude, seal face combination and
elastomeric selection.
Apart from misselection and poor servicing, seal leakage can be due to pump cavitation, too
high discharge pressure, being allowed to run dry and unexpected solids in the fluid.
5.2.8 Rules to avoid pump problems
Rule 1: PROVIDE SUFFICIENT NPSHs

Simply put a pump will not operate properly without sufficient inlet pressure, the pump will
cavitate. Cavitation is caused by the rapid formation of vapor pockets (bubbles) in a flowing
liquid in regions of very low pressure and collapsing in higher pressure regions, often a
frequent cause of structural damage to the propellers or other parts of the pump.
NPSHR or Net Positive Suction Head Required is the technical term used to determine what
pressure energy (in psia or feet of head) is needed to fill the pump inlet and not have the

pump cavitate. NPSHR is based on pump design. It is a characteristic which varies primarily
with pump speed and the viscosity of the fluid.
NPSHA or Net Positive Suction Head Available is based on the design of the system around
the pump inlet. The average pressure (in psia or feet of head) is measured at the inlet port
during operation, minus the vapor pressure of the liquid at operating temperature. It indicates
the amount of useful pressure energy available to fill the pump.
What we are asking is does the system provide enough pressure to fill the pump completely
and not cavitate (given the pump design, speed, fluid viscosity, etc.). The following is brief
overview of NPSHA and how it is calculated.
NPSHA = Ha + Hs – Hvp – Hf
Where,
Ha = Atmosphere Head is the head or pressure (pressure is measured in feet of head) onthe
surface of the liquid in the tank that we are pumping out. In an open systemlike this, it will be
atmospheric pressure, 14.7 psi or 34 feet of water.
Hs = the vertical distance, measured in feet, between the free surface of the liquid to
thecenterline of the pump impeller. If the liquid is below the pump, this becomes anegative
value.
Hvp = the vapor pressure of the liquid at the pumping temperature, expressed in feet ofhead.
Hf = the friction losses in the suction piping, expressed in feet of head.
To put this formula in simpler terms think of NPSHA as being the result of atmospheric head
(pressure) pushing the fluid into the pump. The pump gains additional inlet head or pressure
if the liquid level is above the pump inlet or minus head if the liquid level is below the pump.
The fluid weight creates the pressure. The pump loses inlet head or pressure from friction loss
of the fluid moving through the suction pipe (small pipes or long pipes have a lot of friction).
And finally the inlet head or pressure is reduced by vapor pressure. This is an issue if the
fluid is evaporates easily or is very hot.
Many pump manufacturers provide NPSHR curves for their pumps. This curve is determined
in labs using methodology as set forth by Hydraulic Institute. The various points on this curve
are determined by restricting the inlet pressure with a valve. The restricted inlet pressure
creates loss of flow or cavitation.
The NPSHR curve is drawn based upon the pump losing three percent of its rated flow.

At various flow points a vacuum reading is taken on the inlet of the pump. These pointsare
plotted below the pump curve showing the minimum inlet pressure the pump needs,but by
definition this lost flow really is vapor bubbles and the pump is being damaged.
When installing a pump, insure that the inlet conditions are well above the NPSHR
requirements of the pump.
Rule 2: REDUCE THE FRICTION LOSSES

When a pump is taking its suction from a tank, it should be located as close to the tank as
possible. This reduces friction losses on the NPSH Available. However, the pump must be far
enough away that proper piping can supplied to the pump. Proper piping means that a straight
shot of pipe is supplied to the pump that is at least ten (10) diameters of the pipe. We can call
this the 10D Rule. For example a minimum of 20‖ of straight pipe must be immediately in
front of the pump if the inlet pipe is 2‖ in diameter. Pipe friction is reduced by using a larger
diameter pipe. This limits the linear velocity, hence the friction losses. Many industries use 5
to 7 feet/sec., but this is not always possible.
Rule 3: NO ELBOWS ON THE SUCTION INLET

It is never acceptable to install an elbow on a suction flange! There is always an uneven flow
in an elbow. When it is installed at the suction inlet of the pump, it introduces an uneven flow
into the eye of the impeller. This can introduce turbulence and air entrainment, which may
result in impeller damage and vibration. The only thing worse than an elbow on inlet of a
pump is two elbows. As mentioned above, the established method of ensuring a laminar flow
to the inlet of the pump is using the 10D rule, straight pipe into the pump. This also means no
valves, reducers, tees, etc.
Rule 4: STOP AIR OR VAPOR FROM ENTERING THE SUCTION LINE

Always check the suction line for leaks. As the pump operates it creates a partial vacuum,
which will suck air into the suction line. This will create an effect similar to cavitation and
with the same results. Another source of air in the suction line is the return line in the tank if
the pump is re-circulating the fluid through a system. If the return line or supply line is above
the tank liquid level, the liquid will become very become aerated.

This is a huge issue. Aerated tanks damage the pump just by creating cavitation like
conditions for the pump. The fix is to submerge the return or supply line. Return lines in the
tank can be to close to the outlet nozzle on the tank and can create the same issue.
The solution is relocating the return line or baffling the tank. The presence of an air pocket in
the suction line is another example of a cause for pump troubles, which should never happen.
Any high point in the suction line can become filled with air and interfere with proper
operation of the pump. This is particularly true when the liquid being pumped contains an
appreciable amount of air in the solution or of entrained air and the pump is handling a
suction lift. Long suction lines are too frequently installed with improper pitch or with humps
and high spots, where air can accumulate. If the liquid supply is below the pump the suction
line should run up to the pump. Straight reducers are definitely a no-no. Use an eccentric
reducer, mounted with the flat portion on top and sloping portion on the bottom. Install the
other way around if source of supply is above pump.
Another common problem is pumping a tank to low or having a short tank that in generalhas
low liquid levels above the outlet nozzle of the tank. If a pump is taking its suctionfrom a
tank with low liquid levels, the formation of vortices can draw air into the suction line and
hence the pump. Vorticing can be eliminated, by installing a low liquid level sensor to turn
off the pump. Alternatively, install a bell-mouth connection on the tank opening to lower the
velocity on the tank outlet nozzle, hence lowering the liquid level requirements to keep the
tank from vorticing. Or a vortex breaker can be installed on the discharge nozzle of the tank.
They look very similar to the drain stopper in a modern bathroom sink, except the diameter of
the top round disk on top is 1½ times the size of the ID of the tank discharge nozzle. Placing
the tank outlet nozzle near the wall of the tank will also help break a vortex.
The following table shows the minimum submergence required over opening unless some of
the suggested solutions mentioned above are employed:
Minimum Submergence Velocity of Outlet
of Outlet Nozzle Nozzle
1 foot 2 ft./s
2 feet 3.5 ft./sec.
3 feet 5 ft./sec.
4 feet 6 ft./sec.
5 feet 6.5 ft./sec
6 feet 7.5 ft./sec.

7 feet 8 ft./sec.
8 feet 8.6 ft./sec.
9 feet 9.5 ft./sec.
10 feet 10 ft./sec.
The Hydraulic Institute states that typically one foot submergence for each foot per second of
velocity at the suction pipe inlet is recommended, with a suggested maximum inlet velocity
of six feet per second.
Rule 5: CORRECT PIPING ALIGNMENT

Piping flanges must be accurately aligned before the bolts are tightened and all piping, valves
and associated fittings should be independently supported, so as to place no strain on the
pump housing. Magnetically coupled pumps can have very short lives due to this issue.
Plastic pumps will not take these forces and moments. Piping strains can affect seal life and
bearings as well. Stress imposed on the pump casing by the piping reduces the probability of
satisfactory performance and pump life.
5.3 Distillation column

Problems in the column relate to loss of capacity or efficiency. In some cases,usually if the
column performance has suddenly deteriorated rather than declinedgradually, the root cause
of the problem can be easily identified. In other casesthere may be a number of possible
causes and the information collected willhave to be sifted and analyzed to support or
eliminate possibilities.
5.3.1 Capacity problems

The maximum hydraulic capacity of a column is the highest throughput at which itwill
operate without flooding. The capacity is a function of the vapor and liquid rates, column
geometry and system properties.At the flood point liquid accumulates on trays or in packing
because of excessivevapor flow, i.e. pressure drop, or maybe mechanical restriction.Flooding
in a column could be indicated by:
 surges of liquid overhead;
 erratic or high pressure drop across the column;

 fluctuating level in column bottom;
 a high temperature profile;
 falling base level or reduced bottoms flow
Flooding usually continues until the operator takes action.
The primary tool for investigating capacity problems is a differential pressureinstrument, or
preferably instruments, to measure pressure drop across varioustray or packing sections.
Static pressure gauges with pressure drop readingsobtained by difference should not be
considered, as they will rarely be accurateenough.
The actual column capacity can be determined by plotting the pressure dropagainst, say, the
total overhead vapor rate.The use of radioisotope scanning is a useful method of determining
the cause offlooding, e.g. down comer back-up.
5.3.2 Efficiency Problems

Poor efficiency usually results from inadequate liquid and vapor contact orinsufficient
disengagement of liquid from vapor.
The key indicators of efficiency problems are:
a) off specification product;
(b) excessive reflux requirement;
(c) high boil-up rate.
Poor efficiency can also be confused with analytical errors or improperoperating conditions -
these causes should be eliminated first.
5.3.3 PROBLEMS OUTSIDE THE COLUMN

There are many ways in which problems outside the column can effect columnperformance.
A few instances are given below.
5.3.4 Effect of Other Units on Column Performance

It is difficult to evaluate the performance of a column if upstream and sometimesdownstream
units are not operating steadily. For example, pressure changesmay limit pump capacity or
there may be surges of low boiling components in thefeed to the column which can lead to
problems in the condenser or vacuumsystem.
Even with other units operating steadily the performance may not be as required. This can be
as a result of changes in feed composition, rate or conditions compared to those for which the

column was originally designed. Such changes should be carefully evaluated. For example a
cold rather than a flashing feed can upset the heat balance of the column. Also a feed rate
above design may not be compatible with reboiler/condenser capabilities in effecting the
required separation.
5.3.5 Column Control System

The control systems employed can cause, or contribute to, operational problems in distillation
columns. A few typical examples are given below:
 A temperature sensor for composition control should be situated at a pointin the column that
will provide sensitivity to composition changes – failureto do so can lead to sluggish control
and products being off specificationfor unacceptable periods of time.
 Wrong setting of a temperature sensor/control can lead to the situationwhere a required tops
or bottoms composition cannot be achieved.
 An incorrectly calibrated instrument for gauging the base level in a reboilercan initiate
flooding. If the instrument was calibrated for a liquid of higherdensity than is practically the
case, the actual level would be higher thanthe indicated level - maybe even into the column.
5.3.6 Improper Operating Conditions

It is common practice to start-up plant at reduced design rates. If care is nottaken, for
example operation at a reflux ratio higher than design, this can lead toproblems with columns
operating below their minimum operating points. It is common practice to start-up plant at
reduced design rates. If care is nottaken, for example operation at a reflux ratio higher than
design, this can lead toproblems with columns operating below their minimum operating
points.
Another frequent situation is that conditions are set which are incompatible withthe
objectives. For example, setting a specific overhead product rate that isinsufficient to remove
the required amount of the more volatile component(s) asdistillate. With a set amount of
distillate removal a similar situation can exist if noaccount is taken of a small change in feed
composition

5.3.7 Auxiliary Equipment
Auxiliary equipment may cause problems that seem to originate in the column itself. It is
easy to apportion deterioration in column performance above a certain feed rate as a falloff in
tray efficiency rather than a reboiler or condenser limitation. However if the energy flow does
not remain proportional to the feed rate a capacity limitation in auxiliary equipment should be
suspected.
6. Material storage and handling facilities
6.1 Methyl alcohol MSDS
Chemical Product
Product Name: Methyl alcohol
Catalog Codes: SLM3064, SLM3952
CAS#: 67-56-1
RTECS: PC1400000
TSCA: TSCA 8(b) inventory: Methyl alcohol
CI#: Not applicable.
Synonym: Wood alcohol, Methanol; Methylol; Wood

Spirit; Carbinol
Chemical Name: Methanol
Chemical Formula: CH3OH
Physical and Chemical Properties
Physical state and appearance: Liquid.
Odor: Alcohol like. Pungent when crude.
Taste: Not available.
Molecular Weight: 32.04 g/mole
Color: Colorless.

pH (1% soln/water): Not available.
Boiling Point: 64.5°C (148.1°F)
Melting Point: -97.8°C (-144°F)
Critical Temperature: 240°C (464°F)
Specific Gravity: 0.7915 (Water = 1)
Vapor Pressure: 12.3 kPa (@ 20°C)
Vapor Density: 1.11 (Air = 1)
Volatility: Not available.
Odor Threshold: 100 ppm
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff.: The product is more soluble in water; log(oil/water) = -0.8
Ionicity (in Water): Non-ionic.
Dispersion Properties: See solubility in water.
Solubility: Easily soluble in cold water, hot water.
Special Remarks on Fire Hazards:

Explosive in the form of vapor when exposed to heat or flame. Vapor may travel considerable
distance to source of ignition and flash back. When heated to decomposition, it emits acrid
smoke and irritating fumes.
CAUTION: MAY BURN WITH NEAR INVISIBLE FLAME
Special Remarks on Explosion Hazards:

Forms an explosive mixture with air due to its low flash point. Explosive when mixed with
Choroform + sodium methoxide and diethyl zinc. It boils violently and explodes.
Exposure Limits:
The work place exposure limits as stated by various standards are given below
TWA: 200 from OSHA (PEL) [United States]
TWA: 200 STEL: 250 (ppm) from ACGIH (TLV) [United States] [1999]
STEL: 250 from NIOSH [United States]

TWA: 200 STEL: 250 (ppm) from NIOSH SKIN
TWA: 200 STEL: 250 (ppm) [Canada]
First Aid Measures
Eye Contact:
Check for and remove any contact lenses. Immediately flush eyes with running water for at
least 15 minutes, keeping eyelids open. Cold water may be used. Get medical attention.
Skin Contact:
In case of contact, immediately flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while
removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Cold
water may be used.Wash clothing before reuse. Thoroughly clean shoes before reuse. Get
medical attention immediately.
Serious Skin Contact:

Wash with a disinfectant soap and cover the contaminated skin with an anti-bacterial cream.
Seek immediate medical attention.
Inhalation:
If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is
difficult, give oxygen. Get medical attention immediately.
Serious Inhalation:
Evacuate the victim to a safe area as soon as possible. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar,
tie, belt or waistband. If breathing is difficult, administer oxygen. If the victim is not
breathing, perform mouth-to-mouth resuscitation. WARNING: It may be hazardous to the
person providing aid to give mouth-to-mouth resuscitation when the inhaled material is toxic,
infectious or corrosive. Seek immediate medical attention.
Ingestion:
If swallowed, do not induce vomiting unless directed to do so by medical personnel. Never
give anything by mouth to an unconscious person. Loosen tight clothing such as a collar, tie,
belt or waistband. Get medical attention immediately.

Personal Protective Equipment
Skin Protection: Wear impervious gloves and impervious flame retardant antistatic
protective clothing. Gloves must be inspected prior to use. For leak, spills, or other
emergency, use full protective equipment.
Eye Protection: Wear chemical goggles and face shield. Remove contact lenses.
Respiratory Protection: When workers are facing concentrations above the exposure limit
they must use appropriate certified respirators.
Additional Recommendations: Provide eyewash stations and quick-drench shower facilities.

High standards of skin care and personal hygiene should be exercised at all times.Wear
appropriate respiratorwhen ventilation is inadequate. Splash goggles.
Handling and Storage

Precautions:
Keep locked up.. Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground all
equipment containing material. Do not ingest. Do not breathe gas/fumes/ vapor/spray. Wear
suitable protective clothing. In case of insufficient ventilation, wear suitable respiratory
equipment. If ingested, seek medical advice immediately and show the container or the label.
Avoid contact with skin and eyes. Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents,
metals, acids.
Storage:
Store in a segregated and approved area. Keep container in a cool, well-ventilated area. Keep
container tightly closed and sealed until ready for use. Avoid all possible sources of ignition
(spark or flame).
Fire and Explosion Data
Flammability of the Product: Flammable.
Auto-Ignition Temperature: 464°C (867.2°F)
Flash Points: CLOSED CUP: 12°C (53.6°F). OPEN CUP: 16°C (60.8°F).
Flammable Limits: LOWER: 6% UPPER: 36.5%

Products of Combustion: These products are carbon oxides (CO, CO2).
Fire Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:

Highly flammable in presence of open flames and sparks, of heat. Non-flammable in
presence of shocks.
Explosion Hazards in Presence of Various Substances:

Risks of explosion of the product in presence of mechanical impact: Not available. Explosive
in presence of open flames and sparks, of heat.
Fire Fighting Media and Instructions:

Flammable liquid, soluble or dispersed in water. SMALL FIRE: Use DRY chemical powder.
LARGE FIRE: Use alcohol foam, water spray or fog.
Stability and Reactivity Data
Stability: The product is stable.
Conditions of Instability: Heat, ingnition sources, incompatible materials
Incompatibility with various substances: Reactive with oxidizing agents, metals, acids.
Corrosivity: Non-corrosive in presence of glass.
Toxicological Information
Routes of Entry: Absorbed through skin. Eye contact. Inhalation. Ingestion.
Toxicity to Animals:
Warning: the lc50 values hereunder are estimated on the basis of a 4-hour exposure. Acute
oral toxicity (LD50): 5628 mg/kg [Rat]. Acute dermal toxicity (LD50): 15800 mg/kg
[Rabbit]. Acute toxicity of the vapor (LC50):64000 4 hours [Rat].
Chronic Effects on Humans:

Mutagenic Effects: Mutagenic for mammalian somatic cells. Mutagenic for bacteria and/or
yeast. TERATOGENIC EFFECTS: Classified possible for human. Causes damage to the
following organs: eyes. May cause damage to the following organs: blood, kidneys, liver,
brain, peripheral nervous system, upper respiratory tract, skin, central nervous system (CNS),
optic nerve.
Other Toxic Effects on Humans:

Hazardous in case of skin contact (irritant), of ingestion, of inhalation. Slightly hazardous in
case of skin contact (permeator).
Special Remarks on Chronic Effects on Humans:
Passes through the placental barrier. May affect genetic material. May cause birth defects and
adverse reproductiveeffects(paternal and maternal effects and fetotoxicity ) based on animal
studies.
6.2 Carbon Monoxide MSDS
Chemical Product
Substance: Carbon Monoxide
Trade Names/Synonyms:
Mtg Msds 18; Carbon Oxide; Carbonic Oxide; Carbon Oxide (Co); Flue Gas; Un 1016;
Co; Mat04290; Rtecs Fg3500000
Chemical Family: Inorganic, Gas
Product Use: Industrial
Creation Date: Jan 24 1989
Revision Date: Dec 11 2008
Composition, Information On Ingredients

Component: Carbon Monoxide
Cas Number: 630-08-0
Percentage: 100
Hazards Identification
Nfpa Ratings (Scale 0-4): Health=3 Fire=4 Reactivity=0
Emergency Overview:
Color: Colorless
Physical Form: Gas
Odor: Odorless

Major Health Hazards: Harmful If Inhaled, Blood Damage, Difficulty Breathing
Physical Hazards: Flammable Gas. May Cause Flash Fire.
Exposure Limits
50 Ppm (55 Mg/M3) Osha Twa
35 Ppm (40 Mg/M3) Osha Twa (Vacated By 58 Fr 35338, June 30, 1993)
200 Ppm (229 Mg/M3) Osha Ceiling (Vacated By 58 Fr 35338, June 30, 1993)
25 Ppm Acgih Twa
35 Ppm (40 Mg/M3) Niosh Recommended Twa 10 Hour(S)
200 Ppm (229 Mg/M3) Niosh Recommended Ceiling
First Aid Measures

Inhalation: If adverse effects occur, remove to uncontaminated area. Give artificial
respiration if not breathing. If breathing is difficult, oxygen should be administered by
qualified personnel. Get immediate medical attention.
Skin Contact: If frostbite or freezing occur, immediately flush with plenty of lukewarm water
(105- 115 F; 41-46 C). DO NOT USE HOT WATER. If warm water is not available, gently
wrap affected parts in blankets. Get immediate medical attention.
Eye Contact: Contact with liquid: Immediately flush eyes with plenty of water for at least
15 minutes. Then get immediate medical attention.
Ingestion: If a large amount is swallowed, get medical attention.
Note to Physician: For inhalation, consider oxygen.
Personal Protective Equipment
Ventilation: Ventilation equipment should be explosion-resistant if explosive concentrations

of material are present. Provide local exhaust or process enclosure ventilation system. Ensure
compliance with applicable exposure limits.

Eye Protection: For the gas: Eye protection not required, but recommended. For the liquid:
Wear splash resistant safety goggles. Contact lenses should not be worn. Provide an
emergency eye wash fountain and quick drench shower in the immediate work area.
Clothing: For the gas: Protective clothing is not required. For the liquid: Wear appropriate
protective, cold insulating clothing.
Gloves: Wear insulated gloves.
Respirator: The following respirators and maximum use concentrations are drawn from
NIOSH and/orOSHA.
350 ppm
Any supplied-air respirator.
875 ppm
Any supplied-air respirator operated in a continuous-flow mode.
1200 ppm
Any air-purifying full-facepiece respirator (gas mask) with a chin-style, front-mounted or
back-mounted canister providing protection against the compound of concern.
Fire Fighting Measures
Fire And Explosion Hazards: Severe fire hazard. Vapor/air mixtures are explosive.
Containers may rupture or explode if exposed to heat.
Extinguishing Media: carbon dioxide, regular dry chemical

Large fires: Use regular foam or flood with fine water spray.
Fire Fighting: Move container from fire area if it can be done without risk. Cool containers
with water spray until well after the fire is out. Stay away from the ends of tanks. For fires in
cargo or storage area: Cool containers with water from unmanned hose holder or monitor
nozzles until well after fire is out. If this is impossible then take the following precautions:
Keep unnecessary people away, isolate hazard area and deny entry. Let the fire burn.
Withdraw immediately in case of rising sound from venting safety device or anydiscoloration

of tanks due to fire. For tank, rail car or tank truck: Evacuation radius: 800 meters (1/2 mile).
Do not attempt to extinguish fire unless flow of material can be stopped first. Flood with fine
water spray.
Cool containers with water. Apply water from a protected location or from a safe distance.
Avoid inhalation of material or combustion by-products. Stay upwind and keep out of low
areas.
Fire Fighting Protective Equipment: Wear full protective fire fighting gear including self
contained breathing apparatus (SCBA) for protection against possible exposure.
Flash Point: Not Available

Lower Flammable Limit: >=12.5 % By Volume
Upper Flammable Limit: 74 % By Volume
Autoignition: 1292 F (700 C)
Handling And Storage

Storage: Store in accordance with all current regulations and standards. Store in a cool, dry
place. Store in a well-ventilated area. Avoid direct sunlight. Avoid heat, flames, sparks and
other sources of ignition. Subject to storage regulations: U.S. OSHA 29 CFR 1910.101. Keep
separated from incompatible substances.
Physical And Chemical Properties
Physical State: Gas

Color: Colorless
Odor: Odorless
Taste: Tasteless
Molecular Weight: 28.01

Molecular Formula: C-O
Boiling Point: -312.7 F (-191.5 C)
Freezing Point: -337 F (-205 C)
Decomposition Point: Not Available

Vapor Pressure: 760 Mmhg @ -191 C
Vapor Density (Air=1): 0.968
Specific Gravity: Not Applicable
Density: 1.250 G/L @ 0 C
Water Solubility: 2.3% @ 20 C
Ph: Not Applicable
Volatility: Not Applicable
Odor Threshold: Not Available
Evaporation Rate: Not Applicable
Viscosity: 0.01657 Cp @ 0 C
Coefficient Of Water/Oil Distribution: Not Applicable
Solvent Solubility:
Soluble: alcohol, benzene, acetic acid, ethyl acetate, chloroform, cuprous chloride solutions
Stability And Reactivity

Reactivity: Stable at normal temperatures and pressure.
Conditions To Avoid: Avoid heat, flames, sparks and other sources of ignition. Minimize
contact with material. Avoid inhalation of material or combustion by-products. Keep out of
water supplies and sewers.
Incompatibilities: oxidizing materials, halogens, metal oxides, metals, combustible materials,
lithium
Hazardous Decomposition:
Thermal decomposition products: oxides of carbon
Polymerization: Will not polymerize.
Carbon Monoxide:
Toxicity Data: 1807 ppm/4 hour(s) inhalation-rat LC50
Acute Toxicity Level:

Toxic: inhalation

Target Organs: blood, heart, nervous system
Medical Conditions Aggravated By Exposure: blood system disorders, heart or

cardiovascular disorders, hormonal disorders, respiratory disorders
Reproductive Effects Data: Available.
Additional Data: Alcohol may enhance the toxic effects. May cross the placenta.
Smoking may enhance the toxic effects.
6.3 Hydrogen Sulfide MSDS

Product Identification
Product Name: Hydrogen Sulfide
Chemical Name: Sulfides Formula: H2s
Colorless gas. The liquid is also colorless. The odor for boththe liquid and gas is similar to
that of ―rotten eggs‖.
Exposure Limits:
OSHA: Pel = 20 ppm (Ceiling)
ACGIH: Twa = 10 ppm
NIOSH: Rel = 10 ppm Ceiling (10 Minutes)
STEL= 15 ppm Idlh = 100 ppm
First Aid Measures
Eye Contact: If liquid is splashed into eyes, or if irritation of the eye develops after exposure
to Hydrogen Sulfide, open victim's eyes while under gentle, lukewarm, running water. Use
sufficient force to open eyelids. Have victim "roll" eyes. Minimum flushing is for 15 minutes.
Victim must seek immediate medical attention from an ophthalmologist.
Ingestion: Ingestion is an unlikely route of exposure for Hydrogen Sulfide.
Inhalation: Remove victim(s) to fresh air, as quickly as possible. Trained personnel should
administer supplemental oxygen and/or cardio-pulmonary resuscitation, if necessary.
Skin Contact: If liquid is spilled on skin, or if irritation of the skin develops after exposure to
liquid or gas, immediately begin decontamination with running water. Minimum flushing is
for 15 minutes. Remove exposed or contaminated clothing, taking care not to contaminate
eyes. Victim must seek immediate medical attention. In case of frostbite, place the frostbitten
part in warm water. . If warm water is not available, or is impractical to use, wrap the affected
parts gently in blankets. Alternatively, if the fingers or hands are frostbitten, place the
affected area in the armpit. Encourage victim to gently exercise the affected part while being
warmed. Seek immediate medical attention.
Notes To Physicians: Administer oxygen, if necessary and treat symptoms. Be observant for
initial signs of pulmonary edema.
Unusual Fire And Explosion Hazards: Most cylinders are designed to vent contents when
exposed to elevated temperatures. Pressure in a cylinder can build-up due to heat and it may
rupture if pressure relief devices should fail to function. An extreme explosion hazard exists
in areas in which the gas has been released but the material has not yet ignited.
Hazardous Combustion Products: Oxides of sulfur
Handling And Storage

Storage: Store cylinders in a well-ventilated, secure area, protected from the weather.
Cylinders should be stored up-right with valve outlet seals and valve protection caps in place.
Storage should be away from heavily traveled areas and emergency exits. There should be no
sources of ignition. All electrical equipment should be explosion-proof in the storage areas.
Storage areas must meet National Electrical Codes for Class 1 hazardous areas. Flammable
storage areas should be separated from oxygen and other oxidizers by a minimum distance of
20 ft. or by a barrier of non-combustible material at least 5 ft. high, having a fire resistance
rating of at least 1/2 hour. Post ―No Smoking orOpen Flames‖ signs in the storage and use
areas. Full and empty cylinders should be segregated. Use a first-in, first-out inventory
system toprevent full containers from being stored for long periods of time. Consideration
should be taken to install leak detection and alarm equipment for storage areas.

Handling: Do not drag, roll, slide or drop cylinder. Use a suitable hand truck designed for
cylinder movement. Never attempt to lift a cylinder by its cap. Secure cylinders at all times
while in use. Use a pressure reducing regulator to safely discharge product from cylinder. Use
a check valve to prevent reverse flow into cylinder. Never apply flame or localized heat
directly to any part of the cylinder. Once cylinder has been connected to properly purged and
inerted process, open cylinder valve slowly and carefully. If user experiences any difficulty
operating cylinder valve, discontinue use and contact supplier. Never insert an object (e.g.,
wrench, screwdriver, etc.) into valve cap openings. Doing so may damage valve, causing a
leak to occur. Use an adjustable strap-wrench to remove over-tight or rusted caps. All piped
systems and associated equipment must be grounded. Electrical equipment should be non-
sparking or explosion-proof.
Special Precautions: Be aware of any signs of dizziness or fatigue; exposures to fatal

concentrations of Hydrogen Sulfide could occur without any significant warning symptoms.
All work operations should be monitored in such a way that emergency personnel can be
immediately contacted in the event of a release. All work practices should minimize the
release of Hydrogen Sulfide. Always store and handle compressed gas cylinders in
accordance with Compressed Gas Association,
Personal Protection
Eye Protection: Safety glasses. Additionally, face-shields should be worn if there is a

potential for contact with liquid Hydrogen Sulfide. Eye wash stations/safety showers should
be near areas where Hydrogen Sulfide is used or stored.
Skin Protection: Work gloves are recommended when handling cylinders of Hydrogen
Sulfide. Use thermally insulated gloves when working with containers of Liquid Hydrogen
Sulfide. Wear chemically-resistant gloves when using this gas. Butyl rubber, chlorinated
polyethylene, neoprene nitrile, and polyvinyl rubber are recommended. Use fire-resistant
gloves and clothing in emergency situations. Use double gloves for spill response.
Other Protective Equipment: Use body protection appropriate for task. Static-resistant
clothing is recommended. Safety shoes are recommended when handling cylinders. Transfer

of large quantities under pressure may require use of fire retardant and/or chemically
impervious clothing.
Stability and Reactivity

Chemical Stability: Stable
Conditions to Avoid: Cylinders should not be exposed to temperatures in excess of 52 °C.
Incompatibility (Materials to Avoid): Hydrogen Sulfide is a strong reducing agent and is

highly reactive. Hydrogen Sulfide is not compatible with the following materials: oxidizing
agents, organic peroxides, alkaline materials, metals (i.e. copper, lead), and metal oxides.
Hydrogen Sulfide is corrosive to most metals, because it reacts with these substances to form
metal sulfides.
Reactivity:
A) Hazardous Decomposition Products: Hydrogen and sulfur
B) Hazardous Polymerization: Will not occur
LC50, TCLo, or LCLo (Inhalation): Human LCLo: 600 ppm/30 minutes; Man LDLo: 5700
mg/kg (Central Nervous System Effects, Pulmonary System Effects); Human LCLo: 800
ppm/5 minutes; Rat LC50: 444 ppm; Rat TCLo: 20 ppm (female 6-22 days post)
(Reproductive Effects); Mammal LCLo: 800 ppm/5 minutes; Rat TCLo: 1200 mg/m3/2
hours/5 days-intermittent (Brain and Coverings-other degenerative changes; Biochemical -
enzyme inhibition, induction, or change inblood or tissue levels - true cholinesterase); Rat
TCLo: 100 ppm/8 hours/5 weeks-intermittent (Brain and Coverings - other degenerative
changes; Lungs, Thorax, or Respiration - other changes; Biochemical - enzyme inhibition,
induction, or change in blood or tissue levels – cytochrome oxidases (including oxidative
phosphorylation)); Rat TCLo: 80 ppm/6 hours/90 days-intermittent (Brain and Coverings -
changes in brain weight; Nutritional and Gross Metabolic - weight loss or decreased weight
gain); Rat TCLo: 80 ppm/6 hours/90 days-intermittent (Nutritional and Gross Metabolic -
weight loss or decreased weight gain; Related to Chronic Data - death); Mouse LC50: 634
ppm/1 hour; Rabbit TCLo: 40 mg/m3/5 hours/30 weeks-intermittent (Sense Organs and

Special Senses (Eye) - conjunctive irritation); Rat TCLo: 20 ppm: female 6-22 day(s) after
conception; lactating female 21 day(s) post-birth (Reproductive - Effects on Newborn -
physical).
Skin Corrosivity: Hydrogen Sulfide is irritating to the skin.
Carcinogencity: Currently, Hydrogen Sulfide has not been found to be carcinogenic.
7. Process Instrument control and safety aspect

Control in process industries refers to the regulation of all aspects of the process. Precise
control of level, temperature, pressure and flow is important in many process applications.
This module introduces you to control in process industries, explains why control is
important, and identifies different ways in which precise control is ensured.Refining,
combining, handling, and otherwise manipulating fluids to profitably produce end products
can be a precise, demanding, and potentially hazardous process. Small changes in a process
can have a large impact on the end result. Variations in proportions, temperature, flow,
turbulence, and many other factors must be carefully and consistently controlled to produce
the desired end product with a minimum of raw materials and energy. Process control
technology is the tool that enables manufacturers to keep their operations running within
specified limits and to set more precise limits to maximize profitability, ensure quality and
safety.
Process control refers to the methods that are used to control process variables when
manufacturing a product. For example, factors such as the proportion of one ingredient to
another, the temperature of the materials, how well the ingredients are mixed, and the
pressure under which the materials are held can significantly impact the quality of an end
product. Manufacturers control the production process for three reasons:
❑ Reduce variability
❑ Increase efficiency
❑ Ensure safety

Examining the automatic control system, it is found that it contains the following hardware.
 Sensor - a piece of equipment to measure system variables. It serves as the signal

source in automatic control. These will be discussed at length in a later module.
 Controller - a piece of equipment to perform the functions of comparison and
computation. The actions that a controller can take will be discussed at length in a
later module.
 Control Element - a piece of equipment to perform the control action or to exert
direct influence on the process. This element receives signals from the controller and
performs some type of operation on the process. Generally the control element is
simply a control valve.
Selecting Controls for Multi Unit Process:

The following steps should be followed when setting up controls for multi-unit processes. For
more in-depth descriptions, refer to the Step-by-Step Method For Describing Controls and
Their Purpose.
1. Determine process objectives, taking into consideration product specifications, economic

constraints, environmental and safety regulations, etc.
2. Identify boundaries for normal operation. These can be based on equipment limitations,
safety concerns, environmental regulations, and the economic objectives of the processes.
3. Identify units and streams in the process that are susceptible to significant disturbances.
These disturbances commonly occur in feed streams, product streams, and reactor vessels,
but can be present anywhere that temperature or pressure or other variables are changing.
4. Select the types and locations of sensors in order to properly measure and monitor critical
process variables.
5. Determine the appropriate types and locations for control valves in order to appropriately
adjust process variables so that they remain within the normal operating boundaries. Controls
should be set up to minimize response time between sensing a change and taking corrective
actions. The ideal location for any given control depends on the process unit or units that it
affects.
6. Perform a degree of freedom analysis.

7. Energy Considerations. An energy balance should be performed for the process. This step
involves transporting energy to and from process units. This may include removing heat
generated by a reactor and using it elsewhere in the process. Control valves will help regulate
the flow of such streams.
8. Control Process Production Rate and Other Operating Parameters. Adjusting process
inputs, such as reactant feed rates, can alter other variables in the process. Process controls
must be able to respond to these adjustments to keep the system within operating boundaries.
9. Set up control system to handle disturbances and minimize their effects. (See Chemical
Process Controls > PID Control)
10. Monitor Component Balances. Accumulation of materials within a system is not desirable
and can lead to inefficiency in the process or catastrophic failure.
11. Control individual unit operations. Each unit of a multi-unit process needs to be
individually controlled in order for control of the entire system to be possible.
12. Optimize the process. If the system has degrees of freedom, process variables can be
manipulated in order to more efficiently or economically create product.
In our plant we used different sensors to measure the process variable. These are:
Pressure:
A pressure sensor measures pressure, typically of gases or liquids. A pressure sensor usually
acts as a transducer; it generates a signal as a function of the pressure imposed. For the
purposes of this article, such a signal is electrical. Pressure sensors can also be used to
indirectly measure other variables such as fluid/gas flow, speed, water level, and altitude.
They can alternatively be called pressure transducers, pressure transmitters, pressure senders,
pressure indicators and piezometers, manometers, among other names.
Capacitive, and Piezo-electric gauges are frequently used our plant.
In gas or vapour systems we regulate inventory as pressure. A typical system is shown below.
Both the inlet and outlet are gas or vapour. Therefore if the control valve is shut then the
pressure in the tank will rise and vice versa.

Fig.4 pressure
controller [11]
In principle we might, like the level control system, have the valve either upstream or
downstream of the tank. In practice in gas systems it is more likely to be downstream for the
following reason.
Raising the pressure of a gas requires energy, and normally this energy is imparted by some
mechanical device, such as a compressor. Both the compressor itself, and the energy to drive
it, are expensive. To minimize the first cost we try to minimize the number of compressors in
a process. Where possible we would use only one, locate it at the front of the process, and
perform any subsequent manipulations to obtain the required pressure by downstream valves.
The energy used in compression is expensive, and throttling through a control valve throws
this energy away. Therefore in processes where compressor costs are very significant we may
sometimes avoid such valves and manipulate the compressor speed in order to maintain the
system at the required pressure. This control system is shown in the diagram below
Level:
This control is used to control the level of a fluid in equipment using simple mass balances. A
level transducer (LT) measures the level in tank and sends a signal to the level controller
(LC). The LC compares the signal with the set point value and sends a signal to the control
valve actuator that positions the control valve adjusting the flow out. Level control can be
float actuated devices coupled with various types of indicators and signal converters, liquid
level pressure devices etc.. Since we can achieve acceptable offset with the moderate values
of gain we can use simple proportional controller for this type of control system.

Flow:
A flow control valve regulates the flow or pressure of a fluid. Control valves normally
respond to signals generated by independent devices such as flow meters or temperature
gauges.
Control valves are normally fitted with actuators and positioners. Pneumatically-
actuated globe valves and Diaphragm Valves are widely used for control purposes in many
industries, although quarter-turn types such as (modified) ball, gate and butterfly valves are
also used.
Control valves can also work with hydraulic actuators (also known as hydraulic pilots). These
types of valves are also known as Automatic Control Valves. The hydraulic actuators will
respond to changes of pressure or flow and will open/close the valve. Automatic Control
Valves do not require an external power source, meaning that the fluid pressure is enough to
open and close the valve. Automatic control valves include: pressure reducing valves, flow
control valves, back-pressure sustaining valves, altitude valves, and relief valves. An altitude
valve controls the level of a tank. The altitude valve will remain open while the tank is not
full and it will close when the tanks reaches its maximum level. The opening and closing of
the valve requires no external power source (electric, pneumatic, or man power), it is done
automatically.
Flow can be measured by finding the pressure drop across a flow constriction like in the
orifice plates, venture flow nozzle , turbine flow meters etc. A proportional integral is
normally used to control flow. Since the response of a flow system is rather fast, the speed of
the closed loop remains satisfactory despite the slowdown caused by the integral control
mode
Composition Control:
It is specific type of control system which is generally convenient for one or two chemicals.
Though it requires a long time for analysis manually but with computers and advanced
instrumentation technique it is now possible to implement composition control online, e.g.
the lab chip technique. The composition measurement can be done with the help of chromatic

analyzer,infra-red analyzer, oscillometric analyzer and differential thermal analyzer . But the
basic disadvantage is that it is expensive for low cost control loop.
These are the instrument we use in our plant
1) Distillation column
2) Reactor
3) Heat Exchanger
4) Reboiler
5) Condenser
Distillation column:
Because the economic viability of an overall process is based significantly on product purity,
it is important that distillation columns maintain stable operation. Changes in composition
and flow-rate of the feed stream are common disturbances in distillation column operation.
Improper functioning of controllers can undermine the effectiveness of the product
composition. A degrees of freedom analysis can help place sensors and actuators in
appropriate places, while not including too many sensors and actuators, in order to obtain an
efficient control system.
There are a number of common control schemes for distillation columns. Optimally, a
distillation column should be run with dual composition control because it saves energy. In
dual composition control, the temperature of both chemicals in a binary distillation is
controlled. The system is more complex to setup and measurements required for control may
be difficult. As a result, many distillation columns use single composition control instead.
Common control configurations for distillation columns include reflux-boil up and distillate-
boil up.
In the reflux-boil up configuration, the distillate composition and bottoms composition are
the control variables. The reflux flow and the heat input control (vapor boil up) are the
manipulated variables, which allow control of the liquid and vapor flow-rates in the column.
With this control system, a quick response to changes in the feed composition is possible. In
the distillate-boil up control configuration, the distillate flow and the vapor boil up are used to
control composition. This configuration is a better choice for columns where the reflux ratio
is high.

Fig.5 Distillation column with reflux-boilup control scheme [12]
Gasifier:
The level control of the slag in the gasifier is necessary to protect the walls of the gasifier,
and also to prevent the heat leakage. I heat is allowed to escape then not only is some heat
wasted but also to maintain the desired temperature in the gasifier a large amount of CO2
would be formed which would disturb the output composition and adversely affect the
efficiency of thee process. For the same purpose, a level control is employed which monitors
the level of the slag in gasifier and accordingly modifies the outflow of the slag.

Fig.6 PID control for gasifier [13]

Since Pressure maintenance is also of vital importance, it is controlled by manipulating the
flow of Syn-Gas mixture produced at the outlet of the gasifier. Here the level control is
cascaded with the composition of raw syn-gas produced at the outlet stream m7, so that we
get raw syngas at required composition. Since it is necessary to maintain fixed oxygen to gas
(N2+coke) ratio, the flow of coke is controlled by employing a ratio controller which
multiplies the flow rate of oxygen with the desired ratio to give the flow rate of coke
required. Similarly, to maintain the steam to gas ratio, a ration controller is employed which
takes the input value as the gas flow rate, multiplies it by desired ratio, and further controls
the amount of steam entering the gasifier
Heat Exchanger Control System:
Since the heat demands of the process are not constant, and the heat content of the two fluids
is not constant either, the heat exchanger must be designed for the worst case and must be
controlled to make it operate at the particular rate required by the process at every moment in

time. The heat exchanger itself is not constant. Its characteristic changes with time. The most
common change is a reduction in the heat transfer rate due to fouling of the surfaces.
Exchangers are initially oversized to allow for the fouling which gradually builds up during
use until the exchanger is no longer capable of performing its duty. Once it has been cleaned
it is again oversized
At the fundamental level, there is only one variable that can be controlled -- the amount of
heat being exchanged. In practical situations it is not possible to measure heat flux. It is
always the temperature of one fluid or the other which is being measured and controlled. It is
not possible to control both since the heat added from one is taken from the other. Therefore
the first consideration is to specify the place at which the temperature is to be kept constant.
This is usually within a piece of equipment somewhere downstream of the outlet of one of the
fluids. Assuming there is not much temperature change along the piping, the measurement
may be anywhere between the outlet itself and the point of interest, perhaps at the base of a
distillation tower. In cases where the measurement is being made downstream of a bypass
valve, the further downstream, the better the mixing will be, and the more representative the
measurement. On the other hand, too far down-stream may result in process dead time that
can make control difficult. In cases where the "other" fluid is the one being manipulated, it is
often quite sufficient to make the measurement directly downstream of the outlet nozzle of
the exchanger.
Basically two types of control loop is used in heat exchangers
1) Feed forward
2) Feed back

Fig.7 a) feed backward control, b) feed forward control [14]
Cascade control:
Single input single output involves a single loop control that uses only one measured signal
(input). This signal is then compared to a set point of the control variable (output) before
being sent to an actuator (i.e. pump or valve) that adjusts accordingly to meet the set point.
Cascade controls, in contrast, make use of multiple control loops that involve multiple signals
for one manipulated variable. Utilizing cascade controls can allow a system to be more
responsive to disturbances

Fig.8 Cascade control of heat exchanger [15]
Basic strategic control of a process can always, in principle, be achieved by manipulating a

valve directly from a measurement. However, there will usually be other factors than the
position of the valve which will affect the flow through the pipe, and thus cause the measured
variable to fluctuate. This could be prevented or minimized if the actual flow through the pipe
rather than just the valve position were set by the control loop.
This can be achieved by using a cascade control loop in which the main or master controller,
regulating say a temperature, manipulates not the valve, but the set point of a flow controller
which in the secondary or slave control loop, sets this flow through the valve.
Cascade loops of this sort are particularly useful when the manipulated variable is the flow of
a utility such as steam or cooling water. Because there are many users of such utilities, any of
which may change their demand, their supply pressure is subject to significant and
unpredictable fluctuations. In the arrangement above, a drop in steam pressure which would
otherwise have changed the bottoms temperature, and hence composition, on the column
before the temperature control loop could eliminate it, will have its effect largely eliminated
by the flow control loop before it can affect the column.

Fig.9 Regulating the temperature in a steam heated reboiler [16]
CSTR control loop:
Several types of feedback control can be used to manipulate the conditions in

a CSTR: positive feedback, negative feedback, or a combination of both. Figure illustrates
each of these possible situations. As depicted below, each CSTR is equipped with two
electrodes that measure the voltage of the solution contained inside the reactor. A computer
adjusts the flow rates of the pump(s) in response to any changes in the voltage.
Fig.10 Temperature control [17]

III. Environmental Protection & Energy

Conservation

1. Environmental aspects
1.1Air pollution
There are three independent ways to estimate air pollution emission rates. One approach is to
make a material balance across the entire process. Another technique is use of emissive
factors published data on the weight of the contaminants generated per unit of fuel burnt or
raw material processed. But the main sources of emissions in coal processing facilities
primarily consist of fugitive sources of particulate matter (PM), volatile organic compounds
(VOCs), carbon monoxide (CO), and hydrogen. Coal transfer, storage, and preparation
activities may contribute significantly to fugitive emissions of coal PM.
Recommendations to prevent and control fugitive coal PM emissions include the following:
1) Design of the plant or facility layout to facilitate emissions management and to reduce the
number of coal transfer points;
2) Use of loading and unloading equipment to minimize the height of coal drop to the
stockpile;
3) Use of water spray systems and/or polymer coatings to reduce the formation of fugitive
dust from coal storage (e.g. on stockpiles) as feasible depending on the coal quality
requirements;
4) Capture of coal dust emissions from crushing / sizing activities and conveying to a
baghouse filter or other particulate control equipment;
5) Use of centrifugal (cyclone) collectors followed by high-efficiency venturi aqueous

scrubbers for thermal dryers;
6) Use of centrifugal (cyclone) collectors followed by fabric filtration for pneumatic coal
cleaning equipment;
7) Use of enclosed conveyors combined with extraction and filtration equipment on conveyor
transfer points; and·
8) Suppression of dust during coal processing (e.g., crushing, sizing, and drying) and transfer
(e.g., conveyor systems) using, for example, ware spraying systems with water collection and
subsequent treatment or re-use of the collected water.

Ambient air quality standards:
Table 8 Threshold limit for Pollutants
Acceptable limit for pollutants:
Table 9 Acceptable limit for pollutants [18]
Toxic gases are present in a gasification complex such as H2S, which can be handled and
disposed of properly by following the information available on the material safety data
sheets. In addition, concentrated CO2 that is produced poses a problem. Danger can be
avoided by ensuring the CO2 that is vented have sufficient buoyancy by keeping temperatures
elevated.

1.1.1 Oxygen
Pure oxygen tanks will need to be store appropriately to prevent oxygen explosions.
Hydrogen sulfide gas is highly toxic and proper maintenance for corrosion of transfer piping
and equipment are required to operate safely. In addition, to chemical safetyprecautions there
will be a need to maintain the reactors in proper structural strengths due to the high pressures
and temperatures.
1.1.2 CO2 emmisions
Carbon dioxide emission is a byproduct during the water gas shift process. The release of
greenhouse gases into the atmosphere must be monitored due to the direct correlation
between CO2 concentration and the rising average global temperature.
Excessive CO2 emissions are a major concern for coal gasification. There overwhelming
evidence of rise in temperature correlates with CO2 atmospheric concentrations increasing.
Global average temperatures and CO2 concentrations (as determined from Antarctic Ice
cores) are some examples identifying the environmental effects of CO2 emissions.
Operator safety to avoid CO2 asphyxiation, due to CO2 heavier than air is a concern.
Preventing leaks in equipment and piping should be priority. In addition to CO2 safety,
methanol synthesis from CO has its own set of safety concerns. For one the higher heat of
reaction of CO has over CO2 heat removal becomes a requirement to prevent heat exhaustion
onthe materials of construction. Prevent impurity build up due to side reactions increase with
Increasing Temperature.
1.1.3 Venting and Flaring

Venting and flaring is an important operational and safety measure used in coal processing
facilities to ensure gas is safely disposed of in the event of an emergency, power or
equipment failure, or other plant upset conditions. Unreacted raw materials and by-product
combustible gases are also disposed of through venting and flaring. Excess gas should not be
vented but instead sent to an efficient flare gas system for disposal.
1) Recommendations to minimize gas venting and flaring include the following:
2) Optimize plant controls to increase the reaction conversion rates;

3) Utilize unreacted raw materials and by-product combustible gases for power generation or
heat recovery, if possible;
4) Provide back-up systems to maximize plant reliability; and
5) Locate flaring systems at a safe distance from personnel accommodations and residential
areas and maintain flaring systems to achieve high efficiency.
Emergency venting may be acceptable under certain conditions where flaring of the gas
stream is not appropriate. Standard risk assessment methodologies should be utilized to
analyze such situations.
1.2 Liquid pollution

As such there are no liquid pollutants but the gases emitted in the form of THF , GBL and
BDO could result in acid rain which can create problems. These may get added to water
bodies and can cause pollution. Hence must be handled and stored carefully. The standards
set by Water (prevention control of pollution) Act are mentioned below:
Table 10 Standards set by Water (prevention control of pollution) Act

Water is used for in gasification plant for producing steam in the form of heat recovery as
well as for water scrubbing various impurities in the scrubber column. Most common effluent
treatment these days is activated sludge process. A block diagram is given below
Fig.11 Flow sheet of Activated Sludge System [19]
Activated sludge plant involves:

1. Wastewater aeration in the presence of a microbial suspension
2. Solid-liquid separation following aeration
3. Discharge of clarified effluent
4. Wasting of excess biomass, and
5. Return of remaining biomass to the aeration tank.
In activated sludge process wastewater containing organic matter is aerated in an aeration

basin in which micro-organisms metabolize the suspended and soluble organic matter. Part of
organic matter is synthesized into new cells and part is oxidized to CO2 and water to derive
energy. In activated sludge systems the new cells formed in the reaction are removed from
the liquid stream in the form of a flocculent sludge in settling tanks. A part of this settled
biomass, described as activated sludge is returned to the aeration tank and the remaining
forms waste or excess sludge.

Screening and Grit units - The purpose of this prestep is to remove large objects such as
logs, branches, rags, and small fish that could damage pumps and clog pipes and channels if
they are not removed. This step can also be used for grinding waste to reduce particle size.
Primary settling tanks - The oldest and most widely used form of water and wastewater
treatment uses gravity settling to remove particles from water. The shape of the tanks can be
round, square or rectangular. Sedimentation takes place in the primary settling tanks and is
relatively simple and inexpensive. Particulates suspended in surface water can range in size
from 10-1 to 10-7 mm in diameter, the size of fine sand and small clay respectively. Turbidity
or cloudiness in water is caused by those particles larger than 10-4 mm, while particles
smaller than 10-4 mm contribute to the water‘s color and taste. Such very small particles may
be considered for treatment purposes, to be dissolved rather than particulate.
Aeration tanks - The waste water flows into an aeration chamber usually constructed of
steel, poly, fiberglass, or concrete. The aeration chamber normally provides 6 to 24 hours
retention time for the waste water. The contents of the aeration tank are referred to as mixed
liquor, and the solids are called mixed liquor suspended solids (MLSS). The latter includes
inert material as well as living and dead microbial cells. In the aeration tank, microorganisms
are kept in suspension for 4 to 8 hours by mechanical mixers and/or diffused air, and their
concentration in the tank is maintained by the continuous return of the settled biological floc
from a secondary settling tank to the aeration tank.
Final settling tanks- Like primary tanks, final tanks may be rectangular or circular, and
occasionally square, but they provide longer detention (2h) and lower overflow rates (30 to
50 m3/m2.day). The Final Settling Tanks can also be referred to as The Settling Chamber or a
Secondary Clarifier. The Final Settling Tanks receives the overflow of the aeration chamber.
When the sludge settles to the bottom of the tank, it is still active and it is able to remove
more BOD from the waste water. Returning the activated sludge to the aeration chamber on a
continuous basis maintains and increases the microorganism concentration in the aeration
chamber. This is a key factor to increase BOD removal from the waste water. The sludge will
continue to build up. Occasionally, some of the sludge should be drained to keep the effluent
from deteriorating.

1.3 Sulfur
The sulfur compounds from the feedstock of a gasification-based process are generally
removed from the synthesis gas as a concentrated stream of hydrogen sulfide and carbon
dioxide, known as acid gas. Depending on the design of the upstream AGR unit, the acid gas
may contain other sulfur species, such as COS, as well as ammonia and hydrogen cyanide. It
is unacceptable to emit H2S, a highly toxic, foul-smelling gas, to the atmosphere, so it is
necessary to fix it in one form or other. There are essentially two alternative products in
which the sulfur can be fixed, either as liquid or solid elemental sulfur, or as sulfuric acid.
The choice of product will depend on the local market. Where there is a strong local
phosphate industry, then there will be a good local market for sulfuric acid. If this is not the
case, then elemental sulfur will probably be the better choice, since bulk transport of this
material is much easier than of the concentrated sulfuric acid.
The Claus process

The basic Claus process for substoichiometric combustion of H2S to elemental sulfur was
developed as a single-stage process on the basis of below reaction at the end
of the nineteenth century. During the 1930s it was modified into a two-stage process in which
initially one-third of the H2S was combusted to SO2 and water and, in a second low
temperature catalytic stage, the SO2 was reacted with the remaining H2S to sulfur. Operating
the second stage at a comparatively low temperature (200–300°C) used the more favorable
equilibrium to achieve much higher sulfur yields than had been possible with the original
process.
Typical two-stage Claus unit

In the first combustion stage all the H2S is combusted with an amount of air corresponding to
the stoichiometry of reaction (8.8) at a temperature in the range 1000–1200°C. The
thermodynamics of the three main reactions above are such that about half the total sulfur is
present in the outlet gas as elemental sulfur vapor, the rest as an equal mix of H2S and SO2.
The hot gas is cooled by raising steam, and the sulfur already formed is condensed out. The

removal of sulfur at this point assists in driving reaction (8.7) further to the right in the
subsequent catalytic stage. The gas is reheated and passed over an alumina catalyst at a
temperature of about 250–300°C, and cooled again to condense the sulfur formed. This may
be performed a number of times to remove further amounts of sulfur. Typically, two (as
shown in the above figure) or three catalytic stages are used.
1.4 Solid waste disposal
Possible sources
There is no substantial solid waste in the plant, the only solid waste will be dried sludge from
the effluent treatment plant, canteen wastes, worn office equipment and tools , stationery,
cleaning rags, packing boxes, broken pallets and broken office chairs.
Disposal Technique
Solid waste disposal is done by thermal incineration or by tipping. The design of a solid
waste incinerator is difficult to do due to the wide variety of feed to be disposed. it is
important to determine the burning characteristics of the solid waste material. A major
problem with the solid incinerator is fly ash control. Various methods employed for this
purpose ate two-stage combustion, filter baffle and provision of large secondary chambers
where velocities are low and settling takes place. If the fly ash problem is chronic , special
separation devices like electrostatic precipitators can be employed. The flash produced can be
used as a land fill.
1.5 Noise pollution

The major sources of noise pollution in our plant are:
1) Pumps
2) Burners
3) Electric motors
4) Valves
5) Steam Vents

Various equipments, their noise levels and control measures are listed in the table below
Table 11 noise levels and control measures [20]
Apart from the listed noise sources, minor sources of the noise pollution may be pipes and
hoses hitting the floor, panels etc. i.e. rattling noises, which can be stabilized with adsorbent
mounts. All the bolts should be tightened to prevent vibration and clatter.
Venting of process gas out the condensers may result in serious noise pollutions. This is due
to turbulent mixing of high velocity gas with the stationary gas. Steam leaks and another
common noise problem with the sound level are reaching sometimes 100 dB at the distance
of 25 feet of the leak. All steam leaks should be timely repaired. Where noise levels cannot
be reduced to acceptable levels of a person, ear protection equipment should be used.
Ambient Air Quality Standards in Respect of Noise as provided by the Central Pollution
Control Board is given in the table below

Table 12 Ambient Air Quality Standards in Respect of Noise [21]
Area Code Category Of Area Day Time (Limits in Night time (Limits in
dB) dB)
(A) Industrial Area 75 70
(B) Commercial Area 65 55
(C) Residential Area 55 45
(D) Silence Zone 50 40
Following points need to be noted while applying above standards:

Day time is reckoned in between 6:00 AM and 9:00 PM
Night time is reckoned in between 9:00 PM and 6:00 AM
Silence zone is defined as areas up to 100 meters around such premises as hospitals,
educational institutions and courts. The silence zones are to be declared by the Competent
Authority. Use of vehicular horns, loudspeakers and bursting or crackers shall be banned in
these zones. Mixed categories should be declared as one of the four above mentioned
categories by the Competent Authority and corresponding standards shall apply.
Mitigative Measures
It is essential to provide protection against the noise exposure when the sound levels exceed
the limits specified by CPCB. A noise reduction program should start with determinants of
the true sources and the path of travel. It is important to pion down the noise causes like the
drive trains, gear trains, bearings, hydraulic systems, exhausts or whatever.
The general ways of controlling or reducing noise are given below:
Control Valves: High pressure gas, steam and liquid can be a serious noise plooution source.
Dividing a pressure drop across two valves instead of one can eliminate valve noise pollution.
Enclosures: A noise source must be contained in its own walled gasket doors.
Vibration Isolation: When structural paths are the main cause of noiseor vibration
transmission, isolation may be restored to reduction possible from 5 – 30 dB

Surface Damping: For light weight metal transmitting or radiating structure bound sound,
damping tapes or deadening materials may be used.
Partial Barrier: Acoustic absorption of large inside surface areas, plus walls deflecting
unwanted exterior noise can reduce overall noise levels significantly.
Lined Ducts: When conveying materials a lined duct can reduce the escape of noise.
Ordinarily, sound absorbing linings are used.
Mufflers: Where large quantities of fluid flows are being handled or in a group of enclosed
motor drive units, pumps, ejectors etc, mufflers can be used to reduce the noise to acceptable
limits.
2. Energy Integration and Conservation
2.1 Conservation
Chemical plants have always been designed to operate and economically due to product
competition. However before 1970, the objectives of building a low cost plant was generally
considered more important than low operating cost. This concept changed due to the oil crisis
of 1973 and the subsequent action at several environment protection agencies in promoting
the use of non-low polluting attention has been paid to such topics such as energy
conservation schemes, process integration, heat exchanger network design, cogeneration etc.
This attention is evident by the large number of books and journals published on these topics
in the recent years.
The design engineer must consider appropriate energy conservation schemes that are
designed to:
(i) Utilize as much of the energy available within the plant.
(ii) Minimize the energy requirements for the plant.
The energy balances performed for the plant items provide the initial key to identify areas of
high energy availability or demand. An attempt can then be made to utilize excess energy in
those areas where energy must be provided. However, this is not always possible because:
(i) A high energy load may constitute a large volume of liquid at relatively low temperature,
exchanging this energy may require a large and expensive equipment.

(ii) This energy source may be distant from the sink and piping and insulating costs may
make utilization uneconomic, sometimes a rearrangement of the plant lay out required.
(iii) The energy source may be corrosive.
Any energy conservation scheme must also consider the costs involved in removing or
transferring the excess energy i.e. capital cost of heat exchangers, piping , valves, pumps,
insulation and operating costs of pumping and maintenance. Energy conservation is only
worthwhile if the reduction in energy costs exceed the cost of implementation . a scheme may
be devised for a plant and then held over until energy prices make the proposal attractive.
This type of forward planning requires that the plant layout adopted can be easily modified.
Energy conservation can be achieved at three levels:
(i) Correct plan and operation and maintenance
(ii) Major changes to existing plant and processes.
(iii) New plants and new processes.
The time required to implement energy conservation measures, the capital cost required, and
the potential savings, all increase from level (i) t (iii) above. The cost of downtime for level
(ii) can be significant, and the level (iii) offers the greatest long term potential for energy
conservation. This latter objective can be achieved either by designing new, energy efficient
plants for established process routes, or adopting new and less energy- intensive process
routes. The areas immediately obvious for consideration of energy are the oxygen and steam
preheating section of the plant and the utilization of energy obtained from the gasifier and the
water gas shift reactors. The basic approach towards conservation of energy should be taken
into account:
(i) Operational modification
(ii) Research and development
(iii) Design modification
(iv) Insulation
(v) Maintenance
(vi) Process integration

(vii) Process modification
(viii) Waste utilization
In the near future all industrial operations that have reacted to the energy crisis must be
organised to institute a systematic approach towards conserving energy in all forms through
more efficient utilization of existing processes and carefully studied reduction of losses and
wastes. The following examples illustrate some application of the basic engineering
principles t the design of equipment for improved energy efficiency.
2.1.1 Plant operation

Energy savings can be achieved by good engineering practice and the application of
established principles. These measures may be termed as good housekeeping and include
correct plant operation and regular maintenance. The overall energy savings are usually small
and may not be easy to achieve and significant time may be required for regulate
maintenance and checking. However, such measures do help to establish commitment of a
company to a policy of energy conservation.
2.1.2 Heat recovery

Heat recovery is an important and fundamental method of energy conservation. The main
limitations of this method are:
(a) Inadequate scope for using recovered waste heat because it is too low grade for existing
heat requirements, and because the quantity of waste heat available exceeds existing
requirements for low- grade heat.
(b) Inadequate heat transfer equipment.
Developments and improvements are continuing in design and operation of different types of
heat exchangers including the use of extended heat transfer surfaces, optimizing heat
exchanger networks , heat recovery from waste fuels , heat exchanger fouling and the use of
heat pumps.

2.1.3 Combined heat and power systems
Significant energy conservation is achieved by well established method of combined heat and
power generation . this is often referred to as CHP or COGEN. The heat is usually in the form
of intermediate or low pressure steam and the power as direct mechanical drives or as
electricity generated with the turbo alternators. The choice of system is usually between back
pressure steam turbines or gas turbines with waste heat boilers for the process streams. The
amount of power generated is usually determined by the demand of heat.
It is not usually possible to balance exactly the heat and power loads in a system The best
method of achieving this aim is to generate excess electricity for subsequent sale. Other
balancing methods tend to be less efficient. Therefore it is important to fore cast the heat to
power ratio accurately at the design stage to avoid large imbalances and reduced system
efficiency.
2.1.4 Power recovery systems

A power recovery turbine can recover heat from an exchanger gas and then use this heat to
provide a part of the energy required to drive the shaft of a motor driven process air
compressor. Other examples are the use of the steam turbine drive and a two stage expansion
turbine with reheating between the stages.
A hydraulic turbine can be incorporated on the same shaft as a steam turbine . this
arrangement can be used to provide about 50% of the energy needed to recompress the spent
liquor in a high pressure absorption /low pressure stripping system.
Power generation using steam or gas turbine is now well established, however power
recovery by the pressure reduction of process fluids is more difficult and less common. in
general the equipment is not considered to be particularly reliable.rankine cycle heat engines
have been developed to use relatively low grade waste heat sources to generate power in the
form in the form of electricity or direct drives. They tend to be used when the heat source
would otherwise be completely wasted, the low efficiencies do not represent a significant
disadvantage.
2.1.5 Furnace efficiency

Incorporating an air heater can be more economic than using a hot oil system which is
designed for high level heat only.

2.1.6 Air cooler v/s water cooler
Air coolers have higher installed cost but lower operating cost water coolers.
2.1.7 Low pressure steam

Energy savings can be achieved by the efficient use of low pressure steam.
2.1.8 Heat integration

Energy can be saved by optimum balance of heat sources and sinks in a process plant so as to
maximize recycling of energy input .thus however has to be done carefully as it leads to loss
of operational independence.
2.1.9 Thermal insulation

Owing to the great size of the distillation column large amount of heat is dissipated from the
surface .This necessitates thermal insulation of distillation column reboiler and other piping
attached to it so that minimum heat is dissipated.Multi-layer energy saving insulation should
be used which provide protection from fire, liquid spillage and result in energy
savings.Usually, inner insulation layers are made from alumina silica fibres to reduce the heat
loss from the valves and joints to keep the system heat constant and prevent heat loss.
2.2 Instrumentation
Use of efficient instrumentation in the plant can result in consistent high quality of product
and lesser no. of rejections. In a plant design utmost care must be taken to conserve energy.
The reboiler and the heat exchanger should be set up after a long analysis
Energy conservation in the design of complete process may be achieved in four ways:
(i) Major modifications to the existing plants.
(ii) New plant using an existing process route.
(iii) New process routes and alternative raw materials.
(iv) New processes for new products that are less energy intensive.
Items (i) and (iii) represent short term and medium term energy conservation measures. Item
(iv) requiring the use of new products or processes is more appropriate for new technology in

the chemical industry. Although energy conservation is an obvious objective of all equipment
manufacturers and plant designers, more attention iis necessary in relation to education ,
training and the application of new and existing technology to ensure significant medium
term and long term savings.
Energy conservation must be considered at various stages of the project , e.g. feasibility
study, process selection , plant layout, energy balances and in conjunction with the detailed
equipment design. If he energy utilization is not only an afterthought , either unnecessary or
costly modifications may be required to the design work, or the plant may not be
economically feasible as it originally appeared.
2.3 Energy management

The high value of energy should be acknowledged in plant operation by treating it as a
product with monetary value than can be sold or traded, just like the chemical product. This
should be the basis for operational policies concerned with the energy management or energy
conservation. These duties can be incorporated by the process engineer. EAM&T is a means
to efficient operation in this area, but there must be a commitment from all operational and
managerial personnel to the importance of these tasks if they are to be successful.
The reaction and product recovery areas have been identified as critical units from an energy
perspective. Detailed monitoring and targeting should be established in these areas. Variables
that should be recorded regularly for the gasifier include the feed and product flows and
temperature , yields of CO and H2 from the reactors, adsorbers and PSA , steam pressure and
reactor temperature profiles. A similar combination applies to condensers and heat
exchangers. Targets should be introduced and updated monthly or biannually. These targets,
if constructed correctly, allow performance to be measured easily accurately and provide an
incentive for operational staff to maintain and improve efficiency
.
2.4 Alternate energy resources

The fuel resources of the world are fast depleting and there is an urgent need to explore the
possibility of the alternate sources of energy. Although rapid breakthrough has been achieved
in the use of nuclear energy for the distillation of the steam, which in turn is used for the
generation of electricity, it is not used widely due to the lack of the flexibility in its utilization

and because of the non-feasibility of its operation on the smaller scale. Some of the alternate
energy sources being developed nowadays have been briefly discussed below:
Solar energy
Solar energy is the most important form of renewable energy for plant. The energy incident
on the solar panel installed in the roof and other areas of the plants are highly useful in
heating up the water and are converted to steam. This is one renewable source of the energy
which is now slowly finding wide acceptance in the process industry. In the process industry
it is being used widely for the heating the process water and in some cases for the production
of the low pressure steam. Energy conservation is not only concerned with the process
industries but is also concerned with other small household purposes carried out in the
industrial areas. It can also be used for the heating and providing warm water in the canteen
and the other non production areas in the process plant.
Energy from biomass conversion

Biomass in today‘s Chemical Industries is going to play a vital role in the production of
energy as well as in different chemical products. The biomass have been widely used
however
Major considerations include:
• Which raw materials will be needed in the new situation?
• How will biomass be processed?
• How will feedstock be made available at the appropriate location?
• What kind of storage facilities is needed?
• How can the production of bio-based bulk chemicals be integrated?
• How will products be shipped to the (geographic) area covered by the Port?
• Which are the most likely companies to produce new bio-based bulk chemicals?
Two extremes can be envisioned by which the transformation to a biomass based chemical
industry may take place:
1) Biomass will be refined and ‗cracked‘ into the familiar platform chemicals (i.e. ethylene,
propylene, C4-olefines and BTX) and synthesis gas (‗syngas‘, a mixture of mainly carbon
monoxide and hydrogen gas). From these one- to six-carbon building blocks, all other
chemicals and materials can be produced. Provided that efficient processes will become
available by which oxygen-rich biomass of a varying composition can be transformed into

basic hydrocarbon building blocks, the big advantage is that the current petrochemicals
infrastructure and processes can be used. The fossil feedstock refining companies of today
may then become the bio-refineries of tomorrow.
2) A wide range of bio-based building blocks, in which as much of the functionality of

biomass as possible has been retained, become the raw materials from which all other
chemicals and materials are made. Not a few refineries that produce a limited number of
platform chemicals will be present, but a large number of (smaller scale) bio-refineries that
produce a whole array of building blocks.
Between these two extremes lies a whole spectrum of non-exclusive scenarios that are
perhaps more realistic. As a less extreme example of the first scenario: ethylene, one of the
current platform chemicals, can be produced from (bio) ethanol. In fact, the Brazilian
company Braskem and US based Dow Chemical will each start commercial production of
polyethylene from bio-ethanol. Bio-ethanol is currently made from sugar or starch. In the
future, it is expected that ethanol will be made from the more abundant lignocellulosic or
‗woody‘ biomass.
The Gobar gas concept has found wide acceptance in the rural India. Although bioconversion
technology has been very successful in the waste treatment, the technology to generate
energy for the industrial uses is in early stages of the development. However, this technology
holds great promise as its fundamental advantage is that apart from being a clean source of
the fuel, it is a renewable source of energy.
Ocean thermal energy

The Ocean energy is one of the contributors in renewable energy. The temperature of the
water in the ocean varies drastically with the depth. The principal here is to run a heat engine
to retract heat energy from ocean by utilizing the difference in temperature of the ocean at
various depths. This technology is in the very early stages of the development and can only
be utilized if the plant is situated close to the coastlines.

Wind energy
The unequal heating of the earth be the sun causes winds. This effect is particularly
pronounced in the coastal areas with a difference between the temperature for the land and
the sea.
The force of the wind is used to rotate windmills, which are rotating blades to collect the
force of the wind. This mechanical energy produced can be used directly on it can be
converted into electrical energy. These have been used with partial success in the process
industry, mainly to pump water both process water and the water to effluent treatment plants.
A 3.5 m diameter develops about 0 to 60 hp in a 15 mph wind and can pump up to 35 gallons
of the water per minute to a height of about 10 m.
Potential for development of Renewable energy in India
Table 13 Potential for development of Renewable energy in India

IV. Plant Utilites

Plant utility is the main utility in all industry to design a project or run a industry work. It is
heart of the plant serving all kinds of life blood to the complex system. Therefore, without
any of this equipment the industry could not perform in the global level. So without utilities,
the equipment inside the plant cannot operate. In a plant, the utilities are dividing into a few
scopes which are:
I. Water system
II. Steam system
III. Fuel gas system
IV. Plant and instrument air
V. Nitrogen
VI. Product storage or transfer
VII. Electrical supply and distribution system
VIII. Feed stock storage
All the scopes have their own function. All this commodities are very important to run a
plant. In different industries, the function might be quite different.
1. Types of Utilities:
Primary Utilities:
1. Water
2. Steam
3. Power and fuel
4. Air
5. Storage and internal transport of raw material and product
6. Refrigeration system and air conditioning
Secondary utilities:
1. Maintenance facilities
2. Roadways
3. Rail/road facilities
4. Fire protection

5. Plant sewer system and waste disposal
6. Plant buildings
7. Plant security
2. Air for process and instrumentation

Air is used in the plant in the process and pneumatic control systems. Pneumatic systems in
fixed installations, such as factories, use compressed air because a sustainable supply can be
made by compressing atmospheric air. The air usually has moisture removed, and a small
quantity of oil is added at the compressor to prevent corrosion and lubricate mechanical
components.
Factory-plumbed pneumatic-power users need not worry about poisonous leakage, as the gas
is usually just air. Smaller or stand-alone systems can use other compressed gases that present
an asphyxiation hazard, such as nitrogen—often referred to as OFN (oxygen-free
nitrogen) when supplied in cylinders.
Any compressed gas other than air is an asphyxiation hazard—including nitrogen, which
makes up 78% of air. Compressed oxygen (approx. 21% of air) would not asphyxiate, but is
not used in pneumatically-powered devices because it is a fire hazard, more expensive, and
offers no performance advantage over air.
Portable pneumatic tools and small vehicles, such as Robot Wars machines and other
hobbyist applications are often powered by compressed carbon dioxide, because containers
designed to hold it such as soda stream canisters and fire extinguishers are readily available,
and the phase change between liquid and gas makes it possible to obtain a larger volume of
compressed gas from a lighter container than compressed air requires. Carbon dioxide is an
asphyxiant and can be a freezing hazard if vented improperly.
Compressed air must be so clean that it cannot cause any malfunctions or damage.
Contamination accelerates wear on sliding surfaces and sealing elements. This can affect the
function and service life of pneumatic components. As each filter also creates a flow
resistance, compressed air should be as clean as possible for economic reasons. Compressed
air quality is expressed in quality classes in accordance with DIN ISO 8573-1. This specifies
the level of contamination permitted in the corresponding compressed air classes. The wide
application range of compressed air places many different requirements on compressed air

quality. If high quality is required, several filtration stages are necessary. If just a single
―fine‖ filter were used, it would become ineffective in a short time. Specifications of quality
classes should contain the following information in the sequence shown:
•The quality class for solid contamination.
•The quality class for water content.
•The quality class for total oil
content (droplets, aerosols and vapours)
3.Heat transfer media
Heat transfer fluids or heat carriers are defined as fluids which absorbs thermal energy
delivered from a source and then by cooling or change of phase surrender heat to a place of
utilization called a sink
All such fluids must maintain their original chemical properties and composition. For
industrial applications, the ability of the heat carrier to resist physical or chemical changes for
an extended period is important.
Classification
Heat carriers range from hot water to steam to organic, inorganic liquids, their mixture to
liquid metals to flue gases. Their number is very large.
Heat carriers have been classified into liquid, vapor and gaseous carriers. Hot water and
steam, because of their wide applications, are dealt separately. All other heat carriers,
however, fall into two classes –
 organic and
 Inorganic
Organic heat carriers further are divided into
 high boiling organic heat carriers (HOH) and

 Non boiling organic heat carriers (non HOH).

Similarly inorganic heat carriers include fused salts and liquid metals.
 The use of a particular type of heat carrier depends upon the process, its working
temperature and other process conditions.
Properties of heat carriers
1. High rate of heat exchange

2. Absence of corrosion effects
3. Cheap and easily available
4. Low viscosity
5. Non-toxic
6. Non-inflammable and thermally stable
The heat transfer media being used in our plant is:
1. Steam
2. Water
Liquid water is being used as a coolant in the heat exchangers, coolers and condensers.
Steam offers the following advantages over the other heat carriers:
1. It is thermally stable over the entire range of operation. Also it has less corrosive
effects.
2. Water is the cheapest and most commonly available heat carrier.
3. It has a high heat transfer coefficient during condensation.
The steam used is being generated in the boiler house.
4. Water
The major use of water in the plant is for cooling and boiler feed. Relatively small quantities
of water are used for boiler processing, sanitary services, fire protection, and miscellaneous
purposes.
In our plant when stream get heated in the reactor then we use water in heat exchanger to
remove all the unnecessary heat from the outlet stream of the reactor. Cooling water is the
water removing heat from a machine or system. Cooling water may be recycled through
a recirculating system or used in a single pass once-through cooling (OTC) system.

Recirculating systems may be open if they rely upon cooling towers or cooling ponds to
remove heat or closed if heat removal is accomplished with negligible evaporative loss of
cooling water. A heat exchanger or condenser may separate non-contact cooling water from
a fluid being cooled, or contact cooling water may directly impinge on items like saw blades
where phase difference allows easy separation. Environmental regulations emphasize the
reduced concentrations of waste products in non-contact cooling water.
Vapors are reduced to liquids in condensers, and coolers are used to lower the temperature of
liquid products to permit safe handling. Water is the normal cooling medium used in these
units; however, we can save both heat and water by cooling high-temperature products with
raw charging stocks and other cooler liquid streams. Water requirements of early were small,
and the uses of water were as simple as the refining process. Water was needed only for
cooling and for generating sufficient steam for the pumps. In contrast, both the modern
processes and the use of water are varied and complicated. The quantity and the quality of
water required by the entire refinery and in individual operations are affected by the type of
the process. The principal processes used are distillation, scrubbing and treating and
finishing.
Standards of water used in various processes (in ppm)
Constituent Cooling water Utility water Boiler feed Process water Sanitary water
water
Silica 9.8 12 12 14 11
Iron .12 .15 .10 .12 .10
Calcium 51 45 39 52 36
Magnesium 13 13 14 14 10
Sulphate 38 68 62 89 40
Hardness(as 160 160 142 200 126
CaCO3)
pH 7.4 7.6 7.6 7.6 7.6
Table 14 (Standards of water used in various processes) ( Ref : www.cpcb.nic.in)

4.1 Cooling water
This water is used for cooling in the various overhead condensers, main stream condenser
and partial condensers. All this water cannot be supplied as fresh water and has to be re
circulated in the system. For the fresh water we propose to pump river water or from any
water source nearby.
The circulating water can either be corrosive or scale forming and undesirable because they
tend to reduce the heat transfer coefficient of processes. The other undesirable material id due
to the biological growth like algae formation which may cause partial or complete plugging at
various places and can cause untimely shut downs.
In addition, a water treatment plant is to be installed to treat circulating water to remove all
desirable materials. Cooling water in heat exchangers are likely to come in contact with
steam being cooled. Water is first sent to cooling tower, a controlled amount of chlorine is to
be added before hand to reduce changes of algae formation in cooling tower. Cooling tower
has I.D fans which induce air to rise in the cooling water columns. The water discharge
header at the top of the tower is divided into a number of distribution pipes fitted with spray
nozzles, so that water should fall in form of fine droplets. These droplets trickle down the
wooden baffles and in doing so meet with rising column of air. A part of water droplets
vaporize with air and take away heat of vaporization from hot water stream, which is thus
cooled.
Here, it is treated with sulphuric acid to remove methyl orange alkalinity and so adjust of
water. Sodium hexamethaphosphate is added to precipitate fouling and scaling agents like
calcium and magnesium salts. Chlorine is added to avoid algae formation in lines. The
controlled amount of these chemicals is mixed with cold water which is then pumped to
circulating cold header. Provision should be there to mix fresh water as makeup in this main
header.
Alum or ferric sulphate or sodium aluminates is added to raw water so that the impurities
coagulate. Lime and soda ash are added for removal of permanent hardness. To destroy
organism‘s chloride is added in form of calcium hypo chloride or sodium hypo chloride.
Sodium hexamethaphosphate is added to reduce the amount of scale forming and fouling
materials. In exchange which is the important step, removes all dissolved mineral matters
which are in ionic form. It is done by ionic exchange resins which are made up of cross

linked polystyrene. Also this step water is fed to iron remover filters and then to degassers.
After this stage water is completely demineralised this is then sent to D.M. water tanks.
4.2 Boiler feed water
The boiler feed water (BFW) required for the generation of steam in a refinery needs to be
treated prior to use. The higher the steam pressure being generated, the higher the purity of
the BFW required. Ordinarily water is treated by the lime soda process and further purified
by ion exchange or by hot phosphate treatment in order to produce boiler feed water. Reverse
osmosis can also be used to soften the water. Typically, a purge stream is removed from the
waterpurification systems in order to prevent the buildup of contaminants. This purge stream
is sent towastewater treatment and is replaced by fresh makeup water.some treatment
methods for BFW are:
4.2.1 The “hot lime” process
This is a water softening process which uses a hot lime contact to induce a precipitate of the
compounds contributing to the hardness. The sludge formed is allowed to settle out. Very
often coagulation chemicals such as alum or iron salts are used to enhance the settling and the
removal of the sludge formed. In most plants that use the ―lime‖ process the reaction by the
addition of lime and soda ash is carried out at elevated temperatures. However the reaction
can be allowed to take place at ambient temperatures. The hardness of the water from the
―cold‖ process will be about 17–35 ppm while that from the ―hot‖ process will be 8–17 ppm.
Clean up filters containinganthracite are often used to finish the treating process.
4.2.2 The ion exchange processes

As the name implies this process exchanges undesirable ions contained in the rawwater with
more desirable ones that produces acceptable BFW. For example, in thesoftening process,
calcium and magnesium ions are exchanged for sodium ions. Indealkalization, the ions
contributing to alkalinity (carbonates, bicarbonates, etc) areremoved and replaced with
chloride ions. Demineralization in this process replacesall cations with hydrogen ions (H+),
and all anions with hydroxyl ions (OH−) makingpure water (H+ + OH−).The ion exchange
material needs to be regenerated after a period of operation. Theoperating period will differ
from process to process and will depend to some extenton the amount of impurities in the
water and the required purity of the treated water.Regeneration is accomplished in three
steps:

1. Back washing
2. Regenerating the resin bed with regenerating chemicals
3. Rinsing
4.2.3 Deaeration
The deaeration process is used in almost all BFW treatment to remove dissolvedgases from
the water. Normally treated water and returned condensate are routed toa deaerator
immediately prior to entering the boiler steam drum.
4.3 Process water
In refineries, water is typically used for various purposes where the water is closely contacted
with the hydrocarbons. Softened water is usually used for these purposes.
4.4 Sanitary water
Sanitary water, which has common uses like drinking , washing and other cleaning purposes ,
is essentially fresh water. It must be potable and free from disease causing bacteria. In cities
as in our case, water is often purchased for this purpose and an elevated tank is installed to
ensure uninterrupted water supply.
4.5 Dilution water
Dilution water is used to wash off accidental spillage or for cleaning. For emergencies or
hazardous operations water should be kept handy in very large amounts.
4.6 Fire water
The requirements for fire water in chemical plants are intermittent, but can constitute a very
large flow. Often, chemical plants collect stormwater from nonprocess areas and store it in a
reservoir dedicated to the fire water system in the plant. Provisions are typically made for a
connection (for use in emergency situations) of the fire water system into the largest available
reservoir of water. Usually this is the raw water supply since fire water requires no treatment.
Sea water or brackish water is often used as fire water by plants located along coastal areas.

Contaminants in raw water
Table 15 Contaminants in raw water
Contaminant Problem Removal methods

Turbidity Makes water cloudy and Coagulation, settling and
deposits in water lines and filtration
process equipment
Hardness Primary source of scale Softening, distillation,
formation in heat exchangers surfactants
and pipe lines
Alkalinity Causes foaming in steam Lime and lime-soda
systems and attacks boiler softening, Zeolite softening,
steel. Bicarbonate and Dealkalization by anion
carbonate produce carbon exchange
dioxide in steam which is
highly corrosive
Sulphate Adds to the solids content of Demineralization, distillation
water and combines with
calcium to form calcium
sulfate scale
Chloride Adds to solids content and Demineralization, distillation,
increases the corrosive desalination (if sea
properties of water water is being used)
Silica Scaling on heating and Anion exchange resins,
cooling equipment and distillation
pipelines
Iron and magnesium Discolors the water and Aeration, coagulation and
precipitates in water lines filtration, lime softening,
and process equipment cation exchange
Oil Source of scale, sludge and Oil/water separators strainers.
foaming in boilers. Impedes coagulation and
heat exchange. Undesirable filtration. Diatomaceous earth

in most processes filtration
Oxygen Corrosion of water lines heat Deaeration, sodium sulphite,
exchange equipment, boilers, corrosion inhibitors
return lines, etc.
Hydrogen sulphide Cause of ‗rotten egg‘ odor. Aeration, chlorination, highly
Corrosion, toxicity basic anion exchange
Conductivity Conductivity is the result of Processes which decrease
ionizable solids in solution. dissolved solids content will
High conductivity can decrease conductivity.
increase the corrosive Examples are
characteristics of a water demineralization,
lime softening
Dissolved solids ‗Dissolved solids‘ is the Various softening process,
measure of total amount of such as lime softening and
dissolved material. High cation exchange by zeolite,
concentrations of dissolved will reduce dissolved
solids are objectionable solids. Demineralization,
because of process distillation
interference and as a cause of
foaming in boilers
Suspended solids Suspended solids‘ is the Sedimentation. Filtration,
measure of undissolved usually preceded by
matter. Suspended solid plug coagulation and settling
lines, cause deposits in
heat exchange equipment,
boilers, etc.
5. Electricity and power requirements

Power is required for pumps, compressors and lighting purposes. For further distribution of
power, a substation in the plant is essential. We shall use a captive power plant, the pressure
of steam is brought down in turbines and the electricity generated is used to run the plant. If

any extra power is required at any time, we can buy some grid power. The plant consumes
electricity in the following areas:
1. All pumps require electrical power for their operation.

2. All blowers and compressors require electrical power for their operation.
3. Control room requires power for its operation.
6.Refrigeration
For the purpose of getting chilled water a refrigeration unit is set up. For this purpose
absorption machine is used. It consists of heat transfer tubes in a closed vessel operated under
vacuum. Low pressure in the vessel makes the water evaporate at low temperature, thus
removing the latent heat and making the water chilled. The evaporated water is absorbed by
LiBr thus maintaining the vacuum i the evaporator. Diluted LiBr while passing through
various heat exchangers get concentrated and again agents collected in the absorber for a new
cycle.
7.Air conditioning
General requirements: Necessary considerations while designing an environmental control

system are ventilation requirements, adequacy of controls, minimizing the influence of dust
or other contaminants, freeze protection and good air distribution. Clean air requirements: It
is done to reduce body odours and maintaining comfortable conditions. It is concerned with
control of dust, fumes, vapours and gases.Air distribution requirements: Distribution of air is
specific to an application. The application may include from general ventilation, spot cooling
and makeup air and dilution ventilation

V. Organizational Structure & Manpower

Requirement

1. Organizational structure
Organizational structure activities such as task allocation, coordination and supervision,
which are directed towards the achievement of organizational aims. It can also be considered
as the viewing glass or perspective through which individuals see their organization and its
environment. Interaction and interrelationship of members in an organization to achieve some
purpose represents human aspect of an organization.
The basic goals of the organization are three-folds:
1. To produce the best quality product at the lowest cost

2. To sell the product to the consumer in a manner that maximizes profit, both in the short as
well as long term.
3. To do these in a manner that is sustainable and is in the interest of the society.
Principles of organization
1. Principle of unity of objectives
2. Principle of specialization
3. Principle of coordination
4. Principle of authority
5. Principle of responsibility
6. Principle of delegation
7. Principle of efficiency
8. Principle of span of control
9. Principle of balance
10. Principle of communication
11. Principle of personal ability
12. Principle of flexibility
13. Principle of simplicit

1.1 Hierarchy
Board of
Directors
CEO CFO COO
Personnel & Product

Finance
Administration Operation Marketing &
Department
Department Sales
Fig.12 Hierarchy
Board of Directors
i. Establishes objectives
ii. Overall accountability to stock holders
Finance Department
The duties of this department include all the things related to budgeting. From appropriation
to control of expenditure and auditing duties, the finance department of any given company
has an array of duties.
A finance department is comprised of several key positions. When you think about the
overall structure of the finance department, there are three key people
 The finance Director: He is the head of the department and is tasked with giving a
financial forecast for the company. The finance director is also responsible for putting
together the company‘s annual budget. Sometimes referred to as the finance manager,

the finance director is also responsible for managing the finance department‘s team of
employees
 Accountant: The next position of importance in the department of finance is the
accountant. The accountant is responsible for handling the accounts payable and
account receivable. Other duties include putting together financial – related
documents such as reports, auditing and closing out accounting books
 Finance Specialist: The finance specialist basically handles capital investment. This
position may also require a bit of analytical work such as reconciliations, maintaining
the general ledger and keeping a close eye on the funds of the company.
Personnel & Administration Department
Human resources are responsible for finding, hiring and retaining employees. Human
resources are a function that exists in every business regardless of size, industry or
geographic location. Administrators, broadly speaking, engage in a common set of functions
to meet the organization‘s goals. The function of the administrator as described by Henri
Fayol is
Planning: is deciding in advance what to do, how to do it, when to do it, and who should do
it. It maps the path from where the organization is to where it wants to be. The planning
function involves establishing goals and arranging them in logical order
Organizing: Involves identifying responsibilities to be performed, grouping responsibilities

into department or divisions, and specifying organizational relationships. The purpose is to
achieve coordinated effort among all the elements in the organizing
Staffing: Means filling job positions with the right people at the right time. It involves
determining staffing needs, writing job descriptions, recruiting and screening people to fill
the positions.
Directing: leading people in a manner that achieves the goals of the organization. This
involves proper allocation of resources and providing an effective support system.

Operations
Operations management is an area of management concerned with overseeing, designing and

redesigning business operations in the production of goods and/or services. It involves the
responsibility of ensuring that business operations are efficient in terms of using as few
resources as needed and effective in terms of meeting customer requirements. It is concerned
with managing the process that converts inputs (in the forms of materials, labour, and energy)
into outputs (in the form of goods and/or services). People skills, creativity, rational analysis,
and knowledge of technology are all required for success.
Product Marketing & Sales
Product marketing deals with the several of the "7P"'s of marketing, which are Product,
Pricing, Place, Promotion, Physical Environment, and Process & People.
Product marketing, as opposed to product management, deals with more outbound marketing
or customer facing tasks. Product marketing, as a job function within a firm, also differs from
other marketing jobs such as marketing communications, online marketing, advertising,
marketing strategy, public relations, although product marketers may use channels such as
online for outbound marketing for their product.
In a manufacturing company the production function may be split into five sub functions:
Production and Planning Department
The production and planning department will set standards and targets of each section of the
production process. The quantity and quality of products coming of a production line will be
monitored closely.
Purchasing Department
The purchasing department will be responsible for providing the materials, component and
equipment required to keep the production process running smoothly. A vital aspect of this
role is ensuring stocks arrive on time and to the right quality

Stores Department
The stores department will be responsible for stocking all the necessary tools, spares, raw
materials and equipment required to service the manufacturing process.
Works Department
The works department will be concerned wet the manufacture of products. This will include
the maintenance of the production line and other necessary repairs. The works department
may also have the responsibility for quality control and inspection.
2. Manpower requirement
Top Management
Designation Number Required Annual Salary In Qualification

Rupees
(Lakhs per annum)
CEO (Chief Executive 1 50 MBA with 15 years
Officer) experience
COO (Chief 1 40 Engineer and MBA
Operational Officer) with 12 years
experience
CFO (Chief Financial 1 40 MBA with 12 years
Officer) experience
Table 16 (Top Management)
Operations
Vice President 2 20 Chemical Engineer

(For production) with
10 years experience
Production Engineer 4 13 Production Engineer
with 4 year experience

Maintenance Engineer 4 10 Maintained Engineer
with 4 year experience
Instrumentation 4 9 Instrumental Engineer

Engineer with 4 year experience
Shift operator 12 5 Diploma in Chemical

engineering
Labour (permanent) 20 2 High School
Labour (temporary) Quantity depending High School
upon work required
Table 17 (Operations)
Administration
Vice President 1 18 MBA with 7 year

experience
Manager 1 10 MBA with 3 year
experience
Security Officer 2 6 Retired army or police
official
Fire safety Officer 2 6 5 years experience in
fire safety and
management
Medical Officer 1 8 MBBS with 4 years of
experience
Public Relation Officer 1 7 Graduate with 4 years
experience in public
relations
Table 18 (Administration)

Finance
Vice President 1 20 C.A with 10 years

experience
Manager 1 12 MBA(Finance) with 5
years experience
Accountant 3 8 C.A. with 4 year
experience
Staff 6 3 B.Com with some or
no experience
Table 19 (Finance)
Marketing
Table 20 Marketing
Vice President 1 20 MBA (Marketing)
with 10 years of
experience
Manager 1 14 MBA (Marketing)
with 6 years of
experience
Marketing Officer 4 8 MBA (Marketing)
with 3 years of
experience

VI. Market Prospects

1. Demand and Supply

Methanol, a very versatile chemical is primarily produced from natural gas or naphtha.
Demand for methanol has increased at a CAGR of 8% from 0.87 mmtpa in FY06 to 1.26
mmtpa in FY11. The domestic production of methanol is not sufficient to meet the demand of
methanol in India. As a result, in FY11, the net import of methanol was 0.92 mmtpa i.e. ~2.5
times the domestic production of 0.38 mmtpa. Import of methanol has increased at a high
CAGR of 18% from 0.4 mmtpa in FY06 to 0.92 mmtpa in FY11.
Production of methanol (in ‗000 tons) [23]
Year 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13
Methanol 351.73 237.12 330.83 374.53 359.93 254.91
Import of methanol (in ‗000 tons) [23]
Year 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13

Methanol 788.82 1058.87 822.25 813.42 1199.64 1398.96
Export of methanol (in ‗000 tons) [23]
Product 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12
Methanol 1.2 31.7 3.3 45.9 29.1 39.5
Fig.13 Demand and Supply of Methanol [24]

1.1 Growth forecast of methanol

Domestic demand for methanol has increased by 9.3% in FY11 and is estimated to grow at
8.4% in 2011-12 and at a CAGR of 9-10% during FY11 to FY16. This growth will be driven
by healthy demand, primarily from the formaldehyde and pharmaceutical segments, which
collectively account for more than 60% of the domestic market for methanol.
Fig.14 Growth Forecast of Methanol [25]
1.2 Present production of methanol in India
Major industries that produce methanol in India are
 Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizers

 Deepak Fertilizers and Petrochemicals Corporation
 Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited
 Assam Petrochemicals Limited

COMPANY CAPACITY/PRODUCTION
Gujarat Narmada Valley Fertilizers 2,30,000 MTPA
Deepak Fertilisers and Petrochemicals Corporation 1,00,000 MTPA
Limited
Rashtriya Chemicals and Fertilizers Limited 220 MTPD(~75000MTPA)
Assam Petrochemicals Limited 33000 MTPA
Table 21 (Production of Methanol in India)(Ref: individual company official websites)
2. Areas of consumption
The two main end-user industries of methanol are chemicals and energy. In the chemicals
industry, methanol is used mainly to manufacture formaldehyde, acetic acid, di-methyl
terephthalate (DMT) and some solvents. In the energy industry, methanol goes into the
manufacture of methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE), tertiary amyl methyl ether (TAME), di-
methyl ether (DME) and bio-diesel among other chemicals. Methanol is also used for
blending with petrol.
Sectoral usage of Methanol

Over the years the usage pattern of methanol has remained same. Formaldehyde accounts for
the largest share of methanol usage due to demand of formaldehyde from plastic and paints
industries.

Fig. 15 (Sectoral use of Methanol) (Ref: Handbook on Indian Chemical and Petrochemical
Industry,Oct, 2012)
3. Uses of methanol
Methanol is a liquid petrochemical made up of four parts hydrogen, one part oxygen, and one
part carbon (CH3OH). In small amounts and low concentrations, it‘s a ―naturally occurring‖
substance, produced by living organisms, and manufactured from a variety of organic and
inorganic sources. While numerous applications transform methanol into vital products and
commodities that drive modern life, methanol is also used on its own in a number of
applications.
Transportation Fuel - Methanol is the most basic alcohol. It is easy to transport, readily
available, and has a high octane rating that allows for superior vehicle performance compared
to gasoline. Many countries have adopted or are seeking to expand methanol fueling
programs, and it is the fastest growing segment of the methanol marketplace today. This is
driven in large part by methanol's low price compared to gasoline or ethanol, and the very
small incremental cost to modify current vehicles to run on blends of methanol fuel.
Methanol also produces much less toxic emissions than reformulated gasoline, with less
particulate matter and smog forming emissions.

Wastewater Denitrification - Methanol is also used by municipal and private wastewater
treatment facilities to aid in the removal of nitrogen from effluent streams. As wastewater is
collected in a treatment facility, it contains high levels of ammonia. Through a bacterial
degradation process this ammonia is converted into nitrate. If discharged into the
environment, the nutrient rich nitrate in sewage effluent can have a devastating effect on
water ecosystems - creating miles long algae blooms that sap oxygen and sunlight from
aquatic life. Methanol, which quickly biodegrades, is a cost-effective way to help revitalize
waterways tainted by the effects of nitrates.
Fuel Cell Hydrogen Carrier - Methanol is used as a key component in the development of
different types of fuel cells - which are quickly expanding to play a larger role in our energy
economy. From large-scale fuel cells to power vehicles or provide back-up power to remote
equipment, to portable fuel cells for electronics and personal use, methanol is an ideal
hydrogen carrier. With a chemical formula of CH3OH, has more hydrogen atoms in each
gallon than any other liquid that is stable in normal conditions.
Biodiesel Transesterification - In the process of making biodiesel fuel, methanol is used as a

key component in a process called transesterification - to put it simply, methanol is used to
convert the triglycerides in different types of oils into usable biodiesel fuel. The
transesterification process reacts methanol with the triglyceride oils contained in vegetable
oils, animal fats, or recycled greases, forming fatty acid alkyl esters (biodiesel) and the
byproduct glycerin. Biodiesel production continues to grow around the globe, with
everything from large-scale commercial operations to smaller, backyard blenders mixing this
environmentally-friendly fuel for everyday use in diesel engines.
Electricity Generation - Different companies are also exploring the use of methanol to drive
turbines to create electricity. There are a number of projects currently underway that are
using methanol as the fuel source to create steam to drive turbines - which is an excellent
option for areas rich in resources other than traditional electricity sources.]
Chemical Feedstock
Methanol is a key component of hundreds of chemicals that are integral parts of our daily
lives. Methanol is most often converted into formaldehyde, acetic acid and olefins - all basic
chemical building blocks for a number of common products. There are a number of products

that are developed from these materials, too many to list all on this page, but needless to say
methanol is all around us and is a critical component of modern life.
Here are just some types of materials that are made from methanol:
Plastics, Synthetic fibers, Paints, Resins, Magnetic films, Adhesives, Safety glass laminate,
Solvents, Carpeting, Magnetic film, Insulation, Windshield washer fluid, Pigments and dyes.
This diagram will give us an idea on the extent to which methanol is used in our day to day
life.
Fig.16 Methanol in our Lives

VII. Site Selection & Project Layout

1. Site selection
Various factors play an important role in deciding the location of plant; based on those
factors the feasibility of locations must be judged. Considerable care must be exercised in
selecting the plant site, and many different factors must be considered. Primarily, the plant
should be located where the minimum cost of production and distribution can be obtained but
other factors, such as room for expansion and safe living conditions for plant operation as
well as the surrounding community are also important. A firm general consensus as to the
plant location should be obtained before a design project reaches the detailed estimate stage,
and a firm location should be established upon completion of the detailed estimate design.
The choice of the final site should first be based on a complete survey of the advantaged and
disadvantages of various geographical areas and ultimately on the advantages and
disadvantages of available real state.
The following factors were considered in selecting the plant site:
 Raw materials availability

 Energy Supply
 Market accessibility
 Transportation facilities
 Water Supply
 Waste disposal
 Labour supply
 Taxation and legal restrictions
 Land laws
 Pollution control and Environmental measures
For a preliminary survey, the first four factors should be considered. Thus, on the basis of
raw materials, markets, energy supply, and climate, acceptable locations can usually be
reduced to one or two general geographical regions.
In the second step, the effects of transportation facilities and water supply are taken into
account. This permits reduction of the possible plant location to several general target areas.

As a third step, the availability of land at the selected site is examined and also a detailed
analysis of the remaining sites is made. On the basis of data such as freight rates,labor
conditions, tax rates, price of land and general local conditions various sites can be inspected
and appraised on the basis of all the factors influencing the final decision. The final decision
on selecting the plant site should take into consideration all the factors that can affect the
ultimate success of the overall operation.
Coal Reserves in India
Fig.17 Coal Reserves in India [28]
Various Sites considered:

Following sites were considered based on availability of raw material:
1. Bokaro, Jharkhand
2. Talcher, Orissa
3. Korba, Chhattisgarh

Maoists are more active in Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh state. Hence Orissa is a better place to
setup an industry.
Moreover Orissa govt. has offered various incentives for setting up of new industries. New
industrial units with contract demand up to 100 KVA will be exempted from the payment of
electricity duty for a period of 5 years from the date of availing power supply for commercial
production. To attract Mega Projects into the State, Special package of incentives may be
considered for new Industrial Projects with a capital investment of Rs.300 crore and above on
a case to case basis keeping in view the National Policy on Sales Tax related incentives.
(Ammended Industries Department Resolution No.17462/I dated.18.09.2002)
Furthermore, political condition is less stable in Jharkhand. For a steady growth of any
industry, political condition must be stable.
Talcher:
It is known as city of black diamond(coal) as Talcher is rich with coal .it is situated in the
heart of orissa, 135 KM from Bhubaneswar (State capital) , known to be a state's industrial
capital , because of so many big and heavy industries like two NTPC (power Plant), NALCO,
Nalco's own Captive Power plant, F.C.I (Asia's largest coal base urea plant), Heavy Water
Plant (Atomic Energy Dept.), ORICHEM, Jindal'Steel plant, now laxmi Narayan Mittal is
about set up a steel plant near by Talcher and many small industries along with so many coal
mines on which all industries are based on. It is very rich in heritage and culture.
Angul Talcher area is situated at an average height of 139 meters above mean sea level
(MSL) and about 110 km from the state capital Bhubaneshwar. The area lies between 20 37'
N to 21 10'E latitude and 84 53'E to 85 28'E longitude. The rich cultural heritage, forests,
mineral resources, natural beauty, industrial landscape give Angul a place of pride. To-day
Angul is a bustling and dynamic district. The locational advantages, abundant stock of
manpower, raw materials have played an important role in the development of the district.
The climate of the area is continental type being arid and dry except in monsoon season. Due
to marked variations in temperature and rainfall, the area is divisible into four distinct
seasons-
Summer (March-may), Monsoon (June September), Post monsoon (October-November) and
winter (December-February).

Meteorological data was collected from meteorological stations established on the top of
CME Field Office, Vikash Nagar, Angul and Central Workshop Colony, Talcher. Both the
locations were free from obstruction of free flow of air from all the directions. Accordingly,
the wind rose diagram of Angul and Talcher region During Summer 2007, the predominant
wind direction in Angul and Talcher area was from South-East and North-West for 20.99 %
and 16.66 % of time, respectively. The predominant wind speed of 1-5 km/h was observed
for 40.49 % of the total time. Similarly in Talcher area, the predominant wind direction was
from North-West and South-West for 26.75 and 8.68 % of time, respectively and the
predominant wind speed of 1-5 km/h was observed for 37.28 % of the total time.
The minimum and maximum temperatures recorded during this period were 22.90C &
44.20C and 24.40C & 45.7 C for Angul and Talcher areas, respectively. The maximum and
minimum relative humidity was observed as 100% & 45 % and 100% & 39.8 % for Angul
and Talcher areas, respectively. The highest rainfall of 21.2 and 19.5 mm was recorded on
18.6.07 and 10. 6.07 for Angul and Talcher areas, respectively.
1.1 Special incentives

Transportation
a) Road Transport
National Highways :
National Highway-42 : 96.00 km
National Highway-200: 43.383 km
b) Railways
The Talcher line and Sambalpur line of the south-eastern railway runs in the district. Railway
line was laid primarily on account of the Talcher coal field and the first passenger and goods
traffic along this line was opened on 20th January 1927. Railway Stations: Talcher , Angul
(20 km), Cuttack (110 KM), Bhubaneswar (130 KM), Sambalpur (180 KM)
c)Water ways

The river Mahanadi & Brahmani are the main waterways of the district. The Mahanadi is
navigable for a period of 7 months from September to March for 77 kms. from village
Daruha in Athamallik sub-division to village Kataranga in Angul sub-division. The goods
like Bamboos, timbers and other commodities are transported through the river.The important
ferry ghats of river Mahanadi are Kuleswar, Kudagoan, Olath, Bahali, Lunahandi, Deuli,
Kiakata etc.
The river Brahmani is navigable for a period of three months from July to September.The
important ferry ghats of river Brahmani are Talcher, Durgapur, Karnapal, Talapada,
Burukuna, Bijigole, Karadei, Rangali etc.
1.2 Mineral resources
Coal
The earliest record of exploration in Talcher coal fields dates back to 1837 when coal was
discovered at Gopalprasad. G.S.I. took up surface mapping in 1855. The State PWD
department sank six shafts in 1875 in Gopalprasad area to obtain 80 tones of coal sample.
East Indian Prospecting Syndicate found good quality of coal near Talcher town in 1920. The
Indian Bureau of Mines and NCDC, a forerunner of CMPDIL Ltd. Carried out detailed
exploration in the eastern part of Talcher coalfields in late fifties. GSI entered this field for
regional exploration in 1963 & are continuing their endeavor. Exploration findings are
depicted below.
Coal is the prime mineral resource of the district. The coal is non-coking in nature & mostly
suitable for thermal power. Superior coal also available is relatively small quantity is
consumed by sponge iron plants, Ferro alloy plants, refractories, cement plants, paper mills,
sugar mills steel plants and many other industries. The inferior grade coal is mostly used in
brick burning.
As many as 12 workable coal seams of various thickness have been reported in Talcher. The
basinal area of Talcher coal field is 1813 sq.km. The total geological reserve has been worked
out to be about 36,868.12 M.Ts up to a depth of 1200m, which constitute about 18.7% of the
country‘s total non-coking coal reserve. Out of this, mine able reserve would be in the region
of 9,500 M.Ts. (Million Tones).
Graphite
Graphite occurs in villages Dhandatopa, Taleipathar, Adeswar, Akharakata, Bhandarimunda,
Girida, Sanrohilla, Lanchi, Govindpur etc. of Athamallik sub-division having Fc from 7.46%
to 44.4% Detailed exploration needs to be carried out to prove the reserve & its economic
viability.
Climate
The climatic condition of Angul is much varied. It has mainly 4 seasons. The summer season
is from March to Mid June, the period from Mid June to September is the Rainy season,
October and November constitute the post monsoon season and winter is from December to
February. The best time to visit this district is during winter.
Rain fall
The average annual rainfall of the district is 1421 mm. However there is a great variation of
rainfall from year to year. The rainfall in the district during the last 10 years varied between
896 mm & 1744 mm. There are 70 rainy days on an average in a year, but it varies from 66 at
Athamallik to 80 at Pallahara. The distribution of rainfall is also quite erratic causing wide
spread drought year after year.
Temperature
The hot season commences by beginning of March. May is the hottest month with a mean
daily maximum temperature at 44 degree Celsius. With the onset of monsoon, early in June
day temperature drops appreciably. After withdrawal of monsoon by the 1st week of October
both day and night temperature began to diminish steadily. December is usually coldest
month of a year with a mean daily minimum temperature of 12 degree Celsius. In association
with the passage of western disturbances across north India during winter months short spells
of cold occur and the minimum temperature drops down to 10 degree Celsius. The highest
maximum temperature recorded at Angal was 46.90 degree Celsius on dt.30.05.98. The
lowest minimum temperature was 6.0 degree Celsius on 16.01.03 in Angul and neighborhood
are hottest part of the district and have lower rainfall. The summer temperature has shown as
increasing trend in recent past.
Humidity
The humidity of the air is generally high, especially in the South West monsoon and post
monsoon months. In other months, the afternoons are comparatively drier. In the summer

afternoons the relative humidity varies between 25 and 40 percent. Low relative humidity
means easy coal storage in open fields.
Cloudiness
During the South-West monsoon season the sky is generally heavily clouded. In the summer
and the post monsoon months there is moderate cloud.
Winds
Winds are generally light to moderate with some increase in force in the summer and
southwest monsoon seasons. Winds usually blow from southwest and northwest directions in
the monsoon. In the post monsoon and cold seasons winds blow between the west and north.
In the summer months the winds become variable in direction.

2. Plant Layout
Fig. 18 (Plant Layout)

VIII. Economic Evaluation and

Profitability of the Project

The purpose of economic analysis of the project is to bring about a better allocation of
resources, leading to enhanced incomes for investment and consumption. An acceptable plant
design must present an economically viable process that is , capable of operating under
conditions which will yield a profit. Economic viability depends upon the sustainability of
project effects. Project is sustainable if its net benefits or positive effects endure as expected
throughout the life of the project.
Since Net Profit equals total income minus all expenses, it is essential that the Chemical
Engineer be aware of the many different types of costs involved in manufacturing processes.
A Capital Investment is required for any industrial process and determination of the
necessary investment is an important part of a plant design project. The total investment for
any process consists of Fixed Capital Investment for physical equipment and facilities in the
plant plus working capital which must be available to pay salaries keep raw materials and
products on-hand and handle other special items requiring a direct cash outlay
1. Purchased equipment cost

Purchased equipment costs are helpful during a project's early development and budgeting.
The actual cost of a piece of equipment depends upon many factors.
References for evaluating equipment cost:

1. Coulson and Richardson‘s, Volume 6, 4th Edition
2. Matches process Equipment Cost Estimates.
Some important considerations

1. The base year taken is 2007.
2. All the equipment are scaled to the present worth using the ‗Chemical Engineering
Plant Cost Index‘ published regularly in the Chemical Engineering Magazine using
the formula-
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑷𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡( )
𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑕𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑜𝑏𝑡𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑑

The Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index can be accessed at website
http://www.che.com/pci
For 2007 525.4

For 2013 608.8
The cost of all the equipment required for the process is tabulated below
Name Of Equipment Material Cost in 2013 Cost in 2007

HE Carbon Steel ₹ 6403320 ₹ 5526124
C1 Carbon Steel ₹ 4498200 ₹ 3881988
C2 Carbon Steel ₹ 5874120 ₹ 5069420
C3 Carbon Steel ₹ 8308440 ₹ 7170260

C4 Carbon Steel ₹ 7514640 ₹ 6485203
C6 Carbon Steel ₹ 9243360 ₹ 7977105
C7 Carbon Steel ₹ 7373520 ₹ 6363416
C8 Carbon Steel ₹ 4992120 ₹ 4308245
C9 Carbon Steel ₹ 4992120 ₹ 4308245
Heater 1 Carbon Steel ₹ 31802960 ₹ 27446247
Con 1 Carbon Steel ₹ 10760400 ₹ 9286324
Con 2 Carbon Steel ₹ 11172000 ₹ 9641539
Con 3 Carbon Steel ₹ 11701200 ₹ 10098243
Con 4 Carbon Steel ₹ 56553350 ₹ 48806061
R1 Carbon Steel ₹ 53037600 ₹ 45771937
R2 Carbon Steel ₹ 51273600 ₹ 44249588
R7 Carbon Steel ₹ 56604800 ₹ 48850463
R3 Carbon Steel ₹ 52684800 ₹ 45467467
R4 Carbon Steel ₹ 93884000 ₹ 81022756
R5 Carbon Steel ₹ 38612000 ₹ 33322511
R6 Carbon Steel ₹ 38612000 ₹ 33322511

Gasifier Carbon Steel ₹ 148764000 ₹ 128384700
Distillation Carbon Steel ₹ 97216000 ₹ 83898302
Storage Tank Carbon Steel ₹ 21324721.6 ₹ 18403431
Pump Carbon Steel ₹ 16073685.6 ₹ 13871739
Total Cost ₹ 9059,48,397
Table 22 (Cost of Purchased Equipments)

Thus, Total Cost of Purchased Equipment= ₹ 9059,48,397
2. Other direct costs

i) Instrumentation and Controls
It will include the components to control the process equipment like:
1. Pressure Gauge 0-7 kg/cm2

2. Pressure Gauge 0-10 kg/cm2
3. Temp. Gauge 4-100 °C
4. Temperature. Gauge 100-200 °C
5. Temperature. Gauge 0-100 °C
6. Vacuum Gauge 0-760 mm Hg
7. Water Flow Switch
8. U syphon & Cock
9. Safety Valves
10. Temp. Controller
11. Temp. Indicator
12. PID Controller
ii) Piping
1. MS Pipes (all sizes)

2. SS Pipes (all sizes)
3. PVC Pipes and Fittings
4. GI Pipes

5. Pipe Hangers, Fittings, Valves, Beams, Channels etc.
6. Insulation – piping equipment
iii) Electrical Equipment and Materials

1. Electrical equipment - switches, motors, conduit, wire, fitting etc
2. Electrical materials and labour
iv) Construction of Buildings (Including Services)
1. Process buildings
2. Auxiliary buildings
3. Maintenance shops
4. Building Services
 Plumbing work (labour charges)
 Air Handling Units (HVAC)
 Paint Material
 Labour charges for painting
v) Site Development - site clearing, grading, roads, walkways etc.

1. Site Clearing
2. Roads
3. Walkways
4. Landscaping
vi) Utilities and Facilities
1. Borewell and Pumpset

2. POLYSTOL HDPE tanks
3. Distribution Transformer 400KVA
4. 24TR aircooled packaged chiller
5. SS water jet vacuum system
6. 70KVA Kirloskar make generator
7. ELGI air cooled Air Compressor

8. Heating bath and Accessories
9. Cold rooms with panels
10. Cooling Towers
vii) Non-Process Equipment
1. FC 1800 FRP Fume Chamber and base

2. Doors and Windows
3. Labour charges for laying granite
4. Glazed Tiles
5. Labour charges for laying tiles
6. Fire Extinguishers
7. Miscellaneous Laboratory Equipment
8. Office furniture and equipment
viii) Land - Surveys and fees, Property cost
2.1 Total direct costs
S. No. Description Grand Total

1 Purchased Equipment ₹ 9059,48,397
2 Purchased Equipment Installation ₹ 353319874.9
3 Instrumentation and Controls ₹ 905,94,840
4 Piping ₹ 2717,84,519
5 Electrical Equipment and Materials ₹ 1811,89,679
6 Buildings (Including services) ₹ 3623,79,359
7 Yard Improvements ₹ 1087,13,808
8 Service Facilities ₹ 3623,79,359
9 Land ₹ 135892259.6
Total Direct Costs (D) ₹ 27722,02,095
Table 23 (Direct Costs)

2.2 Indirect plant cost
Item Cost
Engineering and supervision ₹ 289903487.1
Construction expenses ₹ 308022455
Contracter's Fee ₹ 172130195.5
Contingency ₹ 335200907
Legal Expenses ₹ 36237935.89

Total Indirect Costs ₹ 1141494980
Table 24 (Indirect Costs)
Total Indirect Costs (I) ₹ 1141494980
Fixed Capital Investment (FCI), D + I ₹ 3913697076
Working Capital (WC), 15% of FCI ₹ 587054561.4
Total Capital Investment (TCI) ₹ 4500751637
Table 25 (Total Cost)
3. Total product cost

. Another equally important part is the estimation of costs for operating the plant and selling
the products. These costs can be grouped under the general heading of Total Product Cost
A tabular form is very useful for estimating total product cost and constitutes a valuable
checklist to preclude omissions.
 Figure below provides a suggested checklist which is typical of the costs involved in
chemical processing operations.

Fig.12 Factors involved in calculating costs of a typical chemical plant [29]
Basis for calculating total product cost is:

1. The Total Product Cost is calculated based on the Annual Cost Basis.
2. Number of days working per year is taken as 300 days.
3. Plant is running in 3-shifts i.e. 24hrs per day.
4. Capacity of the plant per year is 1500000 ton

3.1 Cost of raw materials
S. No. Description Quantity per annum, Kg Total Annual
1 Coal 1,300,898,880 ₹ 11187730368
2 Catalyst 96824 ₹ 19768464
3. Oxygen 395733081.6 ₹ 8706127795
4. Total Cost of Raw Materials ₹ 19913626627
Table 26 (Cost of Raw Materials)
3.2 Cost of power and utilities
S. No. Description No. of Cost / unit Total Annual Cost

Units/year
1 Cooling Water (m3) 607227.65 ₹ 35 ₹ 2040972780
2 Electricity(for other 1248134.4 ₹ 5.75 ₹ 7176772.8
purposes) (kWh)
3 Air required (m3) 47510260.1 ₹1 ₹ 47510260.1
4 Steam ( ton) 2302600.5 ₹ 1850 ₹ 4259810925
Total Annual Cost of Power & Utilities ₹ 6586856927
Table 27 (Cost of Power and Utilities)
3.3 Total annual direct production cost
S. No. Description Total Annual Cost

1 Raw Materials ₹ 19913626627
2 Operating Labor ₹ 63432008.51
3 Operating Supervision ₹ 35240004.73

4 Power and Utilities ₹ 6586856927
5 Maintenance and Repairs ₹ 620224083.2
6 Operating Supplies ₹ 563840075.6
7 Laboratory Charges ₹ 84576011.34
Table 28 (Annaul Direct Production Cost)
3.4 Fixed charges
S. No. Types Total Charges
1 Depreciation ₹ 78273941.52
2 Taxes ₹ 117410912.3
3 Insurance ₹ 39136970.76
4 Rent 0
Table 29 (Fixed Charges)

Also, Plant Overhead cost is taken to be 30% of the cost of operating labour, supervision and
maintenance.
Thus, Plant Overhead Cost = ₹ 227657707.22
3.5 Total manufacturing cost (M)
S. No. Description Total Annual cost in Rs.
1 Direct Production Cost

₹ 28192003781
2 Fixed Charges
₹ 234821824.6
3 Plant Overhead Costs ₹ 215668828.9
Table 30 (Total Manufacturing Cost)

3.6 Total product costs (TPC)
S. No. Description Total Annual cost
1 Administrative Expenses
₹ 12686401.7
2 Distribution and Marketing Expenses
₹ 281920037.8
3 Research and Development
₹ 140960018.9
4 Financing (interest) 0
Total General expenses(G) ₹ 435566458.4
Table 31 (Total Product Costs)
Total manufacturing cost (M)= Direct Production cost + Fixed Charges+ Plant Overhead
Cost
= ₹ 28642494435
Total Product cost=M+G= ₹29078060893.04
4. Profitability analysis
1. Based on Fixed Known Selling Price of the Finished Product at 75% Capacity
2. Based on Selling Price of the Finished Product API calculated at 100%, 75% & 50%
Capacity.
 Based on Fixed Known Selling Price of the Finished Product at 75% Capacity

 𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒄𝒆𝒏𝒕𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒊𝒕𝒚 × 𝑴𝒂𝒓𝒌𝒆𝒕value
 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕 = 𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍𝑹𝒆𝒗𝒆𝒏𝒖𝒆𝒕𝒉𝒓𝒐𝒖𝒈𝒉𝑺𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒔 − 𝑨𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍𝑶𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕
 𝑵𝒆𝒕𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕 = 𝑮𝒓𝒐𝒔𝒔𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕 × 𝟏 − 𝒕𝒂𝒙%
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
 𝑷𝒂𝒚𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌𝑷𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 = ,
𝑵𝒆𝒕𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕+𝑫𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
𝒘𝒉𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕 = 𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅𝒄𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑵𝒆𝒕𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕
 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒐𝒇𝑹𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
Market value of Finished product 37 ₹
Annual Revenue through Sales 33216750000 ₹
Gross Profit 1299973336.99 ₹
Assuming tax percent 20 %
Net Profit 1039978670 ₹
Payback Period 3.5 years
Rate of Return 26.573 %
Table 32 (Profitability Analysis)

 Based on Selling Price of the Finished Product API calculated at 100%, 75% & 50%
Capacity.
Thus, The Unit Cost per kg of product=37₹/kg
Payback period
 In order for the Total Investment to have low level of risk, the minimum acceptable
return should be 16%
𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
(𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡)/𝑦𝑟 + ((𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)/𝑦𝑟

𝑫𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
= 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒇𝒑𝒖𝒓𝒄𝒉𝒂𝒔𝒆𝒅𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
+ 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒇𝑰𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒖𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏𝒂𝒏𝒅𝑪𝒐𝒏𝒕𝒓𝒐𝒍𝒔 + 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒇𝑷𝒊𝒑𝒊𝒏𝒈
+ 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒇𝑬𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒂𝒍𝑬𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒑𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒔 + 𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕𝒐𝒇𝑩𝒖𝒊𝒍𝒅𝒊𝒏𝒈
= ₹ 1811896794
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕
= 𝑴𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎𝑨𝒄𝒄𝒆𝒑𝒕𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒓𝒆𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏 × 𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝒚𝒆𝒂𝒓
= ₹ 626191532.1
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆𝑫𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒊𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑭𝑪𝑰
=
𝒀𝒆𝒂𝒓 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒀𝒆𝒂𝒓𝒔 (𝑵)
Where, number of years = 20

Thus, Average Depreciation/yr = ₹ 195684853.8
Pay Back Period= 2.2046 years
Selling Price for different plant capacities
To estimate Selling Price (₹/Kg) of the Finished Product, average net profit is to be
determined.
Assumptions taken to calculate average net profit are-

1. Evaluation time (N) is taken as 20 years.
2. Salvage Values (Vs) are assumed as 0.

i) Calculations at 100% plant capacity
S.No. Product Rate, All Variable All Fixed Costs, Depreciation, Total Product
tons/year Cost, ₹/yr ₹/yr ₹/yr Cost, ₹/yr
1 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
2 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
3 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
4 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
5 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
6 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
7 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
8 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
9 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
10 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
11 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
12 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
13 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
14 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
15 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
16 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
17 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
18 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
19 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
20 1282500.00 28753.85285 807.78317 195.68 29757.32087
Total 25650000.00 575077.06 16155.66 3913.60 595146.42
Table 33 (Calculations on 100% Plant Capacity)

𝐴𝑙𝑙𝑣𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑠 = 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 × 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑜𝑓𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑠𝑕𝑒𝑑𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡
 Depreciation is calculated based on straight line method as follows:

𝑉 − 𝑉𝑠
𝑑=
𝑁
Where, d = annual depreciation/year

V = original value of the property at start of service life period,completely installed
and ready for use
Vs = Salvage value of property at the end of service life
N = Service life years
Average Net Profit (Np,ave)

𝟏
𝑵𝒑,𝒂𝒗𝒆 = × (𝒑 × 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒕𝒆 − 𝑻𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍𝒑𝒓𝒐𝒅𝒖𝒄𝒕𝑪𝒐𝒔𝒕) × (𝟏 − 𝒕𝒂𝒙%)
𝑵
Where, p is the unit selling price

N is the evaluation period
Tax is taken as 20%
𝐹𝑖𝑥𝑒𝑑𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑙𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 + (𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛)
Thus,
Unit Selling Price of finished product at 100% capacity= 24.74213₹/kg
Therefore, Average Net Profit per year= ₹1579568140

ii) .Calculations at 75% plant capacity
1 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
2 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
3 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
4 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
5 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
6 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
7 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
8 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
9 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
10 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
11 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
12 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
13 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
14 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
15 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
16 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
17 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
18 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
19 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
20 961875 21565.38964 807.78317 195.6848 22568.85766
Total 19237500 431307.7927 16155.663 3913.696 451377.1532
Table 34 (Calculations at 75% Plant Capacity)

𝟏
𝑵
𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑷𝒂𝒚𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 =
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕 + (𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆𝑫𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)

Thus, Unit Selling Price of finished product at 75% capacity= 25.51612₹/kg
Therefore, Average Net Profit per year = ₹ 1579568140
iii) .Calculations at 50% plant capacity
1 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
2 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
3 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
4 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
5 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
6 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
7 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
8 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
9 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
10 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
11 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
12 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
13 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
14 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
15 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
16 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
17 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
18 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
19 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
20 641250 14376.92642 807.78317 195.68 15380.39445
Total 12825000 287538.5285 16155.663 3913.6 307607.889
Table 35 (Calculations at 50% Plant Capacity)

𝟏
𝑵
𝑭𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅𝑪𝒂𝒑𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒍𝑰𝒏𝒗𝒆𝒔𝒕𝒎𝒆𝒏𝒕
𝑷𝒂𝒚𝒃𝒂𝒄𝒌𝒑𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒐𝒅 =
𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆𝑷𝒓𝒐𝒇𝒊𝒕 + (𝑨𝒗𝒆𝒓𝒂𝒈𝒆𝑫𝒆𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒄𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏)
Thus, Unit Selling Price of finished product at 50% capacity= 27.0641₹/kg
Plant Capacity Minimum Selling Price

100 % 24.74 ₹/kg
75 % 25.52 ₹/kg
50 % 27.06 ₹/kg
Table 36 (Plant Capacity vs Selling Price)
5. Break even analysis

For breakeven production annual sales equals the annual cost of production
𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒔𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒔 = 𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒗𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒂𝒃𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕 + 𝒂𝒏𝒏𝒖𝒂𝒍𝒇𝒊𝒙𝒆𝒅𝒄𝒐𝒔𝒕
Assuming 100% product demand is there,
𝐵𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑡 100% 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 24.74
Therefore = = = 66.87 %
𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦𝑜𝑓𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑠𝑒𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒𝑎𝑡 100% 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 37

6. Cash flow pattern
Annual Production Average Deprecia Cash Flow, Cumulative CCF-TCI

No.
Sales, ₹ /yr Cost, ₹ /yr Profit, tion, ₹/yr Cash Flow,
₹/yr ₹/yr ₹/yr
1 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 1578159209 -2,922,592,428

2 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 3156318418 -1,344,433,220
3 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 4734477627 233,725,989
4 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 6312636836 1,811,885,198
5 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 7890796044 3,390,044,407
6 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 9468955253 4,968,203,616
7 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 11047114462 6,546,362,825
8 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 12625273671 8,124,522,034
9 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 14203432880 9,702,681,243
10 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 15781592089 11,280,840,452
11 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 17359751298 12,858,999,660
12 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 18937910507 14,437,158,869
13 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 20516069716 16,015,318,078
14 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 22094228924 17,593,477,287
15 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 23672388133 19,171,636,496
16 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 25250547342 20,749,795,705
17 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 26828706551 22,327,954,914
18 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 28406865760 23,906,114,123
19 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 29985024969 25,484,273,332
20 2253513152 2042028006 1421611326 156547883 1578159209 31563184178 27,062,432,540
Table 37 (Cash Flow Patterns)

Thus,
We find that in 3rdyear, CCF-FCI becomes positive which implies that the cost invested is
recovered. We had calculated Payback period to be 2.205 years, hence the above results
confirm it.

Table 38 IMPLEMENTATION SCHEDULE
WORK DONE DEADLINE DURATION
IDEATION Aug-13
PRELIMINARY DESIGN May-14 8 months
DETAILED DESIGN Oct-15 14 months
GOVT. REGULATIONS AND CLEARANCES Mar-16 5 months
DETAILED DESIGN WITH SPECIFICATIONS Dec-16 8 months
AND EQUIPMENTS
CONSTRUCTION OF PLANT Jan-17 4 years
PAYBACK PERIOD Jan-24 3 years
PROFITABILITY PERIOD Post
January

IX. REFERENCES
References for figures and tables
[1] digital.library.unt.edu
[2] www.netl.doe.gov
[3] www.netl.doe.gov
[4] Impact of Indian and imported coal on Indian thermal power plant by A Chandra and H
Chandra
Chandra
Chandra
[7] http://www.coal.nic.in/
[11] http://www.see.ed.ac.uk
[12] ―Michigan Chemical Engineering Process Dynamics and Controls Open Textbook‖
[13] ―Modeling for control of gasifier" by Thijs Paes
[14] ―Modeling for control of gasifier" by Thijs Paes
[15] http://www.spiraxsarco.com
[16] http://ecosse.org
[17] ―Michigan Chemical Engineering Process Dynamics and Controls Open Textbook‖
[18] www.cpcb.nic.in
[19] web.deu.edu.tr

[23] http://www.indianchemicalnews.com/search/search.html
[23] Handbook on Indian Chemical and Petrochemical Industry,Oct, 2012
[25] Crisil report, Tate Strategic analysis
[26] Individual company official websites
[27] Handbook on Indian Chemical and Petrochemical Industry,Oct, 2012
[28] www.mcl.gov.in
[29] Coulson & Richardson_s Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6 Chemical Engineering Design
Other references used
1. McCabe,L.W. & Smith J.C., ―Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering‖ McGraw-

Hill, N
2. Coulson & Richardson Chemical Engineering. Vol. 6_ Chemical Engineering Design_

4th Ed
3. Kern, D.Q., ―Process Heat Transfer‖ McGraw-Hill, N.Y (1986)
4. Perry‘s Chemical Engineer‘s handbook, 6th edition
5. John J. McKetta. Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design: Volume 1,
6. Dr. Farhat N. Jaffery, Project Officer (ENVIS), Industrial Toxicology Research Centre,
Lucknow, 1997 Chemical Safety Information In India, A National Status Report
submitted to Ministry of Environment & Forests Govt. of India, New Delhi
7. Geankoplis, C.J., “Transport Processes and Unit Operations ”, Third Edition, Prentice Hall
of India Private LTD (2002)
8. Sinnott, R.K., “Chemical Engineering Design – Volume 6” Elsevier

9. Chemical Weekly
10. Himmelblau, Basic principles & calculations in chemical engineering
11. Fogler ,Chemical reaction Engineering
12. Coughanowr Process analysis and Control
13. AspenTech. Available at: www.aspentech.com/brochures/Aspen_Plus.pdf
14. Xu J, Froment GF. Methane Steam Reforming , Methanation and Water-Gas Shift : 1 .
Intrinsic Kinetics. Am Inst Chem Eng J. 1989;35:88–96. doi:10.1002/aic.690350109
15. Mark Sutton – Davy Process Technology, London, UK and Peter Roberts – Johnson
Matthey, Billingham, UK
16. Po-Chuang Chen, Hsiu-Mei Chiu, Yau-Pin Chyou, Chiou-Shia Yu Methanol Production
– A Key Step in the Return of Chemicals from Coal Processes Simulation Study of Coal
to Methanol Based on Gasification Technology
17. Marek Sciazko and Tomasz Chmielniak Cost Estimates of Coal Gasification for
Chemicals and Motor Fuels
18. Methanol in my life, www.methanol.org
19. IngvildLvik Modelling,Estimation and Optimization of the Methanol Synthesis with

Catalyst Deactivation
20. Steven D. Phillips, Joan K. Tarud, Mary J. Biddy, and Abhijit Dutta Gasoline from Wood
via Integrated Gasification, Synthesis, and Methanol-to- Gasoline Technologies
21. Abdulwahab Giwa, Methyl acetate reactive distillation process modelling simulation , and
optimization using Aspen
22. Xin Dong, Bingshun Shen, Hongbin Zhang∗, Guodong Lin, Youzhu Yuan Study on
Highly Active Catalysts and a Once-Through Process for Methanol Synthesis from
Syngas

23. Masood Otarod John Happel ldentifiability of Kinetic Parameters of Methanol Synthesis
in Plug-Flow Tracing
24. Edward Michael Calverley A Study of the Mechanism and Kinetics of the Synthesis of
Methanol and Higher Alcohols Over Alkali Promoted Copper/Zinc-Oxide/Chromia
Catalysts
25. Thomas Helmer Pedersen René Haller Schultz Technical and Economic Assessment of
Methanol Production from Biogas
26. Outi Mäyrä and Kauko Leiviskä Modelling in methanol synthesis
27. Yurev E.M., Popok E.V. Kinetic model of methanol Simulation
28. Rajesh M. Agnyt and Chrlstos G. Takoudis' Synthesis of Methanol from Carbon
Monoxide and Hydrogen over a Copper-Zinc Oxide-Alumina Catalyst
29. Texaco Gasification Process United States Environmental Protection Agency
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Scale Methanol Production from Natural Gas
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Zuniga Linan Dynamic Simulation of the Lurgi-type Reactor for Methanol Synthesis
32. Nicolaz Muller A simple process modelling for a dry-feeding entrained bed coal gasiﬁer
33. Annual report Ministry of Coal 2012-2013


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B.

Tech Major Project 2014

1. Process summary ................................................................................................................ 6

3. Employment potential ........................................................................................................ 7

4. Profitability of the project .................................................................................................. 7

II. Project Details ....................................................................................................................... 8

1.1 Problem statement and description .............................................................................. 9

1.2 Introduction to the format of the project ...................................................................... 9

2. Project description ............................................................................................................ 11

2.1 Gasification processes ................................................................................................ 11

2.2 Description of specific gasifiers ................................................................................. 13

2.3 Description of reactors ............................................................................................... 18

2.4 Water-Gas Shift Reaction ........................................................................................... 19

2.5 Selection of technology/ Basis of selection ................................................................. 21

2.6 Raw material............................................................................................................... 23

2.7 Present status of the product ...................................................................................... 29

3. Material & Energy balance .............................................................................................. 30

4. Detailed design of process equipment .............................................................................. 63

4.1 Process design ............................................................................................................ 63

4.2 Mechanical design of units ....................................................................................... 130

4.3 Equipment specifications .......................................................................................... 149

5. Major engineering Problems of the Plant ....................................................................... 156

5.2 Pumps ....................................................................................................................... 158

5.3 Distillation column ................................................................................................... 165

6. Material storage and handling facilities ......................................................................... 168

6.1 Methyl alcohol MSDS ............................................................................................... 168

6.2 Carbon Monoxide MSDS .......................................................................................... 173

6.3 Hydrogen Sulfide MSDS ........................................................................................... 178

7. Process Instrument control and safety aspect ................................................................. 182

III. Environmental Protection & Energy Conservation ......................................................... 194

1. Environmental aspects.................................................................................................... 195

1.1Air pollution............................................................................................................... 195

1.2 Liquid pollution ........................................................................................................ 198

1.3 Sulfur ........................................................................................................................ 201

1.4 Solid waste disposal.................................................................................................. 202

1.5 Noise pollution.......................................................................................................... 202

2. Energy Integration and Conservation ............................................................................. 205

2.1 Conservation ............................................................................................................. 205

2.2 Instrumentation ......................................................................................................... 209

2.3 Energy management ................................................................................................. 210

2.4 Alternate energy resources ....................................................................................... 210

IV. Plant Utilites .................................................................................................................... 214

1. Types of Utilities: ........................................................................................................... 215

2. Air for process and instrumentation ............................................................................... 216

3.Heat transfer media ......................................................................................................... 217

4. Water .............................................................................................................................. 218

5. Electricity and power requirements................................................................................ 224

2 Production of methanol from coal

V. Organizational Structure & Manpower Requirement ....................................................... 226

1. Organizational structure ............................................................................................. 227

1.1 Hierarchy .................................................................................................................. 228

2. Manpower requirement............................................................................................... 231

VI. Market Prospects ............................................................................................................. 234

1. Demand and Supply ....................................................................................................... 235

1.1 Growth forecast of methanol .................................................................................... 236

1.2 Present production of methanol in India .................................................................. 236

2. Areas of consumption..................................................................................................... 237

3. Uses of methanol ............................................................................................................ 238

VII. Site Selection & Project Layout ..................................................................................... 241

1. Site selection .................................................................................................................. 242

1.1 Special incentives ..................................................................................................... 245

1.2 Mineral resources .................................................................................................... 246

2. Plant Layout ................................................................................................................... 249

VIII. Economic Evaluation and Profitability of the Project .................................................. 250