Professional Documents
Culture Documents
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MI HAI CIM P OI
Preside nt of th e Acad em y of the Rep ublic of M oldavia
MIC HAE L RA DU,
Sen ior Fell o w, F orei gn P olicy Resea rch I nstitute , C o- Cha ir ma n , FP RI s Ce nter o n
Terr oris m, Cou nter -Te rro rism an d Homela nd Sec urity , P hiladelp hia, U SA
YOHA NA N MA NOR ,
Profess or , U niversit y de Jer usalem , Israel
Preside nt , Ce nter fo r Mo nitori ng t he Impact of Peace (CMIP )
JOZ E PIR JEV EC,
Profess or , U niversit y of T rieste , Ital y
PATRI CIA GONZAL EZ-A L DEA
Profess or , U niversit y Francisco d e Vit oria, Ma drid , Spain
OL IVER FRI GGI ERI,
Profess or , U niversit y of Malta
CRIS TI NA BEJA N,
Wadha m Colle ge , Oxf ord , Great B ritain
SLAVC O A LMJA N,
Profess or , U niversit y of Novi Sad , Ser bia
Preside nt , Ar gos Ce nter fo r O pen Dialogue, Novi Sa d, Se rbia
NICU CI OBA NU
Preside nt , Liber tateaPublis hin g Hous e, Novi Sad , Serbia
SA NDOR R IC HT ER
Senior Ec onomist, Vie nna In stitute fo r I nte rnatio nal E cono mic Stu dies (W IIW )
JUNE TEU FE L DRE YER
Profess or , Depa rtme nt of Political Science , U niver sity of Mia mi, USA
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Editor in chief: AUREL P IURC
Deputy editor in chief: IO N DEA CO NESCU
Editorial board: CEZAR AVRAM, VLADIMIR OSIAC, MIHAI COSTESCU, ANCA PARMENA OLIMID,
COSMIN LU CIAN GHERGHE, CT LIN ST NCIULESCU, CTLINA GEO RGESCU, TITELA
VLCEANU, MIHAI GHIU LESCU
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Revista de Stiinte Polit ice. Revue des Sciences Polit iq ues was evaluated and authorized by the
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periodical publications i ndexed in internati onal databases (May 2009) Revista de Stiinte Politice.
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Library, DOAJ, Elektronische Zeitschriftenbibliothek EZB, Journal Seek, Intute Social Sciences..
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University of Craiova, 13 A. I. Cuza Street, Craiova, 200585, Dolj, Romania, Tel/Fax: +40251418515.
ISSN: 1584-224X
http://cis01.central.ucv.ro/revistadestiintepolitice/
University of Craiova Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities Political Science Department
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5
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
University of Craiova Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities Political Science Department
M
MEEDDIIAA S
STTUUDDIIEESS
Snejana POPOVA, Discours mdiatiques sur limmigration (Etude compare de
la presse bulgare et franaise) 194
N WB
NEEW BOOOOKKSS && IIDDEEAASS
Vasile Boari un vizionar european (Aurel Piurc) 226
Economia barbar i actuala criz mondial (Mihai Ovidiu Cercel) 228
6
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Aurel PIURC
Abstract: The article is structured into two parts: in the first part the
author makes some theoretical conceptual specification on minorities,
ethnical minority, minority of language, race and religion and
national minority. In the second part the author highlights and
analyzes some of the issues of the relation between the Romanian
education system during the interwar period and national minorities
from Transylvania.
Keywords: national minorities, inter-ethnic relations, education system,
confessional education, Romanianization, Hungarianization.
M
inorities issues, no matter their including the present type of human
nature or historical period, have development.
constituted a theme with a large Most of the dictionaries, studies,
audience and public debate, with multiple papers define the minority as the smallest
implications for the political life and social number or part from a collectivity1. In
practice. One can discuss on the presence relation to the majority, the minority group
of ethnic, linguistic, religious minority groups is in a position of numeric inferiority and
even from the antiquity, perpetuating till from this its social, political, cultural, of
the present moment. Since the establishment statute and social role. The determining,
of the national state, during the modern discriminating element is of a quantitative,
period, national minorities have been numeric nature, and in no instance of
appeared, fact which would amplify and qualitative nature or value.
tense the communities social life, both In the sociologic sense, the majority is
internally and internationally. Today one a segment of the population which exceeds
can speak of a great diversity of minorities, all the other segments2.
cultural, sexual, racial groups, immigrants The notions of ethnic minority,
or the Roma. language, race and identity minority,
In one form or another, ethnic and and national minority were used having
national minorities have been present during the same meaning and value for a very long
the whole history, representing important time, their meaning not being completely
components of any social community, cleared up even today. Understanding the
issue of national minorities in the
7
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Aurel Piurc
contemporary period requires some well as the states and political officials of
theoretical, conceptual specifications. Ethnic the time.
minority is a notion characterising the pre- The concept of national minority
national period, its members being united was used for the first time by C. A.
through a commune descendant given by Macartney in the interwar period. He tried
the same language, way of living, tra- to apply this concept to the new state-
ditions, behaviour, religious belief, culture. nation realities which were constituted in
This concept highlights the cultural com- Europe after the First World War. National
ponents which render the group the feeling minorities were circumscribed both to the
of belonging and that of being different state and to majority nations.
from the majority, which determines them During the post-war period of the
to make social, political, cultural claims that 1970s Francesco Copatari would try to
would make them equal to the majority, or define national minorities, viewed by him
to benefit from a special treatment based as a numerically inferior group to the rest
on the recognition of the autonomy, and, of a states population, in a non-dominant
in extreme cases, on separation. position, whose state-obedient members
The concept of language, racial and share, from an ethnic, religious or linguistic
religious minority was used during the point of view, characteristics which
writing of the Peace Treaties of Paris, during differentiate it from the rest of the population
1919-1920, and was also adopted by the and who manifest, in an implicit manner, a
League of Nations. An attempt to define feeling of solidarity which allows it to keep
the concept was made by Helmes Rosting, its culture, tradition, religion or language5.
who defined it as those groups of persons More clearly, complete definitions and
who differ through race, religion or which apply to the new contemporary
language from the majority of a countrys realities of national minorities are found in
inhabitants3. The respective definition does the documents of the Council of Europe.
not accomplish a new and consistent National minorities are conceived as: groups
approach of the concept of minority, the of persons from a state who own the states
latter being imposed rather form political citizenship, have and use the language of
necessities, necessary in order to draw up the majority in a certain manner, have their
the peace treaties. Moreover, even from 1922, own cultural, linguistic, religious identity,
Jacques Duparc, referring to the definition which they conserve, take part to the political
of the concept of minority, appreciated that life of the respective state through their
it is an abstract notion which does not own organizations and bodies, but also
imply the existence of determinant features, through the organizations and bodies of
but a juridical relation, whose meanings the state they belong to, trying to promote,
varied within a certain poque and within through dialogue, political way, and, in
a certain geographical area4. extreme situations, through other means,
Rastings definition, although it does their own interests, aspirations, which, in
not have in view elements belonging to most of the situations, coincide to those of
national minorities as imposed by the the majority; are integrated and loyal to the
national state, has the merit of including state they belong to; share the same rights and
the notions of language, race and religion, freedoms with the majority population.
ancient elements of distinction and exem- A radically changed, special situation
plification of ethnic groups and whom all of the relation between majority and national
local communities took into account, as minorities exists in the European Union. It
8
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Romanian education system and national minorities in the interwar period
mostly blurred the tensions and conflicts among which Romania and the issue of
between majority and minorities through national minority existing before the war
the newly created framework and gave a or appeared following the drawing of the
highly different meaning to the relations new European political map. From huma-
between them, determined by a series of nitarian, democratic principles, in order to
measures: the abolition of national borders, solve the new European political reality, to
free movement of persons, the possibility prevent the possible conflicts, abuses of
to work and establish the place of residence the majority against the minority, to
in any part of the EU, to participate in the obviate the arguments among the states
social-political life of the residing community, which had national minorities and the
to be represented, single currency, common latters mother-states, the political and
Community institutions. The European Union diplomatic world of the great European
turned motherlands of EU states into the powers tried to offer protection to national
motherland of the states. Many of the minorities through international treaties,
causes which generated and fuelled conflicts, putting them under the League of Nations
tensions between the majorities and guarantee. The independence of the states
minorities have vanished or do not find succeeding the Austrian-Hungarian Empire,
their place within the new reality and among which was Romania, was conditioned,
social-political organization. Through the along with the signing of the Peace Treaty,
creation of the European citizenship the by the signing of a Treaty of the Minorities
differences between majority and minority through which they bound themselves to
tend to wipe out and the possible harshness ensure minorities equal treatment to that of the
between them tends to disappear. Under majority. Such a measure lead to different
no circumstance are they perceived anymore, reactions among the succeeding states which
or understood according to their ancient were forced to sign it, Romania having the
meanings. On the contrary, in some EU most visible reaction of opposition to it.
Member States, minority groups tend to get Prime-Minister Ionel Brtianu claimed that,
a different meaning, that is of immigrant as regards Romania, the minorities issue
groups which are constituted of Community was solved as the latter had equal rights to
non-citizens, distinct both from the majority the majority. Being pre-occupied with
and from national minorities, and have as rendering full independence and sovereignty
purpose to acquire the status of Community to Romania, of stating equal principles and
citizen and all that the latter implies and applicable to all Member States of the
devolves upon somebody. League of Nations, the Romanian prime-
For the first time, ethnic minorities of minister highlighted: Romania would not
language, race and religion have become a admit a special treatment that does not
social and political issue, transferring also apply to all other sovereign states no
in the field of international relations, since matter their size and position, as in such
the signing of the Peace Treaties of Paris matters there are no great and small states,
(1919-1920). The Peace Conference should states that would subject to the first we
have found the answer and solutions for understand to have here within the kingdom,
the new political reality which appeared as much freedom and independence as in
following the First World War through the any other great sovereign authority6.
disappearance of two empires and the Ionel Brtianu was against the
establishment of new national states or the encroachment of other states, including the
perfection of national unity by others, League of Nations, in solving the national
9
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Aurel Piurc
imposing the Romanian language meant The process of the unification of the
reducing their influence over a great mass education system unfolded with difficulty
of minorities, including the Hungarianized due to many causes:
Romanians before 1918, limiting or even - prior to 1923, there was no fundamental
removing some privileges at the level of act, a Constitution according to which
the local administration, subjecting to the new one accomplished a unitary, legitimate
legislation and regulations, removing some policy in the education system and
common law of the Hungarian aristocracy, which allowed the adoption of the new
limiting and controlling the irredentist politics laws and regulations. The Constitution of
promoted by Hungary with the support of 1866, in use, was completely obsolete,
Hungarian Transylvanian leaders. had no stipulations which would respond
The entire politics in the domain of to the new changes appeared in Romanias
national minorities promoted by Romania life after 1918;
during the interwar period, including in the - the powerful opposition to changes and
field of education, was based on the res- innovations sustained by the German
pect of the adopted programs during the minority leaders and especially Hungarian
unity meetings with Romania, of the Treaty who did not recognize the union and
of the Minorities signed in December wished to turn education into an element
1919. All national minorities were ensured of opposition, of counterpoint towards
primary, secondary, private, confessional the Romanian authorities;
or public education in their maternal - the political instability until 1924 had
language, thus having the possibility to ended since the beginning of the liberal
conserve their identity, cultural, linguistic, governance.
religious traditions. In order to put national As a consequence, until the adoption
minorities in a state of equality with the of the Constitution of 1923 and of the
majority and to ensure the dialogue and education laws of 1924, there was a period
communication with all their citizens, to of transition, of cohabitation of the edu-
remove any possibility of isolation, mar- cation systems form the Ancient Kingdom
ginalization one ensured the study of the with the ones from the united provinces.
Romanian language at all education cycles The unification of the education
and forms, still an aspect which gave birth system on the entire territory of Romania
to disputes and controversies in the rela- was a necessary process, a condition for
tions to the German and Hungarian minorities. strengthening and consolidating national
Following the accomplishment of the unity, a proof of imposing Romanian
Great Union, along with the other problems authority, the beginning of the creation of
of the social life, education raised a mul- modern education, destined to progress, a
titude of problems within the united provinces: right which originated in its independence
1. A first problem constituted in the and sovereignty.
creation of a unitary, laic, scientific, de- 2. A second problem was the diminish
mocratic education system, under the con- in the percentage of confessional education
trol and coordination of the state. Such a and the growth of the public, laic education,
measure was absolutely necessary as, being under the states control and coor-
following 1919, in the United Romania dination.
existed four systems of education from Mostly, education in Transylvania was
Austria, Hungary, Russia and the Ancient laic, as the Hungarian state used it in the
kingdom. de-nationalization politics carried against
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POLITICAL HISTORY
Aurel Piurc
national identity; the increase in the cohesion and agreement regarding the union with
of the Romanian people and of the act of Romania in 1918. Minorities assimilation
union; the unification and functioning of has become state politics during the
education at the level of the entire country; governments of Tisza Klnean, Banffy
ensuring equality and possibilities of Dezso and Tisza Istvan. School and its
affirmation of all its citizens, no matter the institutions were politicized, especially
nationality, means of dialogue, communication during Minister Albert Apponyi, having as
and participation in the social life of all purpose the creation of the Hungarian
Romanian citizens; the diminish in the unitary nation, of Hungarian conscience
possibilities of using propaganda materials and identity which were based on the idea
having irredentist purposes coming from of Hungarian citizenship according to
Hungary and having access to the great mass which all individuals, no matter their
of Hungarians; ceasing the process of ethnicity, compulsorily belong as citizens
Hungarianization of Romanians from the to the unitary Hungarian nation.
areas in which they were minorities and Following the union, under the cir-
bringing them back to the Romanian nation. cumstances in which public education entered
There were multiple and diverse under the control and administration of
protests, such as: the refusal to subscribe Romanian authorities, the opposition of
their children to public education; protests the Hungarian leaders used confessional
addressed to local, county, central authorities, education as a means of political struggle,
including the Parliament and the League of of propagating the revisionist and
Nations; postponing within the Parliament irredentist politics of Hungary, and anti-
the adoption of the education laws, by the Romanian politics.
minorities representatives, and also their Under the protection of religious
application, demanding for longer terms freedom, confessional schools turned into
for the learning of the Romanian language propaganda centres and anti-Romanian subversive
or for its use in education and admi- actions, of stocking and spreading ire-
nistration. dentist materials coming from Hungary, of
4. The fourth issue, in close connection avoiding the control by and contacts with
to the imposition of the Romanian language Romanian authorities and their policies, of
was the de-politicization of education. civic and political insubordination.
During the whole period of dualism, Through the education laws created
the Hungarian kingdom had as main starting with 1924, the law of public,
objective towards minorities their de- private, confessional education, of the
nationalization, their Hungarianization. In school-leaving examination, the Bucharest
this sense, it used politics and imple- authorities have been preoccupied with eli-
mented it in all domains of the social life, minating politics from the education system,
including in that of education. No matter with maintaining it outside its perimeter of
its nature, either public, private or con- action, as it had been established through
fessional, education was used as a means the Peace Treaty of Paris and the Treaty of
in the policy of de-nationalization especially the Minorities.
of the Romanians from Transylvania, as The problem of the education system
they formed the majority, also being its from Great Romania and national mino-
first and oldest inhabitants, but also of the rities, especially the Hungarian one from
Szecklers, Swabians, Saxons of Transylvania. Ardeal during the interwar period has
That is how we could explain their support given birth to acute disputes, protests,
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POLITICAL HISTORY
Aurel Piurc
tensions and crises, mostly determined by the - the lack of efficient communication
political opposition of the Transylvanian between central and local authorities de-
Hungarian leaders who did not recognized termined by the lack of qualified
the union, by the revisionist irredentist personnel, of administrative experience
politics fuelled and supported by Hungary, and science, by the opposition of the
but also by some subjective and objective leaders of the Hungarian minority and
causes which were linked to the Romanian even Romanian;
politics itself towards minorities, such as: - psychological, moral factors which acted
- the lack of experience as regards mi- not only with the minorities, especially
norities politics of the governance from the Hungarian one, but also with the
Bucharest which had not encountered Romanian nation. Temporally, psychically,
such an issue within the Ancient morally, but especially politically, the
Kingdom; Transylvanian Hungarian minority did
- the tensed situation between Romania not wish, nor was it able to accept the
and Hungary during 1919 and 1920 which new social-political situation. From a
generated and fuelled the opposition of dominant, all-ruling nation, following the
Transylvanian Hungarian leaders towards union, it woke up as a minority, turned
Romanian authorities; into equal to those whom it had ex-
- the contradiction between the policy of ploited and despised. Through their leaders,
centralisation promoted by the liberal the Transylvanian Hungarians considered
governance, adept of a centralised, strong themselves to be the successors of the
and unitary state and the policy of local, Hungarian state, thus wishing to preserve
regional autonomy wished and promoted its old political, social and economic
by minorities, especially the German status, they considered themselves to be
and Hungarian ones, whose interests and a governing party, at least equal to the
privileges were directly affected by the Romanian state. Placed before the new
centralised policy; political reality, they refused to accept it,
- the lack of unity of the Romanian po- it became opposed with or without
litical class towards the policy that motives, being manoeuvred by Hungary
would be applied as regards the united in its revisionist policies.
provinces. For instance, the leaders of To this was added the presence and
the National Peasant Party, especially action of strong international laic, political,
the Transylvanian group, were adepts of ecclesiastic centres of Hungarian ethnicity
the policy of local autonomy, which was that encouraged and financed the opposition
also promoted by the minorities. Such a and secessionist tendencies of the Hun-
policy had its reasons in their state of garians within the area, including from
opposition to the liberals, in their desire Ardeal.
to keep Transylvania and its provinces One must also have in view the psychic
within their political-electoral pool. and moral pressures that the Romanian
Local autonomy, many times understood central and local authorities were subjected
as a culture, would bring both Transyl- to from the part of an important segment
vanian political leaders and those of of the public opinion, of the Transylvanian
national minorities the maintenance of Romanians who demanded satisfaction as
old privileges, economic and political they had been underestimated, offended,
interests; de-nationalized for ages, politics which in
many areas continued to be performed
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THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Romanian education system and national minorities in the interwar period
towards them. Thus they demanded a firm, realist, balanced, lacking excessive nation-
more authoritarian behaviour towards the nalism, chauvinism, or with revanchist
politics of insubordination and that of not- objectives.
recognizing the union promoted by the
Hungarian leaders and Hungarys revisionist Notes
1
politics. Dicionar politic, Editura politic, Bucureti,
Furthermore, one must not neglect the 1975, p. 362.
2
pressure exerted by the League of Nations Anthony Giddens, Sociologie, Bucureti,
which had assumed the role as warrant of Editura Bic All, 1997, p. 197.
3
Helmes Rasting, Protection of the minorities of
representing minorities rights. During the
the League of Nations in The American Journal
interwar period Romanian authorities had of International Law, vol. 17, 1923, p. 641.
to accept negotiations, suggestions from 4
Apud Adrian Ivan, Stat, majoritate, minoritate
the part of the commissioners of the naional n Romnia (1918-1939), Editura
League on the problems of minorities, Eikon, Cluj-Napoca, p. 86.
5
including compromises in the drawing up Apud A. Ivan, op. cit., p. 95.
6
of certain laws regarding minorities. Sabin Cantacuzino, Din viaa familiei Brtianu,
In spite of all the burdens and the Editura Albatros, Bucureti, 1993, p. 212.
7
opposition with which they came against, Ibidem, p. 213.
8
in spite of the existing imperfections, po- Ibidem, p. 215.
litics in the field of education and
instruction, in general, and the one related
to minorities, in particular, had many and
significant accomplishments: education in
the entire Great Romania was unified and
made uniform; a modern, laic, scientific,
de-politicized education was created, laid
under the control and guidance of the state;
numerous schools were created, and also
cultural establishments and institutions which
have contributed to reducing analphabetism,
to restoring the possibility that de-natio-
nalized Romanians could re-gain their
national language; through the introduction
of the compulsoriness of the Romanian
language one created equal possibilities for
representation and participation to the
social-political life of the country to all
citizens no matter the ethnicity, race or
nation. Moreover, one also created the
means of dialogue, communication between
minorities and Romanian authorities, mi-
norities and the Romanian people. In spite
of all the shortcomings, the un-fulfilments,
loopholes, Romanias policy in the field of
national minorities during the interwar
period was considered as one of the most
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POLITICAL HISTORY
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Marusia CRSTEA
A
fter the First World War, Romanian in London (December 1921 July 1927
diplomacy considered three directions: and August 1928 October 1932) brought
strengthening ties with the Great his contribution to strengthening bilateral
Powers that had been allied during the English-Romanian relation3. From the very
war, maintaining good relations with beginning, Nicolae Titulescu and Take
neighbours, and developing relations with Ionescus support, who spotted, among the
all countries, both neuter and hostile1. first, the importance Great Britain played
When World War I finished, Great in international relations evolution, thinking
Britain, advocate of an isolationist policy, that London is a first rank outpost4.
ceased to maintain any engagement of Titulescus activity in Great Britains
political or military support for Romania. capital was unanimously appreciated in
Thats why the Romanian diplomats efforts British diplomatic circles. His first attempts
Take Ionescu, Nicolae Titulescu, Grigore in his diplomatic activity there show he
Gafencu, Victor Antonescu and others was prove to set as a basic for the future
were directed towards amplifying diplomatic, cooperation, the feeling of complete trust.
economic and military relations with Great Consequently he stated that the only thing
Britain2. Nicolae Titulescu, accredited minister I can do to please the English people is to
16
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THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Romanian Kings official visits to London
tell the truth, reserving himself, at the assume new obligations. Nicolae Titulescu
same time, the right of asking to be told was to promptly criticize this attitude: this
only the truth about Romania5. way, Britain exposed all the borders of
Nicolae Titulescu was preoccupied with Eastern and Central Europe by saying it
two great problems: the former was about did not guarantee them7. In the year to
settling the economic and financial relation come, though political relations between
within a normal frame, by solving Great Britain and Romania were not very
litigations coming from previous times, close, the two countries established many
such as: war debts, compensations for contacts and ties, at several levels, due to
destroying the oil fields, concluding a new their participation in debating and
trade treaty that might better respond to the attempting to solving the problems of
changes in international economic life and international life in the year of the world
better protect bilateral interests; the latter economic crash, facing similar problems8.
was observing the Peace treaties which Towards the end of the fourth decade
established the Romanian Great Union in international relations were influenced by:
1918. the aggressive policy of fascist countries,
An important role in developing bi- which encouraged revisionism, aimed at
lateral relations was played by the visit of the territorial integrity, political independence
the Romanian king to London in 1924. and national sovereignty of certain states; a
Prepared by Nicolae Titulescu, King deepening of contradictions between the
Ferdinands presence, accompanied by the Great Powers which exerted a strong
foreign affairs minister I. Gh. Duca, brought pressure on the international life as a whole;
about many contacts which were a total a policy of concession and compromise of
success, a point of view unanimously the occidental powers with the aggressors9.
shared by the British press6. On this King Carol II, together with Nicolae
occasion, the British officials re-affirmed Titulescu, Army General Paul Angelescu,
their support for Romanias territorial the army minister, and Alexandru Lapedatu,
integrity and dealt with the commercial the minister of arts and worship, visited
and financial relations of the two countries London at the beginning of 1936, on the
that were topical at the time. Unfor- occasion of the funerals of King George
tunately, the British government did not V. It was then that Nicolae Titulescu was
keep up the same attitude of unconditional received in audience by King Edward of
support for Romania. An obvious example Great Britain and had meetings with
is the Locarno Treaty in 1925, which Baldwin and Austen Chamberlain, while
referred exclusively to the borders King Carol received in audience Vansittart,
between France and Belgium on the one Foreign Office vice-secretary, Lord Tyrerr,
hand, and Germany, on the other hand. ex-ambassador of Great Britain in Paris,
The treaty did not stipulate any British and invited to dine their excellencies Eden,
guarantees for the eastern borders. Thus, the Foreign Affairs minister, Neville
Neville Chamberlain was declaring in the Chamberlain, the Exchequer, Baldwin, the
House of Commons: Any new commitment Prime Minister, and Austin Chamberlain,
contracted by His Majestys Government ex Foreign Affairs minister. One of the
must be specific and limit itself to problems they tackled was the return of
maintaining the existing territorial statute the Habsburgs on Austrias throne.
on the western border of Germany. His Nicolae Titulescu explained to the King of
Majestys Government is not willing to Great Britain the reasons why the Little
17
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Marusia Crstea
Entente was against the Habsburgs return, delegations. So, the newspaper Gazeta
succeeding to convince the British leaders Polska underlined in November 13th 1938
to suggest it to Prince Starhemberg, who that Romania, which in September and
was then in London10. October [1938] was more of a witness to
The relations between Great Britain events happening on its western border,
and Romania were very close between comes out of its reserve consciously imposed.
1936-1937. Victor Antonescu, Nicolae The position of passive observer consequently
Titulescus successor, met Sir Anthony preserved lately by Bucharest, was the
Eden, Secretary of State on the Foreign result of the conviction that Bucharest
Office in Geneva on September 26th, 1936, cannot exert a real influence on changes in
in order to assure him he would continue Central Europe, even if they concerned
Nicolae Titulescus policy but not so directly the Romanian interests. That
brilliantly or passionately, although, he happened because the only diplomatic
continued, his countrys foreign policy instrument which could be practically
would be based on the friendship with used, the Little Entente, had been useless
France and Great Britain11. for a long time, and its futility became
In the following months, Victor obvious the moment we knew England
Antonescu approached the problem of and France had no intention of engaging in
relations with Great Britain, insisting that the Czeck matter Only now Romania
they continue to be excellent12. chooses the diplomatic action which we
In 1937 the Romanian officials re- defined as an assembly of elements for the
affirmed Bucharests wish to create a new future action13, and, in this context, king
framework for the relations with Great Carols visit to London would favour political
Britain. This was confirmed by Victor talks whose aim, from a Romanian view-
Antonescu in his talks with Eden at point, would certainly be the examining
Geneva and London in January and April whether and how much Britain wished to
1937. In his turn, Carol II thrice repeated actively imply itself in the Balkans in the
his wish of amplifying British-Romanian near future.
relations. If London did not show any
In 1938, between the 15th and 18th of enthusiasm in this direction, the tendencies
November, Carol II paid a visit to Great of getting closer to Germany, especially
Britain, accompanied by Ernest Urdreanu, economically, would automatically grow14.
I.V. Strcea, marshall C. Flondor, General During the talks between Carol II and
G. Mihail, N. Petrescu, C. Cesianu, I. Radu Chamberlain, the latter said that Romanias
and M. Mihilescu. geo-political position seemed inevitably
King Carol II, together with Prince closer to Germany from an economic
Mihai and his suite, left the country on point of view, but that it did not mean that
November 13th 1938. On November 15th, the British Government was not interested
Carol II was welcomed by King George in any commercial possibilities that could
VI and his brother the Duke of Gloucester, be effected, and assured him that the
by Neville Chamberlain, Lord Halifax and rumour, spread in German circles, about
others. his agreeing in Munich that Hitler could
The media of the time largely rendered treat Central and South-Eastern Europe as
both the preparation and the visit of Carol a space reserved for the German mo-
II to Great Britain, pointing out the nopoly, was not true.
importance of the talks between the two
18
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THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Romanian Kings official visits to London
The English press also underlined the lines; he remarked that the British
fact that, following the visit, Romania government had already shown that it was
will receive financial aid from England, interested in an economic co-operation with
which will enable her to oppose to the Romania, by the act that it had purchased
growing German expansion. It will be a 200,000 t of Romanian wheat. King Carols
new English attempt aiming at maintaining talks with Prime Minister Chamberlain, no
its influence in South-Eastern Europe15. doubt contributed to a better knowledge of
Other newspapers and magazines of the the two sides position in the tackled pro-
time emphasized the main discussion themes blems, showing that, due to its Munich policy,
between Great Britain and Romania. The the British Government evaded widening
Polish newspaper Coniec Warszawski, the British Romanian collaboration.
on November 15th 1938, considered that But, the two governments avoided
the visit of King Carol II to London will making any commitment, which meant, in
contribute a great deal to clarifying the fact, that Romania could not count on the
state of the Danube basin. support of Great Britain or France. Even
After Czechoslovakias division, after though the visits were practically a failure,
weakening the French influence and the media in the country presented them as
disappearance of the Little Entente, after successes. They were broadcast live on the
Hungarys enlargement and strengthening radio, and the press could not find the right
of the German, Italian and Polish influence, words to praise Carol II, a great political
the state of the Danube basin has not yet man of Europe, respected both by the
crystallized. Until now, we do not know visited peoples and by their leaders. All the
what political factors, will prevail and papers in Bucharest commented in
what the Danube states orientation will eulogistic terms Carols visit. For instance,
be. Added to all these, is the problem of ndreptarea17 newspaper marked the
sub-Carpathian Russia, which interests not importance of the meetings in London and
only Hungary, Poland and Czechoslovakia stated that they will create a cordial
but also Romania. Most certainly these British-Romanian Convention, that Great
problems will constitute the object of the Britains interest in Romania increased, so
British-Romanian talks. In fact, the English that an English character could say that
invested great capitals in Romania and it is the border of English Indies lie on the
impossible that they are not interested in Carpathians, while Universul emphasized
the Romanian problems16. the enthusiasm of the British people
Concluding the talks, King Carol II opinion and showed that the visit is
reviewed the main economic proposals more meaningful than thought, Romanias
made by the Romanian government to the role being of utmost importance in the
British government: the nautical base on given situation18. The fact that the king
Lake Tasaul; developing the commercial received the Order of the Garter, the
navy on the Danube; lumber and silos. highest British decoration, was appreciated
Chamberlain promised that the British by the press in Romania as the clearest
government would examine the Romanian proof of the fact that the sovereign was
suggestions as presented by the king and considered one of the most prominent
declared that he would be very content if, personalities of the time. Carol II was to
following the examination, they would appreciate that a peace which was to
come to the conclusion that it was possible culminate with the Munich shame, could
to undertake some action on the proposed
19
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POLITICAL HISTORY
Marusia Crstea
6
throw us, willy-nilly, under the German Gheorghe Buzatu, coordinator, Titulescu i
influence19. strategia pcii, Iai, Editura Junimea, 1981, p. 379.
7
The evolution of international life Constantin Vlad, Diplomaia secolului XX,
between 1936 and 1939 determined a change Bucharest, Titulescu European Foundation,
2006, pp. 96-97.
in the ratio of forces on the continent. In 8
See, in detail, Gheorghe Pacalu, Relaii
this context, Romanian diplomacy remained politice romno-engleze (1929-1933), Bucharest,
connected to the old paradigms the Editura Didactic i Pedagogic, 1995.
League of Nations, alliance with France, 9
Marusia Crstea, op. cit., p. 94.
10
close relations with Great Britain, regional Nicolae Titulescu, Documente diplomatice,
treaties, etc., corroborated to efforts of Bucharest, Editura tiinific, 1967, p. 718-719.
11
adapting to new realities. Ion Ptroiu, Valeriu Florin Dobrinescu,
Romnia, Anglia i Europa anilor 30, Craiova,
Note Editura Scrisul Romnesc, 1996, p. 45.
12
1
Academia Romn, Istoria Romnilor, vol. Ibidem, p. 46.
13
VIII, Romnia ntregit (1918-1940), coordi- Foreign Relations Ministry Archive,
nator Ioan Scurtu, Bucharest, Editura Bucharest, fund 71 Anglia, vol. 16, f. 312.
14
Enciclopedic, 2003, pp. 445-447. Ibidem, f. 314.
15
2
See, in detail, Marusia Crstea, Din istoria Ibidem, f. 318.
16
relaiilor anglo-romne (1936-1939), Bucharest, Ibidem, f. 316.
17
Editura Mica Valahie, 2004. Ibidem.
18
3
Ion M. Oprea, Nicolae Titulescu, Bucharest, Idem, London fund, vol. 76, un-paged.
19
Editura tiinific, 1966, pp. 130-167. Apud Ioan Scurtu, Istoria romnilor n timpul
4
Marusia Crstea, op. cit., p. 70. celor patru regi (1866-1947), vol. III, Carol al II-lea,
5
Adevrul, 5 July 1922. Bucharest, Editura Enciclopedic, 2001, p. 254.
20
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Antonio MOMOC
Abstract: The Sociology School of Bucharest has not been yet studied
from the perspective of the political views of its members. This article
represents only a part of a larger research that exhaustively
investigates the political orientations of the disciples, as well as the
mentor of the Sociology School. We have identified the groups formed
inside the School in the 30s and their relationship to the political
power.
Keywords: sociology, political view, elite, society, propaganda,
legionarism, communism.
fter the 1918 Union, the socio- useful to the politicians with decision
21
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Antonio Momoc
political views of its members. This article been invited by Gusti, and the professor
represents only a part of a larger research had no other criterion except for them to
that exhaustively in-vestigates the political accept the program of the institution. In the
orientations of the disciples, as well as the 20s the Sociology School manifested itself
mentor of the Sociology School2. We have outside the influences of political power,
identified the groups formed inside the as part of the civil society.
School in the 30s and their relationship to When King Carol II came back in
the political power. power, he became the RSI President of
Our research method reconstructs the Honour. In the 30s the School starts an
cultural-political biography of Gusti and of undeclared competition with the other
his main collaborators. The representative actors on the Romanian political scene.
biography3 follows the history of an indi- Politically unaffiliated, Gusti accepted in 1932
vidual. The resear-chers interest does not the proposal to join the Government led by
orient towards what is unique, but towards the National Peasant Party. Invited in the
tracing the formative contexts and the ex- Council of Ministers as a technocrat, professor
periences shared with others, which followed Gusti led the Ministry of Instruction, Cults
similar cultural and political paths. Com- and Arts in the National Peasant Govern-
plementary, the method focuses on differences, ments presided by Alexandru Vaida-
explaining the choice between different Voievod and Iuliu Maniu.
intellectual and political-cultural options. In Once Gusti ended his Ministry mandate,
order to reconstruct the cultural and poli- the King named him Active President,
tical paths, we have identified the members General Manager of the Cultural Royal
attitudes reflected in their scientific work Foundation Principele Carol. Through
and in their articles from print media. We the cultural action that took place in the
have insisted on personal documents that villages after 1934, the Royal teams of the
became public: journals, correspondence, Foundation constituted themselves as
memoirs and more recently in oral history message carriers and builders of the
interviews4. national specificity as the latter was
In the 20s the School materialized in defined by the national doctrine, con-
the Sociology Seminar and in the public centrated in Gustis political view.
debates from the Romanian Social Insti- During the second part of the 30s,
tute (RSI), where Gusti treated problems RSI and the Foundation served Carols
of society from the Science of the Nation monarchy. Through the propaganda8
perspective. The politicians included his coordinated by Gusti while he was leading the
themes in their speeches, adding their own Principele Carol Foundation, the King
political and electoral solutions5. was trying to win the competition with the
At RSI Gusti was interested in Legionary Movement by attractting the
forming a lobby group that would unite young elites and the rural society. Some of
intellectuals based on their professional skills Gustis disciples employed in the mo-
and gain legitimacy of the social inter- narchist state institutions: Henri H. Stahl
vention above the party organizations. After was the Research Manager in the Foun-
1921, RSI organized 2 conferences regarding dation, Octavian Neamu was the main
the project of the New Constitution6. Gusti organizer of the royal teams on field and,
gathered at RSI experts keen on Romanias together with Anton Golopenia, they
institutional development7. Any politician dedicated themselves to the village cultural
was able to become an RSI member had he work.
22
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THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Radical and moderate political groups in the Sociology School of Bucharest
According to the Social Service Law Ionic and Ion Samarineanu against the
introduced on October 18th, 19389, the Monographic School were shy. But in its
Romanian royal dictatorship made the second year of issuing, the magazine took
cultural action work man-datory. Although the shape of some Notebooks (Caete) with
not a member of the Council of Ministers, strict legionary inclination, containing
Gusti had the position of a Minister editorials signed by Capitan Corneliu
responsible exclusively in front of the Zelea Codreanu.
King. The royal dictatorship offered Gusti Similarly to the other groups that
the opportunity to apply his village moder- emerged from the Sociology School, the
nization national program, as if he was a legionary group was not very united. One
state minister. As President of the Social of the most fervent protestors against the
Service, the professor was res-ponding Monographic School, D. C. Amzr, abandoned
politically exclusively to the King, while the Legionary Movement in 1938 and
the other ministers in the Council were became a diplomat.
obliged to provide their support and The founders of the Sociology
assistance. School attitude regarding to the political
Other monographers like Mircea views of his students was conciliatory. He
Vulcnescu, Xenia Costa-Foru or Traian did not remove neither the legionary
Herseni refused to be culturally active at students (D.C. Amzr, E. Bernea), nor the
the Royal Foundation Principele Carol communist ones (Miron Constantinescu)
in the 30s. As a student, Mircea Vulcnescu from the School. All those adhering to
was enrolled in the Romanian Christian Gustis modernization project were able to
Students Association (nationalist- orthodox), part of the School. Gustis support for
but also attended the summer courses Herseni even after the latter joins the
organized by the International University Legionary Movement is the clearest proof
Federation for the Society of Nations. that becoming a legionary did not auto-
Between 1926-1929 he participated with a matically led to being excluded from the
certain consistency at the monographic monographers circle.
research, but at the beginning of the 30s he Herseni moved from communism to
abandoned the village campaigns, as research fascism because the attraction of the poli-
started to be replaced by propaganda. tical extremes derived from the common
Although a sympathizer of Nae Ionescu, values of the radical political promises. In
Vulcnescu does not join the radical right the interwar period many communist
movement, but chooses public admi- militants migrated to fascism, just as some
nistration, preferring to be a clerk of the of the fascists adhered to communism. The
liberal bourgeois state10. wandering of the militants can be
Under the pressure of the legionary understood only by referring to the world
nationalism, Gustis School suffered both communism and fascism had
internal conflicts and dissidences. The proposed to replace11.
dissident group from Rnduiala, Arhiv de Herseni collaborated in 1932 with
gnd i fapt romneasc review denied left-wing reviews such as Societatea
Monography, separated from Gusti and de mine and Stnga, Linia general a
entered the Legionary Movement. In the vremii. After writing for Stnga, he refuses
first 4 numbers of Rnduiala review, the to be a militant for the Foundation, but
attacks of the group formed by Dumitru
joins the Legionary Movement in
Cristian Amzr, Ernest Bernea, Ion I.
23
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Antonio Momoc
5
1937. The mobilizing speech Herseni Gusti, Dimitrie (1924), Doctrinele partidelor
politice: 19 prelegeri publice organizate de ISR,
uses in the brochures Micarea Legio- in Arhiva pentru tiina i Reforma Social,
nar i Muncitorimea12 and Micarea year V, Romanian Social Institute, Cultura
Legionar i rnimea13 is identical Naional Press, Bucharest.
6
to the one of the cultural activists from Gusti, Dimitrie (1923), Noua Constituie a
Romniei: 23 prelegeri publice organizate de ISR,
the Principele Carol Foundation. What cu o anex cuprinznd Noile Constituii Europene,
differs is the Hero they were worshi- Cultura Naional Press, Bucharest
7
ping: Gustis students served the Monarchy Manoilescu, Mihail (1993), Memorii (vol. I),
of Carol the Second, while for Herseni Enciclopedic Publishing House, Bucureti, pp. 49-50.
8
Rosts, Zoltn Strategii de comunicare la coala
and the legionaries, Corneliu Zelea Sociologic a lui Dimitrie Gusti. Direcii de cer-
Codreanu was the Savior. cetare in The Romanian Communications Sciences
Review Jurnalism & Comunicare, year II, no. 2,
Notes spring 2003, pp. 3-7.
9
1
See Dimitrie Gusti, (1934), Sociologia militans. Hamangiu, Constantin (1939), Codul general al
Introducere n sociologia politic, vol. I, ISR Romniei, (Coduri, Legi. Decrete-legi i Regu-
Publishing House, Bucharest and Dimitrie Gusti, lamente), vol. XXVI, 1938 Part II, Monitorul
(1937), tiina naiunii, Imprimeria Central Oficial Publishing House, Bucharest, pp. 2001-
Publishing House, Bucharest, no. 2-3, year II, 2007.
10
February-March 1937, Romanian Social Institute. Mircea Vulcnescu was a referent at the Office for
2
Momoc, Antonio (2008), O istorie politic a Research in the Ministry of Finance between 1929-
colii de Sociologie de la Bucureti, PhD thesis, 1933. In 1933 he was also a Government Auditor for
the Romanian Agriculture Bank. From June 1935
coordinated by Proffesor Zoltn Rosts,
University of Bucharest, Faculty of Sociology until September 1937 he was the Managing Director
3 of the Customs. Then he was named Manager of the
See Jerry Muller, (1987), The other God that
failed: Hans Freyer, and the deradicalization of National Debt in the Ministry of Finances.
11
Chioveanu, Mihai (2005), Feele fascismului.
German conservatism, Princeton University
Press, Princeton, New Jersey. Politic, ideologie i scrisul istoric n secolul XX,
4 University of Bucharest Press, p. 69.
See Rosts, Zoltn (2001), O istorie oral a 12
colii Sociologice de la Bucureti, Paideia Herseni, Traian (1937), Micarea Legionar i
Publishing House, Bucharest. Muncitorimea, Bucovina Publishing House, Bucharest.
13
Idem (1937), Micarea Legionar i rnimea,
Bucovina Publishing House, Bucharest.
24
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
D
categorii de state: state cu regim parla-
fost pentru Europa unul al schim- mentar sau democraie liberal (Frana,
brilor majore, un deceniu con- Regatul Unit, Irlanda, rile de Jos, Belgia
vulsiv, al sfritului crizei economice, al Luxemburg, Elveia, Norvegia, Suedia,
naterii i dezvoltrii regimurilor autoritare Finlanda, Cehoslovacia i Islanda), state cu
sau extremiste. De la comunism la fas- regim fascist (Italia i Germania), state cu
cism sau nazism arta un istoric romn regim comunist (U.R.S.S.) i state cu regim
aproape toate rile Europei trec, mai autoritar tradiionalist (Spania, Portugalia,
devreme sau mai trziu, prin febra tota- Turcia, Grecia, Bulgaria, Iugoslavia, Romnia,
litarismului (provocat de dezgustul demo- Ungaria, Austria, Polonia, Lituania, Letonia
raiei i de mitologia unei lumi noi i a i Estonia)3. rile din aceast ultim
unui om nou).2 Manifestarea acestor categorie, exceptnd Portugalia i Spania,
ideologii extremiste de stnga sau de se gseau geografic ntre rile cu regim
dreapta care n rile de origine au fost fascist i rile cu regim comunist, iar cea
acceptate drept politici de stat, dublate de mai mare parte a lor vor intra dup cel de-
politica de conciliere a puterilor europene al doilea rzboi mondial fie n componena
democratice, vor deteriora vizibil relaiile Uniunii Sovietice, fie n orbita politic a
internaionale la nivel european i vor U.R.S.S.-ului. Anul 1938, la nivel euro-
duce, n final, la izbucnirea celui de-al pean, a continuat evoluia politic ce avea
doilea rzboi mondial. s se sfreasc cu izbucnirea celui de-al
ntr-o hart a Europei, corespunznd doilea rzboi mondial, n timp ce n
nceputului de an 1938, Serge Berstein i Romnia, acelai an a reprezentat perioada
Pierre Milza mpreau continentul n patru triumfului n politica intern pentru regele
25
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Mihaela Camelia Buzatu
Carol al II-lea, acum fiind instaurat re- s aib astfel un pretext, n 1938, de-a o i
gimul personal al suveranului, adoptndu- desfiina formal, ca ineficient. O aseme-
se o nou constituie care s-l legitimeze, nea interpretare mi se pare a pctui prin
lundu-se o serie de msuri ce au dus la o ceea ce se numete teleological phallacy:
priveti anii 1930-1938 din perspectiva lui
implicare tot mai activ a monarhiei n
1938 i interpretezi prin urmare toate eve-
viaa politic, implicare ce o regsim n nimentele precedete drept tot attea etape
scoaterea partidelor politice n afara legii i care trebuiau s duc la evenimentul anului
n crearea climatului ce a dus la apariia 1938, declanarea dictaturii regale. n ce
Frontului Renaterii Naionale. m privete a dori s vd anii 1930-1938
Unul dintre evenimentele politice im- mai curnd ca un complex joc n trei ntre
portante ale anului 1938 i primul n or- rege, Garda de Fier i partidele democra-
dine cronologic, este cel petrecut la 10/11 tice tradiionale. Acest adevrat triunghi al
februarie, atunci cnd guvernul Goga- morii replic grotesc la triunghiul
Cuza i depune demisia, n locul su fiind morii din primul rzboi mondial n-a fost
dect un clasic triumvirat, n care doi
constituit guvernul condus de Patriarhul
dintre participani se aliaz pentru ca s-l
Miron Cristea4; Henri Prost considera c elimine pe-al treilea i lupt apoi pe via
din acel moment suveranul devenise pro- i pe moarte , ntre ei, pentru adjudecarea
priul su prim-ministru5. Lovitura de stat6 puterii absolute.9
dat de rege, prin care acesta alctuia un
Consiliu de Minitri obedient i la con- Perioada cuprins ntre venirea pe tron
ducerea cruia l numea pe patriarh, a fost a lui Carol al II-lea n 1930 i anul
interpretat diferit de istoricii romni. O schimbrilor politice 1938 este vzut,
prim orientare ar fi aceea, potrivit creia, astfel, ca o perioad avnd trei actori po-
regele Carol al II-lea trecuse la instituirea litici: regele, Garda de Fier i partidele tra-
regimului personal dup o lung perioad diionale. Pentru a putea prelua puterea
de tatonri, perioad n care a fcut tot ntr-o form autoritar, Carol al II-lea
ceea ce a depins de el pentru a discredita trebuia s-i nlture ceilali doi adversari
att partidele politice ct i instituia Parla- Garda i partidele. Contientiznd faptul
mentului, istoricii susinnd ideea unui c noul context politic creat prin insta-
plan privind instaurarea unei dictaturi nc urarea regimului autoritar nu-i este deloc
de la urcarea pe tronul Romniei, februarie favorabil i anticipnd urmtoarea micare
'38 reprezentnd doar momentul prielnic a regelui, Corneliu Zelea Codreanu a
pentru punerea n aplicare a planului7. anunat, la 21 februarie 1938, dizolvarea
Al.Gh. Savu merge mai departe, afirmnd Grzii10. Aceast autodizolvare reprezenta
c regele i propusese nc nainte de ur- ns un gest formal, instituional, cci
carea pe tron impunerea unei astfel de spiritul gardist i sprijinul Germaniei
forme de guvernare8. O teorie interesant, pentru ideile gardiste au continuat s existe
care vine s o contrazic pe cea expus i dup aceast dat11. Ameninarea pe care
anterior, este aceea lansat de Sorin o constituiau ideile Grzii de Fier chiar i
Alexandrescu: dup 21 februarie, o regsim n deca-
pitarea micrii de dreapta extrem pe
Carol a fost nvinuit mai trziu de urzirea, care Carol al II-lea i Armand Clinescu o
n aceti ani, a unui plan diavolesc: el ar fi structureaz n cteva etape, etape influ-
dorit, nc din 1930, s nfiineze o dic-
enate i de evoluiile politice externe:
tatur personal, dar nendrznind s treac
imediat la fapte, a fcut tot ce a putut ca s arestarea lui Corneliu Zelea Codreanu12,
destabilizeze democraia parlamentar i fabricarea unui proces i uciderea cpita-
26
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THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Anul 1938 i nfiinarea Frontului Renaterii Naionale context naional i context european
27
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Mihaela Camelia Buzatu
28
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Anul 1938 i nfiinarea Frontului Renaterii Naionale context naional i context european
practic, descoperit. Faptul c noua consti- planul propus de Armand Clinescu, acesta
tuie nscrisese responsabilitatea minitrilor nu poate fi considerat dect o utopie, visul
pentru politica ordonat de rege nu putea su, acela de a pune alturi bogai i sraci,
s constituie n nici un caz o disculpare a intelectuali i rani, copii i vrstnici fiind
lui n faa opiniei publice.31
unul irealizabil. Oameni care nu i mani-
Se auzeau tot mai des voci care l festaser adeziunea fa de noul regim i
ndemnau pe rege la luarea unei decizii n care erau ameninai de contextul extern,
ceea ce privete renceperea activitii par- nu puteau deveni peste noapte adepii unor
tidelor politice; aceast repunere n drep- idealuri care nu le aparineau. Cu toate
turi a vechilor politicieni, Carol nu numai acestea, Carol II a trecut la punerea n
c nu i-o dorea, dar o considera de ne- aplicare a ceea ce se dorea a fi o micare
acceptat n condiiile n care pasul im- de renatere naional, nfiinnd, cum
portant n eliminarea partidelor fusese spuneam mai sus, la 16 decembrie 1938,
deja fcut la 30 martie. Pentru a finaliza Frontul Renaterii Naionale34.
conflictul dintre el i partide n avantajul Legea de nfiinare, cuprinznd 8 arti-
su i pentru a ncerca o apropiere de cet- cole, redactate ntr-un stil concis, chiar la-
eni, regele a creat, la 16 decembrie 1938, conic, era semnat de Carol al II-lea, de
Frontul Renaterii Naionale32, prin decretul- prim-ministrul Miron Cristea i de minitrii
lege de nfiinare acesta devenind unic Justiiei i Internelor, Victor Iamandi i
organizaie politic n Stat. Constituind Armand Clinescu. nc de la nceput, se
acest organism, regele ncerca s dein un sublinia unicitatea FRN-ului (art. I), orice
control ct mai amnunit asupra treburilor alt activitate politic, exceptnd Frontul,
interne, dar i asupra populaiei Romniei, urmnd a fi socotit clandestin (art.
populaie ce era sprijinit s se nscrie n VII); n privina scopului nfiinrii FRN,
partidul nou format, al crui conductor n lege se amintea mobilizarea contiinei
era nsui Carol al II-lea. naionale n vederea ntreprinderii unei
Dei Frontul Renaterii Naionale a aciuni solidare i unitare romneti (art.
fost vzut adeseori drept partidul lui Carol II). Cine putea face parte din Frontul Re-
al II-lea, ideea nfiinrii unui astfel de naterii Naionale? De drept, consilierii re-
organism politic o gsim menionat i de gali, la cerere, cetenii romni de peste 21
Armand Clinescu, fapt demonstrat de un de ani, exceptnd militarii activi i
memoriu naintat de acesta regelui, la 20 membrii ordinului judectoresc (art. IV
octombrie 193833; n memoriu, era subli- i V). Din punct de vedere politic, demo-
niat necesitatea alctuirii unei formaiuni craia romneasc urma s fie circumscris
politice subordonat suveranului. Prin consti- de nou-nfiinatul organ politic, deoarece
tuirea acestei noi organizaii se urmrea acesta, se arta n articolul VI, are, singur,
nlturarea definitiv a vechilor partide poli- dreptul de a fixa i depune candidaturile
tice, care, dei fuseser desfiinate, i con- pentru alegerile parlamentare, administrative
tinuau activitatea sub diferite forme. i profesionale. O explicaie a caracterului
Aceasta nu se dorea a fi o structur politic concis al legii din 16 decembrie 1938, o
n sensul partidelor tradiionale, ci, mai cu gsim n articolul VIII un regulament
seam, o micare popular care s atrag special, fcnd parte integrant din prezenta
intelectualitatea, tinerii, dar i celelalte lege, va determina condiiunile de organi-
categorii sociale; ea trebuia s uneasc nu zare i funcionare a Frontului Renaterii
politicieni, ci oameni simpli, crora s le Naionale35.
ofere un ideal comun. Dac analizm obiectiv
29
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Mihaela Camelia Buzatu
30
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Anul 1938 i nfiinarea Frontului Renaterii Naionale context naional i context european
17 31
Istoria Romnilor, vol. VIII, Romnia ntregit Al. Gh. Savu, Sistemul partidelor politice din
(1918-1940), coordonator Ioan Scurtu, secretar Romnia, Bucureti, Editura tiinific i
Petre Otu, Bucureti, Editura Enciclopedic, Enciclopedic, 1976, p. 153.
32
2003, p. 395. Arhivele Naionale Istorice Centrale, fond
18
Al.Gh. Savu, op.cit., p. 172. Frontul Renaterii Naionale, dosar 1/1939, f. 8;
19
Ibidem. referitor la FRN, amintim dou lucrri mai noi:
20
Ioan Scurtu, Gheorghe Buzatu, op. cit., p. Radu Florian Bruja, Carol al II-lea i Partidul
345. Unic: Frontul Renaterii Naionale, Iai, Editura
21
Al.Gh. Savu, op. cit., p. 163-164. Junimea, 2006; Petre urlea, Partidul unui
22
Henri Prost, op. cit., p. 171. Rege: Frontul Renaterii Naionale, Bucureti,
23
Carol al II-lea, ntre datorie i pasiune. Editura Enciclopedic, 2006.
33
nsemnri zilnice, vol. I (1904-1939), ediia a Al.Gh. Savu, op. cit., p. 156-158.
34
II-a revzut i completat de Marcel-Dumitru Arhivele Naionale Istorice Centrale, fond
Ciuc i Narcis Dorin Ion, Bucureti, Editura Frontul Renaterii Naionale, dosar 1/1939, f. 8.
35
Curtea Veche, 2003, p. 229. Ibidem.
24
Fa de acordul de la Mnchen (29 sep-
tembrie 1938), prin care Reichul anexa re-
giunea sudet, aparinnd Cehoslovaciei, Frana
i Anglia au adoptat o poziie pasiv, con-
ductorii politici de la Paris i Londra con-
sidernd c printr-o astfel de atitudine vor
ajunge la un consens cu Hitler i vor putea evita
declanarea unui rzboi; desfurarea ulterioar
a evenimentelor a dovedit c tactica adoptat
de ei nu a avut efectele ateptate (cf. cu Florin
Constantiniu, op. cit., p. 360).
25
Sorin Alexandrescu, op. cit., p. 121.
26
Ioan Scurtu, Gheorghe Buzatu, op. cit., p.
351.
27
Ibidem, p. 352.
28
Al.Gh. Savu, op. cit., p. 222-224.
29
Ibidem, p. 226.
30
n perioada premergtoare celui de-al doilea
rzboi mondial, ct i n timpul desfurrii
acestuia economia Romniei va fi n mare parte
orientat spre Germania, acordul care va
consfini acest lucru fiind semnat la 23 martie
1939; se ncerca, prin acest acord, cstigarea
bunvoinei germanilor n politica expansio-
nist pe care o practicau la momentul respectiv.
Preul pltit de ara nostr va fi mult prea mare,
dac se au n vedere prevederile respectivului acord,
prin care economia romneasc se transforma
ntr-o economie menit s ndeplineasc ce-
rinele Germaniei, ptrunderea capitalului ger-
man pe piaa romnesc ducnd i la o cretere
a controlului pe care Fhrerul l va exercita n
Romnia (a se vedea Rebecca Haynes, Politica
Romniei fa de Germania ntre 1936 i 1940,
trad. de Cristina Aboboaie, Iai, Editura Polirom,
2003).
31
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
D
up ncheierea celui de al doilea nomic, ceea ce va rmne sub numele de
rzboi mondial s-a trecut la mpr- Doctrina Truman. Trstura principal a
irea sferei de influen asupra con- acesteia a reprezentat-o desprinderea de un
tinentului European de ctre cele dou anume globalism, n favoarea prioritii
superputeri SUA i URSS. Sovieticii au acordate Europei Occidentale i a redresrii
obinut teritoriile eliberate de armata roie sale, ca o condiie a securitii americane.
i au impus n aceste ri ideologia lor. Un rol important n organizarea
SUA, apreciind problema german de Europei de dup rzboi, n perioada 1947
importan covritoare, i va orienta e- 1949, a avut-o i secretarul de stat
lurile pe direcia sprijinirii europenilor american George Marshall Catlett (1880-
pentru lichidarea diviziunii, crerii i con- 1959)1. El a iniiat un ajutor masiv pentru
solidrii Europei unite, a unei aliane Grecia i Turcia pentru a putea rezista
atlantice care s mpiedice expansiunea presiunilor comuniste, i a propus, la ini-
sovietic. iativa preedintelui democrat Truman un
Concomitent cu victoria electoral a program ambiios, Planul Marshall, un
opoziiei republicane n Congresul american, vast program de sprijin economic (peste
preedintele Harry Truman (1884-1972), 10 miliarde de dolari), care va contribui la
ntr-un discurs inut n faa Congresului reconstrucia Europei, cu condiia ca
Statelor Unite, la 12 martie 1947, ofi- aceste state prin reprezentanii lor s-i
cializeaz politica extern a Statelor Unite prezinte nevoile i s se neleag asupra
de a proteja naiunile ameninate de comu- celor mai potrivite mijloace.
nism prin asisten militar i suport eco-
32
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Planul Marshall i consecinele sale pentru Europa
33
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Cosmin Lucian Gherghe
8
generat Comunitatea European a Crbunelui Florin Constantiniu, O istorie sincer a
i Oelului apoi EURATOMUL i Piaa poporului romn, Editura Univers Enciclopedic,
Comun trasnd direcia pentru ceea ce Bucureti, 1997, p. 472.
9
avea s devin Uniunea European. Derek Urwin, op. cit., p. 360.
10
Constantin I. Nvrlie, op. cit., p. 72.
11
Cezar Avram, Gheorghe Prvu, Roxana
Note Radu, Ramona Gruescu, Romnia i exigenele
1
Derek Urwin, Dicionar de istorie i politic integrrii europene, vol. I, Editura Alma,
european, 1945-1995, Institutul European, Iai, Craiova, 2007, p. 60.
p. 322. 12
Guillaume Courty, Guillaume Devin,
2
Gilles Ferrol, Dicionarul Uniunii Europene, Construcia European, Editura C.N.I. Coresi
Editura Polirom, Bucureti, 2001, p. 132. S.A., Bucureti, p. 16; Pun Nicolae , Planul
3
Cezar Avram, Construcia european, evoluie, Marshall veritabil instituie a construciei
instituii, programe, Editura Universitaria, 2003, europene, n Studii Istorice, Omagiu profesorului
p. 50. Camil Mureanu, Cluj-Napoca, 1998, p. 507-
4
Ibidem. 513.
5
Ibidem. 13
Charles Zorgbibe, Construcia European.
6
Constantin I. Nvrlie , Jurnal. ntre abandon Trecut, prezent, viitor, Editura TREI, Bucureti,
i crucificare. Romnia 1946-1949, vol. II, 1998, p. 21; Pascal Fontaine, Construcia
Editura de Sud, Craiova, 2000, p. 67. European de la 1945 pn n zilele noastre,
7
Derek Urwin, op. cit., p. 131. Institutul European, Iai, 1998, p. 5.
35
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
Abstract: The article discusses the main moments which have led to the
creation of the European Union. There are also presented the main
stages of the establishment of several European institutions, such as: the
European Economic Community, the European Community of Atomic
Energy, the European Coal and Steel Community etc., between 1945 and
1970, their development and evolution. The conclusion refers to the fact
that Europe has begun to turn into an important economic force capable
of beginning an intense process of political partnership.
Keywords: European Union, political and historioghraphical aspects,
political and economical experience, international relations, political
partnership.
A
t the end of the Second World War, Great powers as Italy, Germany, were
new major changes influenced the in a social and economical chaos after their
international relations. Europe had defeat in the war, Great Britain and France,
lost its political supremacy over the world though victorious, had serious problems
which will be for the next fifty years caused by the war damages and by the
exercised by U.S.A., which claimed the disintegration of their colonial empires2.
highest position in the economy of the The American strategy was settled
world and the major role in the politics of using very important means as: credits,
reconstruction in the post-war era. The capital exportation and investments. In 5
reconstruction was oriented mainly over June 1947, General George C. Marshall,
the Western Europe, because in the East, the U.S. secretary, launched in a speech
the Soviet Union started the implement- presented at Harvard University a program
tation of its political system using the of measures, which proposed the growth
military force, as its leader Joseph of the industrial and agricultural production,
Vissarionovitch Stalin (1870-1953) declared the exportation and financial stability. The
in 1943 to Milovan Djilas, the lieutenant program, known as Marshall Plan, was
of the Yugoslavian communist leader, accepted by 16 states from the occidental
Josip Broz Tito: the political system of a influence area. In the Eastern camp, at
state will be implemented wherever its the recommendation of the Soviet Union,
army goes in1. all the states refused the program. Austria,
36
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
The birth of E.U. Historiographical and political aspects
Greece and Turkey had a major economic In the frame of the geopolitical and
aid because they were buffer states and geo-strategic evolution is also included the
pylons against the Soviet assimilation process of creation of the European identity.
politics3. The United Europe is a long-term project.
The main consequence of the Marshall The main problem is the equivalence
Plan was the quick economical recons- between national and European conscience.
truction in Western Germany, under the The European Union is a political, cultural,
surveillance of the allied forces. The main social and economical entity which also has
aspects were the process of democra- a strategic influence in the globalization
tization and elimination of the extremists movement, in fact a long list of events
belonging of former Nazi party. States as which were the consequence of the fight
Great Britain and France had major problems between great powers for the world
after losing their colonies. Italy had difficulties domination7.
with the social movements and great The idea of a United Europe had a first
differences between the industrialized North mention in the Pan-European movement,
and agricultural South. Spain will be initiated by Coudenhove-Kalergi, a Czech
dominated until 1975 by the dictatorial aristocrat, in 1923. Six years later, Aristide
leadership of the General Francisco Franco4. Briand, one of the artisans of the Nations
The communist international movement League, proposed a federalization based
had an important influence in states like on the French-German cooperation.
France and Italy, terrorist movements based The British Prime Minister Winston
on fight for ethnical emancipation inten- Churchill proposed in 1946 at the Zurich
sified their fight for separation in Spain discussions the idea of the united Europe,
(Bask organization ETA) and in Great having the help of the French President
Britain (Irish organization IRA, with a Charles de Gaulle8.
political wing, Sinn Fein)5. The accomplishment of the common
The new technologies, the informa- policy of security and defense imposes the
tional evolution, the era of mass-media existence of resources, forces and capacities9.
contributed to the creation of a middle The birth of the European Union is a
class, a strong social group formed by result of centuries of wars, treaties, poli-
lawyers, medics, technicians, managers, tical and economic experience. The study
businessmen, administration employees. of this process imposes cooperation between
This was the frame of a new concept, the historians, specialists in economy, law,
state of social prosperity, which produced geopolitics.
an increase of peoples revenues, a The coordinator of the collection
reducing of work days in a week, the Construction of Europe, the great
development of tourism, the growth of the historian Jacques le Goff noted:
number of automobiles, goods, the mass Europe builds. It is a great hope, which
access at the travels in airplanes, ships, the will become reality if only we consider the
reformation of social insurance system, the history: A Europe without history would
modern evolution of the education6. be an orphan and a miserable. Because
Other problems as illegal immigration, the present day comes from the yesterday
work unregistered, drug traffic, terrorism, and the tomorrow is the result of the past.
pollution and protection of the environment, A past which must not paralyze the present,
womans condition, human rights are typical but help to be different in fidelity and new
for the second half of the XX-th century. in progress. Between the Atlantic, Asia and
37
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Ionu erban, Florian Olteanu
Africa, our Europe exists really for a long and European Ministry of Defense. It was
time, designed by geography and shaped placed under the control of the European
by history, early from the times when Parliamentary Assembly.
Greeks gave the name it bears. The future Jean Monnet (18881979 a very important
people must rely on these heritance, which, counselor of the allied governments, during
from the Ancient times, even from Pre- the Second World War), and Robert
historic times, reached Europe step by Schuman (18861963 French Foreign
step, making it extraordinarily creative in Affairs Minister) initiated a plan able to
its unity and its diversity, including a put together the production of coal and
world complex frame10. steel in France and Western Germany16. It
One of the first steps of the consti- was the base of the Schuman decla-
tution of the common policy of security ration, published on 9 May 195017.
and defense is the Treaty of Brussels (17 During the discussions with the German
March 1948), which established the basis Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, on 4 April
of the Western European Union (U.E.O.)11. 1951 Jean Monnet defined the warranty of
The introduction of the treaty has as main the union agreements based on the
objective the mutual warranty of the se- principle of equality:
curity of the states, which signed the I am authorized to propose that the
treaty. The fifth article imposed for the relations between Germany and France,
Member States the task of the military within the Community, will be governed
help and political assistance in case of a on the principle of equality, in the Council
military attack against an European state12. and in the Assembly and in all the
The U.E.O. Treaty offered large attri- European institutions, present or future18.
butions in matters of European defense Konrad Adenauer made his response:
strategy, but in the conditions of the Cold You know how I am attached to the
War appeared other organizations which equality rights for my country in the future
made a very restraint area of action of this and to my conviction of the domination
treaty13. actions in which it was entrained in the
On 11 August 1950, at the 5th Con- past. I am glad to give my full accord to
sultative Assembly of the European Council14 your proposal, because I do not see the
(created in May 1949), the former British Community without total equality19.
Prime Minister Sir Winston Churchill, the As a direct consequence, on 18 April
hero of the World War II and of the Allied 1951 the Treaty of Paris was signed among
Conferences and post-war arrangements France, Federal Germany, Italy, and the three
(Teheran, Yalta, Moscow), proposed the Benelux countries (Belgium, Luxembourg,
creation of the European United Army15. and the Netherlands). It established the
The E U A should be under democratic European Coal and Steel Community
control, and also would have an alliance (E.C.S.C.), a first step in the creation of the
with Canada and USA. European Union. The treaty could act
On 24 October 1950, the President of starting on 23 July 1952 until 23 July 2002.
the European Council, Hene Peven launched The treaty which established the
the Plan of the Defense of the European E.C.S.C. has a major importance as Petre
Community (C. E. A.), which was presented Prisecaru considered: the objective of the
to the National French Assembly. The C. C.E.C.O. (E.C.S.C.) common reglementation
E. A., in accordance with the constitution of the coal and steel is less important than
treaty, should have had a common budget the international principles established,
38
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
The birth of E.U. Historiographical and political aspects
39
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Ionu erban, Florian Olteanu
5
blems included only the economical and Peter Calvocoressi, Politica mondial dup 1945,
political aspects, and not the military field27. Ediia a VII-a, Bucureti, Editura Allfa, 2000, p.
269.
Starting with 1962, a preoccupation of 6
John Barber, op.cit., p. 428.
the members of E.E.C. proposed to create 7
Ion Ganea, Europa n cutarea unei identiti
an integration of the European Communities reale n domeniile securitii i aprrii. Raportul
which succeeded in 1967 (an institutional dintre comunitar i naional n aceste domenii, in
integration of the E.E.C., E.C.C.S. and Studii i articole de istorie, LXX, Editura
EURATOM)28. Publistar, Bucureti, 2005, p.72.
8
The next step was made at the Hague Ion Ploiu, Organizaii politice i militare
internaionale, Editura Universitaria, Craiova, 2004,
Conference in 1969 where a report to develop p.50.
a Unitary Monetary Unity (U.E.M.)29 was 9
Sime Pirotici, O ans istoric: Uniunea
demanded. European, in Studii i articole de istorie, LXX,
The period between 1945 and 1970 Editura Publistar, Bucureti, 2005, p. 135.
10
represents the time of creation of the Jacques le Goff, preface at the work of Josep
communitarian structures. At that time, the Fontana, Europa n faa oglinzii, Editura Polirom,
Iai, 2003.
Western states knew to leave out the 11
Ibidem, p. 73.
problems caused by the war, especially the 12
Ibidem.
fear of a new grow-up of Germany. The 13
Gheorghe Magheru, Uniunea European- o
historical reconciliation between Germany idee istoric, in Magazin Istoric, anul XXVIII,
and France was the first step. After the nr.6 (327), 1994, p. 36-38.
14
failure of the project of a united European Vasile eclman, Ci eficiente de extindere a
relaiilor comerciale interne i internaionale ale
army, in 1954, caused by the veto of the
Romniei n economia de pia-doctoral thesis,
French Parliament, only the economic way A.S.E, Bucureti, 2006, p.101-103.
was embraced, this will contribute to the 15
Ion Ganea, loc.cit., p. 74.
16
political cooperation. Charles Zorghibe, Histoire de la construction
The creation in 1957 of the C.E.E., europeene, Paris, Presses Universitaires de
defined the way which would be followed France, 1996, p.38.
17
in the second half of the XX-th century. Sime Pirotici, loc.cit., p. 136.
18
Jean Monnet, Memoires, Paris, Editure Fayard,
The historians must consider beside the 1976, p.413-415.
facts of the Cold War, the struggle between 19
Ibidem.
communism and capitalism, between U.S.A. 20
Petre Prisecaru, Teoria integrrii economice
and U.S.S.R., between East and West europene, Bucureti, Editura Sylvi, 2001, p.29.
21
that Europe started to be an economic force Walter Cairns, Introducere n legislaia Uniunii
able to initiate a strong political partnership Europene, Bucureti, Editura Universal Dalsi,
2001, p.16.
until 1970. 22
Ion Ploiu, op.cit., p. 52.
23
Ion Ganea, loc.cit., p.74.
Note 24
Paula Daniela Gnga, Cuplul Frana-Germania
1
Duncan Townson, Dictionary of Modern ntr-o europ n schimbare, n Despre Europa,
History, Penguin Books, London, 1994, p. 342. Editura Lumen, Iai, 2006, p. 15.
2 25
John Barber, Istoria Europei Moderne, Editura Augustin Fuerea, Manualul Uniunii Europene,
Lider, Bucureti, 1993, p. 480. Ediia a III-a, Bucureti, Editura Univers Juridic,
3
Ibidem, p.483. 2006, 35.
4 26
Serge Berstein, Pierre Milza, Istoria secolului Ion Ganea, loc.cit., p. 75.
27
XX.Lumea ntre rboi i pace(1945-1973), vol.II, Archive of the European Integration (A.E.I.)
Bucureti, 1998, p.145. http://www.aei.pitt.edu//942.
28
Sime Pirotici, loc.cit., p. 138.
29
Ibidem.
40
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
De la internaionalismul socialist la
naional-comunism
Despre metamorfozele ideii naionale n Romnia comunist
Mihai GHIULESCU
Abstract: Twenty years after the fall of the communist regime we still feel
working its ideological mechanisms. The main reason is our incapacity to
understand what happened in society during the four decades of
communist rule. We thought that it is enough to know the facts and to
blame the perpetrators (although we never actually did that). But this is
only the first step. Furthermore, we must take an analytic approach. That
is why, in this article I aim to analyze the way in which communism
mixed with nationalism in Romania. I have a look at the principles of
socialist internationalism, at the practice of the so-called national-
comunism in several socialist/communist countries and, finally, I focus
on the Romanian pattern, showing its ideas and its functioning. My
conclusion is that the national-communism is not a specific type of
nationalism, but a simple rhetoric, ignoring any sense and mixing
demagogically coloured elements from both ideologies.
Keywords: socialism, communism, nationalism, internationalism, history.
L
a dou decenii de la cderea comu- inevitabil la crearea unei alte istorii sociale,
nismului, nostalgia ia tot mai mult care o dubleaz pe cea consacrat prin
locul tristei amintiri. i cnd spun istoriografie. De aici, pentru o vreme, o
nostalgie nu m gndesc la retorica, mai confuzie n ceea ce privete raportarea la
mult sau mai puin sincer, de tipul ce perioada avut n vedere. Ajungi, atunci
bine era, c aveam cas i servici (sic!)!, cnd nu ai trit respectivele vremuri i/sau
ci la ajustarea memoriei dup zicala cele nu te-ai scufundat n scrierile istorice, s
rele s se spele, cele bune s se-adune!. nu mai tii ce a fost ru i ce a fost bine i,
ntr-o astfel de situare, trecutul, orict de de aceea, s perpetuezi incontient rema-
negru, devine simplu decor pentru expe- nene comuniste.
rienele personale de care i aduci aminte Condamnarea comunismului este o ope-
dac nu cu plcere ori cu regret, mcar cu raiune mult mai dificil dect s-a crezut.
duioie. ntr-o via de om, istoria per- Demascarea crimelor i rostirea de sentine
sonal o bate pe cea social. Numai c o aproape nici o aluzie la Raportul Comi-
sum de istorii personale similare duce siei prezideniale, care necesit o discuie
41
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
POLITICAL HISTORY
Mihai Ghiulescu
Dup o perioad interbelic n care oricare ali lideri estici, unicul principiu de
curentele naionaliste au dominat spaiul legitimare consta n ataamentul fa de
public i dup dou dictaturi care au fcut URSS i asumarea obligaiei de a ndeplini
din naionalism o adevrat politic de stat, de ndeplini directivele Kremlinului10. Au
venirea la putere a Partidului Comunist adoptat deci, fr discuii, ideologia inter-
Romn a nsemnat o desprire sau, pentru naionalismului proletar aa cum era pre-
a folosi una din metaforele matrimoniale zentat de Marx, Engels, Lenin i mai ales
ale istoricului Stephen Fischer-Galai, un Stalin, adic susinerea primatului solida-
divor de tradiie7. ritii de clas n raport cu cea naional.
Micarea comunist promitea o altfel Internaionalismul nu este considerat contrar
de democraie dect cea oferit de socie- intereselor naionale, pretinznd c se m-
tatea capitalist, o democraie care s slu- bin cu patriotismul socialist n lupta
jeasc interesele clasei muncitoare. Odat pentru libertate a diferitelor ri, posibil ns
ajuns la putere ns, ea a desfiinat orice numai pe calea dezvoltrii socialiste11.
democraie. A respins totodat naionalismul El nu este, teoretic, o negare, ci o depire
i a adoptat internaionalismul, susinnd a naionalismului cruia i se recunoate ro-
principiul egalitii naiunilor. n scurt timp, lul diferit n funcie de condiiile istorice
inteniile s-au transformat, n practic, n (chiar rolul pozitiv n cazul naiunilor asu-
contrariul lor, iar apoi au fost cu totul prite), dar care este considerat ostil sco-
abandonate prin mbriarea unui naio- purilor finale ale clasei muncitoare12.
nalism foarte asemntor cu cel micrilor Naiunea era definit ca o comunitate
fasciste anterioare. Astfel, dei n planul uman stabil, constituit istoric pe baza
ideologiilor originare extrema dreapt i comunitii de limb, de teritoriu, de via
extrema stng erau radical diferite, n economic i de factur psihic materia-
planul practicii social-politice au dat na- lizat n cultura naional. ntrunirea cu-
tere unor regimuri totalitare similare8. mulat a tuturor acestor elemente era con-
siderat obligatorie, dar rolul esenial era
Etapa internaionalismului socialist rezervat intereselor economice. Momentul
Odat cu proclamarea Republicii Po- istoric al naterii naiunii poate fi aflat n
pulare Romne, n 1947, au fost create perioada capitalismului ascendent, chiar
practic toate condiiile pentru instaurarea dac unele din componentele sale au pre-
statului totalitar. Un prim pas l-a constituit cedat acest moment. Ca orice fenomen istoric,
nregimentarea militar a rii n blocul ea este presupus a avea un sfrit, plasat
sovietic, prin tratatul romno-sovietic de perioada urmtoare victoriei comunismului
prietenie, colaborare i ajutor reciproc. Au n lumea ntreag i instaurrii unui sistem
urmat consolidarea partidului unic de mas al economiei comuniste mondiale care ar
i impunerea modelului totalitar sovietic fi creat condiiile pentru contopirea tuturor
prin adoptarea Constituiei din aprilie 1948. naiunilor ntr-una singur13.
Comunitii au acionat foarte rapid pentru Stalin n persoan a trasat linia de con-
transformarea Romniei urmnd modelul duit a comunitilor n problema naional.
sovietic i folosind practicile staliniste9. n viziunea sa, aceasta se manifest diferit
Noii conductori ai Romniei i-au n funcie de interesele de clas pe care le
asumat rolul de susintori ai planurilor servete: n timpuri diferite pesc n are-
Moscovei de transformare a estului euro- na luptei clase diferite i fiecare clas ne-
pean ntr-un adevrat imperiu comunist. lege n felul ei problema naional14.
Pentru ei, poate mai mult dect pentru Referindu-se la cazul particular al popoa-
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Mihai Ghiulescu
cial, economic, politic, cultural a ordinii reprezentat mari impedimente pentru noua
anterioare, eliminarea tuturor dumanilor putere. n foarte scurt timp, toate reperele
reali sau poteniali i implantarea unor istoriei romneti au fost inversate. Solida-
structuri noi, calchiate dup cele sovietice20. A ritatea internaional, att de invocat n
fost inventat chiar i o teorie care s des- istoriografia trecut i viitoare, a fost pentru
crie natura noilor regimuri: ele nu erau moment nlocuit cu lupta de clas, n-
chiar dictaturi ale proletariatului, ci expe- vestit cu rolul de motor al istoriei.
rimente ale unei noi formule politice, demo- Internaionalismul se dovedete, de fapt, un
craia popular. Aparent o form goal, antinaionalism. Nu doar c toate marile
aceast sintagm este foarte important. Ea evenimente istorice sunt reinterpretate ca
a oferit acoperirea ideologic pentru modul simple acte de clas, dar romnii sunt pla-
diferit n care se construia socialismul n ai n rolul negativ de agresori imperialiti
fiecare ar i, n special, pentru implicarea ai revoluiei socialiste: unirea din 1859 era
rnimii, categoria dominant. Revoluia rezultatul nelegerii dintre boierime i
nu era specific nici uneia din ele i urma burghezie n dauna maselor populare, uni-
peste tot prescripiile Moscovei dar trebuia rea cu Basarabia i Transilvania, acte de
s in cont de condiiile de la faa locului. agresiune mpotriva revoluiilor din Rusia
Democraia popular era definit ca o i Ungaria. Din 1947 pn n 1956, Istoria
form de organizare politic a societii Romniei va purta numele de Istoria R.P.R23.
care, n funcie de condiiile istorice, putea Cuvntul naiune i derivatele sale au
lua fie forma dictaturii proletariatului, fie nceput s fie evitate n vorbirea oficial;
pe cea a dictaturii proletariatului i a r- relevant mi se pare observaia istoricului
nimii. Revoluiile democrat-populare erau Vlad Georgescu c pn i campionatele
privite iniial ca micri pentru indepen- naionale de fotbal au fost rebotezate cam-
den naional i reform politic i so- pionate republicane24.
cial i, abia odat acestea realizate, ele se Misiunea rescrierii istoriei a revenit
transformau n revoluii socialiste. Demo- unor noi istorici, n cea mai mare parte,
craii populare erau nu numai rile din improvizai (este de notat numele lui
Europa de Est, ci i statele socialiste din Mihail Roller, adevrat guru al istorio-
Asia21. grafiei de la sfritul deceniului al V-lea i
n aceast prim faz, internaiona- nceputul celui urmtor). Vechii istorici
list, n Romnia, s-a urmrit distrugerea ai perioadei interbelice, acuzai de naio-
oricrei legturi cu trecutul burghezo- nalism i de pro-occidentalism, au fost
naionalist, n toate domeniile: economie, principalele inte ale epurrilor25, alturi de
cultur i, mai ales, politic. Eradicarea vechii politicieni, scriitori etc. Capul clasic
trecutului a nceput n 1948, imediat dup de acuzare era fascismul, un clieu al
instaurarea republicii, i se poate considera jargonului socialist al vremii, cuprinznd
c n 1952 el era deja, de facto, ncheiat22. ntreaga opoziie romneasc fa de noua
Schimbarea a avut un caracter cu att mai ornduire. n fascism erau incluse toate
brutal cu ct peisajul ideologic romnesc valorile negative: naionalismul, antisovie-
nu cunoscuse o direcie marxist-revolu- tismul, anticomunismul etc. i, n plus, era
ionar prea puternic. Puinele tradiii de considerat instrumentul ideal al atacurilor
stnga (poporanismul, rnismul) nu au din exterior, din partea fascismului i
anunat revoluia, social-democraii au rmas imperialismului internaional26.
marginali pe scena politic, iar comunitii n acest punct devine vizibil limitarea
au fost interzii. Totui, acestea nu par s fi internaionalismului socialist la statele
45
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Mihai Ghiulescu
lagrului estic. Orice legtur cu occidentul lui Vasile Luca s-a bazat pe dorina de
capitalist era exclus. Pn i proletarul putere nelimitat sau pe naionalismul
occidental prea deczut din rolul su lui Gheorghiu-Dej sau dac ea avut loc din
istoric. Nu era suficient ca romnii s iniiativa acestuia sau ca urmare a instruc-
ntrein relaii strnse cu popoarele vecine iunilor Moscovei. Exist, n principal,
i n special cu cel sovietic, trebuia s dou opinii. Prima consider aciunea ar fi
existe o strns legtur secular i chiar o fost cauzat de conflictul dintre grupul
ndatorare fa de acestea. Ideea insulei de din ar i grupul de la Moscova. n acest
latinitate dispare pentru o vreme lsndu-i caz, ar fi putut fi vorba de naionalism
pe romni s se piard n marea slav27. dar nu neles ca ovinism, ci doar ca o
Misiunea frontului istoric a fost s de- convingere c liderii din ar, i nu cei din
monstreze rolul creator i stimulator pe strintate, ar fi fost motenitorii de drept
care marea cultur a marelui vecin a avut- ai firavei tradiii revoluionare romneti
o asupra romnilor, de la scii la comu- i, prin urmare, tot ei ar fi trebuit s i
niti, de la epoca pietrei, la aceea a socia- asume rolul de executani ai ordinelor lui
lismului: lor se presupunea c le-am fi Stalin30. E uor de observat c naionalis-
datorat desvrirea etnogenezei, protecia mul nu prea e de fapt naionalism, ci un
n Evul Mediu, modernizarea, indepen- simplu conflict de interese. Aceast opinie
dena i, bineneles, modelul cluzitor nu explic ns de ce au fost eliminai doar
pentru viitor28. Nu e deloc greu s obser- cei doi lideri moscovii, iar cei de rangul al
vm o contradicie flagrant: istoricii anti- doilea (Valter Roman, Leonte Rutu etc.)
naionaliti romni au promovat involuntar au fost meninui n continuare. O a doua
nu doar sovietismul, ci un adevrat opinie, care exclude cu hotrre att con-
naionalism rus, care, teoretic, era condam- flictul dintre grupuri ct i ovinismul/
nat de preceptele staliniste. antisemitismul dejist, nu explic motivele
O alt limit a internaionalismului eliminrii altfel dect prin interesele per-
comunist romnesc poate fi considerat sonale. Ea pune ns n centru micarea
i lupta sngeroas care s-a dat n interiorul antisionist, de fapt antisemit, lansat de
i pentru controlul PMR. La vremea apa- Stalin. Astfel, acesta, fr s se manifeste
riiei pe scena politic a Romniei post- deschis mpotriva celorlali, l-ar fi preferat
belice, n conducerea PCR au existat trei pe Gheorghiu-Dej tocmai pentru c nu era
grupuri: cei care rmseser n ar i acti- evreu. n plus, anunarea sionismului ca pe-
vaser n ilegalitate (tefan Fori, Lucreiu ricol pentru comunism i campania anti-
Ptrcanu etc.), grupul din ar al celor semit pornit la Moscova i n alte ri ale
care fuseser ntemniai nc din anii 30 blocului ar fi fost un bun prilej pentru
(n frunte cu Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej i din romnizarea, adic instalarea n funcii a
care a fcut parte i Nicolae Ceauescu) i propriilor oameni, i, n special, excluderea
grupul de la Moscova (Ana Pauker, Vasile Anei Pauker faptul c Ana Pauker era
Luca etc.)29. Gheorghiu-Dej i grupul su evreic a fost un accident fericit pentru
s-au impus n cele din urm, eliminndu-le Dej, scria istoricul Dennis Deletant i a
pe celelalte dou. Trecnd peste acuzaiile lui Vasile Luca (de origine maghiar)31.
formale care li se aduceau victimelor epu- Nu ar fi fost deci vorba de antisemitism ci
rrilor, lupta pentru putere pare s se fi de folosirea n favoarea sa a antisemitis-
concentrat asupra compoziiei etnice a con- mului stalinian. Nici unul din cele dou
ducerii partidului. Bineneles, este greu de moduri de a explica lupta de la vrful
apreciat dac eliminarea Anei Pauker i a partidului nu este satisfctoare. Ambele
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THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
De la internaionalismul socialist la naional -comunism
las n umbr cazurile particulare ale braele ideii naionale, scria Katherine
multor exclui i ale multor rmai. Chiar Verdery32. A luat natere astfel ceea ce se va
n lipsa datelor precise, este de notat c numi comunismul naional sau naional-
atitudinea comunitilor fa de cei de alt comunismul.
etnie i n special fa de evrei este departe Romnia nu a fost un caz singular. Se
de progresismul afirmaiilor cu privire la poate spune chiar c, pretutindeni, comu-
problema naional. Mai important dect nismul a manifestat o tendin de trecere,
ideile i sentimentele fa de strini ale mai lent sau mai rapid, mai zgomotoas
diverilor conductori romni este faptul sau mai discret, de la internaionalism la
c, la cumpna deceniilor al V-lea i al VI- naionalism. Fenomenul nu este, aadar, n
lea, internaionalismul i antisemitismul au esen, tipic romnesc, ci caracteristic evo-
avut o surs comun. luiei regimurilor comuniste n general33
Se poate aprecia c internaionalismul chiar dac s-a apreciat (de ctre filosoful
a cunoscut o pant ascendent pn la Alain Finkielkraut) c, prin formele paro-
moartea lui Stalin pentru ca apoi s des- xistice atinse de naional-comunism n vremea
creasc n intensitate. Urmele sale au r- lui Nicolae Ceauescu, statul romn ar fi
mas adnci vreme de un deceniu, iar la fost un ideal-tipic al acestui regim34.
nivel declarativ s-au meninut pn la Paradoxal, deschiztoarea de drumuri
sfritul regimului comunist. Internaio- a fost i n acest sens tot Rusia, care, prin
nalismul, privit retrospectiv, nu pare s fi Stalin, a desfurat, chiar din perioada lo-
susinut att cooperarea ntre statele comu- zincilor internaionaliste, o politic naiona-
niste ct cooperarea fiecruia dintre ele cu list foarte agresiv. Denumirea de URSS
URSS. A fost deci mai degrab un amestec a fost masca perfect pentru naionalismul
de anti-naionalism principial (chiar anti- rus, pentru oprimarea celorlalte popoare
naional) i sovietism (incluznd aici i crora, doar aparent, li se asigurase dreptul
naionalismul rus). de autoguvernare. China a dat i ea o tent
naional comunismului su. Romnia,
Naional-comunismul Albania, Coreea de Nord au urmat aceeai
linie. Ungaria i Bulgaria s-au alturat i
Falimentul internaionalismului i ele iar RDG, care mult vreme a evitat
naionalismele compensatoare orice manifestare de spirit naional, a recurs,
Comunismul romnesc, ca de altfel la sfrit, cnd a devenit evident lipsa
toate comunismele implantate de URSS oricrui argument pentru existena sa, la
dup cel de Al Doilea Rzboi Mondial, s-a aceeai retoric naionalist35.
gsit nc de la nceputurile sale ntr-o Exist un grup de ri crora li s-a apli-
criz de legitimitate. Internaionalismul, cat, cu precdere, eticheta de naional-
manifestat n special ca ataament fa de comunism: Albania, Coreea de Nord,
Moscova, i asumarea rolului de repre- Cuba, Romnia i Vietnam. Acestea s-au
zentant al clasei muncitoare nu au reuit opus oricrei tentative de reformare i,
s i aduc suportul popular de care ar fi totodat, au urmrit obinerea unei ct mai
avut absolut nevoie. Cu timpul, el a puternice stabiliti populare. Nu este ntm-
operat o schimbare de direcie ncercnd s pltor c, n paralel cu ncurajarea compor-
compenseze, n faa majoritii naionale, tamentelor naionaliste, au manifestat o
lipsa democraiei prin adoptarea fi a apeten pentru comunismul dogmatic,
naionalismului majoritar. Chiar slbi- reticent fa de orice form de nnoire.
ciunea regimului l-a forat s cad n Situaia lor a fost de dou ori paradoxal:
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Mihai Ghiulescu
matoare, iar ulterior de a servi cultului evreii fiind rapid nlocuii cu etnici romni.
delirant al lui Ceauescu []. n acest S-a apropiat, de asemenea, de Tito, sus-
context, comunismul n-a tiut s fac innd neamestecul sovieticilor n afacerile
diferena ntre cabotinism i patriotismul interne i l-a aprobat pe Mao n aprarea
autentic.40
hotrt a motenirii staliniste. A boicotat
ncercnd o schi cronologic a na- demersul lui Hrusciov pentru formarea
terii i evoluiei naional-comunismului ro- unor corpuri integratoare supranaionale
mnesc trebuie s precizm c momentul (n cadrul CAER), considernd c singurul
schimbrii majore este plasat, de regul, n mod de a-i apra hegemonia era inde-
1964, dar se accept faptul c el a fost pendena (chiar autarhia) economic. Ideea
pregtit nc din deceniul trecut. nainte de industrializri rapide, cu accentul pe
implantarea naionalismului, mai mult sau industria grea, preluat direct de la Lenin
mai puin oficial, ca politic de stat, a fost i Stalin, l-a transformat iat un nou
nevoie de o desovietizare, de o afirmare a paradox! pe Dej ntr-un comunist
autonomiei fa de Moscova, fr ca aceasta naional. n acest sens, sunt juste dou
s implice i o destalinizare puternic. S-a observaii ale lui Dennis Deletant: 1) Dej a
argumentat c decizia plenarei din august fcut distincia dintre modelul sovietic i
1953 a fost prima formulare a liniei na- Uniunea Sovietic, care, n noua sa
ionale i a marcat cariera viitoare a lui politic, abandonase respectivul model
Gheorghiu-Dej. n cuvntarea sa de la 23 (altfel spus, romnul devenise mai sovietic
august 1953 acesta a pus un semn de ega- dect sovieticii) i 2) campania de stabilire
litate ntre obiectivele istorice ale Partidului a noului curs al Romniei a fost, con-
Muncitoresc Romn (este interesant c acesta comitent, activ i reactiv42. Fa de con-
s-a prezentat ntotdeauna ca romn, i nu flictul sino-sovietic el s-a pstrat pe o
din Romnia, aa cum recomandase poziie de neutralitate dar a preluat din
Stalin), al naiunii romne i construcia acesta ideea egalitii tuturor statelor so-
socialist a unui stat romn modern41. cialiste pe care a opus-o Kremlinului. La
Manifestarea, chiar dac slab, a indepen- nceputul anilor 60, presa romneasc a
denei romneti ar fi survenit, aadar, la nceput s publice o serie de articole anti-
foarte puin timp de la dispariia lui Stalin, sovietice. Astfel, ca reacie fa de Moscova,
ntr-o vreme n care destalinizarea viitoare Dej a trecut la folosirea armei naionalis-
nu era nc clar. Alte momente impor- mului, comunitii romni, altdat cei mai
tante ar fi fost Congresul al II-lea din 1955 fideli, au trecut rapid la promovarea valo-
i plenara din 1958. Pentru Dej, campa- rilor naionale. Pentru o vreme im-punerea
niile de destalinizare lansate de Hrusciov liniei naionale a avut efectul scontat:
nu prevesteau nimic bine. Asemenea altor obinerea unei mai largi baze populare
veterani politici, el considera c noua po- pentru conducerea dejist43.
litic nu putea dect s submineze sistemul, n Legitimarea rupturii de URSS i a
general, i regimul din Romnia, n special. trecerii la comunismul naional a fost
A profitat de ea numai n msura n care Declaraia cu privire la poziia Partidului
era util scopurilor sale de autonomizare i Muncitoresc Romn n problemele micrii
cucerire a puterii absolute, practicnd o comuniste i muncitoreti internaionale,
destalinizare strict controlat i limitat la din 1964, cunoscut i sub numele de De-
atacurile mpotriva fotilor rivali. A asigu- claraia de independen a PMR, declara-
rat o romnizare a ealoanelor superioare ie prin care comunitii romni i mani-
din partid i administraie, maghiarii i festau autonomia i cereau chiar sprijin
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Mihai Ghiulescu
dovedit apropiat de cel practicat de statele crui sens etnic este subliniat nc din
fasciste ale perioadele interbelice. Axele Capitolul Introductiv, unde se precizeaz
sale majore, comune, n mare, tuturor ca- c minoritile naionale se bucur de
zurilor, au fost: cultul personalitii lide- deplin egalitate n drepturi cu poporul
rului suprem, exaltarea manifestrilor popu- romn, i amintit mai apoi cnd se stipu-
lare naionaliste, rescrierea istoriei, crearea leaz c statul asigura dezvoltarea culturii
unei imagini a patriei n pericol perma- poporului romn i a culturii minoritilor
nent, afirmarea independenei n cadrul naionale, socialist n coninut, naional
blocului comunist48. nainte de a privi asu- n form (articolul 17, alineatul j.). Cum
pra fiecreia dintre acestea, este necesar o poporul romn i poporul muncitor
prezentare a modului n care constituiile nu par s fie unul i acelai lucru, folosirea
perioadei comuniste au formulat rapor- alternativ a celor dou sintagme se vor-
turile dintre popor/naiune i stat i expli- bete, de exemplu, despre independena i
carea conceptelor-cheie n problema suveranitatea celui dinti, despre cuceririle
naional, aa cum erau ele gndite n i dumanii celui din urm (articolul 17,
ideologia naional-comunist. alineat a) nu poate crea dect confuzie.
nclinm s credem c la redactarea textului,
Stat popular, stat naional, stat-naiune cele dou popoare au fost considerate
Primul act fundamental al regimului sinonime, scpndu-se din vedere deose-
comunist, Constituia din 1948 a repre- birea creat involuntar.
zentat o ruptur cu tradiia: dac toate consti- Cea de a treia Constituie (1965) acor-
tuiile anterioare avuseser n vedere ca- d, rndul ei, ntreaga putere poporului
litatea de stat naional a Romniei (im- care reunete clasa muncitoare, rni-
plicit n 1866, explicit n 1923 i 1938), mea, intelectualitatea, celelalte categorii
ea a nlocuit-o cu cea de stat popular, un de oameni ai muncii, fr deosebire de
stat n care ntreaga putere eman de la naionalitate. Tot acum, reapare naiunea,
popor i aparine poporului(articolul 3). sub forma naiunii socialiste. Ea este
Poporul nlocuiete pretutindeni naiunea considerat sinonim cu poporul, fiind deci,
(adjectivul naional mai apare pe alocuri: teoretic, o naiune civic i nu una etnic.
economia naional, independena naional Practic, n cele dou decenii i jumtate ct
a RPR, Marea Adunare Naional) i a rmas n vigoare, litera constituiei se va
este lipsit de orice conotaie etnic. Faptul dovedi n contradicie cu realitatea.
c se vorbete despre naionaliti con- nflorirea naional-comunismului a trans-
locuitoare sau populaii de alt naiona- format sintagma naiune socialist ntr-o
litate dect cea romn pare o simpl form goal, folosit ca alibi i ca mijloc
constatare a unei stri de fapt, nencer- legtur cu dogmele comuniste49.
cndu-se instrumentarea ei politic.
Constituia din 1952 se situeaz n Naiunea socialist i
acelai plan dar aduce un plus de ambi- patriotismul socialist
guitate. Statul nu mai este pur i simplu n prezentarea concepiilor despre na-
popular ci aparine oamenilor muncii iune, naionalism, internaionalism, vom
de la orae i sate (articolul 1). Bizar este apela la dou lucrri politologice ale epocii:
c ntlnim dou tipuri de popor: pe de o un manual universitar de Socialism tiinific50 i
parte, poporul muncitor, format din oa- un Dicionar politic51. Primul lucru obser-
menii muncii i care este subiectul politic vabil este existena a dou tipuri de naiune:
al statului; pe de alta, poporul romn, al naiunea burghez i naiunea socialist.
51
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Mihai Ghiulescu
Pentru ilustrarea celei dinti, sunt trecute lismului ca sistem global (S.S., p. 358), por-
n revist definiiile unor autori strini, nind, e adevrat, de la naiunea burghez,
precum Ernest Renan, R. Redsolb, Rupert dar reprezentnd un proces negator pre-
Emerson, Mario Albertini, dar i romni, cum i un salt calitativ. Caracteristicile ei,
D. Gusti, P. Andrei, C. Rdulescu-Motru, pe lng cele comune cu naiunea bur-
L. Blaga, Mircea Djuvara (S.S., pp. 176- ghez (limba, teritoriul) sunt: economia
178), ajungndu-se la concluzia existenei bazat pe proprietatea obteasc, dispariia
a dou tipuri de definiii: spiritualiste i antagonismelor de clas i deci relaiile de
biologiste. Ambele sunt considerate false, colaborare ntre clasele i grupurile sociale,
cu precizarea c n primele pot fi gsite deinerea puterii de ctre clasa muncitoare
mult mai multe elemente viabile (S.S., p. n alian cu intelectualitatea i rnimea
179); li se reproeaz anistorismul, faptul i, n sfrit, o cultur care st la baza
c naiunea apare ca o entitate atempo- contiinei naionale socialiste (S.S., pp.
ral, existnd dintotdeauna (S.S., p. 179). 358-359; D.P., pp. 387-389).
Privind ns din unghiul unei concepii Dei n plin exacerbare naionalist,
generale materialist-dialectice despre societate naionalismul este respins ca ideologie i
(S.S., p. 180), ar trebui s ne par evident politic a burgheziei n problema naio-
c orice form de comunitate are un ca- nal (D.P., p. 384), dar nu a oricrei bur-
racter istoric (S.S., p. 180), c naiunea, ghezii, indiferent de timp i loc. El este
forma de comunitate corespunztoare so- este una dintre cele mai importante arme
cietii capitaliste, a aprut n perioada tre- ale burgheziei pentru a-i satisface inte-
cerii de la feudalism la capitalism (D.P., p. resele economice i a-i consolida poziia
387) i c este definibil ca ntrunire, graie politic. Se poate face distincia dintre
invincibilului rol integrator al modului naionalismul burgheziei dominante, folosit
de producie capitalist (S.S., P. 182), ntr- pentru a dezbina popoarele, a le asupri i
o unitate organic a mai multor elemente: exploata (D.P., p. 384) i cel al bur-
etnia (ansamblul trsturilor comune ale unei gheziei dominate, determinat de politica
populaii, rezultate n urma convieuirii (S.S., de dominaie i asuprire naional(D.P.,
p. 189)), teritoriul, limba literar unic, eco- p. 384). Dac primul este reacionar i o-
nomia capitalist, relaii de clas antago- vin, cel din urm e n ansamblu are un
nice, o putere de stat capitalist i o cultur caracter democratic, progresist. Totui nici
de tip capitalist pe baza creia comuni- el nu este complet ferit de derapaje ovine.
tatea i modeleaz contiina de sine a Adevrata rezolvare a problemei naionale
unitii sale (S.S., p. 181). Contiina naional ar sta deci n lichidarea societii care
are ea nsi caracter istoric i poart am- genereaz asemenea raporturi. Singur
prenta intereselor de clas, nefiind, de fapt, societatea socialist este presupus a putea
dect o parte a contiinei de clas. elimina conflictele etnice pentru c ea pla-
Pe lng aceast naiune burghez seaz n locul naionalismului patriotismul
mai exist i naiunea socialist, un nou socialist, o etap nou, calitativ superioar
tip de naiune, incomparabil mai puternic n evoluia contiinei patriotice (S.S.,
i mai omogen dup spusele lui Ceauescu p.366) i desemnnd mai degrab un ata-
nsui (apud S.S., p. 357), pentru c este o ament valorile socialismului dect fa de
comunitate de via economic i uni- cele naionale.
tar din punct de vedere social politic. Ea Paradoxal, se vorbete n continuare
apare n urma unui proces istoric care nu despre internaionalismul proletar i, te-
va fi altul dect procesul dezvoltrii socia- oretic, este privit, n mare, la fel ca n urm
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THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
De la internaionalismul socialist la naional -comunism
cu dou decenii. Aa cum spunea Alain tive ale rezolvrii (S.S., p. 361). Romnia
Finkielkraut, el a ncetat s mai fie un el este prezentat ca un stat model n acest sens,
real al comunismului romnesc, dar a dat fiind preocuparea Partidului pentru
continuat s fie invocat ca alibi52. Temeiul naionalitile conlocuitoare, pentru asigu-
su continu s fie vzut n solidaritatea de rarea egalitii n drepturi i a condiiilor
clas dincolo de frontierele naionale dar, de afirmare nestingherit a fiecrei na-
ni se spune acum, avnd i el un caracter ionaliti (D.P., p. 386). Sunt aduse ca
istoric, coninutulformele i metodele argument articole de constituie, procente
sale sufer schimbri n funcie de de reprezentare a minoritilor etc.
condiiile concret-istorice(S.S., p. 367).
Astfel, sfera sa apare ca lrgit i, prin Problema naional
urmare, diluat. Nu se mai refer doar la n ciuda declaraiilor oficiale privind
colaborarea dintre statele blocului comunist, respectarea drepturilor minoritilor naionale,
ci cuprinde i micrile de eliberare naional- efectele politicii reale au lsat impresia unui
colonial i alte fore antiimperialiste proces de omogenizare etnic n sensul sc-
(S.S., p. 368). Internaionalismul proletar derii procentului de minoritari prin emi-
nu mai are ca int final contopirea graie sau asimilare. nc din anii 50, a
tuturor naiunilor n una singur. Dispariia fost desfurat celebra i misterioasa aface-
naiunii este de neconceput pentru c socia- re a vnzrii evreilor, nceput de Gheorghiu-
lismul nu poate face abstracie de carac- Dej, continuat i extins de Ceauescu. n
terul naional al formei de comunitate, aceeai perioad, maghiarii din Transilvania au
pentru c naiunea este o component a beneficiat de o regiune autonom dar, chiar
acestei societi [socialiste]. Ca argument i aa, situaia lor a lsat de dorit.
concret, se spune c ar fi absurd s conce- n anii 60, potrivit unor observatori,
pem dispariia naiunii numai ntr-o parte a situaia maghiarilor pare s se fi mbun-
lumii i meninerea ei n zonele capitaliste tit n ceea ce privete folosirea limbii ma-
i n lumea a treia, ambele ntrziate din terne, meninndu-se ns restricii referi-
punct de vedere istoric. n sfrit, la Con- toare la schimburile culturale. Dup des-
gresul a X-lea al PCR i la Conferina na- fiinarea Regiunii Autonome Maghiare, n
ional (1972) s-a stabilit c procesul 1960, n ciuda protestelor guvernului ma-
edificrii socialiste multilateral dezvoltate ghiar, problema maghiar a revenit n
este implicit procesul dezvoltrii naiunii discuie cu ocazia reformei administrativ-
nsei (S.S., p. 360). Vorbind despre dis- teritoriale. Ceauescu a promis c va ine
pariia naiunii n vest, avndu-se n vedere cont de structura etnic a populaiei i va
pe atunci nc tnra integrare european, veghea la respectarea prevederilor consti-
se spune c integrarea supranaional ar fi tuionale cu privire la folosirea limbii ma-
imposibil din cauza rezistenei burgheze terne n coli, administraie etc. n loca-
care i-ar vedea ameninate interesele eco- litile n care triau naionaliti conlo-
nomice i politice (S.S., p. 196). cuitoare. S-a inut de cuvnt numai parial.
O alt problem o reprezint relaiile Propunerea de creare a unui jude puternic,
naionale n socialism, nelegnd prin ele cuprinznd zonele cu cea mai mare densi-
raporturile dintre naiunile sau grupurile tate de populaie maghiar, a fost ignorat.
naionale existente n interiorul aceleiai n schimb, n noua organizare, maghiarii
societi (S.S., p. 188). Generatoare de erau lsai majoritari n mai multe judee
tensiuni n capitalism, problema naional dect n perioada anterioar dar lipsii de
i gsete n socialism condiiile obiec- posibilitatea de a crea un bloc, cu even-
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POLITICAL HISTORY
Mihai Ghiulescu
confuzie, simind desprirea de trecut dar torii ale literaturii noastre n context uni-
nevznd-o realizat. Au urmat internaio- versal este protocronismul61. Astfel, Neagoe
nalitii i antinaionalitii ani 1948-1960 Basarab era privit ca un contemporan su-
cnd trecutul a fost curat de orice urm perior lui Machiavelli dar i ca un anti-
de naional, n general, i de romnesc, cipator al barocului literar, Cantemir ar fi
n particular. ntre 1960 i 1971 s-a simit o fost un romantic avant la lettre, Heliade
vag liberalizare, s-au reluat unele contacte Rdulescu, un psihanalist, Negruzzi, un pre-
cu Occidentul, s-a nceput recuperarea va- decesor superior al lui Flaubert, Alecsandri
lorilor naionale, dar s-a i anunat ultima un presimbolist iar Eminescu, nici mai
faz, absolutist, dintre 1971 i 198957. mult nici mai puin dect un strmo al
n tot acest timp, regimul s-a transformat existenialismului. Protocronismului nu i
(sau a lsat impresia c se transform), era suficient s reinterpreteze istoria, avea
elul istoriei s-a schimbat i, odat cu el, nevoie i de o legitimare a sa ca teorie i,
i istoriografia58. pentru aceasta, i-a autoproclamat filiaia
Naionalismul a devenit, n epoca cu operele marilor istorici i literai din
Ceauescu, principalul argument istoric i trecut: direcia principal urmat de cer-
politic. Romnii trebuia s apar unii nu cetrile ultimelor dou decenii a fost domi-
doar n prezent, n jurul Partidului i al Con- nat de acelai spirit ce-i nsufleise pe Iorga
ductorului, ci i n trecut, n ntreaga lor i Clinescu: a dovedi valoarea n absolut,
istorie. Folosit ca instrument de dominare, scria Dan Zamfirescu62. Bineneles, mala-
naionalismul a mbinat tradiia cu scopu- dia nu s-a putut limita la literatur, ci a
rile urmrite de puterea comunist. Cam- cuprins rapid ntreaga istorie. Totul ncepea
pania de recuperare a fost, de fapt, una de cu Australanthropus Olteniensis unul
manipulare. Teoretic, reelaborarea n sens din primele exemplare decisive n procesul
naionalist a istoriei ar fi trebuit s implice antropogenezei pe calea lui homo sapiens
o atenuare a mecanismelor luptei de clas. (Mihnea Gheorghiu) , descoperit, chipurile,
Practic, cele dou au reuit s coexiste59. la Bungiuleti, n Olt, aproape de
Naionalizarea istoriei s-a manifestat Scorniceti63, care trebuia s arate c aici
ntr-un mod bizar, dar nu chiar original : ncepe antropogeneza n Europa64 i con-
protocronismul. Acesta mai apruse ntr- tinua, n antichitate, cu Burebista, condu-
o form foarte virulent n Rusia stalinist, ctorul unei armate unificate de 200000 de
cnd se ajunsese la concluzia c toate ma- oameni (cifr nemaiatins de nimeni pn
rile realizri din cultura i tiina universal n epoca modern). Att de puternic pare
erau, n fapt, nite creaii ruseti. Proto- s fi fost mpratul dac, nct Cezar, teri-
cronismul romnesc s-a nscris n aceast fiat, ar fi ordonat asasinarea lui de ctre un
linie, dar nu ca imitaie, ci ca urmare a unei commando special, numit inei-v bine!
logici similare, unele rdcini n autoh- CIA (adic Centuria Infesta Addita).
tonismul secolului al XIX-lea60. Conceptul Era, prin urmare, normal ca un astfel de
a fost lansat n 1974, printr-o carte a isto- personaj s se bucure de toat atenia CC
ricului literar i esteticianului Edgar Papu, al PCR, care a hotrt ca, n 1980, cu
Din clasicii notri: contribuii la ideea pro- ocazia Congresului internaional de tiine
tocronismului romnesc, n care se susinea istorice de la Bucureti, s se serbeze fix
ntietatea cronologic a attor iniiative 2050 de ani de la nscunarea sa65. Mircea
literare romneti fa de unele realizri cel Btrn a devenit cel mare pentru c,
similare din alte pri i se concluziona fr al su Rovine, Europa se pare c ar fi
c una din dominantele trsturi defini- fost islamizat. Mihai Viteazul a fost un
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POLITICAL HISTORY
Mihai Ghiulescu
vajnic lupttor pentru unitatea naional 1989 a patra putere politic a lumii, dup
(dei conform preceptelor marxist-leni- Israel (statul i etnia universal rspndit)
niste adoptate oficial, naterea naiunii era SUA i URSS70. Consecine ale acestei imagini
legat de trecerea la capitalism). Horea, erau exaltarea patriotic a populaiei i
Cloca i Crian au anticipat, chiar dac posibilitatea liderului suprem de a se
numai cu 5 ani, Revoluia Francez. Secolul nscrie n galeria glorioaselor figuri istorice.
al XIX-lea era recuperat prin revoluiile i Prin prezentarea istoriei ca suit de lupte
personalitile sale progresiste, democrate defensive cu toat lumea apare imaginea
premarxiste. n sfrit, perioada interbe- patriei n primejdie permanent71. Efectele
lic i regimul antonescian au fost parial pot fi observate n aceleai dou planuri: al
reabilitate, scondu-se n eviden refor- populaiei i al liderului. Pentru prima, patria
mele sociale, succesele politicii externe, n primejdie nseamn o exacerbare naio-
rezistena antifascist, cu un accent supra- nalist, inevitabil nsoit de o ostilitate
dimensionat pe activitatea PCR i, bineneles, fa de tot ce este strin i, eventual, de o
cu precizrile de rigoare privitoare la ex- distragere a ateniei de la realitile ime-
ploatarea muncitorimii i starea proast a diate. Conductorul gsete astfel ocazia
rnimii. Prosovietismul anilor 50, dei de a poza n Salvator i de a cere strn-
parte a revoluiei, era condamnat66. Punctul gerea rndurilor n jurul su.
terminus: Romnia ceauist. Acesta a fost discursul dominant, chiar
Pe scurt, neamul, ara, istoria lor i unic, dac inem cont c el putea fi ocolit
pierd dimensiunile reale, explodeaz n dar nu combtut explicit. Discursurile alter-
univers, se gigantizeaz, totul devine epo- native, neoficiale, erau inacceptabile. Ros-
cal, istoric, uria, fr seamn67. turile campaniei erau legitimarea, obine-
Toat aceast re-istorie ar fi fost lip- rea susinerii populare, obturarea disfunc-
sit de sens dac nu ar fi fost pus n le- iilor regimului etc. n ce msur au fost
gtur cu prezentul. Regula de baz a ori- acestea realizate? S-a afirmat c metodele
crei mitologii istorice este c prezentul se lui Ceauescu au fost eficiente pentru c
proiecteaz n trecut68. Redesenarea trecu- numai astfel s-ar justifica obediena popo-
tului implica o percepie denaturat a pre- rului, numrul relativ mic de acte de
zentului i o imaginare a viitorului con- opoziie fi. Pe de alt parte, deznod-
form idealurilor puterii. Dou au fost, n mntul demonstreaz falimentul ntregii
principal, imaginile pe care recuperarea sale politici. Adevrul este undeva la mijloc.
cantitativ i calitativ a istoriei trebuia s Cu siguran c n anumite momente, mai
le creeze. Prima este cea a destinului ales la nceput, cnd virulena nu atinsese
mare al unei ri mici, crearea iluziei unei cotele din final, judecat n raport cu domi-
mari puteri n ciuda dimensiunilor i a naia sovietic, discursul naionalist era
potenialului redus. Istoria s-a vrut o do- preferabil iar tovarul s-a bucurat de
vad c i o ar ca Romnia poate juca un oarecare simpatie. Cu siguran, i mai
rol important n politica internaional, trziu au existat oameni care au rezonat la
situndu-se pe poziie de egalitate cu retorica patriotard. Totui, aceasta nu a
marile puteri. Cu ct statutul internaional reuit s pun n umbr evidena, degra-
a devenit mai labil, cu att Ceauescu a darea continu a vieii de zi cu zi i s
simit nevoia de compensare prin discurs asigure politicii ceauiste sprijinul dorit.
(istoric) a realitii69. O afirmaie elecvent
n acest sens aparine aceluiai Dan Privit ca pies n ansamblul naio-
Zamfirescu: Romnia a fost ntre 1964 i nalismelor romneti, naional-comunismul
56
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THOUGHT AND PRACTICE
De la internaionalismul socialist la naional -comunism
este, aparent, total diferit de toate celelalte. Andreescu, O istorie a comunismului din
De fapt, el nu a fcut dec s preia mai Romnia. Manual pentru liceu, Ed. Polirom,
vechi teme naionaliste i s le combine Iai, 2008.
6
ntr-o manier care, fatalmente, nu putea fi Ibidem, p. 102.
7
Stephen Fischer-Galai, Romnia n secolul al
original. Originalitatea const n folosirea
XX-lea, trad. Manuela Macarie, cuvnt nainte
naionalismului, n scopurile pe care el a de Kurt Treptow, Institutul European, Iai,
fost chemat s le realizeze. Fiind, fr n- 1998, p. 53., p. 133.
doial, la nceput, (i) o reacie la inter- 8
Andrei Roth, Naionalism sau democratism,
naionalismul anti-naional, materializat n Ed. Pro Europa, Trgu Mure, 1999, p. 35.
9
dominaia sovietic adic, pn la urm, Dennis Deletant, Romnia sub regimul
un naionalism clasic emancipator i comunist, trad. Delia Rzdolescu, Fundaia
liberalizator cu timpul, el a devenit Academia Civic, Bucureti, 1997, pp. 64-68.
10
reacionar, izolaionist, form n care a Vladimir Tismneanu, Reinventarea politicului.
cunoscut manifestrile de cea mai mare Europa rsritean de la Stalin la Havel, Ed.
Polirom, Iai, 1999, p. 49.
amploare din istoria romneasc. Dema- 11
B.N. Ponomarev (sub redacia), Dicionar
gogia naionalist existent dintotdeauna s- politic, Ed. Politic, Bucureti, 1958, p. 304.
a vzut acum eliberat de orice constrn- 12
Ibidem, pp. 406-407.
geri teoretice. Naionalismul comunist a 13
Ibidem, p. 408.
14
fost pur propagand. Masc pentru o I.V. Stalin, Cum nelege social-democraia
politic falimentar, instrument de legiti- problema naional?, Ed. PMR, Bucureti,
mare i mobilizare, ntre el i ideologia pe 1948, p. 5.
15
care a slujit-o a existat o prpastie. De Ibidem, p. 12.
16
aceea, sintagmele naional-comunism ori Ibidem, p. 17.
17
naionalism comunist nu desemneaz un Ibidem, p. 30.
18
Vladimir Tismneanu, op. cit., p. 50.
tip aparte de naionalism, ci doar indic 19
Ibidem, p. 45.
circumstanele n care el funcionat. Dei 20
Ibidem, p. 46.
practicat la nivel de stat, a fost ntotdeauna 21
B.N. Ponomarev (sub redacia), op. cit., pp.
n contradicie cu linia oficial. A fost pro- 189-190.
22
movat i negat n egal msur. Cderea Stephen Fischer-Galai, op. cit., p. 133.
23
regimului comunist este dovada clar c Lucian Boia, Dou secole de mitologie
naionalismul a euat n ndeplinirea mi- naional, Ed. Humanitas, Bucureti, 1999, pp.
siunii pentru care a fost reanimat. A reuit 116-118.
24
n schimb s produc efecte, probabil, Vlad Georgescu, op. cit., p. 43.
25
nesperate: s dea dependen i s lase Stephen Fischer-Galai, op. cit., p. 137.
26
Ibidem, pp. 134-135.
motenitori. 27
Lucian Boia, op. cit., p. 119.
28
Vezi Vlad Georgescu, op. cit., pp. 26-28.
Note 29
Dennis Deletant, op. cit., pp. 97-98.
1
Vlad Georgescu, Politic i istorie. Cazul 30
Stephen Fischer-Galai, op. cit., p. 144.
comunitilor romni 1944-1977, ediie ngrijit 31
Dennis Deletant, op. cit., pp. 98-99.
i postfa de Radu Popa, Ed. Humanitas, 32
Apud Andrei Roth, op. cit., p. 94.
Bucureti, 2008. 33
Lucian Boia, op. cit., p. 120.
2
Ibidem, pp. 6-7. 34
Andrei Roth, op. cit., p. 36.
3
Eugen Negrici, Iluziile literaturii romne, Ed. 35
Lucian Boia, op. cit., p. 120-121.
Cartea romneasc, Bucureti, 2008. 36
Andrei Roth, op. cit., pp. 94-95.
4
Ibidem, p. 7, passim. 37
Jean-Franois Soulet, Istoria comparat a
5
Mihai Stamatescu, Raluca Grosescu, Dorin statelor comuniste din 1945 pn n zilele
Dobrincu, Andrei Muraru, Liviu Plea, Sorin
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POLITICAL HISTORY
Mihai Ghiulescu
noastre, trad. Silvia Albeteanu, Ana Zbarcea, de Dan Berindei, prefa de J.F. Brown, Ed.
Ed. Polirom, Iai, 1998, p. 156. Polirom, Iai, 2003, pp. 112. Vezi i Eugen
38
Ibidem, p. 157. Negrici, op. cit., pp. 268-270.
39 62
Lucian Boia, op. cit., p. 121. Ibidem, p. 112.
40 63
Mihai Stamatescu et allii, op. cit., p. 107. Vlad Georgescu, op. cit., pp. 91-92.
41 64
Stephen Fischer-Galai, op. cit., p. 157. Anneli Ute Gabanyi, op. cit., pp. 116-117.
42 65
Dennis Deletant, op. cit., p. 119. Vlad Georgescu, op. cit., pp. 91-93.
43 66
Vladimir Tismneanu, op. cit., pp. 90-92. Al Zub, Orizont; Mituri; Lucian Boia,
44
Dennis Deletant, op. cit., p. 121. op. cit., pp. 125-134.
45 67
Lucian Boia, op. cit., pp. 121-125. Vlad Georgescu, op. cit., p. 111.s
46 68
Dennis Deletant, op. cit., p. 137. Lucian Boia, Destinul mare al unei ri
47
Apud ibidem, p. 143. mici, n: Lucian Boia (sub direcia), op. cit., p.
48
Jean-Franois Soulet, op. cit., p. 160. 215.
49 69
Constituiile din 1948, 1952, 1965, n http: Ibidem, pp. 209-211.
70
//legislatie.resurse-pentru-democratie.org; Apud ibidem, p. 207.
71
Alexandra Ionescu, op. cit. Eugen Negrici, Mitul patriei primejduite,
50
Socialism tiinific. Manual universitar, Ed. n: Lucian Boia (sub direcia), op. cit., p. 220;
Didactic i Pedagogic, Bucureti, 1973 - n Jean-Franois Soulet, op. cit., pp. 164-165.
continuare, n text (S.S, p.).
51
Dicionar politic, Academia tefan
Gheorghiu, Ed. Politic, Bucureti, 1975 - n
continuare, n text (D.P., p. ).
52
Andrei Roth, op. cit., p. 36.
53
Dennis Deletant, op. cit., pp. 127-130.
54
Ibidem, pp. 131-132.
55
Ibidem, pp. 152-156.
56
Vladimir Tismneanu, op. cit., pp. 200-201.
57
Al. Zub, Orizont nchis. Istoriografia romn
sub dictatur, Institutul European, Iai, 2000,
pp. 171-172.
58
Idem, Mituri istoriografice n Romnia
ultimei jumti de secol, n Lucian Boia (sub
direcia), Miturile comunismului romnesc, Ed.
Nemira, Bucureti, 1998, p. 90. Chiar dac
alegnd borne temporale diferite, tot patru
perioade stabilei Vlad Georgescu: sovietizarea
din 1944-1960, nceputul reinterpretrii din
1960-1965, relaxarea ideologic din 1965-1971
i noile mituri sau kitschul istoric de dup
1971 (Vlad Georgescu, op. cit., p. 149). Eugen
Negrici ns delimiteaz cinci faze: faza
fundamentalist (1947-1953), falsa destalini-
zare (1953-1957), noua glaciaiune (1957-1964),
mica liberalizare (1964-1971) i perioada
comunismului naional-ceauist (1971-1989)
(Eugen Negrici, op. cit., pp. 243-271).
59
Lucian Boia, op. cit., p. 126.
60
Ibidem, p. 130.
61
Apud Anneli Ute Gabanyi, Cultul lui
Ceauescu, trad. Iulian Vamanu, cuvnt nainte
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POLITICS, ADMINIS TRATION AND ECONOMY
Il y a 20 ans
(Un panorama constitutionnaliste de la
rvolution roumaine)
Mircea CRISTE
L
e 21 dcembre 1989 la Roumanie ni par l'intermdiaire des ses lus (qu'il ne
avait encore une Constitution, celle contrle gure), de modifier la loi fon-
octroye par Ceausescu en 1965. Il damentale ou de la protger contre les
s'agissait d'une Constitution marxiste, qui abus des gouvernants, notamment en ce
proclamait le Parti Communiste comme qui concerne les droits fondamentaux.
force politique dirigeante de toute la so- La rvolution reprsente ainsi le
cit et la Grande Assemble Nationale moyen par lequel on sort du domaine du
comme organe suprme du pouvoir. droit pour se situer dans le domaine du
Le lendemain, Ceausescu emporta cette fait, de la force qui, en dtruisant l'ancien
Constitution dans sa fuite. Conue pour ordre constitutionnel, le remplace par un
dfendre un rgime et un dictateur, elle n'a nouveau1. Dans le droulement d'une rvo-
pas russi survivre son auteur. lution on distingue trois tapes: une premire
o l'ordre existant et le fait rvolutionnaire
1. Le bouleversement de l'ordre sont en bascule2, une deuxime tape o la
constitutionnel par la rvolution. rvolution l'emporte sur l'ancien ordre
L'clatement d'une rvolution se produit, constitutionnel et la troisime qui correspond
comme condition gnrale, lorsque la l'instauration du nouvel ordre.
Constitution ne reflte plus les besoins et Quant la socit roumaine, celle-ci
les aspirations des citoyens. Il est gale- se trouvait, la fin de la dernire dcennie,
ment requis qu'on ait soustrait au peuple le sous l'emprise d'un rgime totalitaire qui
contrle sur la Constitution, c'est--dire rendait impossible toute volution dans le
qu'il n'a plus la possibilit, ni directement, sens d'une dmocratisation du systme. La
59
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Mircea Criste
105 reprsentants des partis et des forma- Snat s'tablirent, en sance commune, en
tions politiques, 27 reprsentants des mino- Assemble Constituante prside successive-
rits nationales et 3 reprsentants de l'Association ment par les prsidents des deux chambres.
des anciens dtenus politiques. Les partis Ce premier Parlement cr aprs les
constitus aprs taient accepts aux dbats vnements de dcembre 1989 remplissait
du C.P.U.N. avec le statut d'observateurs. donc tant les attributions d'une assemble
A cette premire organisation du C.P.U.N. lgislative, que celles d'une Constituante.
on apporta trs vite des modifications par Une fois la Constitution adopte, devaient
le dcret-loi n 82 du 13 fvrier 199018, qui tre organises des lections dans un dlai
a port le nombre des membres 253 et maximum d'un an.
qui a organis le nouveau Bureau excutif Selon le dcret-loi n 92, le Prsident
et les commissions spcialises du C.P.U.N. dsignait le Premier ministre, dans la
personne du reprsentant du parti ou de la
2.2. La Rpublique de 1990 formation politique qui avait obtenu le
A partir de son entre en fonction, le plus des mandats au Parlement ou en cas
Conseil Provisoire d'Union Nationale eut d'absence de majorit dans la personne
comme but le passage vers une socit d'un dput ou snateur, aprs consultation
dmocratique stable. Pour cette raison, le des partis reprsents au Parlement. Le
plus important acte adopt par le Conseil Prsident ne pouvait rester membre d'un
fut le dcret-loi n 92 du 14 mars 199019 pour parti ou d'une formation politique et il
l'lection du Parlement et du Prsident de n'tait pas responsable devant le lgislatif.
la Roumanie. En revanche, la responsabilit pour l'activit
Il convient de remarquer d'abord que de l'excutif revenait obligatoirement au
ce dcret-loi a rorganis les institutions Premier ministre, qui contresignait les actes
politiques, en prvoyant expressment la du Prsident.
sparation des pouvoirs lgislatif, excutif Toutefois, les relations Prsident
et judiciaire. La place du C.P.U.N. fut prise Parlement taient bien dlimites, avec trs
par un Parlement form de deux chambres peu de possibilits de contrle rciproque.
(l'Assemble de dputs et le Snat), Le Prsident ne pouvait tre dmis qu'au
l'excutif tait constitu d'un Gouverne- cas o il aurait commis des actes qui le
ment avec, sa tte, un Premier ministre et rendent indigne de cette fonction et selon
tait prvue de nouveau l'institution du une procdure assez complexe. Dans un
Prsident de la Rpublique, qui n'avait bien premier temps il devait tre suspendu de
sr rien de commun avec celle institue pour ses fonctions sur proposition d'un tiers des
la premire fois en Roumanie en 1974. dputs et snateurs, en sance commune
Le Parlement bicamral cr par le des deux chambres et ensuite la destitution
dcret-loi n 92/1990 reprenait une tradition tait soumise un rfrendum. De son
commence en 1866 et interrompue en ct, le Prsident n'avait pas la comptence
1940. Les lections se droulrent au scrutin de dissoudre le Parlement, sauf le cas o la
de liste, les parlementaires tant lus au Constitution n'aurait pas t adopte dans
suffrage universel, gal, direct, secret et un dlai de 9 mois20. Mme dans cette situation,
libre exprim par les citoyens. Les orga- il devait avoir au pralable l'accord du
nisations des minorits nationales qui Premier ministre et des prsidents de
n'avaient pas accd au Parlement, ont eu l'Assemble des dputs et du Snat. En
aussi droit un mandat de dput. De tout cas, la Constituante tait de plein droit
plein droit, l'Assemble des dputs et le dissoute en cas de non-adoption de la
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Mircea Criste
nouvelle Constitution dans un dlai de 18 ces derniers avec voix consultative23. Sans
mois. numrer les principes sur lesquels la
A cette analyse, purement thorique, il commission devait travailler, le Rglement
faut ajouter une autre fonde sur les faits, de la Constituante prvoyait en revanche,
puisqu'en ralit ce faible Prsident de dans son article 9, les tapes franchir pour
Rpublique cr par le dcret-loi n 92 arriver la forme finale de la nouvelle loi
devint par le jeu du hasard et jusqu' fondamentale. Dans la premire, la commission
l'adoption de la nouvelle Constitution - un de rdaction du projet tait charge de
prsident plus actif et plus puissant que dfinir les principes et la structure par
celui dont parle le dcret-loi. La source de chapitres de celui-ci24, qui devait dans une
cette volution constitutionnelle fut les deuxime tape tre soumis la discussion
lections du 20 mai 1990, qui avaient donn et au vote de l'Assemble. Ensuite, sur le
une crasante majorit au Front de Salut fondement des observations et des amen-
National, en tant que formation politique. dements prsents, la commission devait
Il avait obtenu 67 % des voix pour les prparer le projet final de Constitution qui
deux chambres du Parlement et 85 % des ferait l'objet de l'adoption par la Constituante
voix pour son candidat aux lections et, finalement, de la confirmation popu-
prsidentielles, M. Ion Iliescu. Mme si, se laire par un rfrendum.
conformant aux dispositions du dcret-loi Le 21 novembre 1991, l'Assemble
n 92/1990, le Prsident sortant avait Constituante a adopt le texte final de la
dmissionn du parti, c'tait incontesta- nouvelle Constitution, texte approuv par
blement grce lui que le F.S.N. s'tait la suite par le rfrendum organis le 8
appropri les lections. Pour cette raison il dcembre 1991.
a gard une forte influence tant sur la
grande majorit des dputs et des snateurs, Notes
1
que au moins pour une premire priode La rvolution contredit toute explication
sur le Gouvernement issu du nouveau juridique puisque le refus du droit existant non
Parlement21. seulement n'entranera aucune sanction mais
En outre, au-del des dispositions du encore sera l'origine de la cration d'un droit
dcret-loi n 92, les Rglements de nouveau (Pierre Pactet, Institutions politiques.
l'Assemble des dputs et du Snat Droit constitutionnel, Paris, Masson, 11me
dition, 1992, p. 74).
avaient institu un droit de veto suspensif 2
Ibidem.
en faveur du Prsident de la Rpublique, 3
En dpit des dispositions de l'article 36 de la
en anticipant la solution de la future Constitution de 1965 qui proclamaient que le
Constitution. Le Prsident jouissait en cela droit de proprit personnelle est protg par la
non seulement du droit de promulgation loi, rien n'empcha le lgislatif en 1974 de
des lois, mais aussi du droit de restituer la voter les lois 58 et 59 qui posaient des srieuses
loi en vue d'un nouveau dbat dans les limitations ce droit, interdisant les tran-
deux chambres lgislatives22. sactions foncires inter vivos.
4
La mission principale du Parlement La rpression fait chouer ses propres buts :
lu le 20 mai 1990 tait sans doute celle de les gouvernements totalitaires sont en pril
d'tre renverss par violence dans la mesure o
donner la Roumanie une nouvelle Consti-
ils recourent la rpression comme moyen
tution qui fonde l'Etat de droit. A cette fin, pour rsoudre le conflit. Ceci explique la
fut constitue une commission charge de Roumanie de Ceausescu (Ralf Dahrendorf,
la rdaction du projet, commission forme Reflectii asupra Revolutiei n Europa,
de 12 dputs, 11 snateurs et 5 experts, Bucarest, Humanitas, 1993, p. 18).
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Il y a 20 ans
5 19
Cf. Tudor Draganu, Drept constitutional i Publi au Monitorul Oficial n 35 du 18 mars
instituii politice, tome 2, Cluj-Napoca, 1992, p. 1990, pp. 1-11.
20
216. Le professeur Tudor Draganu observait que
6
Le communiqu pour le pays du Conseil du l'quilibre cr dans le rgime parlementaire
Front du Salut National, Monitorul Oficial, entre le pouvoir excutif et le lgislatif par le
1989, n 1, p. 1-2. fait qu'au droit du Parlement de provoquer la
7
A partir de ce moment toutes les structures dmission du Gouvernement s'oppose le droit
du pouvoir du clan Ceausescu sont dissoutes. du chef de l'Etat de dissoudre le Parlement
Le Gouvernement est dmis, le Conseil d'Etat semblait rompu dans le systme du dcret-loi
et ses institutions cessent leur activit. Tout n 92/1990 dans la mesure o celui-ci ne
pouvoir dans l'Etat est assum par le Conseil du permettait au Prsident de dissoudre la
Front du Salut national... Sur tout le territoire Constituante que dans un seul cas : dans le cas
s'institueront des conseils du Front du Salut o elle n'avait pas adopt la Constitution dans
National comme organes du pouvoir local. un dlai de 9 mois (op. cit., p. 230). Il convient
8
Le comit avait t lu aprs six mois par la d'observer que le Prsident n'avait en ralit
Constituante et une liste dfinitive du Conseil aucun pouvoir l'encontre des deux chambres,
ne sera jamais publie dans le Moniteur en tant que lgislatif.
21
Officiel. Dans ces conditions, ce n'est pas une surprise
9
Monitorul Oficial du 25 dcembre 1989, pp. que tant les deux chambres du Parlement,
1-2. qu'aussi le Gouvernement form aprs les
10
Tudor Draganu, op. cit., p. 217. lections, ont t prts se conformer dans toutes
11
Selon M. Tudor Draganu si au moment o la les questions essentielles au mot d'ordre du
rvolution populaire triomphe, la Constitution Prsident de la Rpublique, un succs de celui et
antrieure au coup de force semble dpasse par du Gouvernement tant en mme temps un
le prisme des aspirations changes d'une nation, succs du Front et un chec, un chec du Front.
l'laboration d'une nouvelle Constitution s'impose Dans la structure d'Etat cre par le dcret-loi n
(op. cit., p. 224). 92/1990, la position du Prsident a t pour cette
12
Ibidem, p. 222. raison jusqu' une date rcente celle d'un gnral
13
Le prsident du Conseil n'avait aucune qui commande deux armes, qui lui sont
comptence pour nommer et rvoquer le habituellement profond dvoues et en bonne
Premier ministre et les membres du part mme obissantes, l'une tant le
Gouvernement. Gouvernement et l'autre le Parlement (Tudor
14
Tudor Draganu, op. cit., p. 219. Draganu, op. cit., p. 231).
15 22
Publi au Monitorul Oficial n 9 du 31 Le professeur Tudor Draganu a critiqu
dcembre 1989. juste titre cette modification apporte au dcret-
16
Une telle identification du parti de loi n 92/1990 par les Rglements cits (op.
gouvernement avec l'Etat est justement ce qui cit., pp. 231-232).
23
caractrise les rgimes totalitaires. Seul dans Une premire commission fut constitue le
ces rgimes le parti unique se confond avec 28 dcembre, compose de MM. Mihai
l'Etat...Sa transformation [du F.S.N.] en parti Constantinescu, Ion Deleanu, Antonie
politique n'aurait t autre chose qu'une Iorgovan, Ioan Muraru, Miha T. Oroveanu et
nouvelle forme de totalitarisme, la seule Florin Vasilescu, mais elle n'a fonctionn que
diffrence que cette fois ce n'tait pas le parti jusqu'au 12 janvier 1990 (cf. Mihai T.
unique qui tentait de se confondre avec l'Etat, Oroveanu, Istoria dreptului romnesc si
mais l'Etat qui voulait devenir parti (Tudor evolutia institutiilor constitutionale, Bucarest,
Draganu, op. cit., p. 224-225). Cerma, 1992, p. 304, note 606).
17 24
Publi au Monitorul Oficial n 27 du 10 La commission avait employ l'expression de
fvrier 1990. thses.
18
Publi au Monitorul Oficial n 28 du 14
fvrier 1990, p. 1.
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POLITICS, ADMINIS TRATION AND ECONOMY
Supradimensionarea i disproporionalitatea
legislativ. Uninominalul, reform electoral sau
miz politic?
A
legerile legislative din 30 noiembrie A reuit noul sistem electoral s reformeze
2008, cel de-al aselea test al de- scrutinul legislativ? A reuit noua meca-
mocraiei parlamentare din Romnia nic electoral s stabilizeze sistemul po-
dup 1989 s-au defurat n baza unui nou litic postdecembrist? Pentru a gsi rspuns
cadru legal. Noul sistem electoral a fost la aceaste ntrebri i pentru a formula
consacrat de Legea nr. 35/2008 din 13 argumente pentru un rspuns sau altul, este
martie 2008 pentru alegerea Camerei De- necesar, mai nainte de toate, s examinm
putailor i a Senatului i pentru modifi- caracteristicile noii formule electorale n
carea i completarea Legii nr. 67/2004 contextul politic al anului 2008. Problema
pentru alegerea autoritilor administraiei iniial aici rezid n confuzia ideologic i
publice locale, a Legii administraiei pu- indecizia politic n care factorii structural-
blice locale nr. 215/2001 i a Legii nr. organizatori se mbin ntr-o perspectiv
393/2004 privind Statutul aleilor locali, de multe ori regional necesitnd impli-
promulgat prin Decretul nr. 364 din 12 carea unor competene tipice democraiilor
martie 20081. Legea a fost modificat prin incipiente.
O.U.G. nr. 66 din 28 mai 20082, stabilind Punctul de plecare n analiza noastr l
regulile de desfurare a jocului politic i constituie art. 5, alin. 1. din legea nr. 35/2008.
condiionnd totodat rezultatul partidei3. Conform noilor reglementri deputaii i
Legea electoral din 2008 proiectat senatorii se aleg n colegii uninominale
anterior n termenii unei reforme electorale constituite potrivit prevederilor art. 11,
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POLITICS, ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMY
Supradimensionarea i disproporionalitatea legislativ. Uninominalul, reform electoral
sau miz politic?
prin scrutin uninominal, potrivit princi- Acum ns ne vom limita doar la cte-
piului reprezentrii proporionale. Noua va observaii. In noiembrie 2008, numrul
lege regrupeaz unitile electorale prin total al cetenilor cu drept de vot a fost de
mprirea circumscipiilor electorale pluri- 18.328.646 cu aproximativ 1 milion de de
nominale n colegii uninominale, n funcie electori mai mult dect la primele alegeri
de numrul de mandate, rezultat al apli- legislative din 20 mai 1990. n acest sens,
crii normei de reprezentare. Prin noua me- participarea electoratului la alegerile legisla-
canic electoral au fost astfel obinute 137 tive i prezideniale a cunoscut o evoluie
de colegii uninominale pentru Senat i 315 descendent delimitat de cele dou ex-
de colegii uninominale pentru Camera treme: alegerile legislative din 1990 i ale-
Deputailor. gerile europarlamentare din 7 iunie 2009.
Tipul Data
AILP APU %
scrutinului scrutinului
AG1 20.05.1990 17.200.722 14.825.017 86,18
AG2 27.09.1992 16.380.663 12.496.430 76,28
AG3 03.11.1996 17.218.654 13.088.388 76,01
AG4 26.11.2000 17.699.727 11.559.458 65,31
AG5 28.10.2004 18.449.676 10.794.653 58,51
AG6 30.11.2008 18.253.616 7.238.871 39,20
Not: Am notat n tabel: AG alegeri generale; AIPL numrul alegtorilor
nscrii pe listele permanente; APU numrul alegtorilor prezeni la urne. Prima
coloan indic tipul scrutinului, iar indicele 1,2, 3, , 6 indic numrul
scrutinului. Cea de-a doua coloan a tabelului indic data scrutinului, cea de-a
treia coloan indic numrul alegtorilor nscrii pe listele permanente, iar cea de-
a patra coloan indic numrul alegtorilor prezeni la urne. n ultima coloan este
evideniat procentual participarea la vot (%).
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Anca Parmena Olimid
%
Partide politice
Camera Deputailor Senat
Aliana PSD-PC 33,09% 34,16%
PDL 32,36% 33,57%
PNL 18,57% 18,74%
UDMR 6,17% 6,39%
PRM 3,15% 3,57%
PNG-CD 2,27% 2,53%
Total 100% 100%
Not: Prima coloan a tabelului indic partidul, iar cea de-a doua coloan
menioneaz procentul obinut de respectivul partid n alegerile legislative
din 30 noiembrie 2008 pentru fiecare camer a Parlamentului.
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POLITICS, ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMY
Supradimensionarea i disproporionalitatea legislativ. Uninominalul, reform electoral
sau miz politic?
Anul scrutinului GL
1990 7.86
1992 5.88
1996 7.03
2000 9.38
2004 4.98
Media 7.03
Not: Tabelul prezint valorile indicelui de disproporionalitate pentru
scrutinele legislative din perioada 1990-2004; pentru realizarea calculelor din
tabel conform formulei lui Gallagher, am avut n vedere rezultatele alegerilor
legislative pentru Senat pentru fiecare scrutin legislativ.
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Anca Parmena Olimid
Camera Deputailor
Anul scrutinului VVEPP VVE VP VP(%)
1992 8765014 10880252 2115238 19.45
1996 10049643 12238746 2189103 17.89
2000 8464543 10839424 2374881 21.91
2004 8866775 10188106 1321332 12.96
2008 6212380 6886794 674414 9.75
Not: Am notat n tabel: VVEPP voturile valabil exprimate pentru
partidele care au depit pragul electoral; VVE voturile valabil exprimate; VP
voturile pierdute; VP voturile pierdute procentual. Prima coloan a tabelului indic
numrul voturilor valabil exprimate pentru cele ase scrutine electorale pentru
partidele care au reuit s intre n Parlament; cea de-a doua colan indic numrul
voturilor valabil exprimate pentru cele ase competiii electorale, iar cea de-a patra i
a cincea coloan indic numrul voturilor pierdute (n cifr absolut i procentual) la
alegerile legislative din 1992-200812.
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POLITICS, ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMY
Supradimensionarea i disproporionalitatea legislativ. Uninominalul, reform electoral
sau miz politic?
Conform datele indicate n tabele de mai votului uninominal, procentul mandatelor
sus, partidele ctigtoare n alegeri reu- redistribuite s-a diminuat considerabil. Re-
eau s primeasc prin redistribuirea man- zultatele arat c dei PSD a ctigat ale-
datelor prime de 9-10% din voturi. Cu toate gerile parlamentare n procente, nregis-
acestea, procentul generos nu s-a dovedit a trnd 33,09% fa de 32,36% pentru PD-L
fi decisiv pentru alctuirea noului guvern, la Camera Deputailor i 34,16% fa de
ns a consolidat poziia partidului aflat pe 33,575 la Senat, PD-L a reuit s obin cu
primul loc. n 2008, o dat cu introducerea trei mandate mai mult.
n opinia Laviniei Stan i Dianei Vancea libru, ci chiar din faptul c aceste legi
deficienele noii mecanici electorale sunt sunt profund nrdcinate n cultur i
mult mai numeroase dect avantajele sale. n instituii, cele dou fiind legate15. n
Rezultatele au evideniat c a existat o di- ncheierea acestui studiu s notm c
feren considerabil ntre ctigtori dac dincolo de asemenea opinii, alegerile din
avem n vedere numrul de voturi obinut 2008 au adus un nou mecanism electoral
de fiecare candidat13. Din aceast perspec- rezultat al unui consens politic, garantat
tiv noua lege electoral a defavorizat can- constituional.
didaturile independente, nici un candidat
independent nu a reuit s intre n Parla- Note
1
ment. Mai mult, procedura de redistribuire Monitorul Oficial nr. 196 din 13 martie 2008.
2
a voturilor a dezavantajat partidele mici, Monitorul Oficial nr. 409 din 30 mai 2008.
3
Fiecare ediie a alegerilor legislative a beneficiat de
favoriznd candidaturile partidelor mari i modificarea legislaiei electorale. Primele alegeri
pe cele cu susinere n teritoriu14. legislative din anul 1990 au fost reglementate de
Pierre Brchon insista n 2004 pe Decretul-lege nr. 92 din 14 martie 1990. Procedura
criteriul polarizrii unui sistem politic electoral prevedea distribuia mandatelor la dou
niveluri judeean i naional. Urmtoarele alegeri din
amintind de importana culturii politice 1992-2000 s-au desfurat n baza Legii nr. 68/1992
a rii i cea a instituiilor sale. El ad- pentru alegerea Camerei Deputailor i a Senatului1.
mitea c stabilitatea sistemului de par- n anul 2000, guvernul Isrescu a modificat legile
tide nu este prin urmare ceva de la sine electorale prin urmtoarele ordonane de urgen:
neles. Ea nu rezult din legi de echi- O.U.G. nr. 63 din 26 mai 2000, O.U.G. nr. 129 din
71
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Anca Parmena Olimid
30 iunie 2000, O.U.G. nr. 140 din 14 septembrie fapt este acelai cu scorul nregistrat de candidatul
2000, O.U.G. nr. 154 din 10 octombrie 2000, O.U.G. nvins n turul doi al alegerilor.
10
nr. 165 din 13 octombrie 2000. Ordonanele au Calcule asemntoare au fost realizate de Cristian
modificat unele aspecte legate de sistemul electoral Preda, Sorina Soare, op. cit., p. 99 pentru perioada
care a rmas unul proporional pe liste cu un singur 1990-2004. Vezi pentru detalii cu privire la modul de
tur de scrutin conform metodei dHondt de repar- calcul al indicelui de disproporionalitate pentru
tizare a mandatelor. Alegerile din 2004 s-au desf- fiecare scrutin legislativ n perioada 1990-2000 n
urat n conformitate cu prevederile baza Legii nr. Cristian Preda, Romnia postcomunist i Romnia
373 din 24 septembrie 2004 pentru alegerea Camerei interbelic, Meridiane, Bucureti, 2002, pp. 59-60.
11
Deputailor i a Senatului. Relum aici expresia consacrat de raportul
4
Alexandru Radu, Reform sau experiment electoral Asociaiei Pro Democraia, Istoria unui dezacord:
n Sfera Politicii, nr. 131-132, anul XVII, 2009, pp. Uninominalul, Bucureti, 2008, pp. 17-19. Materialul
14-21; Pierre Brchon, Partide politice, Cluj- poate fi accesat pe site-ul oficial la adresa
Napoca, Eikon, 2004, pp. 66-67. http://www.apd.ro/files/publicatii/brosura_uninomin
5
Cristian Preda, Sorina Soare, Regimul, partidele i al.pdf. Vezi i Cristian Preda, Sorina Soare, op. cit.,
isstemul politic din Romnia, Bucureti, Editura pp. 97-98.
12
Nemira, 2008, p. 98. Calcule cu privire la numrul voturilor pierdute n
6
Avem n vedere definiia consacrat de Arendt alegerile legislative dup 1989 au fost fcute cu
Lijphart, Modele ale democraiei, Forme de ocazia raportului Asociaiei Pro Democraia, Istoria
guvernare i funcionare n treizeci i ase de ri, unui dezacord: Uninominalul, pp. 17-19. Vezi i
Iai, POLIROM, 2000, p. 147. Magnitudinea unei Cristian Preda, Sorina Soare, op. cit., pp. 97-98.
circumscripii electorale denot numrul de candidai Raportul Asociaiei Pro Democraia consacr
ce urmeaz a fi alei n respectiva circumscriie. n expresia voturi pierdute, n timp de Cristian Preda
aceeai interpretare, nu ar trebui confundat magni- i Sorina Soare utilizeaz sintagma voturi irosite.
13
tudinea medie a unei circumscipii cu delimitrile Lavinia Stan, Diane Vancea, Alegerile
geografice ale respectivei zone geografice sau cu parlamentare din 2008: Vin vechi n sticle noi n
numrul de alegtori (Ibidem). Sfera Politicii, nr. 131-132, anul XVII, 2009, pp. 3-
7
Ibidem, p. 153. 13.
8 14
Ibidem. Ibidem.
9
Aceeai formul este folosit i pentru calculul 15
Pierre Brchon, op. cit., p. 66.
indicelui de disproporionalitate prezidenial care n
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T
he idea that one might increase the The paper considers rendering a new
efficiency of public organizations work perspective on the following issues:
management has raised a series of understanding the key principles of the New
questions, the effort of providing each of Public Management model, discriminating
them with a solution directly implying public between the merit-based career system and
managers and human resources practitioners. the spoils system of recruitment and selection
These questions have ranged from inquiring within the Romanian public administration,
into the best method to draw, keep and develop presenting the major laws that govern the
high-quality human resources within the recruitment and selection procedure in the
public organization to the role of public public service.
managers as regards the efficient use of It would be thus highly interesting to
discuss the manner in which political
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Ctlina Maria Georgescu
from the private sector management which has molded a specific type of
style; and (6) making appeal to organization culture, hence a distinct human
discipline and control in the use of resource public management.
financial resources7.
Political control and public personnel
Re-inventing Romanian public orga-
recruitment and selection policies
nizations requires a series of changes, first
The next section discusses the criteria,
and foremost in the sense of downsizing
both formal and informal, that bind public
the public sector and operating a de-
managers in the public employees
concentration of the governmental services,
recruitment and selection processes. At
second, in the sense of stimulating the growth
present, budgetary constraints on public
of public management accountability and
organizations have impacted on human
responsiveness, third, in the sense of in-
resources policies and on public organization
creasing the use of market-oriented
structure, in the sense of reducing both the
mechanisms, fourth, in the sense of in-
staff number and organization structure.
creasing the decision-making power at
Moreover, public recruitment and selection
operational level, fifth, in the sense of
are operated within a legal framework
highlighting the importance of performance,
which stipulates the rights and obligations,
human resources, information technology
as well as the guarantees as regards the
and communication management, moreover,
activities in this process, thus the discussion
in the sense of ameliorating the relations
also addresses the major laws that regulate
and services offered to citizens8. However,
the recruitment and selection processes in
in our opinion, one should be especially
Romanian public organizations.
pre-occupied with limiting the political
Romanian public employees are recruited,
influence on the public management.
selected, appointed and trained according
The NPM model was translated at the
to the following documents: Constitution
local level into legislation among which
of Romania; Law 188/1999 regarding the
some of the most innovating measures were:
status of public employees; Government
the appointment of the chiefs of public
Decision 452/2000 regarding the organization
institutions and public services under the
and development of the post attestation
subordination of local councils on a
examination of employees occupying public
competition-basis and accompanied by a
management positions within public insti-
management contract, and the creation of
tutions and authorities; Government Ordinance
the city/county manager position at city,
81/2001 regarding the organization of the
commune and county level, the appointment
National Administration Institute; Government
being made on the proposal of the mayor/
Decision 1085/2001 regarding the orga-
president of the county council9.
nization of the probation period, the
However, when discussing the different
evaluation conditions and the specific rules
types of administrative reforms that have
applicable to debutant public employees;
established the management of Romanian
Government Decision regarding the orga-
post-communist public organizations and
nization and development of competitions
the perspectives offered by applying the
and examinations for public offices.
New Public Management model, one must
From casting lots (as was the case with
constantly have in view the fact that the
ancient Greece) to heredity (as in Great
Romanian public sector has to be analyzed
Britain) and further to direct appointment
in the limelight of its communist heritage,
by the hierarchical (often-times political)
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Ctlina Maria Georgescu
superior, the recruitment process was not public employees selection: on the one hand,
always performed on a rational choice- there are the so-called non-democratic
basis, by choosing the most capable can- methods of candidate selection, in which a
didates who could fulfil the demands of peculiar candidate is favoured due to
the job and public office10. heredity, nepotism, chance or hazard, and,
The public recruitment process has on the other hand, the so-styled democratic
witnessed some changes thus requiring methods characterised by professional,
taking into account the following issues: intellectual and/or political selection14.
In our opinion, the public recruitment
1) the conditions and changes appeared
procedure should pass through the following
on the labour market, 2) the systems
stages: the evaluation of the need to fill the
capacity to train and develop human
vacant position; drawing up the position
resources, 3) the attraction of the area
description and person specification; ad-
and local facilities, 4) the legislative
vertising the appointment; the inquiry into
framework, 5) the unions role, 6) the
the locations rich in potential applicants;
public organization image, 7) the orga-
attracting the applicants for the vacant
nization culture, 8) the managerial
appointments; spotting the fittest and most
policies and practices, 9) the existing
qualified applicants for the respective
economic, political, social values, and
positions15. In some democracies, the tendency
finally 10) the degree of financial and
is to render the recruitment process a more
managerial autonomy of public
active approach, with governments involved
organization11.
in the process of advertising for a career in
At present, most of the central and the public administration and sending
local public organizations are challenged by recruiters to university campuses16.
the shrinking number of public employees Moreover, we consider fit that the pro-
and the decrease in the public organization cedure of the public employees competitive
structure which are partly due to budgetary merit-based selection for both management
constraints12. Moreover, the public sector and execution position comprises the
functions within a legal framework whose following phases: a first selection in order
legal regulations and restrictions stipulate to reduce applications and possibly determine
on the rights and duties, protection and the most qualified applicants; filling in the
guarantees that ensure the functioning of standard application form to participate in
all public organizations13. However, the the examination; the employment interview;
reverse of the coin is that all major reforms the employment testing; references verification;
within the public management of human medical exam; final interview; hiring decision
resources have to be done according to and notification of results17. According to
centrally-approved instructions. Law no. 188/1999, the selection process is
According to the provisions of Law firstly conditioned by the existence of a
No. 188/1999, the beginning of the process vacant position, while Article 49 paragraph
of public recruitment is conditioned on 1 clearly stipulates another binding condition,
whether newly-created jobs or positions the organization of the contest, a written or
appear on the chart of the public orga- oral examination, in order to fill a vacant
nization or through the possibility of vacancy public appointment.
by pension, death, transfer or dismissal. Government Decision 1087/2001 regulates
The specialized literature discriminates the organization and development of the
between two categories of methods of contest and exams for filling the vacant
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POLITICS, ADMINISTRATION AND ECONOMY
Political control, public organizations recruitement and selection policies and
the New Public Management
public position. The idea is that by not resources practitioners. As regards the
respecting the provisions of the legal act, recruitment and selection procedures, their
one attracts the nullity of the appointment work distinguished between political
act. The principles which stand at the basis patronage-based methods and the non-
of filling public positions through compe- political or merit-based methods20. Moreover,
titive examination are: open competition, it is interesting to notice how Van Ripers
merit-based selection, transparency, equal assumption made in 1958 and used in
treatment, confidentiality of applicants personal Loverd and Pavlaks chapter, that one can
data18. Government Decision No. 452/2000 trace both selection procedures within the
regulates the organisation and development public administration, has kept its validity
of the exam of appointment attestation of civil till the present moment. The author argued
servants in management public functions in favour of the existence of either a non-
within public organizations. political or political civil service or a
Following the passing through the formula which combines the two21.
recruitment and selection procedures, the Or, in other words, quoting Fred
successful candidate is taken on the staff Kramer from his Dynamics of public
and appointed to the position through an bureaucracy: an introduction to public
appointment disposition issued by the management (1981), the merit-based system
competent authority which awards him/her comes in oposition to the spoils system in
the quality of civil servant. There is the which political criteria fundament
situation, however, of the elected public employment decisions22.
employees, for whom the appointment dis- The debate over the separation of politics
position validates the election and for whom from the administration has resulted in a
the beginning of their mandate is marked number of different views and models.
by taking an oath19. This is the case for the Thus, there are some voices who argue in
president of the state, MPs, county, city favour of the so-called political appointments
and commune counsellors, and mayors. (politicized bureaucracy) as regards some
There is a different situation for ministers, areas of the civil service for fear that a
general and depute directors, county prefects political sabotage occurs from the part of
and their deputies, vice-mayors, secretaries, the dissatisfied public employees of the
and other civil servants who are appointed previous mandate23. Moreover, the same
to their positions by the competent authorities. voices argue that, in practice, one could
hardly separate politics from the admi-
Merit-based career system versus nistration, due to the political agenda the
spoils system in the public sector governing party had established prior to its
In 1995 Richard A. Loverd and Thomas launch in the electoral battle and which has
J. Pavlak (in Jack Rabin, Thomas Vocino, to be executed through the public admi-
W. Bartley Hildreth and Gerald J. Miller, nistration. Thus, public employees are bound
Handbook of Public Personnel to show loyalty to their hierarchically political
Administration (1995) alinquired into the superiors and political organizations they
history of the American public represent and to the policy implemen-
administration. Their effort resulted in some tation; however, by being part in the
possible solutions to the problem of political process the civil servant must not
providing an increase in the efficiency of neglect his loyalty towards the citizen and
public organizations management, such as the the basic objectives of public management.
use of total quality management by human The public employee must thus play a
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Ctlina Maria Georgescu
based system: the principle of recruitment The problem of increasing the effec-
based on competition and contest, the tiveness of public employees recruitment
principle of ensuring the security of the job has been intricate mostly because of the
against arbitrary fyring and the principle of political patronage, the would-be appli-
political neutrality within public cants finding themselves in a position of
35
organizations . not knowing whether, as Evan M. Berman
Moreover, in 1977 Heclo made the et all. stated in Human Resource Management
following statements in favour of the merit- in Public Service: Paradoxes, Processes,
based career system and the creation of a and Problems, recruitment is a politically-
body of politically-neutral public servants, neutral process, or it is a political hiring
thus declaring himself in favour of the system38.
selection of subordinated governmental
officials on the basis of merit system and Note
1
against political criteria, ignoring the Jan-Hinrik Meyer-Sahling, The institutionalization
evolution of political appartenence of the of political discretion in post-communist civil
organization leadership at the moment of service systems: the case of Hungary in Public
candidates selection and orienting this Administration, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing,
Vol. 84, No. 3, 2006, pp. 693-716.
process according to competence, abilities 2
Fred A. Kramer, Dynamics of public bureaucracy:
and knowledge criteria, and ensuring job an introduction to public management,
security through negotiations with political Cambridge, Mass: Winthrop, cop. 1981, p. 27.
representatives36. 3
Evan Berman, James S. Bowman, Jonathan P.
West, Montgomery Van Wart, Human Resource
Conclusions Management in Public Service: Paradoxes,
Thus, public offices must be filled with Processes, and Problems, SAGE, 2005 p. 16
4
public employees, according to the legal OECD, Centre for Cooperation with Non-
provisions, who meet the person specifi- Members, OECD Economic Surveys. 1997-
cations of the appointment. In Romania, a 1998. Romania, OECD Publishing, 1998, p. 50.
5
Michael Barzelay, Origins of the New Public
great share of public offices are filled with
Management. An international view from
political appointees, a characteristic disapproved public administration/political science, in Kate
by many political science theorists as it McLaughlin, Stephen P. Osborne, Ewan Ferlie
was argued that it generates many flaws in (eds.), New Public Management. Current
the system; thus some demand a discri- trends and future prospects, Routledge,
mination among the civil servants public London, 2002, p. 15.
6
office, the public office of the political Armenia Androniceanu, Nouti n
elected official and the political office37. managementul public, ediia a 3-a, Bucureti:
Keeping a balance between centrally- Editura Universitar, 2008, pp. 15-16.
7
sprung political control over the management Armenia Androniceanu, Impactul Noului
Management Public asupra administraiei
of human resources and managerial
publice din Romnia in Administraie i
flexibility within public organizations is management public, Bucharest: ASE Publishing,
especially challenging due to the extensive 2006, No. 6, pp. 13-19.
set of rules and regulations. The pace of 8
Ibidem, p. 15.
public organizational reform is also dece- 9
Ibidem, p. 16.
10
lerated by the same centrally-introduced Armenia Androniceanu, op.cit.,2008, pp. 231-232
11
rules and regulations that govern the Ibidem, p. 232.
12
public management of human resources. Gabriela Matei, Pena Antonevici, Afrodita
Popa, Victor Giosan, Romania in Serdar Yilmaz,
79
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Ctlina Maria Georgescu
22
Jozsef Hegedus, Michael E. Bell, Subnational Fred A. Kramer, op. cit., p. 152.
23
Data Requirements for Fiscal Decentralization: M.J. Mafunisa, Separation of politics from
Case Studies from Central and Eastern Europe, the South African public service: rhetoric or
World Bank Publications, 2003, p. 82. reality?, in Journal of Public Administration,
13
Armenia Androniceanu, op. cit., 2008, p. 232. Vol. 38, No. 2, June 2003, pp. 85-101.
14 24
Armenia Androniceanu, op. cit., 2008, p. 236. Ibidem, p. 98.
15 25
Adapted after Armenia Androniceanu, op. Loverd and Pavlak, op. cit., p. 2.
26
cit., 2008, pp. 232-235 and Willy McCourt, Fred A. Kramer, op. cit., p. 155 and Willy
The merit system and integrity in the public McCourt, 2007, p. 6.
27
service, paper presented in the Conference on See M.J. Mafunisa, op. cit., pp. 89-90.
28
Public Integrity and Anticorruption in the Ibidem, p. 90.
29
Public Service, Bucharest, 2007, p. 6. See, for instance, the dichotomy model/
16
David H. Rosenbloom, Public Administration: depoliticized bureaucracy model as explained
understanding management, politics and law in in M.J. Mafunisa, op. cit., pp. 87-88.
30
the public sector, New York, McGraw-Hill, Armenia Androniceanu, op. cit., 2006, p. 16.
31
1993, p. 224. Marius Profiroiu, Alina Profiroiu, Cadrul
17
Adapted after Willy McCourt, Public general privind evoluia funciei publice din
Appointments: from Patronage to Merit, in Human Romnia in Administraie i management public,
Resources in Development Group Working Paper Bucharest: ASE Publishing, 2006, No. 6, p. 46.
32
Series, Institute for Development Policy and Armenia Androniceanu, op. cit., 2008, p. 208.
33
Management, University of Manchester, and Kaufman, 1965, p. 31 apud Loverd and
Armenia Androniceanu, op. cit., 2008, p. 236. Pavlak, in Jack Rabin et al. op. cit., p. 6.
18 34
Armenia Androniceanu, op. cit., 2008, p. 236-237. Sorauf, 1960, apud Loverd and Pavlak, op.
19
Ibidem, pp. 241-242. cit., p 6.
20 35
Richard A. Loverd, Thomas J. Pavlak, McMurty apud Loverd and Pavlak in Jack
Analysing the historical development of the Rabin et al., op. cit., p. 9.
36
American civil service in Jack Rabin, Handbook Heclo apud Loverd and Pavlak in Jack Rabin
of public personnel administration, CRC Press, et al., op. cit., p. 9.
37
1995, p.2. Armenia Androniceanu, op.cit., 2008, pp. 112-113.
21 38
Van Riper, 1958, apud Loverd and Pavlak, Evan M. Berman et all., op. cit., p. 60.
op. cit., p. 2.
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Gheorghe PRVU
Ramona GRUESCU
Roxana NANU
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Gheorghe Prvu, Ramona Gruescu, Roxana Nanu
To ensure market demand for both sectors, To study the convergence of real
agricultural sector with a mass production Romanian agriculture with the European
cannot adapt to the economy of scale in Union, we can write a SWOT matrix (strengths,
the industry. weaknesses, opportunities and risks).
Family agriculture is excessively atomized Strengths of the Romanian agriculture:
as regards property and organization, and - the second largest agricultural
this situation can be corrected through producer in Central and Eastern
policies that bring it closer to an integrated Europe, after Poland (agricultural
economic environment that produces con- area of 14.8 million hectares);
centrated offers. Moreover, agriculture cannot - climate and soil are conducive to
become performing integrated as industry, the development of an efficient
and also have auto producers. Without agriculture;
integration with upstream does not supply - potential development of organic
the downstream integration with no market farming;
and that demand stable. - use of traditional, not intensive,
A great decision in Romanian agri- methods.
culture at the beginning of this century was Weaknesses of the Romanian agriculture:
a complex restructuring of production and - the role of safety net for people
realization of links with industry and services who cannot find work in other
in the private ownership structures. areas;
In this process, the market has a role, - under resistance of farmers: large
but orientation in directions that run the number of small, family farms;
older States of the EU should be supported - large share of auto producers;
by policies that ensure economic perfor- - agricultural market is not fully
mance. Technical performance does not render functional;
economic and efficient if companies are - low level of support for farmers,
not open to the market. Competitiveness of low level of information capacity
our agriculture in the process of European and poor access to European funds;
integration must be ensured in terms of a - declining share of agricultural pro-
large opening to international trade. This duction in GDP has been accom-
does not mean that agriculture will be- panied by an increase in the share
come the victim of a lack of protection of agricultural population to
against unfair practices that penetrate our occupied civilian population.
domestic market. Romania is expecting that, under the
Reforming the agricultural sector is conditions created by the membership to
the basis of a comprehensive reform in the the European Union, to obtain or
Romanian society in the process of creating consolidate:
a market economy. Formation and functioning - economic stability;
of agricultural markets require competitive - large investments in structural funds;
principles: reform of agricultural structures, - higher revenue for farmers;
agricultural policy reform, institutional reform, - access to unique market for its products;
administrative reform. For the success of - increased demand for products
structural reforms, an active industrial policy with high added value.
must be accompanied by increasing com- Threats and risks for Romania's agriculture
petitiveness in the agricultural sector. are related to:
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Structural Modifications in Romanian Economy
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Gheorghe Prvu, Ramona Gruescu, Roxana Nanu
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Gheorghe Prvu, Ramona Gruescu, Roxana Nanu
nical services industries influence growth the position and role of services in the
of services and offer a level of quality; national economy. The three dimensions are:
consumption expenditure of public and the inextricable link between services
private administration influence the evo- and the process of building and running
lution of public services, not markets, the market;
for the benefit of the community or the deepening of intra-connexion relation-
groups of households; ships and integration of services and the
rates the exchange rate of currency in rest of the economy in general, and between
relation to the main currencies influencing services and industry in particular;
changes in international volute services, enhancing opportunities for growth and
stimulating or, on the contrary, discouraging development with the purpose of exten-
exports, with multiplier effects on the ding international transactions of services,
entire economy; following their gradual liberalization, the
interest rates determine the cost of institutional approach to the GATS
borrowing, encouraging or not the re- (globally) and the European Approval (at
course to loans for both investment and European level); as a partner, Romania has
consumption; made specific commitments to liberalization.
inflation-rate changes in the general
price index affect the purchasing power References
of population, cost of products, with 1. Iancu A. (2008), The Problem of
consequences for both the demand and Economic Convergence, in Supplement for
the Magazine Economic and Applied Theory.
supply of services.
2. Lipsey, R. (2000), Inward ISD and economic
Other economic factors like the growth in developing countries, Trans-
taxation level (taxes, fees, excises etc.), national Corporations vol. 9, no. 1, 2000.
budget policy (allocation of state budget 3. Patra M. (2008), The Evolution of Romanias
expenditure for public services), the pace Economy in EU: Preliminary Results and
of growth of labor productivity and others, Immediate Perspectives (years 2007-2008),
also influence the development of services in Economic Magazine, 18 June 2008.
and therefore should be carefully analyzed 4. Prvu Gh., Crng-Foamete C. (2008),
for a rigorous foundation of strategies for Disparities in the territorial structure of the
the development of the tertiary sector. Romanian economy, International Conference
Competitiviness and Stability in the
Reconsidering the role and importance
Knowledge-Based Economy, Craiova.
of services in the development of Romanias 5. Zaman Gh. (2007), Strategic points of
strategy should be a stringent requirement the efficiency of Romanias Integration
because of the state of insufficient deve- Process in the European Union, Volume of
lopment of this sector in our country, the Conference AGER 2007.
compared to the developed countries and 6. *** National Bank of Romania, Annual
even compared to countries like ours, in Report 2007, Review of the Main Economic
the process of structural adjustment to the and Financial Evolutions in 2007.
new contract imposed by the membership 7. *** European Cohesin Forum, 27-28
to the European Union. september, 2007, Brussels.
At least three dimensions of the 8. *** The Report: Romania 2008, Oxford
Business Group, 15 January 2008.
development services, that give substantive 9. *** http://www.mie.ro/index.php?p=205
appreciation to the Romanian efficient 10. *** insse.ro.
economic structures, while Europe and the
world witness a relentless amplification of
87
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
Michael RADU*
A
fter a conflict of more than a quarter Sri Lanka, an Indian Ocean country
of a century of terrorism and civil the size of West Virginia, has a diverse
war that killed 70,000 people, Sri population 81 percent is Sinhalese, most
Lankans finally think they have defeated of them Buddhist; some 11 percent are
the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), Tamils, who are generally Hindus, either
perhaps the worlds most murderous terrorist immigrants from India or native. Eight
organization. Why and how a small country percent of the population are Muslims. As
of 21 million succeeded in defeating such is so often the case in the former British
a group where much bigger powers have Empire, the native group most adept to
failed is a good lesson for those who study Western education and adaptable to British
terrorism and counterinsurgency. These lessons interests in this case the Tamils were
are primarily political and legal, but also disproportionately represented among the
military and diplomatic, and they include educated at the time of independence
both successes and pitfalls in a small (1948), and thus resented by the majority.
countrys road to peace and development. Free elections repeatedly brought to power
Sinhalese populists/socialists. Tamils were
* Michael Radu, Ph.D., is Senior Fellow pushed aside and the majority language
and Co-Chair of the Center on Terrorism declared the only official one. The result
and Counterterrorism (Foreign Policy was, and to some extent remains, Tamil
Research Institute in Philadelphia). This resentment and demands for autonomy, at
article is reprinted with authors permission, least in the northern (Jaffna) and Eastern
from: http://www.fpri.org/enotes/200902.radu.
(Trincomalee) areas where they predominate.
killcivilianshumanrightssrilanka.html
Key to understanding why the LTTE
lasted for so long and why India was in-
88
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
How to Kill Civilians in the Name of Human Rights: Lessons from Sri Lanka
volved in Sri Lanka on and off at various itself to elections; to the contrary, it is a
times is the fact that some 60 million quasi-cult terror group, subservient to the
Tamils live in three southern Indian states, whims of one person, Prabhakaran. His
primarily Tamil Nadu, and many of those decisions, rather than any nationalist goal,
support the LTTE out of ethnic solidarity. send people to their death, train them for
Equally, if not more, important, there is a death, preferably from childhood, and
large (ca. 800,000) Sri Lankan Tamil diaspora, have long murdered any moderate or
mostly in Canada, the UK, Australia, the nonviolent Tamil politician in the country.
U.S., and southeast Asia. This diaspora is In that, and many other respects, the LTTE
radicalized and, like most diasporas living are similar to other cultlike revolutionary
in safety, more radical than conationals in terrorists, such as the Kurdistan Workers
the country of origin. It still provides the Party (PKK) of Abdullah Ocalan in Turkey
funds, propaganda support, and public and Abimael Guzmans Communist Party
relations vital to the LTTEs survival. of Peru, a.k.a. Shining Path. Compared to
The LTTE pretends to fight for a those, Stalin and Mao had and officially
separate Tamil state (Tamil Eelam) in the claimed fewer powers. To comprehend
northern and eastern parts of the island, LTTE, imagine Jim Jones Temple cult of
and it has actually established a de facto state Guyana in possession of a navy and air
in those areas for almost a decade, complete force, as well as (at its height) some
with administration, courts, taxation, education, 20,000 fanatical and armed zombie followers.
etc. until it lost it all following the Sri Prabhakaran imposed a blood tax on
Lankan Army (SLA) offensive since the the people under his control. Each family
beginning of 2008. What did that state had to provide a son to the LTTE a pattern
look like? condemned by Amnesty International,
Though receiving considerable popular Human Rights Watch, and the UN. LTTE
support, the LTTE regime was (is) a made every follower bear a cyanide pill
command state. It has always been a military (thus few Tigers were ever captured) and
outfit and the insurrectionary war situation established special units, such as the black
hardly encouraged anything other than Tigers, for murder and assassination. In
dictatorship, but [Vellupillai Prabhakaran]s fact, until the early 1990s, the LTTE led
personal proclivities and the veneration he the world in suicide bombings, with vic-
received as a demi-god would have ac- tims including a president and many mi-
centuated this characteristic. Command state nisters of Sri Lanka, as well as a former
meant (means) command economy. State Prime Minister of India, Rajiv Gandhi
enterprises in transport, restaurants, etc. (1991). Unsurprisingly, the UN, EU, U.S.,
augmented the returns from taxation and and India all declared the LTTE a terrorist
import duties. A critical dimension of its group. Still, in the rich West, pro-LTTE
local resources was the supply of monies groups were allowed to collect funds (and
from the SL government in Colombo, occasional recruits), always illegally and
namely, salaries and pensions paid to a under threat, usually under the pretext of
wide range of Tamilspeaking administrators, freedom of expression but, in places like
including health officials, who were em- Canada, for electoral considerations.
ployees of the central state.1 The result was that for two decades
To begin with, the LTTE , despite its the LTTE was one of the world richest
claims and effective propaganda, does not terror groups, able to create its own navy
represent the Tamils. It never submitted and air force two bad ideas turning
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Michael Radu
against itself as it happened. That wealth diated peace process only led to more
and Prabhakarans unlimited ambitions led terrorism from the LTTE, the de facto
the LTTE to establish a conventional military partition of the island, and no solution to
force, helped, officially and economically the Tamil problem. The result was its for-
by the do-gooders from Norway a wealthy mal withdrawal from the process, its
country with overseas ambitions and best declaration of LTTE as a terrorist organi-
intentions, serving as a mediator between zation, and a serious military campaign
Sri Lanka and the LTTE. It was precisely aimed at the destruction of the Tigers as
the Norwegian mediation that, for almost a an armed force.
decade, allowed the LTTE to establish its Starting last year, the SLAs better
de facto state in the north and east and trained and armed elements some 50,000
Prabhakaran to use that for creating his altogether began a steady offensive against
totalitarian state there. LTTE-controlled areas in the north and
With an economy based on tourism, northwest (the east, following Karunas de-
rubber, and tea and heavily dependent on fection, was already Tiger free). By January
foreign aid, Sri Lanka was obviously vul- 2009 Kilinochchi, Prabhakarans capital,
nerable to terrorism, especially in regard to and Mullaitivu, his last major stronghold,
tourism and to the influence and fell. From a height of over 7,000 square
sensibilities of Western donors. The latter, miles, the LTTE area of control shrank to
as usual, are themselves sensitive to the some 30 square miles all surrounded by
enormously effective, and wealthy, pro- the military, from land and sea. While there
LTTE Tamil diaspora and the international are conflicting views over Prabhakarans
human rights lobbies such as AI and fate, it is most likely he is still in that area
HRW. Each of those, over time and for its after all, he is a wanted man by the
purposes, acted to prolong the conflict, pro- Interpol and most area countries. It is in
tect the LTTE, and thus have more Sri this environment that the so-called human
Lankans killed. At no time is that deadly rights NGOs and their political supporters
coalitions impact more obvious than now, are actively, whether willingly or not,
when the LTTE is on its deathbed. supporting the survival of the LTTE.
By the end of 2007, the Sri Lankan Most sources, from AI to HRW, the
electorate was tired of a war that never ended, Red Cross, and even Colombo, agree that
of a de facto division of the country; and some 200,000 or more civilians are trapped
of the wars continuing when a major part in the shrinking LTTE-controlled area. AIs
of the LTTE, under a defecting leader Yolanda Foster admitted that We just dont
(second in command to Prabhakaran, know whats been happening in the last few
Vinayagamoorthy Muralitharan, a.k.a. Karuna) weeks in Sri Lanka2. Her HRW colleagues,
was ready to cripple the Tigers. He did based on the same information, condemned
so, and is now the official leader of eastern the Sri Lanka regime for failing to distin-
region and as a former Tiger he effec- guish between the trapped civilians and the
tively controls, legally or not, a key area. rebels. The government, she noted, has
Under President Mahinda Rajapaksa, launched indiscriminate artillery attacks
whose brother Gotabaya Rajapaksa is con- on civilians who are trapped in the war zone,
veniently the defense minister, and under shelling hospitals and other designated
the very competent military leader Lieutenant humanitarian safe zones. She also ad-
General Sarath Fonseka, the Colombo govern- mitted that, Cornered and desperate, the
ment decided that the Norwegian-me- Tamil Tigers, have responded by using
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How to Kill Civilians in the Name of Human Rights: Lessons from Sri Lanka
civilians as human shields and forcing years for civilians formerly under Tiger
others, including children, into service as control and indoctrination and plausibly
fighters and porters on the battlefield.3 infiltrated by terrorist cadres.
If there are indeed some 200,000 or Ultimately, the issue is quite simple,
more civilians in the 30 square miles under both morally and practically. The eradica-
LTTE control (that would make that area tion of the LTTE, at least as a conventional
one of the most densely populated in the force, saves civilian lives. Misguided or, in
world, at 6,600 people per square mile), the case of pro-Tiger diaspora groups, dis-
how is the army going to separate them honest calls for a ceasefire would inevitably
from the LTTE cadres? Can any army do lead to more civilian casualties and a
that? Obviously not, which is why the so- revival of terrorism. Reason, rather than
lution advocated by the NGOs and, more pacifist or irrational thinking as manifested
logically, by the Tigers propaganda ma- by the human rights establishment, would
chine in the West and southern India, is a suggest that their efforts should be directed
cease-fire, ostensibly to allow the eva- toward aid to Sri Lanka for the reinsertion
cuation of civilians. That is why LTTE of Tamil civilians and not toward throwing
sympathizers are demonstrating in India, a line to the sinking LTTE.
England, and Canada, ostensibly in favor For more than a decade Western liberal
of a cease fire one that would allow the elites gave the LTTE a pass under the pre-
LTTE, once again, to escape final defeat, text that they represent real grievances of
come back and, of course, repeat the circle Sri Lankas Tamils. Ottawa, Washington,
again: civilian hostage taking, use, manipu- and Delhi closed their eyes to their own
lation and indoctrination included, as well Tamil citizens being forced or manipulated
as rearming. We have seen this movie into paying for the murder of civilians in
before, and many Sri Lankans, mostly Sri Lanka, despite officially declaring the
Tamils, have paid with their lives for it. Tigers a terrorist group. Military sanctions
On the other hand, the government were imposed on Colombo, aid was con-
intends to establish rehabilitation camps ditioned on tolerance of, or peace nego-
for Tamil refugees from Tiger controlled tiations with, Prabhakaran and the Tiger
areas and impose security controls as well. cancer grew. All of this pushed the government
Many of those refugees are traumatized by in Colombo into some dubious friendships
LTTE and war conditions, but some, like a (Iran and Venezuela come to mind), counter-
recent female suicide bomber disguised as productive and unnecessary if common
a refugee, are infiltrators who have to be sense in London or Ottawa would have
neutralized, which takes time and indivi- been the main policy criterion.
dual interrogations. The NGOs answer to Ultimately, Western views and policies
this common sense? The LTTEs grim vis--vis Sri Lanka prove that humanitarian
practices are being exploited by the govern- feelings and human rights are no policy
ment to justify its own atrocities. High alternative to common sense, and that even
level statements have indicated that the small countries, if desperate enough, could
ethnic Tamil population trapped in the war solve their secessionist/terrorist problems
zone can be presumed to be siding with the even despite the powerful human right
LTTE and treated as combatants, effectively NGOs pressures to commit national suicide.
sanctioning unlawful attacks.4 What are the Second, and most important and with wider
government atrocities? Temporary camps, implications, short term, obsessive preoccu-
with schools and clinics, for some two pation with civilian casualties is often a
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
I
storia provinciei Kosovo este extrem de ratiste care i cer dreptul la autonomie:
complex i controversat, nefiind nici- Osetia de Sud, Abhazia, Corsica, Trans-
odat un model de interaciune politic nistria etc. n virtutea acelorai argumente,
ori de ajustare a tensiunilor i conflictelor vor fi i alii care percep, prin apariia noului
aprute n aceast arie geografic. Toate stat Kosovo, o posibil i viitoare aciune de
demersurile de eliminare a asperitilor te- rsturnare a suveranitii naionale din motive
ritoriale, politice, economice i socio-cul- morale sau umanitare, dat fiind faptul c
turale ce au fost prezente aici nu au favo- O.N.U, alte organizaii internaionale, S.U.A,
rizat o acomodare panic ntre srbi i precum i cteva ri occidentale au favo-
albanezi ci, dimpotriv, soldndu-se, n cele rizat, prin pasivitate politic, aciunile se-
din urm, cu pierderi umane i materiale paratiste din aceast zon.
de ambele pri, mai ales pentru Belgrad, Aa s-a ajuns la ncurajarea unei reale
care s-a vzut n situaia de nvins, prin fore opuse, perturbatoare, ntr-o geografie
schimbarea de sistem i de frontiere. extrem de sensibil, marea extindere a
Astfel, prin crearea artificial, dup fostei Iugoslavii ducnd la declinul i frag-
unii, normal dup alii, a statului indepen- mentarea acesteia, la nceput, apoi, la distru-
dent Kosovo, s-a modificat distibuia pu- gerea cvasitotal.
terii n aceast parte a Balcanilor, prin Nu minoritatea creatoare, cum ar spune
apariia unui precedent periculos n ceea ce Arnold Toynbee, ci printr-o agresivitate per-
privete relaiile internaionale i poziio- manent i susinut din exterior, albanezii
narea unor noi actori n sistemul mondial. din Kosovo au zdruncinat din temelii pax
Prin proclamarea independenei de ctre balcanica ntruct s-au produs mutaii sem-
Parlamentul din Kosovo la 12 februarie nificative n raporturile dintre state, nde-
2008, se impune un model i pentru cei osebi n Europa, prin recunoaterea inde-
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cazul lui Hashim Thaci, ajuns prim mi- ministru al Kosovo, dei era acuzat de
nistru al noului stat independent. crime de rzboi.
Duplicitatea american s-a relevat i
n faptul c multe cadre militare de con- Baza Bondsteel i interesele americane
ducere, ofieri U.C.K, au fost antrenai n n Balcani
S.U.A n cadrul Planului de Pace, demers Pe bun dreptate se ntreab Adrian
care s-a soldat ulterior, cu apariia unei Iancu, n articolul Kosovo, nceputul unui
fore militare redutabile, capabil s ope- alt rzboi rece, de ce destrmarea fostei
reze eficace n zonele de conflict deschis, Iugoslavii s-a fcut n trepte: mai nti
ocupate de populaia de origine srb. Slovenia, apoi, Croaia, apoi, dup doi ani
Un factor destabilizator din Kosovo l- Bosnia-Heregovina, n fine, dup ali ani,
a constituit i atitudinea exagerat de to- Kosovo. Dac relaiile interetnice ar fi fost,
lerant a autoritilor engleze care au favo- n 1990, att de dramatic ireconciliabile,
rizat radicalizarea aciunilor etnicilor alba- nu era normal ca dezmembrarea s aib
nezi. n cartea The Coming Balkan Caliphate, loc aproape simultan?2 Nu cumva, decla-
aprut n 2007, autorul, Christopher Deliso rarea unilateral a independenei Provinciei
atrage atenia c Societatea Islamic alba- Kosovo face parte dintr-un scenariu amplu,
nez din Londra, condus de eicul koso- bine structurat, i pus n practic de unele
var Muhammed Stubla, a fcut un lobby state occidentale, susinute consistent de
activ i a procurat fonduri pentru U.C.K.. S.U.A? Or, chiar guvernul de la
nc din 1998, n capitala Angliei, la mos- Washington se afla la originea acestui plan
cheea Finsbury Park, se fceau recrutri pentru a-i asigura accesul la petrolul caspic
masive de lupttori islamici pentru rzboiul i la uriaele resurse din aceast parte a
sfnt din Kosovo, sub conducerea eicului seciei?
Omar Bakri Muhammed, membru al Al- Operaiunea Status, denumit de
Qaeda. americani ori Planul Athisaari, propus
Exist voci care susin c serviciul se- de O.N.U., evideniaz mecanismul i stra-
cret britanic M16 era la cunotin de in- tegia guvernului american de a penetra
teniile i aciunile unor lideri musulmani ntr-o zon geostrategic i geo-economic
din Anglia, ndeosebi ale lui Omar Bakri extrem de important, n care rutele bal-
care declara c noi, islamitii, nu facem canice, europene i asiatice se ntretaie, iar
distincie ntre civilizai i non-civilizai, conflictele de aici pot fi uor negociate i
inoceni i non-inoceni. Singura distincie limitate. Spiritul Rzboiului Rece i dimi-
pe care o facem este ntre musulmani i nuarea cooperrii ntre S.U.A i o Europ
necredincioi. Viaa unui necredincios n mai unit au dovedit c prezena ameri-
Islam nu are nici o valoare.1 can pe btrnul continent nu mai repre-
Este de-a dreptul incalificabil atitu- zint un deziderat ori o necesitate.
dinea tolerant a unor guverne occidentale Repetatele eecuri ale comunitii inter-
n legtur cu aciunile teroriste ale lui Agim naionale n probleme majore ce trebuiau
Ceku, cel care a condus operaiunea Storm gestionate de O.N.U. (a se vedea capul
(Furtuna), soldat cu exodul a 250.000 de Iugoslaviei, al Irakului) reclam un alt fel
civili srbi i uciderea a 15.000 de civili. de tip de reacie din partea marilor puteri, o
Dup ncheierea operaiunii Mistral din abordare nou a proteciei i impunerii
Vestul Bosniei, generalul Agim Ceku a propriilor interese n lume. Dar, care sunt
revenit n Kosovo, devenind comandantul aceste interese americane n Kosovo?
U.C.K., iar n 2006 a fost numit prim-
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Exist voci care reclam c, dup 1990, regiune fiind identificate rezerve de 7 mi-
specialitii americani au elaborat planul liarde de tone de crbune, cantiti uriae
Kosovo, iar acordul de la Rambouillet, din de zinc i plumb. Potrivit experilor, sus-
martie 1999, de ocupare a spaiului koso- ine Vladimir Alexe, rezervele de lignit din
var de ctre forele N.A.T.O, precum i Kosovo ar fi suficiente Europei n urm-
bombardarea ulterioar a Iugoslaviei, ncepnd toarele 13 secole.
cu 21 martie 1999, sunt doar consecine n aceste condiii ne ntrebm nc o
fireti ale acestei strategii politico-militare dat, care a fost adevrata miz a S.U.A.,
de sorginte american, de penetrare ntr-o susinnd cu frenezie gruparea U.C.K. i
zon extrem de important pentru S.U.A. aciunile secesioniste ale acesteia? Interesele
Ulterior, acest proiect a fost confirmat majore americane ntr-o zon geostrate-
de construirea, n acest perimetru, a celei gic i geo-economic important ori
mai mari baze americane dup rzboiul din accesul la substanialele resurse de aici?
Vietnam, Camp Bondsteel, cu scopul de- Rezultatele acestor rzboaie afec-
clarat de a securiza oleoductul AMBO teaz structurile economice, sociale i ideo-
(Bulgaria, Macedonia, Albania), care asigur logice ale societilor individuale ca i
transportul de petrol din Marea Caspic, structurile sistemului internaional3, crede
prin Marea Neagr, Bulgaria, Macedonia Robert Gilpin.
i Albania, pn n portul albanez Vlora de Aseriunea sa este valabil i n cazul
la Marea Adriatic i de aici nspre S.U.A. Kosovo, cci prin independena unilateral
Acest nou oleoduct, cu o lungime de acordat acestei provincii s-a creat un pre-
913 km, va transporta zilnic 750.000 de cedent extrem de periculos, ct i o ano-
barili, att pentru S.U.A., ct i pentru malie n Balcani, susine Liza Karpova de
unele state occidentale europene. Cons- la publicaia moscovit Pravda: existena
trucia lui a fost finanat de cele mai mari real i concret a dou state albaneze, ca
companii petroliere din lume: Chevron i i perspectiva de a fi trei, ntr-un viitor nu
Exxon-Mobile, iar terminalul din portul prea ndeprtat, prin probabila cerere a al-
albanez Vlora va asigura tancurilor petro- banezilor din Macedonia de a-i crea pro-
liere un transport de aproximativ 300.000 priul stat, iar dac, pe criterii etnice, alba-
tone. nezii din Bosnia vor fi sprijinii n ten-
Dup ncetarea bombardamentelor asupra dinele lor separatiste, vom asista la apariia
Iugoslaviei, S.U.A au intrat n posesia a celui de-al patrulea stat albanez, situaie
500 ha de teren lng localitatea Uraevac fr precedent n Istoria Europei.
i au construit cea mai mare baz militar, Aadar, cui prodest noua realitate politic
sub conducerea a 1000 de ingineri de la din Balcani?
firma Kellog, Brown and Root Corporation,
condus pn n 2000, de Dick Cheney, Note
1
fost vicepreedinte al S.U.A. Vladimir Alexe, Kalifatul mafiot Kosovo, n
Una din explicaiile apariiei acestui Ziua, 15 martie 2008, anul XI, nr. 501, p. 11.
2
obiectiv militar major n Balcani rezid n Adrian Iancu, Kosovo, nceputul unui alt
rzboi rece, n Sptmna financiar, 3 martie
existena n zon a unor consistente resurse
2008. p. 12.
minerale de argint, aur, zinc, crbune, lo- 3
Robert Gilpin, Rzboi i schimbare n politica
calizate n perimetrul Stari Trg. Aici se mondial, Ed. Scrisul Romnesc, Craiova, 2000,
afl a treia exploatare de zinc din lume, p. 260.
Kosovo fiind un alt Kuweit al Balcanilor,
un El Dorado al timpurilor actuale, n
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E
lementul fundamental care st la mai nalt a legturii dintre ceteni i statul
baza construciei europene este re- integrat n organizaia european. De altfel,
prezentat de oameni, ceteni ai Uniunii, motivul care a stat n spatele noiunii de
ca subieci ai tuturor aciunilor comunitare. cetenie european a fost acela c o uni-
Realizarea importanei oamenilor i a rolului une politic cere o asumare a responsabi-
pe care l joac cetenii n existena pre- litii pentru condiia social a cetenilor
zent i viitoare a Uniunii a dus la extin- care nu pot sprijini o Uniune dezinteresat
derea competenelor comunitare n domeniul de nevoile lor. Acest motiv a aprut ca jus-
social i la introducerea noiunii de cet- tificat atunci cnd nepopularitatea construciei
enie european, ca o extindere ntr-un plan europene a ieit la suprafa odat cu dez-
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baterile asupra ratificrii Tratatului de la nfptuite toate cele patru liberti se poate
Maastricht, ceea ce a adncit convingerea vorbi de realizarea pieei unice. Libertatea
c UE trebuie nu numai s fac mai mult de circulaie a persoanelor nu poate fi consi-
pentru publicul larg, dar i s fie vzut derat realizat pe deplin dac mrfurile,
fcnd mai mult. O mai mare transparen capitalurile i serviciile nu pot circula fr
a aciunilor comunitare, un efort mai mare restricii sau interdicii ori nu exist posibi-
de a informa publicul asupra a ceea ce ce liti de transfer al sumelor dobndite ntr-
se ntmpl, a lua decizii ct mai favo- o alt ar printr-o activitate desfurat
rabile oamenilor i a-i implica ct mai mult potrivit legislaiei comunitare. Tot astfel,
n procesul de luare a deciziilor au devenit libertatea de a furniza servicii implic, n
scopuri bune de urmat pentru a asigura o majoritatea cazurilor, circulaia persoanelor
ct mai mare publicitate, relaii mai strnse ctre ara primitoare, dar aceste persoane nu
cu organizaiile de voluntariat i punerea n urmresc accesul pe piaa muncii din
aplicare a procedurilor Acordului social aceast ar.
anexat Tratatului de la Maastricht1. n al doilea rnd, cele patru liberti nu
Conceptul de cetenie a Uniunii a pot fi realizate fr o puternic afirmare a
fost introdus prin Tratatul de la Maastricht, drepturilor fundamentale ale cetenilor
conform cruia Orice persoan avnd naio- europeni, n special a drepturilor de natur
nalitatea unui stat membru va fi cetean al social i economic care confer acestora
Uniunii. Cetenia Uniunii va fi un comple- posibilitatea de a pune n practic aceste
ment i nu va nlocui cetenia naional. liberti. Printre celelalte drepturi individuale
Cetenii Uniunii se vor bucura de toate i politice care le permit cetenilor Uniunii
drepturile conferite de acest tratat i vor fi s-i exercite cele patru liberti sau s i le
subiect al obligaiilor impuse de acesta2. apere, dac le sunt nclcate se numr:
Opt din statele membre UE au acceptat dreptul de a circula i de a locui liber pe
dubla cetenie: Portugalia, Irlanda, Marea teritoriul statelor membre; dreptul de a vota
Britanie, Olanda, Belgia, Frana, Italia i i de a fi ales n cadrul alegerilor munici-
Grecia3. pale i europene, din statul membru unde
Cetenia european nglobeaz att i are reedina, n condiii egale cu ceilali
aspecte de ordin economic, ct i politic, resortisani ai statului; dreptul de protecie
ea conferind titularului, cetean al unui diplomatic i consular n tere ri; dreptul
stat membru al Uniunii Europene, indife- de a adresa petiii.
rent de statul pe teritoriul cruia i-a stabilit Tratatul de la Amsterdam, care a intrat
domiciliul sau reedina, anumite drepturi n vigoare n 1999, a contribuit la consoli-
civile i politice. darea drepturilor fundamentale ale cetenilor
n primul rnd, drepturile de care bene- europeni. Acesta a introdus o procedur de
ficiaz titularii ceteniei europene se refer sancionare a statelor membre care violeaz
la cele patru liberti fondatoare ale UE drepturile fundamentale ale ceteanului. De
care stau la baza crerii pieei unice, insti- asemenea, aria de aplicare a principiului
tuite prin Tratatul de la Roma: libera circu- non-discriminrii, limitat pn atunci la
laie a mrfurilor, persoanelor, serviciilor naionalitate, a fost extins la sex, ras, re-
i capitalurilor. Cele patru liberti nu pot ligie, vrst i orientare sexual. n concluzie,
exista ns dect ntr-o strns interdepen- Tratatul de la Amsterdam a mbuntit
den, fiecare dintre ele vdindu-i importana politica de transparen a Uniunii i le-a
proprie n realizarea obiectivelor principale permis cetenilor un acces mai larg la do-
ale Uniunii Europene. Numai dac sunt cumentele oficiale ale instituiilor europene.
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care recurge n mod frecvent la lucrtori de cel puin 11 ore consecutive. n cazul n
noapte s informeze n aceast privin care timpul de munc zilnic este mai mare
autoritile competente, la cererea acestora. de 6 ore, orice lucrtor trebuie s bene-
n plus, angajatorul care urmrete s ficieze de o pauz a crei durat i carac-
organizeze munca n conformitate cu un teristici vor fi stabilite prin contractul colectiv
anumit ritm, trebuie s in cont de prin- de munc sau prin acorduri ncheiate ntre
cipiul general de adaptare a muncii la om, partenerii sociali, ori, n lipsa acestora, prin
n special pentru a atenua munca monoton legislaia naional. Potrivit art. 7 alin. 1 al
i munca cu o caden predeterminat n Directivei 93/104/CE, statele membre trebuie
funcie de tipul de activitate i de exigen- s ia msurile necesare de o asemenea
ele n materie de securitate i de sntate, manier nct orice lucrtor s beneficieze
mai ales n ceea ce privete pauzele pe du- de concediu anual pltit de cel puin 4
rata timpului de munc. Directiva 89/ sptmni, conform condiiilor de obinere
391/CEE privind introducerea de msuri i de atribuire prevzute prin legislaii i/
de ncurajare a mbuntirilor n domeniul sau practici naionale. Perioada minim de
securitii i sntii lucrtorilor n munc concediu anual pltit nu poate fi nlocuit
atribuie angajatorilor responsabilitatea pre- printr-o indemnizaie financiar dect n
venirii bolilor profesionale, printre care i cazul ncetrii contractului individual de
cele cauzate de hruirea moral. munc.
Directiva nr. 93/104/CEE nu aduce Conform art. 9 din Carta drepturilor
atingere, conform art. 15, prerogativei statelor sociale fundamentale, orice munc trebuie
membre de a aplica sau introduce dispoziii s fie remunerat n mod echitabil (just).
legislative, normative sau administrative De aceea se impune ca, fie prin lege, fie
mai favorabile lucrtorilor sau de a favo- prin negociere colectiv la nivel naional,
riza sau permite aplicarea unor convenii regional, interprofesional, sectorial sau la
colective sau acorduri ncheiate ntre parte- nivel de ntreprindere, s se instituie un
nerii sociali mai favorabile proteciei secu- salariu decent, s se instituie reguli care s
ritii i sntii lucrtorilor. Art. 17 al permit asigurarea, pentru muncitorii su-
Directivei permite o serie de derogri, dar pui altui regim de munc dect cel al con-
cu luarea unor msuri compensatorii adecvate. tractului pe durat determinat, un salariu
Prevederile acestei directive se aplic tuturor de referin echitabil, iar salariile s nu
sectoarelor de activitate, cu excepia trans- fac obiectul nici unei reineri, urmriri sau
porturilor aeriene, feroviare, rutiere, maritime, cesiuni dect n conformitate cu dispo-
fluviale, lacustre, pescuitului maritim, altor ziiile naionale, fr a-l priva niciodat pe
activiti maritime, precum i activitii salariat de mijloacele necesare pentru asi-
medicilor n formare. gurarea ntreinerii sale i a familiei sale. n
n ceea ce privete dreptul la odihn, programul su de aciune, Comisia a
Directiva 93/104/CEE prevede c orice estimat c UE nu are atribuia de a fixa un
lucrtor trebuie s beneficieze, n cursul salariu de referin decent, ci de a propune
unei perioade de 7 zile, de o perioad mi- i de a emite, dup consultarea statelor
nim de repaus nentrerupt de 24 ore. Prin membre, un aviz referitor la acest subiect.
urmare, sptmna de lucru este de 6 zile, De asemenea, s-a statuat c salariaii trebuie
iar repausul sptmnal de 24 de ore. s fie protejai mpotriva riscului insolvabi-
Aceeai directiv prevede c, n cadrul litii angajatorului. Textul comunitar care
unei perioade de 24 de ore, salariatul tre- reglementeaz protecia salariailor n cazul
buie s beneficieze de un repaus zilnic de insolvabilitii angajatorului este Directiva
102
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
Drepturile socio-economice ale cetenilor europeni
103
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
Cezar Avram, Roxana Radu
7
Punerea Cartei pe picior de egalitate, ca Declaraia Republicii Polone cu privire la
valoare juridic, cu tratatele constitutive Carta drepturilor fundamentale a Uniunii
ale Uniunii Europene nu modific atribu- Europene (Declaraia nr. 62).
8
iile Uniunii, dar are o semnificaie covri- M. Constantinescu, I. Deleanu, A. Iorgovan, I.
Muraru, F. Vasilescu, I. Vida, Constituia
toare deoarece ofer drepturi consolidate,
Romniei comentat i adnotat, R. A.
mai mult libertate i egalitate cetenilor, Monitorul Oficial, Bucureti, 1992, p. 95.
inclusiv persoanelor care aparin minoritilor. 9
Raluca Dimitriu, Noul Cod al Muncii. Privire
asupra principiilor fundamentale, n Raporturi
Note de munc nr. 3/2003, p. 50.
1 10
Ali M. El-Agraa, The European Union. N. Catala, R. Bonnet, Droit social europen,
History, Institutions, Economics and Policies, ditions Litec, Paris, 1991, p. 141.
11
Prentice Hall Europe, 1998, p. 396. Jean Boulouis, Roger-Michel Chevallier
2
Ex-art. 8 a-e din Tratatul CE, n prezent art. Grands arrts de la Cour de justice des
17-22. communauts europennes, tome 2, Dalloz,
3
Cetenii celor 27 ri ale Uniunii sunt nu Paris, 1997, p. 501.
12
numai actori ai construciei europene, ci re- J. M. Servais, Droits en synergie sur le
prezint scopul final, chiar dac nu-i dau travail. lments de droits international et
ntotdeauna seama de impactul pe care l au compar du travail, Bruylant, Bruxelles, 1997,
deciziile luate de ctre instanele de la Bruxelles p. 53.
13
asupra vieii lor profesionale i personale. M. Duverger, lments de droit public, PUF,
Comitetul Adonnino (Comitetul de reflecie, Paris, 1983, p. 200, citat n I. Dogaru, D.C.
dup numele celui care l-a prezidat) alctuit de Dnior, Drepturile omului i libertile publice,
Consiliul de la Fontainebleau (iunie 1984) a pus Editura Zamolxe, Chiinu, 1998, p. 220.
14
la punct un program de lucru privitor la libera Simina Elena Tnsescu, Principiul egalitii
circulaie a persoanelor. Felipe Gonzales n dreptul romnesc, Editura All Beck, 1999, p.
(primul-ministru spaniol) a avansat n 1990 305-306.
15
instaurarea unei cetenii europene. A se vedea Bureau International du Travail, La scurit
Ferreol Gilles, La Personne Citoyenne, sociale, Genve, 1995, p. 4.
16
IPRESCO / IHEDN / CRDP, Poitou Charentes, Art. 2.2 din Directiva 98/59/CEE din 20 iulie
Poitiers, 1998. 1998 privind armonizarea legislaiilor statelor
4
A se vedea Declaraia Republicii Cehe cu membre referitoare la concedierile colective.
privire la Carta drepturilor fundamentale a
Uniunii Europene (Declaraia nr. 53).
5
Conform Declaraiei nr. 62, Polonia declar
c, avnd n vedere tradiia micrii sociale
Solidaritatea i contribuia sa semnificativ la
lupta pentru drepturi sociale i de munc,
respect pe deplin drepturile sociale i de
munc stabilite prin dreptul Uniunii i, n
special, pe cele reafirmate n titlul IV din Carta
drepturilor fundamentale a Uniunii Europene
(Declaraia Republicii Polone cu privire la
Protocolul privind aplicarea Cartei drepturilor
fundamentale a Uniunii Europene n Polonia i
n Regatul Unit).
6
M. Hubert Haenel, Raport d'information fait
au nom de la dlgation pour l'Union
europenne sur le Trait de Lisbonne,
http://www.senat.fr/rap/r07-076/r07-0761.pdf,
p. 8.
105
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
Abstract: The article discusses the reasons that determined the European
Commission to evaluate administrative capacities of its Member States and
to take them into account as criteria for EU membership. The main
conclusion that can be drawn is that the EU has little direct competences in
the field of public administration of its Member States and Candidate
Countries, though it appears that high administrative capacities are among
the priorities of EU accession requirements. As regards Member States, the
article discusses the appearance of principles of good administration in
several EU documents.
Keywords: acquis communautaire, administrative capacities, European
Union, principles of good administration, public administration, Member
States.
T
he present article is aimed at providing by excessive European legislation, Member
an answer for the following question: States and the European Commission have
What were the reasons that determined jointly come to the solution of an Action
the European Commission to evaluate the Program whose results should be visible
public administrations of Member States by 20123.
and Candidate Countries? Curious as it The provisions issued by the European
may seem, with some few exceptions when Councils of Copenhagen (June 1993) and
Member States were demanded the use of Madrid (December 1995) stand at the
certain administrative structures in various foundation of the Commissions Avis of July
sectors1, the Union has not legislated in the 1997, regarding each application for EU
field of public administration, but has allowed membership, each avis being accompanied
public administration to be managed by by recommendations containing rather general
the national authorities, according to the guidelines. The political criteria set up in
subsidiarity principle and in such a manner Copenhagen spoke of the possession by
so as to reach the purposes established by EU applicants of stable institutions guaranteeing
106
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
EU competences in the field of public administration of Member States and Candidate countries
democracy, the rule of law, human rights public administration as they consider
and respect for and protection of minorities, appropriate. Furthermore, the idea is that
while the Madrid decision invited Central the Commission does not have the right to
and Eastern European Countries to prepare impose any firm demands regarding the
for the adjustment of their administrative manner in which the national public admi-
structures. nistration is organized, but encourages
national authorities to operate into their
Administrative capacities as administrations according to the subsidiarity
prerequisites for EU membership principle; however, with differences from
The provisions set out in Copenhagen country to country, which represent genuine
and Madrid were not the only ones stating characteristics of each administration, the
the importance of administrative reform as state has to meet what it is styled as
an indicator of willingness to become full performance requirements or obligation
member of the EU. In its Avis of July 1997, of results7.
the Commission claimed that administrative The Copenhagen Summit in June
capacity is a condition for EU member- 1993 witnessed the building of the criteria
ship4 since, once admitted, new Member and conditions of EU membership for
States have only a short period of time in Central and Eastern European Countries:
which to transpose the huge body of
Membership requires that the can-
European law the acquis communautaire
didate country has achieved stability
within their national legislation, a demand
of institutions guaranteeing democracy,
viewed by some as a rather new condition,
the rule of law, human rights and respect
that was not on the Commissions agenda
for and protection of minorities, the
regarding the countries which had acceded
existence of a functioning market eco-
in the first waves of enlargement5.
nomy as well as the capacity to cope
Actually, what interested the Commission
with competitive pressure and market
was the Member States ability to tran-
forces within the Union. Membership
spose EU policies and legislation at home.
presupposes the candidate's ability to
This task could only be accomplished
take on the obligations of membership
through an efficient public administration.
including adherence to the aims of po-
The EU has no European administrative
litical, economic and monetary union8.
law, nor does it have a public adminis-
tration of its own, but depends on national The accession negotiation procedure
public administrations that function under contains issues related to public administration.
the subsidiarity principle6. And since the The procedure comprises three phases:
EU depends on each of its Member States Accession Partnerships, for which the general
administration to put its decisions into framework is prescribed at Community level;
practice, just as each of its Member States national programs for the implementation
depends on the other to implement every of the body of EU law that applicants are
piece of Community legislation, it thus obliged to meet; and finally, Institution
becomes very clear why the Commission Building Plans that settle the measures that
has emphasized the relation between EU need to be adopted in relation to public
membership and performing national public administration9.
administrations. As regards Candidate Countries, their
As a result, Member States are not obligation of meeting special requirements
restricted in their rights to organize their for public administrations was laid down
107
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Ctlina Maria Georgescu
as early as in May 1995, by the Cannes PHARE Program and the program esta-
White paper on preparation of the asso- blished through the Commissions White
ciated countries of Central and Eastern Europe Paper for integration into the EU internal
for integration into the internal market of market. This latter element was designed
the Union, which stated that the Commission to outstretch the phase of implementing
will evaluate not only the paper work the legislation referring to the common
accomplished in what the implementation market, being pointed at boosting admi-
of Community legislation is concerned, but nistrative capacities demanded precisely in
also the resourcefulness for putting Community order to facilitate the transposition of
law into practice in the respective countries10. Community legislation. The Commissions
The following excerpt provides for the Agenda 2000 would unite these four units
Conditions necessary to implement and under a new form of pre-accession strategy12.
enforce legislation: In another document, the European
Commission Opinions Concerning the Accession
3.25. The main challenge for the
of the Central and Eastern European
associated countries in taking over
Countries to the European Union, on the
internal market legislation lies not in
efforts made by former Candidate Countries,
the approximation of their legal texts,
at present Member States, on the road to
but in adapting their administrative
accession, the Commission did not impose
machinery and their societies to the
a model, but rather general guidelines for
conditions necessary to make the le-
solving public administration issues, while
gislation work. This is a complex pro-
its responses to Member States have always
cess requiring the creation or adap-
been centered on continuing the reform
tation of the necessary institutions and
process13. Public administration, political
structures, involving fundamental changes
and economic issues and the capacity to
in the responsibilities of both the national
take over the demands of EU membership
administrative and judicial systems
have remained a constant preoccupation
and the emerging private sector.
for the Commission as regards Candidate
3.26 The presence of the necessary Countries. Jacques Fournier (1998) found
enforcing authorities is crucial to pro- that the Commission has dedicated an
vide certainty of other Members of the entire chapter to the issue of public
Community that legislation is properly administration capacities, an issue which
implemented. The proper operation of has also been dealt with in other areas:
these administrative, judicial or private
sector structures in turn depends on in the section on political criteria,
training and education facilities for the which describes the functioning of
personnel concerned. institutions and of the executive in
particular and discusses the judicial
The requirements stipulated in the system, local government and the civil
Cannes White Paper add to the institu- service;
tional demands of the membership criteria
established by the European Council in in the section on the obligations of
Copenhagen11. The pre-accession strategy membership, financial questions and
comprises four units: the Europe agreements, control mechanisms are discussed14.
the structured relations/structural dialogue Moreover, Jacques Fournier considered
with the institutions of the Union, the that the following statements could best
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
EU competences in the field of public administration of Member States and Candidate countries
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Ctlina Maria Georgescu
actions of EU institutions and bodies. On Treaty could ratify the uncertain legal status
September 6th, 2001, the European Parliament of the good administration principle28.
adopted a resolution containing a slightly-
changed Code of Good Administrative Conclusions
Behavior destined to regulate the relations It is time we returned to the question
between the EU institutions and bodies our study began with: what were the reasons
and the public. that determined the European Commission
Moreover, the resolution invited the to evaluate the public administrations of its
European Commission to suggest a regu- Member States and Candidate Countries?
lation containing the Code of Good The answer lies in the huge body of legi-
Administrative Behavior, using Article 308 slation that has to be harmonized throughout
of the Treaty establishing the European the Union and which requires a performing
Community as a legal instrument. Although and efficient public administration, as regards
one hoped that by issuing a piece of legi- both the system and the human resources
slation containing the Code it would in- that operate in it29.
crease the legal power of the good Since the EU has no administration of
administration principle, the implications its own, but relies on its Member States
for Member States of using Article 308 administrations to implement its decisions,
overweighed the expected results. In most the last decade has witnessed an interesting
cases, building upon Article 308 of the EC and positive phenomenon, the building of
Treaty also styled the flexibility clause, a so-called European administrative space30,
as it permits Community powers to match putting together in a rather complementary
the objectives of the Treaty, should it not manner the administrative practices of Member
stipulated the means of action in that States, a space in which public servants of
direction is a subject of concern for some Member States actually meet to share
Member States as they believe it to be a information and experiences in addressing
means of increasing the competences of the issues they come across. Boosting
the Union in the detriment of their own26. communication and gathering comparable
The most important principles of good data and information and examples of
administration were thought to be lawfulness good practice in other Member States are
(Article 4), non-discrimination (Article 5) also utile concerns. A EU-wide adminis-
and proportionality (Article 6)27. trative space acting under the subsidiarity
The issues that have occurred in the principle that can effectively and efficiently
ratification process of the new Constitutional transpose every piece of legislation origi-
Treaty (with its Article III-398 regarding nating from the Union and whose efforts
the administration of the EU) do not add help boosting economic growth are the
power to the principle of good administration, main lines to describe the prerequisites of
but on the contrary; moreover, one must this administrative space31. It thus rests with
have in view the fact that the two other both Member States and present and future
documents in which the principle was pre- Candidate Countries to develop their admi-
viously legislated, the Charter of Funda- nistrative capacities so as to meet the EU
mental Rights of the European Union and requirements in the matter.
the Ombudsmans Code of Good Admi- The issue of the Cannes White Paper
nistrative Behavior, had no legal instru- has brought into the limelight the need for
ments to force to conformity; many hoped perseverance into administrative reform
that the ratification of the Constitutional for countries applying for membership.
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Ctlina Maria Georgescu
6
The main conclusion that can be drawn Ibidem, p. 13.
7
is that the EU has little direct competences Ibidem, p. 13.
8
European Council in Copenhagen, 21-22 June
in the field of public administration of its 1993, Conclusions of the Presidency, p. 14.
Member States and Candidate Countries, 9
Preparing public administrations for the European
though it appears that high administrative administrative space, p. 14.
10
capacities are among the priorities of EU Jacques Ziller, EU Integration and Civil Service
Reform, in Preparing public administrations for the
accession requirements. However, European European administrative space, p. 138.
membership does not depend solely on 11
Les Metcalfe, Meeting the Challenges of
administrative reform, although an efficient Accession, in Preparing public administrations for
and performing administration is needed to the European administrative space, p. 43.
12
ensure the smooth transition to the status Ibidem, p. 46.
13
Preparing public administrations for the European
of Member State. In the future it would be administrative space, pp. 13-14.
highly interesting to find precisely how 14
Jacques Fournier, Administrative Reform in the
many of the principles of good administration Commission Opinions Concerning the Accession of the
can be discovered into effective national Central and Eastern European Countries to the
European Union, in Preparing public administrations
legislation of the EU Member States32. for the European administrative space, p. 111.
In a nutshell, although the Commission 15
Ibidem, p. 113.
has stressed that good administration is a 16
Agency for Public Management, Principles of
condition for membership as it shows the Good Administration in the Member States of the
states capacity to implement EU decisions European Union, Stockholm, 2005, p. 7.
17
Ibidem, p. 10.
and ensures the easiness of the integration 18
Resolution 77(31) on the protection of the
process, a condition that gained importance individual in relation to the acts of administrative
since the accession of Central and Eastern authorities, adopted by the Committee of Ministers
European Countries, this condition is of a on 28 September 1977 at the 275th meeting of the
Ministers' Deputies
far less importance than economic perfor- 19
Ibidem.
mance, democracy and the capacity to 20
Agency for Public Management, op. cit., p. 11.
implement the aquis33. 21
Ibidem, p. 16.
22
Ibidem, p. 12.
23
Notes Working Party of the Project Group on
1
Jacques Fournier, Administrative Reform in the Administrative Law (CJ-DA), Principles of good
Commission Opinions Concerning the Accession of the administration in Council of Europe member states,
Central and Eastern European Countries to the Strasbourg, 2004.
24
European Union, in Preparing public administrations Agency for Public Management, op. cit., p. 14.
25
for the European administrative space, SIGMA Papers, Ibidem, p. 14.
26
No. 23, 1998, p. 111. Ibidem, p. 15.
27
2
Jacques Fournier, Governance and European Ibidem, p. 17.
28
Integration Reliable Public Administration, in Ibidem, p. 15.
29
Preparing public administrations for the European Jacques Ziller, op. cit., p. 137.
30
administrative space, pp. 120-121. Jacques Fournier, Governance and European
3
Christoph Demmke, Thomas Henkl, Timo Moilanen Integration Reliable Public Administration, p. 121.
31
(European Institute of Public Administration), What are Ibidem, p. 121.
32
Public Services Good at? Success of Public Services in Agency for Public Management, op. cit., p. 16.
33
the Field of Human Resource Management, a Study Tony Verheijen, The European Union and Public
Commissioned by the Slovenian EU Presidency Report Administration Development in Central and Eastern
to the 50th Meeting of the Directors-General of Public Europe, in Randall Baker (ed.), Transitions from
Services of the Member States of the European Union, authoritarianism: the role of the bureaucracy,
2008, p. 5. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2002, p. 250.
4
Preparing public administrations for the European
administrative space, p. 10.
5
Ibidem, p. 13.
112
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T
he public sector influences in many its presence in the economic life is
ways Economic life. There is no eco- permanent and even meets an extension
nomy in which the public sector can through regulations aimed at the market in
not be found, more or less, directly or general and at the companies and private
indirectly, among the factors influencing and property in particular.
guiding the economic and business activity. Therefore, not only the public enterprises
Public sector, defined according to the have a public character, but also expenses,
form of ownership, is characterized by two finances, assets, choices of individuals, utilities,
elements: size and intensity. regulations, interests, opinions, relationships,
The size of the public sector varies debts, budget, etc. Understanding these issues
from country to country, depending on the provides a deeper knowledge about the
ideology of political leadership at the public sector.
government and expresses areas where
intervention manifests itself. Culture, power crisis and the power
The intensity of the public sector is of the public sector
different not only from one economy to Generally speaking, the public sector
another, but also from one area to another, is related to government and state inter-
and expresses the magnitude of the actions vention in the economy. There are many
taken in one field of the economy. aspects of our life that have a public
Although today the public sector faces character and therefore are correlated with
a smaller size of its economical acceptance, the public sector: public education, public
113
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Mihai Alexandru Costescu, Olga Costescu
goods, public expenditure, public finance, of the organization, and not at the
public choice, public opinion, public relations, superior ones, such as for managerial
public interest, public services etc. positions.
Many other economic activities reflect Both processes presented above are
the relationship that exists between the based on several strategic directions to be
public and private sectors, such as pro- best implemented in public organizations:
viding quality to food-related products, - Implementation of computerized control
manufactured by private companies, under systems and operating with telecommu-
the control of public inspectors. nications can provide a manager the
Justifying a change in the strategic ability to effectively coordinate 30 people.
approach of public companies should be This would reduce the need for a large
carried out essentially based on a new number of hierarchical levels and would
vision of them. The process must aim a allow cutting unjustified maintenance
long period of time and rely on invol- costs and allocating resources to certain
vement in new and important areas, which areas of sustainable development.
are to support each other through tech- - Rigorous planning through the following:
nology. For example, the issue of public examination of documentary routines;
transport, so often brought to attention today, measures to be taken gradually, but only
whose problem solving can be found in once; examination of bureaucratic
optimal and reliable partnerships between system a system which is required at
the public and private sectors. certain levels and reduce its size in
Correlating the above presented theory the fields that do not require this.
with the practice needed to be achieved in - Reorganizing should address areas that
the future, regarding the public sector in have related activities, such as customer
Romania, I can identify two main areas of management, disputes resolution manage-
strategic factors influencing first, the govern- ment, order management, controls, etc.
ment organizations, and second, changes The specific objectives of in the public
in the public sector: domain reorganization:
1. Size-reduction normally, in the Romanian - Developing skills and competences of
public sector, where the management officials from local government in project
system is multi-layered, it is considered management and access to EU funds
that a manager can only control a certain or other international funds, necessary
number of people which is his field to finance investments and local infra-
of control often between 5, 7 or 10 structure;
people. Therefore, several hierarchical - Improving knowledge about European
levels of management were necessary affairs in the local government;
for a person of higher rank to control - Developing skills in training selected
several hundred people with lower ranks local European affairs experts, in order
in the hierarchy of the organization. to create a core group of local trainers,
2. Reorganization of the business process able to take over the task of future
this method refers to the use of trainings in this area.
computer technologies for radical sim-
plification of how the organization Target groups
manages its administrative tasks. In Change management, developed and
my opinion, this process should be sustained by European policies and instruments,
completed at lower hierarchical levels
114
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Management of public institutions changes in the European Union integration
115
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Mihai Alexandru Costescu, Olga Costescu
needs but also to include a broader perspec- Motivating staff, as a result of the
tive on human resources development, by desire to develop and increase public orga-
examining the problems of the working nizational structures, comes as a must in
environment that could have an impact on addressing strategic change. In fact, the
the success of knowledge transfer at work. civil servant carries, by definition, the res-
It was also possible to shape an image ponsibility of reinforcing the public orga-
of the environment that integrates staff nization.
activities dealing with high responsibility However, training itself is not a panacea.
operations, the routine one, the simple It must first determine an improvement in
flows, for example, and how clearly work performance for later results. This
defined these tasks are and what is the way, it is also necessary, for the success of
level of support exists in completing their the program, the development of modern
tasks. These issues have a great influence management skills to create a working
on the organization and the place where environment to support and facilitate
the individual exercises his activity. learning
For example, numerous studies have But this is still not enough. Other factors,
shown that the lack of a clear definition of less obvious, can influence the general aut-
tasks is a major factor of influence, which come. For example, the availability of funding
leads to poor performance at work. Simi- for training activities and assistance in the
larly, lack of positive support from manage- workplace is often an important condition
ment leads to lower levels of performance. for operation under current rules.
Training has a vital role; however, training In the above presented context,
by itself is a solution to all problems. organizations do not change just to be
Size, poor resources and lack of changed, but because they are part of a
personnel structure make it very difficult wider development program and they
to build knowledge and skills in a planned should respond to new changes in the
way, in the public administration. In addition, environment, to restrictions, requirements
lack of knowledge about available pro- and opportunities in this area.
grams and opportunities for the local More than that, companies and orga-
economical and social development can nizations generate changes in the external
become an obstacle for both the internal environment, by creating and selling new
and external progress. products and technologies, that later
Another identified gap concerns the become dominant and widely used. Thus,
lack of cooperation between various con- they change the technological environment,
cerned institutions and organizations (stake- both national and international. In this
holders). Participation and partnership are context, organizational change becomes
essential for a sustainable development the guiding lines that determine the nature
and developing strategic projects. These and direction of the organization and
skills are needed throughout the sector of represents a vision of the future image of
local public administration. the organization. Operational planning
Research methods mentioned lately provides a structure of the daily decisions,
have brought to attention the optimal way taken at lower levels of the organization.
to achieve a balanced coverage, not only Identifying the organizations mission
for the whole local government, but also is an essential part in the process of
for the regional element as all are strategic planning; strategy effectiveness
important players in the general process. relies on the attachment on the strengths
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Management of public institutions changes in the European Union integration
that come from the organizations identity. Project Cycle Management (PCM) re-
An effective mission statement is feasible, present the basis for strengthening such
informative, and reflects the values of the capacity.
organization. Many organizations are unpre- Change programs often fail to deter-
pared when facing future changes. In an mine in advance how to measure success
economic, competitive, constantly changing or failure. The ideal plan should be carefully
environment, the key to success is defined monitored to assess the real impact of
not only by the quality of operational taken actions on those involved. Evaluation
planning, but by the clarity of strategic can refer to reviewing productive perfor-
thinking. For a company, it is essential to mances for a period of time, tracking work
understand the type of business they carry absences, or a new survey on organiza-
out and the place they want to have at tional attitudes and climate. All these can
some point the future (strategic planning), lead to the conclusion that the problem still
but also the way they can achieve these exists because the initial diagnosis and
goals, which represents the responsibility planning were erroneous or that new
of operational planning and decision making. factors, which require a different approach,
The change is intended to describe the have emerged.
image that an organization wants to have The manager may be interested in
in the future and is focused on what the changing a persons performance or the
organization wants to do, and not on how average level of performance achieved by
the organization wants to act. a group of people. If the target represents a
If we consider the process of organi- single person, the general effort involved
zational change in an organization, in a to make a change may be different than
realistic and time-based way, I consider the one needed for a collective change. In
that there is a need to bring to front the an attempt to change the behavior of cer-
process of Romanias accession to the tain people, it is necessary to know certain
European Union structures, due to the things about the individual, and the change
focus on Human Resources Development, must be adapted according to his needs,
in the general view of strategic develop- values or interests. But, if the target is the
ment consolidation. performance of a group (the results of
Thus, the European Council, the highest daily activities, presence and absence to
for the European Union has recognized work, income etc.), the strategy should be
and expressed support for the accession of oriented towards collective changes in the
Romania to the EU until 2007 and granted designated group.
significant financial support through the A large number of people and organi-
instruments of accession, stating that Romania zations face the issue of collective changes
had an urgent need to strengthen its own versus individual changes. For example,
capacity to absorb and effectively use traffic safety officials are concerned with
these funds. Human resource development the rate of accidents and deaths during
was and still is a fundamental element in holidays (a collective aspect) and, at the
achieving this goal. same time, all these people are concerned
The strategy has a framework to with the safety of their own children (an
identify the capacity of local government individual aspect).
to benefit, in the best way possible, from All strategies involving changes, either
the funds offered by the EU. Knowledge at an individual or collective level, have
and skills regarding European Affairs and special people-adapted characteristics. When
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Mihai Alexandru Costescu, Olga Costescu
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O
ur true situation appears to me to be this Conquest or superiority among other powers is
a new extensive Country containing not or ought not ever to be the object of
within itself the materials for forming a republican systems. If they are sufficiently
Government capable of extending to its citizens active and energetic to rescue us from contempt
all the blessings of civil and religious liberty & preserve our domestic happiness and
capable of making them happy at home. This is security, it is all we can expect from them it is
the great end of Republican establishments. We more than almost any other Government
mistake the object of our government, if we ensures to it citizens.
hope or wish that it is to make us respectable Charles Pinckney, speech to the Federal Convention,
June 25, 1787
abroad.
* Mackubin Owens is Associate Dean of It had been said that respectability in the eyes
Academics for Electives and Directed Research/ of foreign nations was not the object at which
Professor of National Security Studies at the we aimed; that the proper object of republican
Naval War College, Newport, RI and Editor of Government was domestic tranquility &
Orbis. This article is reprinted with authors happiness. This was an ideal distinction. No
permission from Orbis, Winter 2009 (published
Government could give us tranquility &
by Elsevier Limite don behalf of Foreign Policy
Research Institute), pp. 23-40.
happiness at home, which did not possess
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sufficient stability and strength to make us elaborated in three more speeches over the
respectable abroad. next nine months.
Alexander Hamilton, speech to the Federal Convention,
June 29, 1787
The dominant narrative concerning
George W. Bushs foreign policy especially
If any one therefore wishes to establish an his doctrine of preemptive war and his
entirely new republic, he will have to consider emphasis on the spread of democracy is
whether he wishes to have her expand in power that it represents a radical break with the
and dominion like Rome, orwhether he intends American past. According to this narrative,
to confine her within narrow limits. U.S. foreign policy was originally based
Niccolo Machiavelli, Discourses, I. 6.
on the principle of non intervention; the
Besides, to recede is no longer possible, if American Founders are often invoked in
indeed any of you in the alarm of the moment support of the claim that the default position
has become enamored of the honesty of such of U.S. foreign policy is isolationism. Who
an unambitious part. For what you hold is, to has not heard the argument that
speak somewhat plainly, a tyranny. To take it Washingtons Farewell Address counsels
perhaps was wrong, but to let it go is unsafe. virtuous isolationism, that in the words
Pericles, Funeral Oration
of John Quincy Adams, while America is
the well wisher to the freedom and
When he was elected to the American
independence of all, she is the champion
presidency in 2000, George W. Bush gave
and vindicator only of her own, going
every indication that he, like his father
not abroad, in search of monsters to destroy,
before him, was a conventional realist in
and that the Monroe Doctrine represents a
foreign affairs, committed to a grand strategy
ratification of this isolationist principle?
of selective engagement and critical of the
But, the narrative continues, while iso-
open ended nature of the Clinton doc-
lationism and non intervention prevailed
trine and its indiscriminate use of military
during the eighteenth and nineteenth
force in instances not involving vital centuries, circumstances required the United
national interests. In his speeches, Bush
States to abandon this posture at the
stressed foreign policy retrenchment and
beginning of the twentieth century. Yet
military transformation in preparation
even then, America did so only reluctantly
for the emergence of a future large peer
in response to threats to U.S. national
competitor in the vein of the Soviet Union
interests. Thus, with the exception of the
during the Cold War. Neither Bush nor his
failed effort by Woodrow Wilson to base
advisers, most notably national security
U.S. foreign policy on idealistic principles
adviser Condoleezza Rice and Secretary of
and George W. Bushs quixotic effort to
State Colin Powell, spoke of spreading
impose democracy on the Middle East, the
democracy throughout the world.
United States has normally adhered to the
Then came 9/11. To the surprise of
principles of foreign policy realism, a
almost everyone, the president abandoned
theory based on the idea that the driving
his realism and embraced an approach to
force in international politics is national
foreign affairs that seemed to be nothing
security, which can be ensured only by
short of revolutionary. The Bush Doctrine
possessing sufficient power relative to other
was first enunciated in a speech he de-
states.
livered on September 20, 2001, only nine
According to the conventional narrative,
days after the attacks, and then refined and
neoconservatives are dangerously moralistic
and idealistic when it comes to world affairs.
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Thus, under the Bush Doctrine, the United the United States can be fully secure only
States reserves the right to undertake in a world where everyone else is also
preventive war. While international law secure. The existence of liberal institutions
and norms have always acknowledged the is not sufficient. Donald Kagan observes
right of a state to launch a preemptive that history seems to indicate
strike against another when an attack by that good will, unilateral
the latter is imminent, it has rejected any disarmament, the avoidance
right of preventive war. President Bush of alliances, teaching and
argued that in an age of globalization, preaching the evils of war by those states who seek to
preserve peace are to no avail.
catastrophic terrorism, and weapons of
mass destruction, this distinction had become What seems to work best . . . is the possession by
meaningless. If an attack is imminent, it is those states who wish to preserve peace of the
preponderant power and of the will to accept the
now too late to preempt it. burdens of an responsibilities required to achieve that
As a policy or grand strategic approach power.
7
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and is most concerned about maintaining commercial republic and sought to unleash
stability and a peaceful balance of power. among his countrymen modern freedom.
For the realist, the states most vital Jefferson was an advocate of Sparta,
interest and its only meaningful goal, no Hamilton an advocate of Athens.15
matter its form of government or what it Despite their differences, both Jefferson
says for public consumption is to maintain and Hamilton agreed nonetheless that the
enough power to ensure its security. Realists new Republic was destined for greatness.
ban economics, morality, and democracy Remarkably, both Jefferson and Hamilton
from high politics. In contrast, liberal envisioned an American polity that com-
internationalists contend that the goals of bined the principles of republic and empire,
actors within the international political despite the dominant view of the eighteenth
system transcend power and security to century that viewed the two as incompatible.
include peace and prosperity. Thus Hamilton sought a republican empire16
For realists, liberals are too abstract while Jefferson envisioned a vast empire
and place too much emphasis on the good of liberty spreading west, north, and south
side of human nature. For liberals, realists across the continent.17 For both Jefferson
are too pessimistic and cynical. In addition, and Hamilton, an American empire would
their theory is too parsimonious; it fails to be an innovation, not based on conquest,
explain enough in the world. as had empires of old, but instead consti-
The fact is that American principles tute a new order for the ages.
have been at least as important in shaping For the founding generation, the
U.S. foreign policy as the raw pursuit of principles underlying the American Empire
power beloved by realists. Americas were universal in application. As Robert
westward expansion and rise to global Kagan has argued, in an age ofmonarchy
power have been inextricably linked to the and despotism, such universal principles
idea that liberal democracy is the best form by their very nature made America a
of government, not only for the United dangerous nation because by liberating
States, but also for the world at large. human potential, they would capture the
American realism has always been shaped imagination and the following of all
by economic and moral considerations. humanity.18 Realists in the tradition of
For Americans, geopolitics, economic Hans Morgenthau have criticized the
and commercial interests, and political crusading spirit in foreign relations, but
principle have always been inseparable. American foreign policy has often been
Accordingly, Americans have seen the motivated by the belief that the United
spread of liberalism as very much a U.S. States stood in opposition to tyrannical
interest. This desire to expand the American power and despotism.
way has transcended partisan differences. American foreign policy has often
For instance, both Jefferson and been criticized for being moralistic. But
Hamilton agreed that the United States it is important to note that before the
was to be a republic, but they differed American founding, all regimes were based
concerning the sort of republic that it on the principle of interest or advantage
would be. Jefferson and those who shared alone the interest of the stronger. That
his views sought an agrarian republic and principle was articulated by the Greek
hoped to instill in Americans agrarian historian Thucydides in his description of
civic virtue. Hamilton, on the other hand the conversation between the Athenians
believed the Untied States should be a and the rebellious Melians: Questions of
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justice arise only between equals. As for perfectly attained, constantly approximated, and thereby
the rest, the strong do what they will. The constantly spreading and deepening its influence, and
augmenting the happiness and value of life to all
weak suffer what they must.19 Inequality, people of all colors everywhere.
22
whether between master and slave or
between aristocrat and commoner were Such rhetoric informed both American
simply part of the accepted order of things. domestic and foreign policy. And it was
The United States was founded on not limited to the nineteenth century. As
different principles justice and equality. Kagan has observed, the twentieth century,
No longer would it be the foundation of of course, rang with the rhetoric of great-
political government that some men were ness, moralism, and mission.23
born with saddles on their backs to be For instance, the Republican Partys
ridden by others born booted and spurred. campaign platform of 1900 made Lincolns
In other words, no one had the right to rule argument explicit with regard to the recently
over another without the latters consent.20 concluded war with Spain. According to
While the United States has not this document, the Spanish American
always lived up to its own principles, it has War had been fought for high purpose.
nonetheless created the standard of justice It was a war for liberty and human rights
in both domestic and international affairs. that had given ten millions of the human
For instance, the stated desire of the race a new birth of freedom and the
United States to free Cuba from a despotic American people a new and noble
Spain, which helped to bring about the responsibility to confer the blessings of
Spanish-American War, can be traced liberty and civilization upon all the rescued
Abraham Lincolns speech on the Dred peoples.24
Scott Decision of 1857, a speech that It is important to recognize that Woodrow
illustrates the logic of liberty. I think the Wilson did not invent the rhetoric of a
authors of [the Declaration of Indepen- foreign policy shaped by moral purpose.
dence] intended to include all men, but Accepting the Republican vice-presi-
they did not intend to declare men equal in dential nomination in 1900, Theodore
all respects. They did not mean to say that Roosevelt asked, Is America a weakling
all were equal in color, size, intellect, to shrink from the world work of the great
moral developments, or social capacity. world powers? He replied to his own
They defined with tolerable distinctness, in rhetorical question by proclaiming: The
what respects they did consider all men young giant of the West stands on a
created equal equal in certain inalienable continent and clasps the crest of an ocean
rights, among which are life, liberty, and in either hand. Our nation, glorious in
the pursuit of happiness.21 youth and strength, looks in the future with
eager eyes and rejoices as a strong man to
Lincoln also argued that the Founders: run a race.25
did not mean to assert the obvious untruth, that all Statesmen of both parties saw the
men were then actually enjoying that equality, nor Civil War as Americas first great moral
yet, that they were about to confer it immediately
upon them. In fact they had no power to confer such
crusade and World War I as its second. It
a boon. They meant simply to declare the right, so was not Wilson but Roosevelt who
that the enforcement of it might follow as fast as declared: As our fathers fought with
circumstances should permit. They meant to set up a slavery and crushed it, in order that it not
standard maxim for a free society, which should be seize and crush them, so we are called on
familiar to all, and revered by all; constantly looked
to, constantly labored for, and even though never to fight new forces. It was not Wilson but
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Henry Cabot Lodge who called World when the new nation was surrounded by
War I the last great struggle of demo- hostile powers. To paraphrase Thomas Hobbes,
cracy and freedom against autocracy and without security, American principles were
militarism. These same statesmen of both but words. Without a successful Revolution
parties justified U.S. military interventions and the consolidation of American power
in the affairs of Latin American and on the North American continent, the
Caribbean peoples, as a means of spreading principles of the American Founding would
liberal principles abroad.26 have been stillborn.
This is not to suggest that expanding As early as 1778, George Washington
liberal democracy was the only motive for foresaw the strategic problem that the
U.S. actions during the nineteenth and young Republic would face in the years
twentieth centuries. It was most certainly following the Revolution. As he explained
not. But far from reflecting the conventional to Henry Laurens, he opposed a combined
narrative of virtuous isolationism the French American offensive against Canada
idea that the United States was an because he was concerned that the price of
exemplar of liberty and nothing more the cooperation with the French in this case
statesman of these periods embraced the would be the reestablishment of French
mission of spreading liberal principles for power in Canada, leading to a situation in
the betterment of not only Americans but which the United States would sub-
also of the peoples of the world. sequently be hemmed in by a combination
of Europeans and Indians.
American Security in the Early France acknowledged for some time past the most
Republic and the American powerful monarchy in Europe by land, able now to
Mission dispute the empire of the sea with Great Britain, and
As important as the American mission if joined with Spain, I may say certainly superior,
possessed of New Orleans, on our Right, Canada on
may have been in the formulation and our left and seconded by the numerous tribes of
practice of U.S. foreign policy during the Indians on our Rear from one extremity to the other,
Early Republic, promulgating American a people, so generally friendly to her and whom she
principles depended on the security of the knows so well how to conciliate; would, it is much to
American regime. The United States could be apprehended have it in her power to give law to
27
these states.
not be an exemplar of liberty unless it could
survive in a hostile world. U.S. foreign policy As John Lewis Gaddis has argued, the
must always be seen as a prudent balance American response to threats to its security
between principle and power. Actions in differed from the approach of most nations
support of American principles undertaken to seek safety by retreating to a defensive
when the United States was weak looked posture although this is arguably what
different than those undertaken when the the United States had done during the
United States was strong. Jefferson and Madison administrations.
As Hamilton wrote in Federalist, the The result was a British invasion and the
United States established a constitution for burning of the capital in 1814.
governance based on reflection and choice, The attack on the American homeland
rather than on accident and force. But to in 1814 demonstrated that liberty was
create such a constitution, it was necessary vulnerable to attack if the United States
for the Americans to survive, first during relied on a defensive posture. Thereafter,
the Revolution and then during the Americans generally responded to threats
dangerous period of the Early Republic and particularly to surprise attacks by
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taking the offensive, by becoming more John Quincy Adams was equally
conspicuous, by confronting, neutralizing, adamant in rejecting the possibility that the
and if possible overwhelming the sources United States could coexist with any other
of danger rather than fleeing from them.28 great power in North America. As he
Having established a beachhead for liberty wrote in 1811, the choice was between an
in a world run by tyrants,29 the security of endless multitude of little insignificant
liberty required that the beachhead be ex- clans and tribes at eternal war with one
panded. This approach led Americans to another for a rock, or a fish pond, the sport
adopt an expansionist grand strategy based and fable of European oppressors or a
on three principles: hegemony, unilateralism, nation, coextensive with the North American
and preemption. Gaddis attributes this grand continent, destined by God and nature to
strategy to John Quincy Adams, whom Gaddis be the most populous and most powerful
characterizes as the most influential American people ever combined under one social
grand strategist of the nineteenth century.30 compact.32
Hegemony was based on the idea that Unilateralism, which accepted the need
the Republics safety precluded any sharing for international cooperation in the form of
of power on the North American continent. treaties but rejected alliances as an un-
North America constituted the United States necessary limit on American action, has
sphere of influence. The United States often been confused with isolationism.
would not accept a balance of power in the The French alliance of 1778 demonstrated
Western Hemisphere but sought to ensure to most Americans the dangers of agreeing
a predominance of power. to commitments to act in concert with
Both the Founders and the statesmen other great powers against future contin-
of the Early Republic recognized that the gencies which no one could foresee.33
real danger to American security and The tendency to confuse unilateralism
independence was the inability of a weak and isolationism has contributed to long-
United States to prevent European quarrels standing misperceptions of Washingtons
from being transplanted to the American Farewell Address. For instance, after the
continents. The farsighted among them passage that everyone misuses to prove
understood that the antidote to such a that the real policy of the United States
possibility was a strong and viable Union. should be isolationist it must be
The alternative, approved by some who unwise in us to implicate ourselves in
opposed the Constitution, was a series of the ordinary vicissitudes of [Europes]
smaller confederacies. But as John Jay politics, or the ordinary combinations and
observed in his contributions to The Federalist, collisions of her friendships and enmities
the consequences of a weak and divided Washington continues:
America, split into three or four inde- If we remain one People, under an efficient
pendent and probably discordant republics government, the period is not far off, when we may
or confederacies, one inclining to Britain, defy material injury from external annoyance; when
another to France, and a third to Spain, and we may take such an attitude as will cause the
neutrality we may at any time resolve upon to be
perhaps played off against each other by
scrupulously respected; when belligerent nations,
the three would constitute a prey to under the impossibility of making acquisition upon
discord, jealousy, and mutual injuries, us, will not lightly hazard giving us provocation;
inviting strife because these polities would when we may choose peace or war, as our interest
34
be formidable only to each other.31 guided by justice shall Counsel.
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Far from a universal admonition against adverse outcome in the future. U.S. actions
intervention, the Farewell Address represents in Florida after the War of 1812 constitute
a prudential combination of interest and the clearest example of preemption during
principle, to be pursued unilaterally by the the Early Republic.
United States. Karl Walling has argued that the De-
The Monroe Doctrine represents an claration of Independence represents an
extension of the unilateralist principle. When even earlier example of preemption. After
it became clear in the early 1820s that the all, when the Declaration was issued, only
newly independent Latin American republics Massachusetts and New York had been
might not be able to defend their sovereignty subject to direct attack by the British and
against Spain, possibly assisted by the were, therefore, justified in making an
reactionary monarchies of France, Austria, unambiguous claim to be fighting in self
and Russia, Great Britain suggested a joint defense. Walling observes that
Anglo-American statement opposing future the delegates [to the Continental] Congress were
European colonization in the western hemi- essentially ambassadors from the separate colonies
sphere. While President James Monroe, sent to deliberate on common policy and strategy to
along with former presidents Jefferson and oppose the British efforts to centralize power in
Parliament during the decade after the Seven Years
Madison, liked the proposal, Adams, Monroes War. In other words, Americans declared their
secretary of state sought to transform it independence more as a coalition of independent
into a unilateral statement, in order to states than a single nation, with all the problems
avow our principles explicitly rather than incident to coalition war for the rest of the conflict
to come in as a cock boat in the wake of with Great Britain and the subsequent peace, until
1787, when they shifted from a coalition toward
the British man-of-war.35 something new, with its exact nature to be worked
As Gaddis observes, Adams realized out over time.
that the United States lacked the means to
enforce the policy, but he shrewdly One of the many rhetorical purposes
calculated that Great Britain, with its navy, of the Declaration, argues Walling, was to
did have such means, and that its own demonstrate to the people of colonies not
interests in this instance would complement under attack that they soon would be and
those of the United States even in the that they all had no choice but to fight the
absence of a formal commitment. The British before it was too late to do so, that
Monroe Doctrine permitted the United is, before it used its military power to
States to avoid the dangers illustrated by subdue the colonies one by one. By
the French alliance of 1778 the obli- warning of British tyranny to come, the
gation to align American long term Declaration called for the colonies to
interests with those of another state, or to preemptively unite before Great Britain
provide assistance when those interests could divide and conquer them.37
were threatened. Unilateralism characterized The Early Republic faced many
American foreign policy right up until threats, including a continuing European
World War II. As Gaddis notes, the Bush presence in North America Great Britain
Doctrine does not a represent new approach in Canada and Spain in Florida and Texas
to foreign affairs but a return to an older and what we would today call non-state
one.36 actors: marauding Indians and pirates,
Preemption arguably has been a part of an ready to raid lightly defended areas on the
American grand strategy since the Revo- frontier. These threats were exacerbated by
lution, justifying early steps to prevent an the weakness of what Adams called
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derelict provinces (today we would call in Haiti and Nicaragua in the early
them failed states), which provided an twentieth century because it feared that
excuse for further European intervention European powers would use the dereliction
in the Americas, and sanctuary for hostile argument as an excuse to intervene in the
non state actors. In 1818, Florida provided Caribbean. Such American fears were
an occasion to address such threats. validated in the 1860s when France took
After Creeks, Seminoles, and escaped advantage of the American Civil War to
slaves launched a series of attacks on establish Maximilian I as emperor of Mexico.
Americans from sanctuaries in Spanish The principles of American statecraft
Florida, General Andrew Jackson, acting linking principle to power that shaped
on the basis of questionable authority, U.S. foreign policy with respect to the
invaded Florida, not only attacking and American continent are logically expandable
burning Seminole villages but also to the global arena. The logic of security is
capturing a Spanish fort at St. Marks. He expandable as well.
also executed two British citizens whom For instance, while critics of the Bush
he accused of aiding the marauders.38 Doctrine argue that its emphasis on
Most of Monroes cabinet, especially expanding liberal democracy, mocking this
Secretary of War John Calhoun, wanted enterprise as muscular Wilsonianism, the
Jacksons head, but Adams came to expansion of like regimes can be found in
Jacksons defense. He contended that the Thucydides, who noted that an important
United States should not apologize for goal of both Athens and Sparta was to
Jacksons preemptive expedition but insist establish and support regimes similar to
that Spain either garrison Florida with their own, democracies in the case of
enough forces to prevent marauders from Athens and oligarchies for Sparta.
entering the United States or cede to the Indeed, the Bush Doctrine endorses
United States a province which is in fact this very Thucydidean perspective on a
a derelict, open to the occupancy of every global basis. As the president declared
enemy, civilized or savage, of the United during a June 2004 speech at the Air Force
States, and serving no other earthly purpose Academy:
than as a post of annoyance to them. As Some who call themselves realists question
Adams had written earlier, it was his whether the spread of democracy in the Middle East
opinion that the marauding parties should be of any concern of ours. But the realists in
ought to be broken up immediately.39 this case have lost contact with a fundamental reality.
American has always been less secure when freedom
As Gaddis observes, Adams believed is in retreat and more secure when freedom is on the
that the United States could no more march.
41
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the belief that the globe can be trans- Insofar as they are the heirs of Hans
formed on the basis of the universal Morgenthau, realists also reject the crusading
principles articulated by the Declaration of spirit, eschewing ideology and defining
Independence, and what critics call the the states interests as narrowly as possible,
messianic impulse is no aberration but making it less likely that they will come into
represents the mainstream of American conflict with the interests of other states.44
opinion regarding foreign policy. Of course, But these other foreign policy approaches,
as many scholars have noted, it is not the as well as others, have never been able to
only foreign policy tradition. Another is supplant the idea of an American mission,
what Walter Russell Mead has called the despite the recurrent fervent hopes of
Jeffersonian or Old Republican school.42 critics, and despite frequent disappointments
This school was adumbrated by Charles and setbacks. Critics who hope that the
Pinckney, who, as an advocate of the Iraq War will lead the United States to
dominance of domestic over foreign affairs, abandon the expansive, moralistic, hubristic
can be properly described as isolationist. American approach to foreign policy will
Old Republicans such as John be as disappointed as Pinckney, John
Randolph of Roanoke and John Taylor of Randolph of Roanoke, John Taylor of
Caroline were deeply suspicious of centra- Caroline, the America Firsters of the
lized power and its corrupting effects on mid twentieth century, and assorted
the people who wield it. They opposed the pacifists and socialists before them.
War of 1812, calling itmerely war for The reason for this is the combination
honour, a metaphysical war that could of the intuitive American commitment to
not be justified by American interest and universal principles articulated in the nations
which, by requiring a strong federal founding documents, and an abiding belief
government to wage it, would end in the by the American public at large in the
destruction of the last experiment in free legitimacy of liberal democracy, on the
government. The Old Republican argument one hand, and their desire for power and
is today embraced by many on the right of wealth, one the other. This drive led
the political spectrum, especially so-called Gouverneur Morris to describe his fellow-
libertarians and traditionalist conservatives countrymen as the first-born children of
but concerns about the impact of war on the commercial age.
growth of centralized governmental power As Robert Kagan observes:
can also be observed on the political left as The expansive, moralistic, militaristic tradition in
well.43 American foreign policy is the hearty offspring of
There is also the aforementioned realist this marriage between Americans driving ambitions
school, which criticizes the tradition that and their overpowering sense of righteousness. These
tendencies have been checked at times by overseas
includes the Bush Doctrine. Realists stress debacles, or by foreign powers too big and strong to
the importance of power and military be coerced into acceptance of the American truth. At
security in international affairs and are those times, the counter traditions have been able to
most concerned about maintaining stability assert themselves and take temporary control of
and a peaceful balance of power. For the American policy, as in the 1930s or in the 1970s. But
these victories have been fleeting. The story of
realist, the states most vital interest and Americas first century is not one of virtuous restraint
its only meaningful goal, no matter its but of an increasingly powerful nation systematically
form of government is to maintain sufficient eliminating all competitors on the North American
relative power to ensure its security. continent. The story of its second century is not one
130
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
The Bush Doctrine: The Foreign Policy of Republican Empire
of caution and a recognition of limits but of a steady the World (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001),
and determined rise to global dominance.45 pp. 3-29.
2
American foreign policy has always George Bush, Second Inaugural Address,
January, 20, 2005.
reflected this American character. The 3
See Norman Podhoretz, World War IV: The
description of the Athenians by the Long Struggle Against Islofascism (New York:
Corinthians in Thucydides Peloponnesian Doubleday, 2007. Cf. Michael Abramowitz, Many
War is applicable to Americans as well: Versions of Bush Doctrine: Palins Confusion in
active, innovative, daring, quick, Interview Understandable, Experts Say,
enterprising, acquisitive, and opportunistic. Washington Post, September 13, 2008; p. A01.
4
Like the Athenians, Americans were born Robert G. Kaufman, In Defense of the Bush
into the world to take no rest themselves Doctrine (Lexington: University Press of
and to give none to others.46 Kentucky, 2007), pp. 87-99.
5
The most astute critics of the Bush Robert Gilpin, The Political Economy of
International Relations (Princeton: Princeton
Doctrine recognize that attributing foreign
University Press, 1987), pp. 72 80 and 85
policy decisions to the manipulation by 92 and Gilpin, Global Political Economy:
nefarious individuals or groups or to de- Understanding the International Economic
ception, as has been charged in the case of Order (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
both Vietnam and Iraq, is seriously at odds 2001), pp. 93 100.
6
with the historical record. As they see it, Ethan Barnaby Kapstein, The Political
the real problem is the American character Economy of National Security: A Global
itself. As Andrew Bacevich writes in The Perspective
Limits of Power, The impulses that have (New York: McGraw Hill, 1992), p. 3.
7
landed us in a war of no exits and no dead- Donald Kagan, On the Origins of War and
the Preservation of Peace (New York:
lines come from within. Foreign policy has,
Doubleday, 1995), p. 570.
for decades, provided an outward manifes- 8
Samuel Huntington, Why International Primacy
tation of American domestic ambitions, Matters, International Security, Spring, 1993,
urges, and fears. For Bacevich, the Bush pp. 82-93.
9
Doctrine represents continuity, not innovation, Robert Gilpin, War & Change in World Politics
reflecting the accumulated detritus of (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1981);
freedom, the by products of our frantic Joseph Greico, Cooperation Among Nations
pursuit of life, liberty, and happiness.47 (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990); and
While Bacevichs jeremiad is unlikely Charles Kindleberger, The World in Depression:
to change the American character, it does 1929-1939 (Berkeley: University of California
Press, 1973).
provide a useful cautionary note. As the case 10
See Michael W. Doyle, Kant, Liberal
of Athens illustrates, states and nations can Legacies, and Foreign Affairs, Philosophy and
overreach, to their detriment. The Bush Public Affairs, Vol. 12, No. 3, Summer, 1983,
Doctrine is well within the mainstream of pp. 205235 and Kant, Liberal Legacies, and
American foreign policy and as such, is Foreign Affairs, Part 2, Philosophy and Public
likely to outlive the administration that Affairs, Autumn, 1983, pp. 323353, as well as
gives it its name, but as with any approach Doyle, Ways of War and Peace (New York:
in international affairs, it must be guided W.W. Norton, 1997). For a critique, see
by prudential considerations. Christopher Layne, Kant or Cant: The Myth of
the Democratic Peace, International Security,
Autumn, 1994, pp. 549.
Notes 11
Bill Clinton, State of the Union speech, Jan.
1
Walter Russell Mead, Special Providence:
25, 1994, http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp
American Foreign Policy and How It Changed
srv/politics/special/states/docs/sou94.htm.
131
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INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
Mackabin Thomas Owens
12
109th Congress, 1st Session, S. 516, Advance Writings (New York: Library of America,
Democracy Act. 1984), p. 1517.
13 21
Francis Fukuyama, America at the Crossroads: Lincoln, The Dred Scott Decision, Speech
Democracy, Power, and the Neoconservative at Springfield, June 26, 1857, Roy Basler, ed.,
Legacy (New Haven: Yale University Press, Abraham Lincoln: His Speeches and Writings
2006), p. 48. (New York: Da Capo, 1946), p. 360.
14 22
Andrew Bacevich, The New American Ibid., p. 361.
23
Militarism: How Americans Are Seduced by Robert Kagan, Neocon Nation:
War (New York: Oxford University Press, Neoconservatism c. 1776, World Affairs
2005), p. 71. Journal, Spring 2008, http://www.worldaffairs
15
Cf. Leo Strauss, The City and Man (Chicago: journal.org /2008%20 %20Spring/full
The University of Chicago Press, 1978). neocon.html.
16 24
See Federalist Number 1, in which Publius Republican Party Platform of 1900, June 19,
(Hamilton) addresses the issue concerning the 1900. http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/
fate of an empire in many respects the most index.php?pid=29630.
25
interesting in the world. It has been frequently Louis Auchincloss, ed., Theodore Roosevelt:
remarked that it seems to have been reserved to Letters and Speeches (New York: Library of
the people of this country, by their conduct and America, 2004).
26
example, to decide the important question, Cited in Kagan, Neocon Nation.
27
whether societies of men are really capable or To Henry Laurens, November 14, 1778, in
not of establishing good government from Jared Sparks, ed., Washingtons Writings, Vol.
reflection and choice, or whether they are VI (New York: Harper and Brothers Publishers,
forever destined to depend for their political 1847), p. 108.
28
constitutions on accident and force. Cf. Karl John Lewis Gaddis, Surprise, Security, and
Friedrich Walling, Republican Empire: Alexander the American Experience (Cambridge: Harvard
Hamilton On War and Free Government University Press, 2004, p. 13.
29
(Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1999) Gaddis, Ending Tyranny: The Past and
and Patrick Garrity, Foreign Policy and The Future of an Idea, The American Interest, Vol.
Federalist, in Charles Kesler, ed., Saving the 4, No. 1, September/October 2008. http://www.
Revolution: The Federalist Papers and the American the-american-interest.com/ai2/article.cfm?Id=4
Founding (New York: Free Press, 1987). 59&MId=21.
17 30
Thomas Jefferson to George Rogers Clark, Gaddis, Surprise, Security, and the American
December 25, 1780, in Julian P. Boyd, ed., Experience, p. 15.
31
Papers of Thomas Jefferson, Volume 4 Federalist Nos. 4 and 5.
32
(Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1951) pp. To Abigail Adams, June 30, 1811,
237-238. Cf. Robert W. Tucker and David C. Worthington Chauncey Ford, ed., Writings of
Hendrickson, Empire of Liberty: The Statecraft of John Quincy Adams (New York: Macmillan,
Thomas Jefferson (New York: Oxford University 1914), Vol IV, p. 128.
33
Press, 1990). Gaddis, Surprise, Security and the American
18
Robert Kagan, Dangerous Nation: Americas Experience, p. 24.
34
Place in the World From Its Earliest Days to the Farewell Address, September 19, 1796, in
Dawn of the Twentieth Century (New York: William B. Allen, ed., George Washington: a
Knopf, 2006). Collection (Indianapolis: Liberty Classics,
19
Robert B. Strassler, The Landmark Thucydides: 1988), pp. 524-525.
35
A Comprehensive Guide to the Peloponnesian Quoted in Samuel Flagg Bemis, John Quincy
War (New York: Free Press, 1996), Book 5, Adams and the Foundations of American Foreign
section 89, p. 352. Policy (New York: Knopf, 1949), p. 385.
20 36
Jefferson to Roger C. Weightman, June 24, Gaddis, Surprise, Security, and the American
1826, in Merrill D. Peterson, ed., Jefferson, Experience, pp. 24-26.
132
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
The Bush Doctrine: The Foreign Policy of Republican Empire
37 44
Walling, e-mail to the author. Walling argues Examples of realist thought, both classical and
that the logic of preemption found in the neo, include Kenneth M. Waltz, Theory of
Declaration originates in John Lockes Second International Politics (Reading MA: Addison
Treatise on Government. Wesley, 1979); Stephen M. Walt, Taming
38
Daniel Walker Howe, What Hath God American Power: The Global Response to US
Wrought: The Transformation of America, Primacy (New York: Norton, 2005); John J.
1815-1848 (New York: Oxford University Mearsheimer, The Tragedy of Great Power
Press, 2007), pp. 111-116. Politics (New York: Norton, 2001); Hans J.
39
Adams to Don Luis d Onis, July 23, 1818, Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle
in Ford, Writings of John Quincy Adams, Vol. for Power and Peace, 6th edition, Revised by
VI, pp. 386 394; and Adams to the President, Kenneth Thompson (New York: Knopf, 1985);
July 8, 1818, Ibid., p. 304. George F. Kennan, Realities of American Foreign
40
Gaddis, Surprise, Security, and the American Policy (Princeton: Princeton University Press,
Experience, p. 18. 1956); and Henry A. Kissinger, Diplomacy (New
41
George Bush, Graduation Speech at the US Air York: Simon and Schuster, 1994).
45
Force Academy, June 2, 2004, http://www.white Kagan, Neocon Nation.
46
house.gov/news/releases/2004/06/20040602.html. Strassler, The Landmark Thucydides, Book
42
Meade, Special Providence, pp. 174 217. 1, Sec. 5, p. 40.
43 47
On the Old Republicans, see Norman K. Andrew J. Bacevich, The Limits of Power:
Risjord, The Old Republicans: Southern The End of American Exceptionalism (New
Conservatism in the Age of Jefferson (New York: Metropolitan Books, 2008), p. 5.
York: Columbia University Press, 1965).
133
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
B
arack Obama is among the youngest continues that each short chapter heading,
U.S. presidents. A growing body of like the one above, is a simple statement of
scholarly literature examines the political fact about Barack Obama, carefully phrased
context of Obamas election. Much of this to be (mostly) politically neutral: e.g. <His
research examine the implications of Obamas name is Barack> or < He is the Senator
presidential campaign for public opinion and from Illinois>1.
political life. In particular, an experiment The pro-arguments that Obama should
by W. Frederick Zimmerman showes that be President are written by Ned Roots, an
Obamas exposure to public opinion enhanced optimistic Democratic blogger. Overall, in
voters confidence in their ability to under- response to Zimmermans book, the present
stand political change. In his book Should article also takes seriously the perspectives
Barack Obama Be President? (Nimble Books and objections raised by Trog L. ODyte (an
LLC edition, 2006), Zimmerman makes a intensely Republican blogger to pro arguments
simple but very important analysis of all raised by Ned Roots). Zimmermans analysis
arguments pro and con on the subject of raises a fundamental question: Should
Senator Obamas sustainability for the office Obama Be President?, providing innovative
of President of United States. The author materials on special topics like:
claims that this is a <living> book, offering 1. Barack Obama is African-American. In
new information and new perspectives. He particular, Zimmerman reviews John
134
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
Learning from the Obama Campaign: reply to W. Frederick Zimmerman
McWhorthers essay in New York Sun Obamas ascension to the Presidency that
identifying the key issues of this topic: captured public attention over time and
The key factor that galvanizes people second, we analyze Obamas presidential
around the idea of Obama for president campaign by reviewing the past challenges
is, quite simply, that he is blackTake across different new perspectives6.
away Mr. Obamas race and hes some So far it has been suggested that there
relatively anonymous rookie2; are distinctive features of the Barack
2. Barack Obama is Irish-American (Thats Obama campaign. Minimally, a number of
Mister OBama To You!). Times London authors have recognized the importance of
identified that United States has a methods of increasing voter participation
long tradition of presidential hopefuls in American low and moderate income
drawing on their Irish connection to communities in 2004 election.
win votes3; Equally, there is no clear answer Was
3. Barack Obama gave the keynote speech there a particular presidential model cam-
at the 2004 Democratic Convention4; paign?. In his article Case Study: Chicago-
4. Barack Obama had a well organized The Barack Obama Campaign, published
and publicized clash with John McCain. in Social Policy, Toni Foulkes argues that
At the same time, Eilleen Appelbaum Obama started building the base of his
offers a tough, but more important, a special campaign years before (the race for U.S.
theory on Obamas unexpected appeal across Senate in 2004). He also argues that there
traditional American political model: The were two central dimensions of the leader-
election of Barack Obama on November ship training sessions: the involvement of
4th to serve as the next president of the active volunteers around the 2004 March
USA was a triumph of hope over history primary elections; the evolution of Obamas
for America This is widely recognized campaign from a nonpartisan electoral work
as a transformation moment in the history to an increasing voter participation.
of the USA and perhaps, the world. The In 2004, Foulkes also notes that in
neo-liberal model which views greed as the March primary was not particularly
good and wealth as reward for virtue, important for the presidential race, as
which belives that markets possess infinite Kerry was just in the process of clinching
wisdom and regulation and unions can the Dem presidential campaign nomination.
only detract, and which discredits every But it was critical in the U.S. Senate race.
objection to rising inequality and upward On March 16th, State Senator Barack Obama
redistribution of income as an unwarranted won the right to represent the Democratic
assault on the class that creates prosperity5. Party in the U.S. Senate campaign Sen.
With all these in mind, the present Obama went on a keynote the Democratic
article proposes the following hypothesis Convention in July and was catapulted to
about the relationship between the ex- the national stage7. Next, it might be argued
posure to public opinion and political par- that still underdeveloped, the African-American
ticipation in presidential elections: ex- communities are becoming increasingly
posure to Internet and technology is important. Nevertheless, as Foulkes observed,
positively related to political participation. distinctively in Chicago, such commu-
Our analysis takes into account the nities exerted a positive impact on voters
potential influence of self-identification knowledge about Obamas campaign. For
factors in campaign in two ways: first, we instance, ACORN is active on the south
review all major challenges involved in and west sides of Chicago, in the south
135
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Anca Parmena Olimid
suburbs and the east side of Springfield, primary campaign. Commenting on March
the state capital. Moreover, ACORN makes primary campaign, Foulkes notes that
provision for the African-American commu- ACORN was involved in there distinctive
nities, with a growing Latino presence in activities (first, block captains were identified
Chicagos Little Village and the suburb8. and provided with lists of registered and
As noted before, in the case of unregistered voters and voter registration
African-American communities, open and materials; second, block captains went to
responsive are synonyms. Foulkes argues work to turn out vote; third, in some pre-
that the voting patterns in these commu- cincts in the 15th ward, it was possible to
nities paint a somewhat optimistic picture hire canvassers to work on voter turnout9
of increasing participation in 2004 March (see Figure 1).
Registered 03
Number of
Percentage
Change in
Ballots 04
Ballots 03
Turnout
Turnout
Turnout
Change
Voters
Voter
WARD/
TOTALS
ALL
15TH 24956 7832 31% 27602 6572 24% 19% 31,8%
WARD
ALL
24TH 30259 11137 37% 34763 9376 27% 19% 36,5%
WARD
CITY
1334909 51248238% 38% 1436286 483993 34% 6% 13,9%
WIDE
Other research has examined the im- political action that includes but is not
plications of watching Obamas political limited to electoral politics, social and
life and career for public opinion. On the political movements, interest group activi-
basis of this finding, Dupuis and Boeckelman ties, and the role of voting blogs in
reveal a new challenge for exploring such American elections12. Finally, Dupuis and
complexities: Barack Obama is both icon Boeckelman expose the role of Internet in
and enigma, which may explain his instant 2008 elections and the influence on poli-
appeal in American culture11. Overall, the tical interest. Moreover, the authors argue
authors also capture the early political that the use of Internet and high techno-
career of President Obama culminating in logy revolutionized the universally model
his meteoric political race for the U.S. of political campaign. Obamas presidential
Senate. Dupuis and Boeckelman analyze campaign mobilized Internet resources in
the evolution of his distinctive rhetorical ways never imagined. Additionally, it used
style and the patterns of the political evo- technology to its fullest reflecting the realities
lution developed between 1996 and 2004 of the real America. Dupuis and Boeckelman
and the presidential campaign between test their arguments by focusing on public
2007 and 2008. The authors take a deli- opinion polls/surveys conducted by the
berate tack toward a broader definition of The Pew Internet and American Life Project13.
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137
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Anca Parmena Olimid
real proof of the fulfillment of the promise Keith Boeckelman argue that Obamas
of freedom and justice for all American campaign included larger themes like citizen-
citizens. Nevertheless, Harlows normative ship and political engagement, advocating
conclusions regarding racism within the that American citizens have a civic res-
context of the American political philoso- ponsibility to go beyond the vote and gain
phical theory are significant because they a deeper and complex understanding of the
contribute to eliminate the disparities in political debate26.
the long history of discrimination in the Ceaser, Busch and Pitney report that
criminal justice system21. there are two main questions flowing from
Consequently, more different opinions the results of the 2008 elections. The first
are rediscovered and codified by political regards why the election of Barack Obama
agents and analysts of the present. From in 2008 spell the end to nearly thirty years
this perspective of temporality, the American generally referred to as the Reagan era?
dialogue about race has to move in a And the second question regards the
way that real and significant22. Analyzing effects of these elections for the beginning
the temporal aspect of Obamas primary of a long-term electoral realignment in
campaign, Carmen R. Lugo-Lugo and favor of the Democratic Party27. Without
Mary K. Bloodsworth-Lugo report three judging the performance of the future
different phenomena related to time, history, president, the authors discover six keys to
culture that need to be distinguished: the success of Barack Obama:
1. The Democratic nominee of Barack 1. Barack Obama combined the two
Obama served as canvas over which major themes in 2008 election which
constructions of terrorism, post- were change and post-partisanship.
September 11th anxieties and fears of The 2008 presidential campaign elaborated
renewed terrorist (and anti-American) major issues as the economy, the national
threats23; security, health reform proposals, but
2. The disturbing pattern in which the also it was notable for the absence of
image of Barack Obama was used to an appeal to the programmatic level28.
maintain a climate of fear of the browned The authors observed that neither
anti and un-American body24. Obama or McCain adopted an ideo-
In regard to the relationship between logical label akin to Clintons New
political behavior and the individual expe- Democratic Agenda or to Bushs com-
rience, Wanda V. Parham-Payne makes a passionate conservatorism29;
case for interpreting the 2008 elections 2. Barack Obama was an individual can-
according to the individual experiences or didate by comparison with recent
conditions of black women. Overall, the candidates for the presidency Bob
author argues that while focus group parti- Dole, Al Gore, John Kerry or George
cipants acknowledged in general the W. Bush who proved by the end of
historical importance of Clintons candidacy, the campaign an extraordinary and
participants contended that the gains and remarkable flexibility. Looking back
successes of the Obama campaign are of the authors argue that Obama first
even greater, historical importance25. impressed a national audience in 2004
Numerous studies show the relation- Democratic convention. Yet Obamas
ship between self-identification to the speech prefigured the message for unity
community and the political participation. shifting his position on issues as the
As mentioned before, Martin Dupuis and
138
Revista de tiine Politice. Revue des Sciences Politiques Nr. 21-22 2009
HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
Learning from the Obama Campaign: reply to W. Frederick Zimmerman
position on guns, the revion of the Foreign are the highest for a candidate and a
Intelligence Surveillance Act etc.; party since the Pew Center first asked
3. The innovation in campaign organization. the voters to grade the candidates
As mentioned before, Obamas staff and their parties in 1988;
recruited only quality staff creating a - Overall, two-thirds of voters say
tactical network across regions. Obamas they were of fairly satisfied with the
agenda included more readily issues choice of candidates in 2008 (95%
available to be organized such as college of Obamas voters say they are
youth, highly educated professional, satisfied with their choices and
and issues activities who opposed the nearly 69% of his Obamas report
Iraq War30. very satisfied)31;
A Pew Center Research Center for the - Furthermore, 76% of voters who
People & the Press released in gave a mark to Barack Obama said
November 2008 reported that voters he earned an A or B the way he
award very high marks to Obamas organized himself the presidential
campaign and the Democratic Party campaign32 (see Figure 2. Campaign
organization: Ratings - Among voters who gave
- The survey reports that the marks an answer33).
awarded to the Democrat candidate
2008
2004
2000
1996
1992
1988
139
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INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
Anca Parmena Olimid
Table 1. Most voters Sat News Media Wants Obama To Win. Joe the Plumber a Top
Campaign Story, released October 22, 200838 .Question 1: Who Does Media Favor in
the 2008 Election? (Based on Registered Voters)
6
See also, Randolph Burnside, Kami Marchionini, Preserving 2008 US Presidential
Whitehurst, From the Statehouse to the White Election Videos (http://ils.unc.edu/vidarch/
House?: Barack Obamas Bid to Become the Shah-IWAW2007.pdf). The authors are interested
Next President in Journal of Black Studies, in analyzing the correlation between the user
Vol. 38, September 2007, pp. 75-89. behavior on such sites and the actual social
7
Tony Foulkes, Case Study: Chicago - The trends and patterns. The emerging framework
Barack Obama Campaign in Social Policy, of the study focuses on 2008 US Presidential
Winter 2003, Vol. 34, No. 2, Spring 2004, Vol. Election and YouTube as the video source.
19
34, No. 3, pp. 49-52. Roxanna Harlow, Barack Obama and the
8
Ibidem, p. 50. See also Bart Schultz, Obamas (In)Significance of His Presidential Campaign
Political Philosophy: Pragmatism, Politics, and in Journal of African American Studies, Vol.
the University of Chicago in Philosophy of the 13, No. 2/2009, pp. 164-175.
20
Social Sciences, Vol. 39, June 2009, pp. 127-173. Ibidem, p. 164.
9 21
Ibidem. Ibidem, p. 168.
10 22
The figure is an adaptation after the figure For more details see Lawrence D. Bobo,
Voter Turnout, Chicago Primaries 2003-2004. Camille Z. Charles, Race in American Mind:
For more see, Tony Foulkes, op. cit., p. 51. From the Moynihan Report to the Obama
11
Martin Dupuis, Keith Boeckelman, Barack Candidacy in The ANNALS of the American
Obama, the new face of American politics, Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol.
(Series Foreword), Westport, Conn., Praeger, 621, January 2009, pp. 243-259.
23
2008, pp. ix-xii. For more references see Carmen R. Lugo-Lugo,
12
Ibidem; Jerry Harris, Carl Davidson, Obama: Mary K. Bloodsworth-Lugo, Black as Brown:
the new contours of power in Race & Class, The 2008 Obama Primary Campaign and the
Vol. 50, April 2009, pp. 1-19. U.S. Browning of Terror in Journal of African
13
Ibidem, p.70. American Studies, Vol. 13/2009, pp. 110-120.
14 24
Lee Rainie, Aaron Smith, The Internet and Ibidem, p. 111.
25
the 2008 election. Read full report on Pew Wanda V. Parham-Payne, Through the Lens
Internet & American Life Project website of Black Women: The Significance of Obamas
http://www.pewinternet.org/Reports/2008/The- Campaign in Journal of African American
Internet-and-the-2008-Election.aspx. Studies, Vol. 13/2009, p. 137.
15 26
See full version on line Campaign Strategy Martin Dupuis, Keith Boeckelman, op. cit.,
Newsletter. Learning From The Obama p. 34.
27
Campaign James W. Ceaser, Andrew Busch, John J.
http://www.campaignstrategy.org/newsletters/c Pitney, Epic journey: the 2008 elections and
ampaignstrategy_newsletter_46.pdf. the American politics, Lanham, Rowman &
16
For more details about the subject, see Duane Littlefield Publishers, 2009, pp. 7-14.
28
Raymond, Obamas Win and the Power of Ibidem, p. 15.
29
Networking on http://fairsay.com/blog/obamas- Ibidem.
30
win-and-the-power-of-networking. Ibidem, p. 22.
17 31
In 2004, Obama strategically conserved all his More about the subject, The Pew Center
resources for the media challenge in the last few Research Center for the People & the Press,
weeks of the campaign being able to garner the High Marks for the Campaign, a High Bar for
publics attention in the beginning of 2004. Also Obama, Section 1: Report Card on the
in January 2003, when Obama first announced his Campaign, November 13, 2008. Full report
campaign, he had already raised close to available on The Pew Center website
$290.000 (For more details concerning the funds http://people-press.org/report/?pageid=1425.
32
raised in Obamas campaign see Martin Dupuis Moreover, Obamas ratings are compared to
Keith Boeckelman, op. cit., pp. 37-55). those of past Democratic candidates and
18
For more about online digital video hosting McCains ratings are compared to those of past
and sharing sources in 2008 US Presidential Republican candidates.
33
Election Videos in Chirag Shah, Gary Ibidem.
141
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34 38
Ibidem, p. 26. See more about the subject The Pew
35
John Talbott, Obamanomics How Bottom- Research Center for the People & the Press,
Up Economic Prosperity Will Replace Trickle- Most Voters Say News Media Wants Obama to
Down Economics, New York, Seven Stories Win. Joe the Plumber a Top Campaign
Press, 1st edition, 2008, p. 17. Story, October 22, 2008. Full report available
36
James W. Ceaser, Andrew Busch, John J. on http://people-press.org/report/463/media-
Pitney, op. cit., p. 27. wants-obama. *Includes 1% who responded
37
John Talbott, op. cit., p. 17. Perot.
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
C
hina does not seek hegemony or Since some of the PRCs actions indi-
predominance in world affairs. It advocates cate movement in one direction and others,
a new international political and economic sometimes simultaneously, in another direction,
order, one that can be achieved through in- it becomes difficult to distinguish trend
cremental reforms and the democratization of
from countertrend. Consequently, it is easy
international relations.1 Chinas actions, most
notably its military buildup, have caused observers for an analyst to find evidence that fits his
to question he validity of such statements.2 or her previously held opinion. Is China
peacefully rising, as the author of the first
* June Teufel Dreyer is Professor of quote argues, or is China a threat, which is
Political Science at the University of Miami implicit in the second?
(Florida). She is the author of Chinas Political
System: Modernization and Tradition, 6th Military Spending and Social Costs
edition (Longman, 2008), as well as numerous Certainly, evidence exists for the threat
articles on the Chinese military and foreign scenario. Beginning in 1989, Chinese mili-
policy.This article is reprinted with authors tary budgets have risen by double-digit
permission from Orbis, Fall 2007 (published amounts every year except 2003. In that
by Elsevier Limite don behalf of Foreign Policy year, the increase was only 9.6 percent.
Research Institute), pp. 647-660. Moreover, significant military-related ex-
penditures do not appear in the announced
defense budget at all. These invisible costs
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June Teufel Dreyer
include weapons procured from abroad; and could not find comparable accommo-
subsidies to the defense industry; funding dations.
for paramilitaries including the Peoples Rapid economic development meant
Armed Police and the militia; some defense- increased pressure on the already-
related construction projects; and certain beleaguered environment. More factories
administrative costs such as payments to produced more pollution, and concerns
demobilized personnel. It is difficult to with short-term profits typically out-
calculate how large these items are. And weighed concerns about long-term conse-
analysts disagree over purchasing power quences such as deteriorating air quality,
parity conversion.3 Most estimates cluster drinkable water, and the expansion of deserts.
around defense expenditures that are two The health care system, which ranged
to three times the reported total. These from barely adequate in urban coastal areas
increases, moreover, occurred at the Cold to almost non-existent in rural locales,
Wars end, a time when, defense budgets further deteriorated with agricultures de-
in most other countries were decreasing collectivization. And where the one-child
dramatically. Since no foreign power showed family planning policy succeeded, the po-
interest in invading the PRC, the country pulation began to age. Demographers consider
faced no external threat that would justify a population aged if those over 60 years of
these costs. The most recently announced age exceed 10 percent of the population;
defense budget, up 17.8 percent to 350 for China, the percentage is 11.3 percent.4
billion yuan or about 45 billion over 2006 Older citizens create greater demands on
figures, puts the PRCs military expen- the medical system, as do the growing
ditures second only to the United States, environmentally related health problems.
although far behind it. Beijings leadership has acknowledged
Money spent on defense means that that these problems exist. Yet while the
fewer funds are available for Chinas many Chinese government has stated frankly that it
internal problems. The countrys agricultural lacks sufficient funds to adequately address
areas face serious problems, including a these health concerns, it has continued to
growing gap between urban and rural authorize larger military budgets.
incomes; peasant anger at taxes and other The government has justified growing
proliferating fees; misappropriation of their defense expenditures by arguing that it is
land by developers and local officials; and only compensating for the countrys rising
a shortage of rural credit. In urban areas, inflation. However, the increments in defense
the economic restructuring that occurred spending have occurred even when the eco-
when the PRC abandoned the planned nomy has experienced deflation, and have
economy, in favor of a market-based system, usually exceeded inflation rates. During the
ended the previous regime of virtually decade ending in 2006, defense spending
guaranteed employment. While breaking increased by double digits annually an
the iron rice bowl helped make the average of 13.7 percent after accounting
economy more efficient, tens of millions for inflation. The cumulative effect of the
of workers were displaced into tight job decade was to virtually quadruple real
markets. The newly unemployed often defense expenditures.5
found that their pensions had disappeared
as well. Often they were evicted from their Military Capabilities
homes by ambitious development efforts, The mere expenditure of funds does
not guarantee a more powerful military.
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Chinas Power and Will...
However, a consensus exists that the While it has been fashionable to con-
Peoples Liberation Army (PLA, the term clude such analyses by pointing out that,
includes naval, air force, marine, and missile for all its increased capabilities, the PLA is
forces as well as ground troops) has in- no match for the United States military,
creased its capabilities dramatically in this is to argue the question in the wrong
many areas. Pay raises and improved way. The Chinese government has no
living conditions for officers and men have intention of challenging the United States
enhanced the attraction of military service. in a global confrontation. One analyst, whose
Training exercises have become more study focused on the navy but could be
sophisticated. But nowhere have the generalized into a broader scenario, points
expenditures been more visible than in the out that on any given day, American forces
PLAs equipment budget. Between 1997 in the western Pacific may be surprisingly
and 2006, annual spending on equipment weak, depending on maintenance status
increased from 3.1 billion to 12.3 billion and commitments in the Indian Ocean and
i.e., quadrupling in real terms, just as the Persian Gulf. Windows of opportunity
defense budget did. During this period, the would be available for Beijing to benefit
Chinese military acquired new surface from its new naval power.8
combatants and submarines; modern fighter Other events that underscore the
jets; air-to-air refueling aircraft; satellites; progress of military modernization include
unmanned aerial vehicles; and a variety of the PLAs unveiling of its newest fighter
ballistic, cruise, and tactical missile systems. jet, the multirole J-10, and its successful
According to the 2006 U.S. Department test, in January 2007, of a ground-based
of Defense annual report on the PRCs medium-range ballistic missile to destroy a
military power, Chinas acquisitions suggest weather satellite orbiting more than 500
that it is generating capabilities that are miles in space. The J-10, introduced with
applicable to various regional contingencies great fanfare the same month, was des-
including Taiwan, other territorial disputes cribed as a role reversal in the global arms
with several countries that include U.S. industry, with analysts expressing surprise
allies, and access to natural resources.6 at Chinas speed in moving from an arms-
Foreign naval analysts describe the PRC importing country to one with real promise
as an emerging maritime power, pointing as a producer of cutting-edge military
out that emphasis on photogenic plat- technology.
forms, like new submarines, may have By contrast, there was no initial
distracted attention from more mundane announcement of the anti-satellite test. News
but potentially lethal progress in areas such was leaked to the magazine Aviation
as mine warfare. They assess that, relying Week and Space Technology, presumably
heavily on sea mines, the Peoples Liberation by sources within the U.S. Department of
Army Navy (PLAN) is already fully Defense. Beijings confirmation came
capable of blockading not only Taiwan but only after American officials hinted that
many other crucial sea lines of commu- the PLA might have carried out the test
nication in the western Pacific area. without the knowledge of high-ranking
Assisted by other emerging capabilities, government officials.
these advances in mine warfare amount to At the same time, the PLAs National
a deadly serious challenge to American Defense University was hosting a ten-day
power in East Asia.7 conference on informationized military
training.9 Since the Gulf War of 1991, its
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June Teufel Dreyer
journals have discussed the need to be able percent per annum for most of the last 25
to fight a technologically superior enemy years are cumulatively spectacular.
that possesses aircraft carriers. Most ob- These have wrought great changes, many
servers consider the United States the only of them positive. Shanghais futuristic
plausible foe fitting the general strategic skyline is regularly featured in collages
rubric of fighting and winning local wars advertising the Asian century, and those
under conditions of informationalization.10 who witnessed Shenzhen transformation
The U.S. Department of Defense Report from vistas of water buffalo and lotus
describes the PLA as targeting surface ponds to seemingly limitless rows of
ships and submarines at longer ranges, and gleaming high-rises continue to marvel at
notes that some Chinese analysts have stated the speed with which this process was
that, if they can seize Taiwan, the navy accomplished.
could move its maritime defensive perimeter Energy Concerns. Problems have occurred
further outward and influence regional sea as well, however. Since economic growth
lines of communication.11 This possibility is believed to blunt growing social dis-
caused concerns among the several PRC contents, the Beijing government must
neighbors who have territorial disputes with continue to provide high growth rates or
China. Japan has been most vocal among face, what it delicately refers to as, social
them, with the policy chief of Prime instability. Securing the resources necessary
Minister Abe Shinzos governing coalition, to enable factories to keep turning out
Nakagawa Shoichi, publicly stating that goods at a high speed has impelled China
[Japan] might also become just another Chinese onto world markets for energy and raw
province within twenty years or so. If Taiwan is materials, as well as to seek buyers for its
placed under [Chinas] complete influence, Japan products. While sellers of primary pro-
could be next. Thats how much China is seeking ducts typically are delighted to have new
hegemony..12
customers, and former colonies or quasi-
In February 2007, testifying before the colonies are glad to have an alternative to
Senate Armed Services Committee, Director the mother country, concerns remain that
of National Intelligence Michael McConnell the country may just be exchanging one
stated that Chinas aim inmodernizing its imperialist overlord for another.
militarywas to achieve paritywiththe United Regarding energy, especially after sharp
States. Headded that as this modernization rises in oil prices in 2005, worries surfaced
increased, so would Chinas threat to about the rapid rise in the PRCs imports.
America.13 In 1985, the PRC was self-sufficient in
energy and a net exporter of crude oil. In
Economic Growth 1993, with demand growing and domestic
The PRCs economic growth arouses production virtually flat, it became a net
at least as much apprehension as its en- importer. By 2003, China had surpassed
hanced military capabilities. There are Japan in becoming the worlds second
concerns that, either through military or largest petroleum consumer, amid predictions
economic domination or some combination that in future decades its imports would
of the two, China intends to become the exceed those of the United States. Chinas
global hegemon of the 21st century. purchases were not solely responsible for
Although the PRCs economic growth has the spike in oil prices. There were dis-
lagged behind the countrys defense budget, ruptions in supply due to instability in
economic advances hovering around ten producer states and rising demand in other
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Chinas Power and Will...
large countries, including India, Brazil, The European Unions trade deficit
and the United States. with the PRC was 106 billion in 2005.15
But it was Chinas purchases which How to act on these complaints is un-
captured the most attention, since other clear. For example, a bill that has lan-
countries worried that both the PRCs size guished in the U.S. Senate for several
and purchasing power might deprive them years would impose a tariff of 27.5 percent
of what they considered their fair share. on all Chinese goods entering the United
This was a particular concern for India, States. This tariff would represent the mid-
with its own huge population and impressive point of a currency that is variously
recent growth trajectory. Critics pointed to estimated to be undervalued between 15
Chinese companies penchant for purchasing and 40 percent. One of the reasons this bill
equity oil oil that the firms had a pro- has not proven successful is that American
prietary right to as a result of equity owner- economists fear that it might be worsen the
ship in development projects rather than problem. Consumers like the low prices of
purchasing it on the international market. Chinese goods, and would object to
In an exceptionally blunt speech in paying more if the PRCs currency were
September 2005, then-U.S. Deputy Secretary revalued upward. Additionally, China has
of State Robert Zoellick accused Beijing invested much of its foreign exchange
of exhibiting signs of mercantilism in holdings in U.S. Treasury bills, which in
seeking to lock up energy supplies. He essence subsidizes low mortgage rates for
advised its government to take concrete American homeowners. Should Beijing
steps in addressing what he called a choose to divest these, the result would be
cauldron of anxiety in the United States, a depressed housing market and further
and elsewhere about Chinese intentions. weakening of the dollar.
The path to energy security, said Zoellick,
was not through arousing anxieties.14 The Asian Colossus of the North
Trade Frictions. Zoellick was responding, Nowhere is the issue of Chinas rise
in part, to concerns about the PRCs trade more sensitive than among its near
surpluses with the rest of the world, which neighbors. With India a salient exception,
increased an astounding 74 percent in most are dwarfed by Chinas size. Much
2006, to 177.5 billion. Americas largest as the United States is regarded by Latin
trade imbalance is with China, and reaches America, China is the colossus of the
new highs over 212.7 billion in 2006 North to Southeast Asia. While respecting
each year. Some complain that Beijing just their larger neighbor and desiring the be-
is not playing fair. Charges include that it nefits of trading with it, Southeast Asian
keeps the countrys currency at artificially states are aware at the same time that their
low rates, and that it condones gross economies may be swallowed up by the
violations of intellectual property rights PRCs. There is also a legacy of un-
costing developed countries billions of easiness due to past relationships with China
dollars each year. A study published by the under the tribute system of the imperial
European Commission complained that past. Barbarian, (i.e. non-Chinese) rulers
...securing reciprocal free and fair market in access in performed the ritual ketou (kowtow) of
China is crucial. Here, a range of obstacles to market three kneelings and five prostrations of
access and skewed conditions of competition need obeisance to the emperor, confirming ones
urgent attention. vassal status. In return, ones position as
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ruler of ones people was confirmed, and University economist Jeffrey Sachs, whose
costly gifts were given. statement that African governance is poor
Some Asians see parallels with the because Africa is poor, is quoted widely,
current practices. In 2004, when the PRC described Chinas role in the continent as
excoriated Singaporean leader Lee Hsien extraordinarily positive and important...
Loong for visiting Taiwan before taking [Beijing] has a pragmatic approach. It
over as prime minister, there were angry gives fewer lectures and more practical
albeit brief outbursts from its citizens help. The overwhelming feeling from Afri-
that their country could not be bullied can leaders is gratitude toward Chinese
into kowtow politics. A few years later, support.18 Beijing often describes its
addressing Beijings attitudes in general, a policies as aid without strings attached.
Singapore commentator said The truth, however, is more nuanced.
Contemporary Southeast Asian states did not fight Many African leaders, as distinguished
long and hard for their independence only to be from African nations, have good reason to
dominated by an external power again. They are be grateful to Beijing. Among those with
vigilant in guarding their political sovereignty . . . for most reason to be thankful for Beijings
ASEAN [The Association of Southeast Asian
Nations], the main factor shaping its attitude will be
generosity is Zimbabwes president Robert
Beijing itself, that is, whether China sends clear Mugabe. Local news media have reported
signals that it desires win-win ties based on mutual that China provided him with money to
respect and benefit. ASEAN does not want an build a mansion, even equipping it with a
16
expansionist, hegemonic China. multimillion dollar security radar system.
North and South Koreans, typically at Mugabe has also purchased a dozen Chinese
loggerheads over almost everything, reacted airplanes, with no obvious pressing need.
in angry harmony in 2004 after no less With Zimbabwes economy having con-
than five papers published by the PRCs tracted by a third since the 1990s, massive
Northeast Asia Project asserted that the inflation, and an unemployment rate esti-
ancient kingdom of Koguryo was a mi- mated at 70 percent, the presidents do-
nority kingdom of northeast China and mestic critics denounced expenditures on
Han Chinese in origin. In Japan, critics of such extravagances.
what they considered the excessively Many less highly-placed Africans are
accommodationist attitudes of the China angry and disappointed. Workers cheered
School in the Ministry of Foreign Affairs when Chinese companies first invested in
referred to its practices as dogeza gaiko, or Zambias struggling copper mines, but
kowtow foreign policy.17 quickly began to complain both about pay
that was substantially lower than other
Into Africa foreign-owned mines, as well as unsafe
China has invested billions of dollars working conditions. In 2005, 49 miners died
in African oil production, mining, trans- in an explosion at the Chinese-owned
portation, electricity production and trans- Chambishi mine in northeast Zambia. The
mission, telecommunications, and other accident was blamed on lax safety stan-
infrastructure. In 2004 alone, Chinas dards. In the following year, the police
direct investment in Africa represented 900 shot five mine workers while quelling a
million, or six percent, of the continents riot over working conditions. Comparable
total of 15 billion. In the decade ending in complaints came from the Chinese-owned
2005, its trade with Africa had jumped Collum iron mine in southern Zambia. The
from 4 billion to 40 billion. Columbia Mulungushi Textile Mill shut down, victim
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Chinas Power and Will...
of competition from Chinese goods. Loangas plants and animals survive. The
Chinese-made textiles and shoes are said countrys environment ministry denied
to be less sturdy than their locally-made ever approving Sinopecs environmental
competitors, but sell for far less. impact statement.
Chinese immigration into Zambia, as Human rights groups have charged
into several other African states, also China with showering aid on corrupt
caused frictions. Natives charge that Chinese regimes, and perpetuating their powerful
laborers and small business owners are taking leaders. Nowhere has there been more
jobs from Zambians. There is disagree- concern over this than in Sudan, where
ment over the size of this immigrant slavery and genocide are endemic. China
community: President Levy Mwanawasa backs the reprehensible Sudanese regime,
told parliament that there are 2,300; local whose militias use Chinese-made helicopter
economists estimate that they number at gunships based at airstrips maintained by
least thirty thousand. Chinese influence Chinese oil companies to murder the
became a major issue in Zambias October countrys black citizens. Professor Sachss
2006 presidential election. After challenger analysis notwithstanding, rather than help
Michael Sata accused his opponent of Africa emerge from poverty, the PRCs
allowing the country to become a dumping policies actually help strengthen and per-
ground for Chinese migrants, crowds petuate the kleptocracies governments of
attacked and looted Chinese shops in thieves that have contributed so heavily
Lusaka. Although Mwanawasa easily won to African poverty.
election, Sata ran well ahead in areas that Save that there are no concerns about
had been affected by Chinese influence. Chinas support of genocidal dictators,
When President Hu Jintao visited the most of the praise and criticism of the
country the following February, a planned PRCs relationships with Latin and Caribbean
visit to the countrys Copperbelt Province countries are remarkably similar to those
was cancelled to avoid protests. involving Africa. In the late 1990s, the
Issues in other African states were PRC in one case, involving Haiti, threatened
variations on common themes. In South to cast a UN Security Council veto, and in
Africa, after the expiry of a global textile a second case, with regard to Guatemala,
agreement allowed less expensive Chinese did veto but later withdrew its vote, to
goods to flood in, thousands of textile obtain Latin American states compliance
workers lost their jobs. The Chinese products with its views on Taiwan. In the former
even included machine-made copies of case, which involved extending a peace-
traditional African patterns. Jerseys and keeping mission to Haiti, a rare coalition
caps bearing the logo of the Springboks, of Latin/Caribbean states including the
pride and joy of South African sports fans, PRCs staunch ally Cuba argued that this
were also made in China. President Thabo issue must be decided on the basis of what
Mbeki warned of recolonialization. In Haiti, as a sovereign state, needed rather
Gabon, the Chinese oil company Sinopec than on external factors.
was charged with illegal exploration after Nonetheless, undoubtedly Latin America
it was discovered to be prospecting for oil and the Caribbean have commodities for
in the Loango nature reserve. The company which there is a market in the PRC. Over
was accused of dynamiting and polluting the past five years, the PRC has signed
the park, tearing up the forest to create various energy, natural resource, economic,
roads, and destroying the habitat in which and tourism agreements intended to secure
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June Teufel Dreyer
August 2005, President Nstor Kirchners internationally benign image, such as the
government enacted licensing requirements panda.20 Spokespersons also describe the
on Chinese shoes and toys. PRCs development as being helpful to
In many cases, Latin American critics those countries that cooperate with it.
have charged, investment funds that were China has sought to establish its image
promised do not materialize. Where they as a responsible world citizen in other
have, charges have been leveled that the ways, as well. Beijing agreed to host the
infrastructure construction serves the PRCs six-party talks on North Korean nuclear pro-
needs, not those of the recipient country. liferation which, after protracted negotia-
Complaints abound that the Chinese bring tions, reached a tentative settlement in
in their own labor rather than hire local February 2007. Reversing its long-standing
people, and that the infrastructure projects objections to United Nations peacekeeping
pay no attention to the destruction they activities as constituting interference in the
wreak on the environment. In 2006, affairs of sovereign states, the PRC
Chinas exports to Central and South currently has more than 1,600 personnel
America exceeded its imports for the first stationed in ten countries, making it the
time. The imbalance in the PRCs favor is 13th largest contributor to UN peace-
expected to grow in 2007. keeping forces.
In November 2006, Beijing hosted a
Assuaging Fears lavish and well-publicized summit meeting
China is aware of the concerns raised with 48 African nations. Leaders pledged
by its rapidly increasing international profile, to form a new strategic partnership, and
and has made efforts to assuage them. Hu Jintao vowed to address the PRCs
After it discovered that the term peaceful large trade imbalance with the continent.
rise was not having the desired effect, Beijing Millions of dollars in debt would be
replaced it with peaceful development. forgiven, and aid would be increased. Hus
Chinese premier Wen Jiabao, speaking to February 2007 trip to eight African states
a gathering of Southeast Asian states, des- sought to address criticisms that China
cribed his country as a friendly elephant.19 offered sweeteners in order to seal trade
Efforts have been made to use soft power agreements which subsequently proved to
to dispel the image of an emerging military have been detrimental to the other signers
and economic juggernaut. Confucius Insti- best interests. The Chinese president averred
tutes now exist in a number of countries. that his country had always been, and would
These institutes provide introductions to continue to be, respectful of the sove-
traditional Chinese culture, including a reignty of other countries: it believes in
version of the great sages teachings that mutual benefits to all parties concerned.
presents his native land positively. In this The PRC has also promised to try to
endeavor, Confuciuss advocacy of a datong, persuade the Sudanese government to
or great harmony, is set forth as Chinas work with the international community to
hope for the international community. The improve the human right situation in areas
institutes also assist the host countrys like Darfur. Some voices among the com-
educational institutions to offer courses in plaining countries acknowledge partial
the Chinese language. There have even responsibility for their own plight: they do
been discussions in the Chinese media not work as hard as the Chinese. Algerians
about replacing the dragon as the symbol who resent Chinese taking jobs, none-
of the country with an animal with a more theless, admit that Chinese workers will be
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a part of their labor market unless and until order, it will do so. Those who are sus-
their country improves its own labor skills. picious of Beijings intentions point to the
And a Chinese employer, who says that he advice paramount Leader Deng Xiaping
employs fifteen Zambians for every Chinese, gave to PRC foreign and security policy-
says he prefers the latter because makers in the early 1990s. Known as the
...Chinese people can stand hard work. This is a 24 character strategy, it admonishes Chinese
cultural difference. Chinese people work until they to observe calmly; secure our position;
finish and then rest. Here they are like the British; cope with affairs calmly; hide our capabi-
they work according to a plan. They have tea breaks lities and bide our time; be good at main-
and a lot of days off. For our construction company,
that means it costs a lot more.21
taining a low profile; never claim leader-
ship. The phrase, make some contributions
Chinese companies have also rejected was added later.22 A few years after, in a
charges that they are exploiters, pointing 1999 speech that was interpreted as trying
out that they take risks in investing in to restrain the countrys militants from a
markets in Southeast Asia, Africa, and more aggressive international posture, Pre-
Latin America where other countries com- sident Jiang Zemin made a statement with
panies would be reluctant to go. This vo- a similar meaning, arguing that although it
latility includes political turbulence, po- may be
tential terrorist attacks, and changeable
perfectly obvious that the wolf [unspecified, but
investment environments. To some extent, almost certainly meaning the United States and its
they have been forced to deal with less liberal democratic allies] is going to attack man, we
savory regimes to obtain oil supplies. still need to deal with the wolf. That is, we must
When a Chinese company attempted to dance with the wolf. This is the reality we must face
and the diplomatic strategy we must adopt.23
purchase American-owned UNOCAL in
2005, it was a U.S. uproar which forced a A military strategist, who has closely
cancellation of the negotiations. examined the historical, i.e. pre-1949 record,
Chinas supporters point out that, observes that Chinese strategic thought is
however much the PLAs abilities have characterized by a long tradition of denial
increased, it is no match for the United and deception. Finding resonances of this
States, and will not be for the foreseeable tradition in contemporary military doctrine
future. Moreover, it is natural for a country and outright assertions by Chinese offi-
to want to provide for its defense. More cials, he concedes that these may simply
than half of the countrys oil comes through be a concatenation of possibilities with no
the Straits of Malacca: if these should be assignable probability.24 However, for the
interdicted in time of war, Chinas eco- U.S. policymaker who must deal with the
nomic lifeline would be threatened. The near term, concatenations of possibilities
PLA Navy must prepare against such a with no assignable probability are of scant
contingency, as well as to protect the PRCs help.
other growing commercial interests.
Skeptics believe these soothing words Conclusion
disguise more militant future intentions. We cannot be sure whether to take
The PRC leaderships grand strategy, they Beijings words about its peaceful intentions
believe, is to build its economy and mi- at face value, or whether to interpret its
litary while denying any but peaceful in- actions as indicative of a coordinated mili-
tentions. When China becomes strong tary and economic strategy for world
enough to dominate the established world domination. Without certainty about the
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16 21
Kah Beng Teo, ASEAN Does Not Want an Lui Pin, cited in McCreal, February 7, 2007.
22
Expansionist, Hegemonic China, Straits The statement can be seen in its entirety in a
Times, February 27, 2007. number of venues, most recently Annual
17
The China School is considered to have lost Report 2006, p. 9.
23
power in recent years due to widespread Ching-shengYu, Jiang Zemin Repeatedly
dissatisfaction with these policies. See, e.g. (no Expounds Chinas Domestic and Foreign
author), Hate-China Sentiment Spreading at Policies in Three Internal Speechs Giving a
Foreign Ministry, Kyodo (Tokyo), June 9, Quick Response and Winning the Support of
2005; Hiroyasu Akutsu, Tokyo and Taipei try the Public, Ching Pao, July 1, 1999, pp. 24
to Tango, Far Eastern Economic Review (Hong 26, trans. in Foreign Broadcast Information
Kong), January/February 2007, pp. 31-35. Service/China, July 9, 1999.
18 24
Quoted in Benjamin Robertson, Into Ralph D. Sawyer, Chinese Strategic Power:
Africa, South China Morning Post (Hong Myths, Intent, and Projections, Journal of Military
Kong), September 20, 2006. and Strategic Studies (Winter 2006/07), p. 62.
19 25
Jason Leow, Wen Spells Out Chinas See June Teufel Dreyer, Sino-American
Friendly Elephant Role, Straits Times, March Energy Cooperation, Journal of Contemporary
15, 2004. China, Spring 2007, forthcoming.
20 26
See, e.g. Benjamin Robertson, Dragon Debate Sawyer, p. 61.
27
Reflects Beijings Growing Sense of Image, South Paul Mooney, Chinas Wooing of a Coy
China Morning Post, January 4, 2007. Africa, South China Morning Post, January 5, 2006.
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES
Shelley RIGGER*
T
aiwans 2008 elections delivered an
unequivocal result: The Kuomin- the ultimate prize, Taiwans presidency, when
g(M)p,fy political power than at any KMT nominee Ma Ying-jeou polled 58.5
time since fully-democratic national elections percent of the vote, winning majorities in
were instituted in the early 1990s.1 18 of the islands 23 municipalities. KMT-
In January, KMT candidates captured backed executives also run seventeen muni-
53.5percent of the vote and 81 out of 113 cipalities, to the Democratic Progressive
seats in Taiwans national parliament, the Partys (DPPs) six.
The recent victories confer on the KMT
* Shelley Rigger is associate professor of
political science at Davidson College, North leadership both a popular mandate and the
Carolina. This article is based on a paper she institutional backing to implement a broad
presented to the Conference on Elections, range of policy initiatives. Although the
Political Transition and Foreign Policy in East election results undoubtedly reect colossal
Asia at the Foreign Policy Research Institute in
April, 2008 and it is reprinted with authors
public dissatisfaction with two-term incumbent
permission from Orbis, Fall 2008 (published by president Chen Shui-bian, they also re-
Elsevier Limite don behalf of Foreign Policy present a signicant afrmative vote for
Research Institute), pp. 647-660. the KMT. The KMTs opponents in both
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lations were unnecessary, given Mas options Taiwan might adopt not an
strong lead in the polls, but in fact, KMT inevitable solution. As long as decisions
leaders were never fully condent he would about Taiwans future result from a demo-
win. Their experiences in 2000 and 2004, cratic process, he avers, he can accept any
when the KMT saw huge leads evaporate outcome. To reinforce this emphasis on
just weeks (or hours) before the voting- democracy as the basis of policy, Ma says
combined with the high number of voters there is no chance Taiwan would unify
calling themselves undecided in pre- with a non-democratic Peoples Republic
election polling-convinced KMT strategists of China. To qualify as democratic, he has
to take nothing for granted. In the last days said, the PRC government must meet
before the election, Mas campaign staffers stringent criteria including reversing its
drove themselves to distraction imagining verdicts against the Tiananmen Square
DPP dirty tricks to steal the election - protesters of 1989.
which is how they believe Chen won in Mas campaign message regarding
2004. On March 21, the New York Times unication centered on two themes. First,
reported The suppression of Tibet protests he atly stated that unication would not
by Chinese security forces, as well as be a topic for dialogue during his term of
missteps by the Nationalist Party, which ofce. This unequivocal statement, reiterated
Beijing favors, have nearly erased what regularly throughout the campaign, put
had seemed like an insuperable lead for Beijing on notice that moving too quickly
Ma Ying-jeou, the Harvard-educated lawyer to press Taiwan on unication would back-
who has been the front-runner in the race.4 re. It also reassured Taiwanese voters that
The fact that Ma refused to retreat from electing Ma would not result in precipitous
the 1992 consensus, even in this perilous changes to Taiwans status. Mas second
political environment, underscores his campaign theme was his three nos
determination to establish its legitimacy as formula: no unication, no independence,
the basis for dialogue with Beijing. no armed conict. This statement offers
The DPP pointed to Mas commitment reassurance to the PRC and to the Taiwan
to the 1992 consensus as one of many signs electorate, as it addresses the deepest fears
that the KMT candidate was more committed of each side.
to unication than to protecting Taiwans Just in case Beijing might have missed
interests. Hsiehs campaign rallies rang the point, Ma added a stinging coda at the
with accusations that Ma and the KMT end of the campaign. On March 18, with
were preparing to sell out Taiwan to the violence raging in Tibet, Ma issued a
PRC. To make their case, however, DPP statement that touched on every one of
speakers needed to ignore or dismiss the Beijings sore spots. The statement began,
many public statements in which Ma The Republic of China is a sovereign
warned Beijing to keep its expectations independent democratic state. The future
low regarding unication. These messages of Taiwan should be decided by Taiwans
constituted a second costly signal-one that 23-million people, and no intervention by
could delay or derail the progress on cross- the PRC is to be tolerated. After calling
Strait relations Ma needs to prove his PRC Premier Wen Jiabaos assertion that
mettle as president. mainland Chinese people should have a
Ma has never denied that the KMTs role in determining Taiwans status not
long-term preference is for unication, but only rude, irrational, arrogant, and absurd,
he regards unication as one of several but also self-righteous, the statement des-
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cribed the crackdown in Tibet as a savage strait state of hostilities, reach a peace accord,
and stupid act. Ma reiterated his support and build a framework for the peaceful
for Taiwans reentry into the United and steady development of cross-strait ties,
Nations and urged Beijing to open a including the establishment of a military
dialogue with the Dalai Lama. Finally, as mutual trust mechanism, to avoid cross-
if to make sure that no sacred cow would strait military conict. The leaders also
escape the blade, Ma concluded, If the agreed to promote discussion on issues of
PRC continues its crackdown on the participation in international activities, which
Tibetan people, and if the situation in Tibet concern the Taiwan public, after cross-
continues to deteriorate, I will not, if strait consultations are resumed, including
elected President of the Republic of China, priority discussion on participation in the
rule out the possibility to stop sending our World Health Organizations activities.
delegation to the 2008 Beijing Olympic Mas campaign emphasized this last point
games.5 in its promise to work with the PRC to
If Mas campaign message to Taiwans achieve a modus vivendi on Taiwans
voters was that they should expect him to international space.7
move aggressively toward tighter cross- To call for dialogue while excluding
Strait economic relations and to seek better the issue about which ones negotiating
political relations under the 1992 con- partner ostensibly is most eager to talk, as
sensus framework, the message to Beijing Ma has done, would seem to guarantee
was equally blunt: dont expect me to failure, but the Lien-Hu agreement pro-
deliver Taiwan on a silver platter if I win. vides fodder foryears of negotiations without
By making both messages plain and ever raising the issue of unication. (The
unequivocal, Ma earned the credibility he closest the agreement comes to mentioning
needs to move toward a dialogue while unication is a call for a virtuous circle of
taking unication off the agenda. cooperation so as to bring about brilliant
That said, it is fair to ask what the and splendid prospects for the Chinese
content of this vaunted dialogue will be. Here nation.) Using interim steps the eco-
again, Mas campaign made his intentions nomic agreements and peace accord to
clear. Mas agenda for dialogue is rooted facilitate dialogue while postponing the
in an agreement KMT chair Lien Chan day of reckoning on unication is an
and CCP General Secretary (and PRC important part of the Ma Ying-jeou/KMT
president) Hu Jintao reached in Aprilie approach to cross-Strait relations-one that
2005. The two leaders joint statement reads, appears likely to meet Beijing leaderships
in part, It is the common proposition of expectations (which has signed onto this
the two parties to uphold the Consensus strategy already) and the Taiwanese peoples.
of 92, oppose Taiwan independence,6 Mas plan for cross-Strait dialogue also
pursue peace and stability in the Taiwan meshes well with Beijings current grand
Strait, promote the development of cross- strategy, which emphasizes avoiding conict
strait ties, and safeguard the interests of and preventing Taiwan from moving
compatriots on both sides of the strait. farther toward de jure independence, while
The statement also called for enhanced allowing the forces of economic inte-
economic cooperation including all- gration and political amity to pull Taiwan
round, direct and two-way three links more deeply into the PRCs orbit. The
and expressed the two sides shared desire current PRC leadership appears to place
to promote a formal ending to the cross- greater importance on neutralizing Taiwan
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strait economic relations] is even more peaceful reconciliation has turned more
limitedPut simply, the trend toward promising, a negotiated peace between the
Taiwanization in basic ethnic consciousness two sides is still far off Democratization
has not evolved into a political demand for has reinforced the Taiwanese quest to
Taiwan independence.15 retain charge of the islands own future,
One of the most interesting and useful making the threshold for constructing a
ways of studying these issues is a method winning coalition for reunication extremely
developed by Yun-han Chu that measures high.18 If this is the case, it is not sur-
conditional preferences. In these surveys, prising that Taiwanese voters would endorse
respondents are asked whether they would a policy aimed at promoting engagement
agree with these statements: and dialogue while deferring a conver-
If the social, economic and political sation about unication to the distant future.
conditions in the mainland become
comparable to Taiwan, the two sides Implementing the Ma Ying-jeou
should become unied. Platform for Cross-Strait Relations
If Taiwan can maintain peace with Now that Taiwans electorate has
mainland China after declaring in- spoken, implementing Mas platform will
dependence, Taiwan should become a require cooperation from three other im-
new nation (state). portant constituencies: Beijing, Washington
Respondents who agree with both and the KMT. Mas campaign laid out a
statements Chu denes as open minded new approach for the KMT, one that
rationalists. Those who disagree with both emphasizes Taiwans (or the ROCs)
are strong believers in the status quo. democratic nature. The old KMT-under
Those who agree with one but disagree the leadership of Chiang Kai-shek and
with the other are committed believers Chiang Ching-kuo was a Chinese nationalist
in either unication or independence. In party (its full name, Zhongguo Guomin
the 2006 survey, 29.8 percent qualied as Dang, means Chinese Nationalist Party).
principled believers in independence (which is This identity fueled suspicions that it
to say, they would prefer independence if would be willing to sacrice Taiwan to the
it came at no cost, and they would not unicationist imperative in Chinese natio-
support unication even if the two sides nalism. It also reinforced the sense of the
were very similar) and 15.1 percent were KMT as an alien political force imposed
principled believers in unication. What is upon Taiwan, which inspired the DPP to
most interesting, however, is the largest embrace a competing ethno-nationalist
group 33.3 percent who were open- vision of Taiwans future, that of an
minded rationalists, willing to accept either independent Taiwanese state.
outcome under favorable conditions.16 The new KMT, populated by former
Chus conclusions which are supported president Lee Teng-huis ethnically-transcendent
by a several other studies suggest that New Taiwanese, downplays ethno-
the mainland China policy Ma Ying-jeou nationalism in favor of democracy. Ma
and his party are promoting aligns well Ying-jeous statements on cross-Strait
with popular preferences on the island.17 relations project a civic nationalist blue-
As Chu puts it, my analysis does not print, one in which Taiwans (or the
support the view that cross-strait relations ROCs) national identity is dened by its
are on the verge of a major departure from democratic political system, not the eth-
the status quo. While the prospect of nicity Chinese or Taiwanese of its
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citizens. By declining to play the ethno- charter ights and increase the number of
nationalist game, Ma is able to set aside Chinese tourists in Taiwan. Many more
the long-standing anxiety about whether issues remain to be resolved, but as long as
he is capable of being an authentic re- the dialogue continues, the economic issues,
presentative and leader for the Taiwanese at least, will be addressed.
people. His positions on cross-Straits Achieving progress on political issues-
issues establish him as a politician who including reducing tensions, implementing
puts Taiwan rst, one who treats Taiwan military condence building measures,
as an end in itself, and not as a means to a normalizing relations and signing a peace
Chinese nationalist end. accord will be a bigger challenge. Here
The rst practical test of Mas new again, though, the two sides already have
approach will be whether he is able to agreed in principle to pursue these goals.
jumpstart cross-Strait economic liberalization. Perhaps more importantly, Beijing currently
The economic components of his plan denes its core interests in the Strait as
should be the easiest to implement, not stabilizing relations with and neutralizing
least because Beijing already gave them its Taiwan as a potential ashpoint for con-
blessing in the 2005 KMT-CCP agreement. ict by minimizing the chances it would
During the campaign, Ma promised quick make a lunge for de jure independence.
action on direct links, investment liberali- Because easing cross-Strait relations is
zation and bringing PRC tourists to Taiwan. consistent with Beijings overall strategic
The most difcult of these is the rst, since goals, the chances for positive steps are
the others can be accomplished almost good.
entirely by unilateral action. But the 2005 Still, Beijing and Taipei have missed
agreement sets direct sea and air links as a opportunities to improve their relationship
goal, along with increased trade and before, and there is no shortage of
investment, as well as opening mainland potential roadblocks ahead. To begin with,
markets to Taiwanese agricultural products. it is crucial that both sides keep their
Negotiating a common market agreement claims modest on behalf of the 1992
is a longer term step, but again, the CCP Consensus. Ma has spoken of the pact as
agreed to do this in the 2005 KMT-CCP mutual non-denial not mutual recog-
pact. nition. For Beijing to commence dialogue
During Mas rst month as president, under this formula implies a retreat from
he made signicant progress toward these its past insistence on the far-stricter One
practical goals enough to alarm some China principle. Nonetheless, hopes are
Democratic Progressive Party supporters. rising that the 1992 Consensus, loosely
Between the election and inauguration, interpreted, will be enough. According to
Vice President Vincent Siew met with news reports, Hu Jintao told President
Chinese President Hu Jintao in Boao, China. George W. Bush on March 26 that the
As soon as Ma and Siew took ofce, 1992 Consensus means both sides re-
dialogue between the two sides quasi- cognize there is only one China, but agree
ofcial representative groups resumed, to differ on its denition.19 Beijing has
proving that the ill-dened 1992 consensus long insisted the consensus was not an
is, in fact, sufcient grounds for talks. By agreement to disagree, so this shift in
mid-June, less than a month after the interpretation is noteworthy, and encouraging.
inauguration, the two sides had signed If optimism tempered with caution is
agreements to permit weekend cross strait in order when assessing the chances of
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and 36 percent of the party list vote, for a total of Powers Emerging Choice, China Quarterly,
14 seats. Candidates not afliated with either Dec. 2001, pp. 835-864.
9
major party won ve district/Aboriginal seats, Ted Galen Carpenter, Let Taiwan Defend
and no proportional seats. Itself. Cato Policy Analysis, August 24, 1998.
3
The 1992 Consensus refers to talks between Available at http://www.cato.org/pubs/pas/pa-
Taipei and Beijing in 1992, when the two sides 313.html (accessed April 7, 2008).
10
agreed to set aside the problem of national Changes in the Chinese/Taiwanese Identity
sovereignty in order to discuss practical issues. of Taiwanese as Tracked in Surveys by the
In essence, they agreed that trying to nd a Election Studies Center, NCCU (1992-2007).
mutually-acceptable denition of each sides From the series Important Political Attitude
sovereignty would make a dialogue on the Trend Distribution. Available at http://esc.
practical matters impossible, so they would nccu.edu.tw/eng/data/data03-2.htm (accessed
agree that both sides believed in one China, April 7, 2008).
11
and leave the discussion there. The KMT Yun-han Chu, Taiwans Politics of Identity:
describes the 1992 consensus as one China, Navigating Between China and the United
different interpretations, with the Taiwan side States, Power and Security in Northeast Asia:
interpreting one China to mean the Republic Shifting Strategies. Byung-Kook Kim and
of China. In short, the KMT holds that the two Anthony Jones, Eds. (Boulder: Lynne Rienner
sides reached an agreement to disagree. The Publishers, 2007) p. 241.
12
DPP has consistently held that there was no The Pace of Cross-Strait Exchanges,
consensus reached in 1992; it also rejects the Mainland Affairs Council. Available at http://
idea that Taiwan is part of China under any www.mac.gov.tw/english/index1-e.htm
interpretation (accessed April 7, 2008).
4 13
Keith Bradsher, China Tensions Could Sway How should our government handle
Vote in Taiwan, New York Times, March 21, Taiwanese investment on Mainland China?
2008. Mainland Affairs Council. Available at
5
Ma Ying-jeou Statement, March 18, 2008. http://www.mac.gov.tw/english/index1-e.htm
Accessed at: www.kuomintangnews.org (April (accessed April 7, 2008).
14
5,2008). Should we open up direct transportation
6
The Chinese Communist Party and the KMT links with Mainland China? Mainland Affairs
differentiate between Taiwan independence,which is Council. Available at http://www.mac.gov.tw/
unacceptable to both, and the independence of english/index1-e.htm (accessed April 7, 2008).
15
the Republic of China. The KMT has always Wu Yu-shan, Liangan guanxi zhong de
insisted that the ROC exists as an independent, Zhongguo yishi yu Taiwan yishi. Zhongguo
sovereign state. In theory, ROC independence Shiwu 4, April 2001, pp. 71-89.
16
is unacceptable to the CCP, but it has not Chu, op. cit. p. 245.
17
challenged the KMT on this point in many See Wu, op. cit.; Andy G. Chang and T.Y.
years. Wang, Taiwanese or Chinese? Independence
7 or Unication? An Analysis of Generational
The English translation of the KMT-CCP
agreement from which these passages are Differences in Taiwan. Journal of Asian and
excerpted is available at: http://news.bbc. African Studies, February-April 2005, pp. 29-
co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacic/4498791.stm (accessed 49; Shelley Rigger, Taiwans Rising Rationalism:
April 5, 2008). A complete Chinese text is Generations, Politics and Taiwanese Nationalism,
available at: http://news.sina.com.cn/c/2005- East-West Center Policy Studies #26 (2006);
04-29/19065787389s.shtml (accessed April 7, Gunter Schubert, Taiwans Political Parties
2008). and National Identity: The Rise of an
8
For an account of Chinas emerging grand Overarching Consensus. Asian Survey 44,
strategy, see Avery Goldstein, The Diplomatic July-August 2004, pp. 534-554.
18
Face of Chinas Grand Strategy: A Rising Chu, op. cit. p. 250.
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19
Katherin Hille, Hopes Rise for Taiwan-China /speeches/2007/1203_taiwan_bush.aspx
Dialogue, Financial Times, April 2, 2008. (accessed April 7, 2008).
20 21
Richard Bush, U.S.-Taiwan Relations: Washington Sends Mixed Signals, Taipei
Whats the Problem? Brookings Institution Times, April 8, 2008.
web site, available at http://www.brookings.edu
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G
lobalization, characteristic of the by the state and the national dimension of
time we live in represents an over- the human existence.
whelming challenge for the state- Regarding the state function, the main
nation that emerged in Europe and that dispute of the previous century was held
paralleled the signing of Westphalia Treaty. between the supporters of the total state on
This one culminated with the Treaty of the one side and the supporters of the
Trianon that is a political work piece of a minimal state on the other. After the Second
renewed world designed by both the states World War totalitarianism maintained in
of Europe and The United States and its left formula which originated from
leading to the peace based on the just socialism and communism and which
collaboration of states represented for the paradoxically relied on Marxs works for
first time by nations and not by the few whom the state represented an instrument
imperial and imperialist elitist groups that used by the exploiting class to submit the
had been ruling empires up to that point.1 exploited class.
The Treaty of Trianon brought Europe The common goal of all the socialist
back to the pattern according to which movements was nationalization so that all
peace is a collective work of nations and the economic activity should be directed
national elite assembled under the label of according to a detailed program towards a
national state. certain ideal characterized by social justice.2
We attempt to approach this issue by The common possession of the production
debating on the topic of the function played means guaranteed the existence of a perfect
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Nevertheless, the exponential growth of contributions to the UN. Under the cir-
the political scene begins to create great cumstances of the financial and economic
difficulties in decision-making. crisis that we cross there could take place
This starts to be visible first in terms the upheaval of values with no guarantee
of security issues. The expansion of the that they will not affect the impartiality
nation-state, initially on behalf of human and independence of judges. However, it
rights, then the effect of economic globa- is difficult to argue the existence of a homo
lization, marked the beginning of new universalis outside from any historical and
challenges. One of them is expressed in national conditioning who could ensure a
the newspaper Adevarul on 10 July 2001 fair trial. And after all, we can ask our-
by the journalist Romulus Cplescu in the selves: What would a fair trial in this court
title itself of the article that he wrote as it mean? What should be the values and
follows: Could be there justice without procedures in relation to which court
borders? Considering that the tendency would function?
of foreign courts to excoriate the former Far from being rhetorical, these questions
heads of states or individuals who have can get answers, but the situation remains
held important positions in other countries, equally problematic because responses are
under charges of violations of human not fully convergent.
rights is closely related to the phenomenon As Francis Fukuyama shows, Americans
of economic globalization, the journalist and Europeans have different opinions
wonders about the viability of a concept about the source of legitimacy at the inter-
such as global justice. Globalization of national level; Americans consider that
justice is considered to be questioned by this is rooted in the will of the democratic
the serious impediments in the way of a majority in the constitutional nation-states,
court with extensive powers. A difficulty and Europeans tend to believe that it relies
is, for example, represented by the oppo- on the principles of justice which are
sition of America which fears that its citi- higher than the laws and the wills of the
zens might be tried by such court. The nation-states taken separately.7 The foun-
American, one malicious participant commented dations of these views are found in their
to a roundtable organized by the BBC, national histories, and from this point of
enjoy the comfortable position of world view, things are understandable, because
policeman or judge, but not that of defen- as it is expressed by Professor Neagu
dant. Meanwhile, the former secretary of Djuvara at a conference held at University
state Henry Kissinger has argued his oppo- Al.I.Cuza of Iasi, Americans are some
sition to justice without borders in that it Europeans who have evolved differently.
would seriously hamper the activities of European vision could be substantiated
foreign policy. by bringing into question the phrase ma-
On the other hand, countries like joritys tyranny; this majority could take
China and India want the national judi- correct procedural decisions that might not
ciary to preserve its prerogatives in cases respect the universal liberal values. De-
of overlooking human rights, not being too mocratic majorities may decide to do
willing to accept the reduction of sovereignty. awful things to other countries and they
To these reactions there is also added may violate human rights and decency
the dilemma of funding such a world standards on which their democratic order
court, when there is a conspicuous lack of is based.
enthusiasm from many countries to pay
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Fukuyama illustrates the dispute between Milosevic, any concerted approach failed
the two perspectives on the worldwide to restore order and justice in the region.
legitimization through Lincoln-Douglas So we can speak of two phenomena:
debates. Douglas claimed that he didnt - on the one hand, the downfall of the
care if people voted for or against slavery, nation-state;
as long as the decision reflected the - on the other hand, the no-naissance of
decision of the people, while for Lincoln the international community.
slavery itself violated the higher principle It is suggested the existence of a
of equality among people on which the vacuum that can be correlated to an event
American system relied. The legitimacy of similar with the one that took place on
the actions of a democracy and after all, September 11th. What filled this vacuum
globalization is the issue of global demo- was in fact a motley collection of multi-
cracy whose players and beneficiaries are national corporations, NGOs, international
the states is not based on procedural fairness, organizations, mafia, terrorist groups and
but on previous rules and rights that come so on, which may have some power or
from moral level higher than the legal order . certain legitimacy, but rarely one and
These arguments, theoretically sound, another in the same time.9
can be criticized on the grounds of prac- The difficulty of decision-making stems
tical impossibility. The very idea that le- therefore from a crisis of legitimacy, in the
gitimacy is derived from the top down, meaning given by S.M. Lipset - the ability
from an international immaterial level and of a system to contain and maintain the
not allocated from the bottom up by the belief that the existing institutions are the
democratic and legitimate public in the most appropriate. The global system does
nation-state virtually calls for abuses from not currently contain such institutions that
the elite which become free to interpret the can enjoy any credibility because none of
will of the international community accor- them practically assume any responsibility.
ding to their preferences.8 Meanwhile, the invisible hand thesis
Impracticability is also amplified by which should manage effectively the glo-
the fact that when the laws and the existing balized economy proves devoid of realism,
international organizations could correctly being increasingly challenged.
reflect the will of the international commu- Globalization has resulted in perfect
nity, law enforcement remains the competence market timing. But after the enthusiasm in
of the nation-states. front of what seemed an economy of
The international community is in- Swiss clock, this timing revealed another
consistent despite structuring the project, side, it proved to be a synchronization in
insofar as the capacity to implement de- crisis which led many analysts to accept
pends entirely upon the action of the that we are facing a minor recession,
individual nation-states. History has shown possibly cyclical, predictable and therefore
so far that all the international organiza- controllable.
tions which have to deal with serious pro- The new lesson which mankind lives
blems regarding security issues face problems is only an old lesson history is not the
of collective action which paralyze them. earth of happiness, the way the philosopher
It is enlightening in this respect Milosevic's K. Popper puts it, and therefore we should
Serbia, in which case, although the Euro- avoid building the paradise. The movement
pean Union as a whole confirmed the con- made by recoil from the total state towards
flicting and undemocratic regime of the minimal state was mistaken for an
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friends, at work and in the national and markets in order to avoid deglobalization
global society. Such an enrichment of life with adverse consequences for all the
means that all individuals are given the economies. The British Prime Minister also
opportunity to develop their potential skills warned that without an effective system of
and to participate in cultural events and international financial regulation, there is
experiences. If when considering problems the danger to deglobalize the global
we have always this end in mind, R. economy. This danger that Gordon Brown
Carnap thinks, we shall become aware of expects and which we would be happy to
the danger of gradual increase in the state notice only in theory comes mainly from
power. Meanwhile, this extension of the the reality of an unfinished and imperfect
state power is necessary because the na- world. The withdrawal of the nation-state
tional states have to consist of larger units produces the risk of anarchy. The insti-
and because they have to take up many tutions of the nation-states are weakened
economic functions. One of the most acute by the erosion of sovereignty which means
problems probably the most important difficulty in imposing the rule of law on
and difficult problem second after the the internal level with impact on the
urgency to avoid a world war - is therefore international order.
the task of finding solutions for societys The influence of the whole on its
organization which could provide a common components is not possible because the
denominator for personal and cultural whole is not yet sufficiently welded; there
freedom of individuals on the one hand, is no procedural criterion to validate the
and the actual organization of the state, on global decisions and therefore there is the
the other.12 Although the above ideas risk for the components to influence com-
were written by Rudolf Carnap well before ponents. Deglobalization would mean the
the end of the Cold War, their mentioning globalization of anarchy which functions
is justified by the new realities of the in the best case according to the rule of
globalized economy. We must create a escape goat, the culprit and which has
framework for international governance, the historical role of a negative solidarity.
which we dont have for the moment. We We conclude by claiming that, far from
must take into account the shortages on the being outdated, the nation-state is an indis-
global level. For a decade we have said pensable element in the new economic
that the current framework is inadequate, order in its capacity as guarantor of respect
the British Prime Minister, Gordon Brown13, for human dignity. It does not oppose either
declared and he also added that the finan- to the individual or globalization, but it
cial markets would be first of its agenda at tries to make all these give identity to the
the G20 summit in London in April. If individual. Globalization does not mean
what happens to a bank in one country can anonymity, but to paraphrase Wittgenstein,
have devastating effects on the banks on family similarities, we are not identical,
another continent just in a couple of mi- but not radically different, too. Opposition
nutes, only a true international response is excluded. And this logic must also be
from the part of policies and governance conducted in what concerns states as actors
can be effective, Brown believes, and this of global politics. It is equally necessary
does not necessarily mean a return to the and difficult to find a guarantor of it so that
protectionism of 30s. It must be stopped, the old dilemma of Juvenalis: Who is
for example, the tendency of banks to pre- watching the guards? be solved. Could a
vent foreign lending in favour of internal world government succeed to free itself
171
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INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
Petru Sorin Drguin
5
from the historical conditioning in order to Ibidem, p. 200.
6
rise at the height of such a mission? It is apud Anton Carpinschi, Cristian Bocancea, tiina
difficult to formulate a response, but the politicului, Iai, Ed. Universitii Al.I. Cuza, 1998,
nation-state could be a prerequisite. p. 54.
7
Francis Fukuyama, Construcia statelor. Guvernarea
i ordinea mondial n secolul XXI, Ed. Antet,
Notes 2004, p. 121.
1
Ilie Bdescu, Statul naional n contextul 8
Ibidem, p. 122.
globalizrii, n Globalizare i identitate 9
Ibidem, p. 127.
naional:simpozion: Bucureti, 18 mai 2006, 10
Hotnews.ro, 29.01.2009, 21:42
Bucureti, Ed. Ministerului Administraiei i 11
apud Jan Riis Flor, Rudolf Carnap. Filosofia
Internelor, 2006, p. 11. ca sintax logic, n Anton Hugli, Poul Lubcke,
2
Friedrich A. Hayek, Constituia libertii, Iai, Filosofia n secolul XX, vol. II, Ed. ALL
Institutul European, 1998, p.268. EDUCATIONAL, 2003, p. 179
3
Ibidem, p.269. 12
Ibidem, p. 180.
4
Fritjof Capra, Conexiuni ascunse:integrarea 13
Hotnews.ro, 27. 01. 2009, 23:17.
dimensiunilor biologice, cognitive i sociale ntr-
o tiin a durabilitii, Bucureti, Ed. Tehnic,
2004, p. 198.
172
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
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Irina Olivia Popescu
cealalt parte l dorea. Spre deosebire de rezult n mod concret voina stipu-
dreptul modern, consimmntul prilor lantului5;
nu era suficient pentru ca un contract s fie - promisiunile acceptate de ncheiere a
format, ci acesta trebuia s mbrace for- unei anumite convenii reprezint con-
mele prevzute de lege. Ulterior, o dat cu venii valabile, pacta de ineundo contractu
apariia contractelor consensuale, consim- vel de contrahendo6.
mntul prilor devine suficient pentru ca Dreptul roman cunoate anumite cauze
un contract s fie valabil format cu conse- n care acordul de voin nu exist dect n
cina ca i celelalte elemente ale acestuia, aparen7 i care duceau astfel la inexis-
respectiv capacitatea i obiectul s fie, de tena consimmntului8 i pe cale de con-
asemenea, ndeplinite. Totodat, acordul de secin acestea determinau inexistena con-
voin al celor dou pri trebuia s nde- tractului, acestea fiind:
plineasc trei condiii4 i anume: Unul dintre contractani este nebun9;
dualitate, numai ntlnirea a dou voine Manifestarea voinei per jocum
constituind un consimmnt valabil, (neseriozitatea). Neseriozitatea determina
o voin unic rmnnd ineficace n inexistena consimmntului deoarece
dreptul roman, o simpl policitaiune; acesta era dat n glum, neavnd astfel
concordana, ntlnirea celor dou voine ca scop intenia prilor de a se obliga;
ale prilor la un moment dat, chiar Existena unei erori asupra identitii
dac acestea nu luau natere simultan; contractului (error in corpore);
seriozitatea, consimmntul era valabil Existena unei erori asupra naturii
numai dac era exprimat n mod contractului (errror in negotio);
serios, ci nu dac era dat n glum. Existena unei erori asupra persoanei
Concepia dualist a eficacitii depline cu care urmeaz a se contracta (error
sau respectiv a ineficacitii totale se reg- in personam);
sete pregnant n materia consimmn- Existena unei erori asupra cuantumului,
tului, n care jurisconsulii romani disting atunci cnd acesta reprezint un element
ntre existena consimmntului sau esenial al contractului (error in quantitate).
absena acestuia, fr a acorda importan Spre exemplu, ntr-un contract de vnzare-
viciilor de consimmnt. Acest raiona- cumprare, vnztorul crede c este
ment are drept consecin evitarea situ- vorba de o sum mai mare, n timp ce
aiilor intermediare existente ntre validi- cumprtorul crede c este vorba de o
tatea deplin i ineficacitatea total. n sum mai mic10;
ceea ce privete consimmntul, ca ele- Violena fizic exercitat asupra unei
ment esenial al unei convenii, romanii au persoane pentru a o determina pe
stabilit cteva principii care reglementeaz acesta s ncheie o convenie;
regimul juridic al acestuia: Existena unei simulaii.
- consimmntul poate fi exprimat n Vechii romani considerau c eroarea,
mod verbal, dac este ns exprimat n dolul, violena i simulaia pot exclude sau
scris acesta nu va folosi dect ca mijloc vicia consimmntul.
de prob a conveniei; Eroarea reprezenta falsa nelegere a
- consimmntul nu trebuie s mbrace realitii. Eroarea esenial, error essentialis
o form solemn i nici nu trebuie s care exclude consimmntul prilor,
fie expres, putnd fi i tacit, dac este o cauz de inexisten a conveniei.
const n efectuarea unor acte din care mpotriva unei astfel de convenii nu putea
fi exercitat o aciune n nulitate, deoarece
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HOW TO DEAL WITH THE RECENT ISSUES?
Uniformizarea legislaiei la nivel european
nu poate fi anulat ceva care nu exist, ca obin, anterior utilizrii petiiei n ereditate,
atare o querela nullitatis nu are sens deoarece anularea testamentului n justiie14.
din punct de vedere juridic prile nu au Justificarea apariiei acestui grad inter-
realizat nimic i ca atare fiecare dintre ele mediar de ineficacitate, ntre validitatea
i poate conserva toate drepturile avute total i ineficacitatea radical (inexistena),
anterior. Instana n faa creia era invocat i anume anulabilitatea, a determinat apa-
o astfel de convenie nu fcea dect s riia a trei curente diferite. Primul a ncer-
constate inexistena ei11. cat explicarea anulabilitii pornind de la
n epoca roman, eroarea esenial era distincia realizat de vechii romani ntre
mprit n error in negotio eroare asupra substantia i effectus; cel de-al doilea
naturii actului juridic, error in persona curent a ncercat s justifice anulabilitatea
eroarea asupra identitii persoanei, error pornind de la teoria aparenei. Ultima cate-
in corpore eroarea asupra identitii lucrului gorie a fundamentat gradul intermediar al
i error in substantia eroarea asupra anulabilitii pe baza interesului protejat15.
calitilor eseniale ale lucrului, toate acestea
determinnd inexistena contractului. 3. Eroarea viciu de consimmnt
n sistemul legiuitorului romn con-
2. Ineficacitatea actului juridic n temporan
viziunea interpreilor dreptului roman 3.1. Noiune. n doctrina i jurisprudena
din Evul Mediu. de specialitate se arat c eroarea
Confuzia care a nconjurat materia reprezint viciul de consimmnt care
nulitii nu ia sfrit n epoca medieval. const n reprezentarea greit a realitii
ntr-adevr att n rile care se aflau sub cu prilejul ncheierii actului juridic civil16.
influena dreptului roman, ct i n acele n conformitate cu art. 954 C.civ.: ,,(1)
unde aceasta era german, principiile nu Eroarea nu produce nulitate dect cnd
erau mai bine fixate, i cum putea oare s cade asupra substanei obiectului conveniei.
fie altfel n acele timpuri sumbre i ne- (2) Eroarea nu produce nulitate cnd cade
linitite, cnd tiina se ntuneca din an n asupra persoanei cu care s-a contractat,
an?12. afar numai cnd consideraia persoanei
Interpreii dreptului roman din Evul este cauza principal, pentru care s-a fcut
Mediu au explicat instituiile vechi exceptio convenia.
i restitutio in integrum ca fiind adev- Astfel, n primul alineat este reglemen-
ratele corespondente ale conceptului de tat eroarea asupra calitilor substaniale
anulabilitate13. Astfel, suntem n prezena ale obiectului actului (error in substantiam),
unei atenurii a teoriei bipartite, ns numai iar n al doilea alineat se reglementeaz eroa-
n plan teoretic, cu puternice implicaii rea asupra identitii ori calitilor persoanei
asupra procedurii: este inutil s anulm un cocontractante (error in personam).
act nul, inexistent, pentru c acesta trebuie 3.2. Structur i condiii. n alc-
ignorat fr nici o alt formalitate. n ceea tuirea erorii viciu de consimmnt intr un
ce privete ns actul anulabil acesta tre- singur element (de natur psihologic) ce
buie anulat n justiie i numai ulterior const n falsa reprezentare a realitii, de
poate fi ignorat. Spre exemplu, n ipoteza unde apare i dificultatea dovedirii sale. Cu
unui testament nul, motenitorul ab intestat toate aceste, trebuie avut n vedere faptul
poate uza n mod direct de petiia n ere- c eroarea este un fapt juridic stricto sensu,
ditate, n ipoteza n care testamentul este deci poate fi dovedit cu orice mijloc de
doar anulabil, motenitorul trebuie s prob.
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Irina Olivia Popescu
act juridic, ceea ce determin inexis- direct n dreptul obligaiilor dar care are
tena consimmntului; inciden i n sfera actelor juridice.
b) identitii obiectului (error in corpore), Reprezentarea greit definete o afir-
adic una dintre pri crede c trateaz maie fals, precis21, adresat de ctre o
cu privire la un anumit bun, iar cealalt persoan alteia, pentru a o determina, ma-
are n vedere un alt bun. terial, s intre ntr-un contract.
3.3.2.2. Eroarea-viciu de consimmnt n jurispruden s-a stabilit c simplele
(eroare grav) presupune c falsa reprezen- opinii exprimate cu privire la starea anu-
tare cade fie asupra calitilor substaniale mitor lucruri nu pot fi considerate ca nde-
ale obiectului actului juridic (error in plinind condiiile de mai sus22. Se admite
substantia), fie asupra persoanei cocon- ns ca excepie situaia n care cel care
tractante sau beneficiare a actului juridic face afirmaie are cunotine superioare
(error in personam). celui cruia i se adreseaz n legtur cu
Atunci cnd vorbim despre substana faptul expus23.
obiectului, jurisprudena de specialitate a n ceea ce privete eroarea de drept
stabilit c aceasta este constituit din acele admis aa cum am artat mai sus n sis-
caliti ale sale care au fost determinante temul de drept continental, trebuie men-
pentru parte ntr-o asemenea msur nct, ionat faptul c, n sistemul common-law,
dac ar fi cunoscut lipsa acestora, actul nu afirmaiile despre existena sau coninutul
ar mai fi fost ncheiat20. unei legi pot fi folosite ca baz a aciunii
Eroarea asupra persoanei atrage anu- pentru misrepresentation doar n situaia n
larea conveniei, numai n cazul actelor n- care aceste afirmaii sunt realizate de un
cheiate n considerarea unei anumite per- avocat ctre clientul su24.
soane (intuitu personae) identitatea sau nsu- De asemenea, de cele mai multe ori,
irile eseniale ale persoanei pot atrage aceast afirmaia eronat este comunicat direct
sanciune [art. 954 alin. (2) C.civ.]. n acest ctre cocontractant, cu toate acestea sunt
sens, art. 1712 C.civ. declar anulabil ndeplinite condiiile acestei aciuni i n
tranzacia cnd exist eroare asupra per- cazul n care afirmaia este realizat ctre
soanei cu care s-a ncheiat. un ter cu intenia de a ajunge la cocon-
3.3.2.3. Eroarea indiferent reprezint tractant25.
falsa reprezentare a unor mprejurri mai n jurispruden s-a stabilit c o
puin importante la ncheierea actului juri- persoan nu poate folosi aceast aciune n
dic, asupra unor elemente accesorii, care cazul n care nu a crezut n veridicitatea
nu in de substana obiectului actului, cum afirmaiei respective26.
ar fi eroarea asupra numelui persoanei sau 4.2. Clasificare. n funcie de remediile
asupra persoanei, cnd nu s-a contractat intuitu juridice pe care le poate obine victima,
personae, eroarea de calcul sau eroarea de reprezentarea greit a realitii poate fi:
tehnoredactare. O astfel de eroare poate frauduloas, n situaia n care se cel
atrage cel mult o diminuare valoric a prestaiei. care a fcut afirmaia tia c aceasta
este fals, sau nu a crezut c aceasta
4. Misrepresentation n sistemul de este adevrat27. Aceasta ofer posibi-
drept common-law. litatea victimei de a opta ntre desfiin-
4.1. Noiune. La limita dintre eroarea- area contractului sau solicitarea de
viciu de consimmnt i dol se interpune despgubiri;
doctrina misrepresentation n sistemul de neglijent, care ofer posibilitatea vic-
drept common-law, o doctrin cu aplicaie timei de a solicita despgubiri28;
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Irina Olivia Popescu
15
indiferent, n cazul n care afirmaia Ibidem, p. 301-302.
16
fcut nu are influen decisiv asupra G. Boroi, Drept civil. Partea general.
Persoanele, Ed. Hamangiu, Bucureti, 2008, p. 215;
contractului ncheiat29. Instanele sunt E. Chelaru, Drept civil. Partea general, Ed. All
reticente n a acorda despgubiri n Beck, Bucureti, 2003, p. 117-120; V.V. Popa,
cazul unei astfel de reprezentri greite. Drept civil. Partea general. Persoanele, Ed. All
Beck, 2005, p. 100-108; A se vedea i Trib.
Note Suprem, col. civ, decizia nr. 231 din 25 februarie
1
. Cuq, Les institutions juridiques des romains. 1958, C.D. 1958, p. 175; Trib. Jud. Braov, decizia
L'ancien droit, tome I, Librairie Plon, Paris, 1904, civil nr. 370/1974, R.R.D. nr. 12/1975, p. 46.
17
p. 350-351. Tr. Ionacu, Curs de drept civil. Teoria general
2
A se vedea art. 969 din Codul civil romn potrivit a obligaiilor, E.D.P., Bucureti, 1967, p. 49.
18
cruia Conveniile legal fcute au putere de lege D. Chiric, Eroarea, viciu de consimmnt n
ntre prile contractante. Ele se pot revoca prin materie contractual, Dreptul nr. 7/2005, p. 21-22;
consimmntul mutual sau din cauze autorizate de I. Deleanu, Cunoaterea legii i eroarea de drept,
lege. Dreptul nr. 7/2004, p. 49-61.
3 19
P. Van Wetter, Les obligations en droit romain, J. Kocsis, Unele aspecte teoretice i practice
Tomul II, Imp. C. Annoot-Braeckman, Paris, 1884, privind eroarea de drept, Dreptul nr. 8/1992, p.
p. 47. 39-42; Trib. Jud. Bihor, decizia civil nr. 449/1981,
4
C. Stoicescu, Curs elementar de drept roman, Ed. R.R.D. nr. 8/1982, p. 38 i urm.; Trib. Jud.
a II-a, Institutul de Arte Grafice Bucovina, Cara-Severin, decizia civil nr. 474/1985, R.R.D.
Bucureti, 1927, p. 279-280. 12/1985, p. 55 i urm.
5 20
n epoca roman, i tcerea putea avea efecte C.S.J, decizia civil nr. 160/1993, Dreptul nr.
juridice qui tacet, cum loqui potuit et debuit, 7/1994, p. 84.
21
consentire videtur. A se vedea Cazul McInery v Banca Lloyds
6
P. Van Wetter, op. cit., p. 103-112. [1974] 1 Lloyds Rep 246.
7 22
. Cuq, op. cit., p. 351-352. A se vedea Cazurile Dimmock v Hallett [1866] i
8
E. Molcu, Drept privat roman, Ed. Universul Bisset v Wilkinson [1927] AC 177
23
Juridic, Bucureti, 2004, p. 182. A se vedea cazul Esso Petroleum v Mardon
9
Furiosus nullum negotium agere potest, quia non [1976] QB 801.
24
intelligit quid agit (Un nebun nu poate face nici un A se vedea cazul Benson v Consiliul Local
act juridic, pentru c nu nelege ce face) sau Lincoln [1999].
25
Furiosi ... nulla voluntas est (Nebunul n-are voin), A se vedea cazul Banca Comercial din Sydney
D. Alexandresco, Explicaiunea teoretic i v RH Brown i Asociaii [1972] 2 Lloyds Rep 360.
26
practic a dreptului civil romn, Tomul IV, A se vedea cazurile Eurocopy v Teesdale [1992]
Atelierele Grafice Socec & Co, Bucureti, 1913, p. BCLC 1067, Attwood v Small [1838] 6 Cl & F
74. 232.
10 27
T. Smbrian, Drept roman. Principii, instituii i A se vedea cazul Dery v Peek [1889] 14 App
texte celebre, Casa de Editur i Pres ansa, Ges 337.
28
Bucureti, 1994, p. 112-113. A se vedea cazul Howard Marine v Dredging Co
11
P. Van Wetter, op. cit., p. 112-113. Ltd v Ogden & Sons Ltd [1978] QB 574.
12 29
N. Em. Antonescu, Nevaliditatea actelor juridice A se vedea cazul Oscar Chess Ltd v Williams
n dreptul civil, n materia nulitilor, Institutul de [1957] 1 WLR 370.
Arte Grafice Romnia Nou, Bucureti, 1927, p.
214.
13
S. Gaudet, Inexistence, nullit et annulabilit du
contrat: essai de synthse, McGill Law Journal,
Montral, 1995, p. 300 n lawjournal.mcgill.ca/abs/
vol40/2gaude.html
14
Ibidem, p. 300-301.
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Radu RIZA
C
onstituiile statelor europene au iuni ale suveranitii naionale. Jean Jacques
reprezentat cel mai propice cadru Rousseau spunea, n Contractul Social, c
pentru definirea i afirmarea suvera- suveranitatea este inalienabil i indivizibil',
nitii ca norm de drept intern, iar Carta dar recunotea apoi c politicienii, ne-
ONU i tratatele internaionale i europene putnd mpri suveranitatea n principiul
au conferit noi valene acestei norme n ei, o mpart n obiectul ei, o mpart n for
dreptul internaional, respectiv european. i voin, n putere legislativ i n putere
Astfel, constituiile europene stabilesc c executiv, n drepturi de impozite, de jus-
suveranitatea (unele adugnd i sintagma tiie i de rzboi, n administraie interioar
naional), sau puterea, aparine poporului. i n puterea de a trata cu strinul; uneori
Regsim aceste afirmaii n constituiile confund toate aceste pri, alteori le separ.
Spaniei, Franei sau Suediei. n accep- n dreptul internaional, statul suveran
iunea altor constituii, suveranitatea apar- este primul subiect de drept n ordinea
ine naiunii, aa cum apare formulat n importanei. Statul are competene legale
textele romnesc i belgian. Instituiile sunt exprimate n sens material i formal. Cele
chemate apoi s reprezinte poporul, ap- materiale sunt n primul rnd de ordine
rndu-i aceast suveranitate pe care tot ele interioar i in de suveranitatea intern, i
au construit-o, legiferat-o i afirmat-o. Pentru anume capacitatea de a-i organiza puterea
a servi ct mai bine interesele poporului, sa politic, sistemul su economic i
ntr-un sistem democratic puterea trebuie social. Competenele n sens formal se
s-i mpart atribuiile n consacrata triad refer la jurisdicia statului i la capacitatea
a Executivului, Legislativului i puterii sa de a aciona n vederea garantrii res-
Judectoreti. n doctrina Revoluiei Franceze pectrii regulilor juridice edictate de el.
toate aceste puteri erau considerate frac- Apoi, statele au o competena personal
179
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INTERNATIONAL POLITICS
Radu Riza
general i au aprut noi ramuri ale drep- dac zonele respective includ teritorii
tului internaional. De exemplu, n aceast aflate sub suveranitatea unor state.
perioad apare dreptul internaional al *
cilor de comunicaii, care s-a concretizat Probabil cea mai important contri-
prin elaborarea regimurilor pentru marile buie adus teoriei suveranitii n relaiile
fluvii internaionale (Rin, Elba, Dunre, internaionale i dreptul internaional pu-
Congo) i statutele canalelor interoceanice blic, n secolul al XX-lea, a fost tocmai
(Panama i Suez). Apoi securitatea colec- atestarea documentar c suveranitatea sta-
tiv este un concept definit n creuzetul telor nu poate fi absolut, iar guvernelor nu
NATO. Dreptul Comunitar e creaia ex- trebuie s li se permit abuzuri svrite la
clusiv a UE. Stabilirea unui regim inter- adpostului scutului suveranitii. n dreptul
naional pentru folosirea mrii, concretizat internaional au fost introduse anumite li-
n anii 1980 i 1990, a ntrit noua abor- mitri ale suveranitii teritoriale a statelor,
dare a modului n care statele nelegeau s determinate de principiile i normele Cartei
relaioneze n apele internaionale. Zona ONU i de obligaiile asumate de statele-membre:
Economic Exclusiv a prelungit controlul - statul trebuie s garanteze strinilor aflai
pe care un stat l deine asupra mrii sale pe teritoriul su drepturile prevzute
de la 12 mile la 200 de mile de la rmul de normele cutumiare i convenionale
pe care flutur steagul su. Noutatea acestui ale dreptului internaional public;
regim era c introducea o schimbare n - statul are obligaia s nu admit s-
modalitatea n care statele nelegeau vrirea, pe teritoriul su, a unor acte care
teritorialitatea ca element al suveranitii. pun n pericol securitatea altui stat;
n Zona Economic Exclusiv statele au - statul are obligaia de a respecta imu-
dreptul de exploatare i de folosire a nitile statelor strine - n sensul c
resurselor, dar nu au controlul asupra navi- actele unui stat nu pot fi supuse juris-
gaiei, aa cum l exercit n marea terito- diciei interne a unui alt stat i
rial. S reamintim aici i c, n domeniul imunitile de execuie de care bene-
comerului, recunoaterea nevoii de libera- ficiaz bunurile de proprietate ale altui
lizare i de facilitare a schimburilor la nivel stat aflate pe teritoriul su. Mai mult
internaional a dus la nfiinarea GATT. chiar, statele nu pot invoca imunitatea
Introducerea tratatelor care produceau lor de jurisdicie n cazul tranzaciilor
efect i pentru teri a reprezentat un alt comerciale, contractelor de munc
punct important pe calea colaborrii inter- ncheiate ntre un stat i o persoan
naionale, dar n acelai timp a modelrii fizic, n cazul aciunilor de reparaii
unei conduite internaionale care trebuie res- pecuniare sau daune. Tribunalele unui
pectat de toate statele comunitii interna- stat nu pot lua msuri de constrngere
ionale. Regimul internaional al Antarcticii mpotriva bunurilor unui stat strin.
din 1959, cu privire la denuclearizarea n strns legtur cu acest aspect,
acestei regiuni, tratatele de pace sau comu- dreptul internaional public a marcat i
nicaii sunt cteva dintre exemplele gri- demitizarea teritorialitii prin admiterea n
toare n acest sens. La fel, tratatele care practica internaional i n doctrin a
constituie dreptul internaional spaial sau excepiilor condominium-ului, servituilor
aerian, cele privitoare la strmtori sau la internaionale i cesiunii de teritorii.
canale maritime internaionale, bazate toate Ilustrat de exemplul Andorrei, condomi-
pe denuclearizare i demilitarizare, chiar niumul presupune exercitarea autoritii politico-
jurisdicionale de ctre dou state, n mod
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Radu Riza
egal, asupra unui teritoriu ter determinat. un control eficient nuntrul granielor
Servituile internaionale au consacrat sale, suveranitatea extern care include
restrngerea independenei unui stat pe al practicile de recunoatere reciproc ntre
crui teritoriu un alt stat exercit o entitile teritoriale care au o independen
competen de reglementare legislativ sau juridic formal, i suveranitatea inter-
administrativ. Cesiunea de teritoriu repre- dependenei nelegnd prin aceasta abi-
zint o operaiune juridic convenional litatea autoritilor publice de a reglementa
pe baza creia un stat renuna la suve- circulaia informaiei, ideilor, bunurilor,
ranitate sa asupra unui teritoriu n favoarea populaiei, polurii sau capitalului dincolo
altui stat care i ntinde el suveranitatea de graniele sale. Nu toate statele se bucur
asupra acelui teritoriu. de aceast structur complex a suverani-
Nu n ultimul rnd, statelor li s-a atras tii. n unele state structura amintit poate
atenia, printr-o serie de acte internaionale fi doar bi- sau tripartit. De exemplu,
(Carta ONU, Actul final de la Helsinki, Taiwanul poate fi considerat un stat su-
Declaraia drepturilor omului etc.), c veran din punct de vedere westfalic, dar nu
drepturile omului nu pot fi i nu trebuie va trece examenul unei suveraniti externe.
nclcate sub masca suveranitii naionale. La fel n cazul Andorrei, care continu s
Toate aceste exemple vorbesc despre fie sub suzeranitatea comun a Franei i a
conferirea reciproc a unor drepturi de Spaniei, nu avem o latur extern a suvera-
folosire a cilor de comunicaii sau ape nitii, cele dou state amintite controlnd
internaionale, de limitarea ad pactam a securitatea micului stat i avnd dreptul s
suveranitii naionale pentru binele omenirii, numeasc doi din cei patru membri ai
ntrind convingerea c o colaborare pa- Tribunalului su Constituional.
nic va fi profitabil pentru toi. Krasner face apoi o important dis-
Cele mai importante imperative ale tincie ntre autoritate i control, elemente
dezvoltrii sistemului internaional n ulti- care se regsesc n cele patru laturi ale
mele decenii au fost, pe de o parte, pre- suveranitii, explicnd i relaia dintre ele.
siunea popoarelor pentru pstrarea pcii i Autoritatea implic un drept reciproc recu-
evitarea catastrofelor de tipul pentru care noscut actorilor n relaiile dintre ei (stat i
statul i arog cu succes dreptul de a societate; stat i alt stat; stat i sistem inter-
avea, n graniele unui anumit teritoriu, ... naional) care le permite s se angajeze n
monopolul asupra constrngerii fizice legitime. diferite activiti. Dac respectivul actor d
Una dintre cele mai complete inter- dovad de o autoritate eficient, fora sau
pretri contemporane ale suveranitii a adus- constrngerea nu vor fi niciodat exercitate.
o Stephen Krasner, profesor la Stanford
University, care propunea o sistematizare a Bibliografie selectiv
1. Burdeau Georges, Trait de science politique,
definiiilor anterioare ntr-o structur cva- Tome I, Paris, 1966.
dripartit, vorbind despre suveranitatea 2. Hannum Hurst, Autonomie, suveranitate i
westfalian care n accepiunea lui se autodeterminare, Paideia, Buc., 1990.
refer la organizarea politic bazat pe 3. Lapierre Jean-William, Viaa fr stat?, Iai,
excluderea actorilor externi din procesul Institutul European, 1997.
de exercitare a autoritii asupra propriului 4. Moca Gh., Suveranitatea de stat. Teorii
burgheze. Studiu critic, EP, 1973.
teritoriu al unui stat, suveranitatea intern 5. Simion Mihail, Doctrine politice contempo-
referindu-se la organizarea formal a rane, Ed. Sitech, 2004.
autoritii politice n cadrul statului i 6. Voiculescu Marin, Tratat de politologie, Ed.
abilitarea autoritilor publice de a exercita Universitaria, Buc., 2002.
182
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P
ercheziia este o msur procesual liberti fundamentale cum ar fi libertatea
reglementat n Codul de Procedur individual sau inviolabilitatea domiciliului.
Penal n titlul III - Probele i mi- Art.23 alin.2 din Constituie prevede
jloacele de prob, capitolul II - Mijloa- astfel c percheziionarea, reinerea sau ares-
cele de prob, seciunea VIII Ridicarea tarea unei persoane sunt permise numai n
de obiecte i nscrisuri. Efectuarea per- cazurile i cu procedura prevzute de lege.
cheziiei de la art.100 pn la art.111. De asemenea, cu referire la inviolabilitatea
Dac procedura penal reglementeaz pn domiciliului, art.27 alin.3 din acelai act
la detaliu cazurile, condiiile i organele normativ arat c percheziia se dispune
competente s autorizeze i s pun n de judector i se efectueaz n condiiile i
aplicare aceast msur, Constituia n n formele prevzute de lege , iar art.27
schimb traseaz liniile directoare pe care alin. 4 dispune c percheziiile n timpul
percheziia trebuie s le respecte, avnd n nopii sunt interzise, n afar de cazul
vedere c o asemenea activitate presupune infraciunii flagrante.
o intruziune a autoritilor n viaa unei Corespunztor acestei clasificri consti-
persoane i o restrngere a unor drepturi i tuionale, Codul de procedur penal, n
183
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Alexandru Serban, Silviu Gabriel Bratu
art.100 alin.2, mparte percheziia n ori de cte ori exist indicii temeinice c efec-
corporal i domiciliar, cele dou mo- tuarea unei percheziii este necesar pentru
daliti constnd n cercetarea efectuat descoperirea i strngerea probelor.
asupra mbrcminii unei persoane sau n n doctrin s-a artat c prin efec-
locuina acesteia, n scopul de a gsi i tuarea percheziiei se caut, n anumite
ridica obiecte sau nscrisuri cunoscute de locuri, obiectele i nscrisurile ce pot servi
organul judiciar, cnd se tgduiete exis- ca mijloace de prob n procesul penal i,
tena sau deinerea lor, precum i n ve- n caz de descoperire se ridic de la per-
derea descoperirii altor mijloace de pro-b soana sau instituia la care se gsesc.
necesare soluionrii cauzei penale1. De Percheziia poate fi efectuat ca urmare a
asemenea, un alt tip de percheziie , dar refuzului de a se preda obiectele i nscri-
care potrivit redactrii textului de lege pare surile solicitate, dar poate avea loc i distinct
asimilat percheziiei corporale este men- de ridicarea de obiecte i nscrisuri3.
ionat la art.100 alin.5 din Codul de proce- Percheziia poate contribui la rezolva-
dur penal care stipuleaz c percheziia rea cauzelor penale prin obiectele i nscri-
corporal sau asupra vehiculelor poate fi surile pe care le poate da la iveal i care
dispus, dup caz, de organul de cercetare pot avea relevan n elucidarea unor aspecte
penal, de procuror sau de judector. n ale cauzei penale4. Foarte important de re-
doctrin s-a artat, opinie la care ne raliem inut este faptul c percheziia domiciliar
i noi, c textul constituional al art.23 se poate fi dispus numai de judector i
refer doar la percheziia corporal, ntru- numai dup nceperea urmririi penale,
ct acesta face trimitere la percheziia per- aspect rezultat din coroborarea alineatelor
soanei, ce se poate efectua numai n cazurile 3 i 6 ale art.100 din Codul de procedur
i cu procedura prevzute de lege2. penal. Din interpretarea per a contrario a
Deoarece percheziia implic restrngerea textelor menionate anterior mai reiese c
unor drepturi i liberti fundamentale n- percheziia corporal sau asupra vehicu-
scrise n Constituia Romniei cum ar fi lelor poate fi dispus i de alte persoane,
libertatea individual, inviolabilitatea vieii in- cum ar fi procurorul sau organul de cerce-
time, familiale i private, inviolabilitatea tare penal, i chiar nainte de nceperea
domiciliului, inviolabilitatea corespondenei urmririi penale.
sau inviolabilitatea proprietii, reglemen- De asemenea, mai semnalm regimul
tarea ei n ceea ce privete efectuarea i diferit al percheziiei n funcie de faza
organele abilitate s o execute este amplu procesului penal n care este dispus.
prevzut n Constituie, Codul de proce- Astfel, dac aceasta a fost dispus n cursul
dur penal i alte dispoziii legale. ntru- urmririi penale se efectueaz de procuror
ct textele constituionale care fac referire sau de organul de cercetare penal, nsoit,
la percheziie au fost evideniate anterior, dup caz, de lucrtori operativi. n schimb,
n continuare vom analiza prevederile din dac percheziia a fost dispus n cursul
procedura penal care reglementeaz cele judecii, instana are ea nsi posibilitatea
mai importante aspecte ale percheziiei. s procedeze la efectuarea percheziiei cu
Astfel, potrivit art.100 alin.1 din Codul de ocazia unei cercetari locale. n celelalte
Procedur Penal, efectuarea unei percheziii cazuri, dispoziia instanei de judecat de a
se poate dispune cnd persoana creia i s-a se efectua o percheziie se comunic
cerut s predea vreun obiect sau vreun nscris procurorului n vederea efecturii acesteia.
dintre cele artate n art. 98 tgduiete (art.102 din Codul de procedur penal).
existena sau deinerea acestora, precum i
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Legislaie i jurispruden european
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Alexandru Serban, Silviu Gabriel Bratu
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Abstract: This article aims to disclose the relationship between the free
movements of goods, services, capital and persons and contract law,
especially the remedies offered to non-performance of a contract. They are
directly connected, since contract law provides the legal framework of the
free movements. Nevertheless, the relevance of contract law for the internal
market is reflected in the number of ECJ rulings. Primary, internal
regulations concerning contract law may be divergent to the free
movements. Lastly, the contract following the agreement of the parties may
be divergent to a rule of national public law, which is a barrier to trade
and must be eliminated. This will affect the rights and obligations of the
parties to the contract. Moreover, the importance of Contract Law for the
internal market is highlighted by the Principles of European Contract, the
product of work carried out by the Commission on European Contract law,
composed of a body of lawyers from all the Member States of the European
Union. As it is shown in the preamble of PECL, the principles are a
response to a need of the Community-wide infrastructure of contract law in
order to consolidate the rapidly expanding volume of Community law
regulating specific types of contract.
Keywords: free movement, right, obligation, contract, nullity, legal acts.
L
ibera circulaie a bunurilor, servi- european de a consolida rapid reglemen-
ciilor, capitalului i persoanelor este tarea tranzaciilor n cretere rapid privind
direct legat de materia Dreptului diverse tipuri de contracte.
Contractelor. La nivel comunitar, relaia Necesitatea de a reglementa aceste
dintre cele dou este marcat prin ncer- tranzacii izvorte din faptul c reglemen-
carea de a trasa reguli diriguitoare privind trile naionale pot intra de foarte multe ori
reglementarea relaiilor contractuale ce se n discordan cu reglementrile comuni-
pot stabili ntre pri contractante aflate n tare, lucru care poate afecta grav piaa
diferite State Membre. Anteproiectul de intern, prin blocarea acesteia.
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Libera circulaie n Uniunea European
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Irina Olivia Popescu
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Irina Olivia Popescu
Astfel, inexistena este tratat n Titlul 229; I. Dogaru, Drept civil romn, Tratat. Vol. I,
XI, intitulat Alte anomalii i remedii ale Ed. Europa, Craiova, 1999, p. 206 i urm.
2
contractului, art. 137-138, alturi de nulitate, V. V. Popa, op. cit., p. 201-202.
3
caducitate, ineficacitate, inopozabilitate, Trib. Suprem, decizia nr. 1815/1989, Dreptul
nr. 7/1990, p. 66 (nulitatea absolut, pentru
simulaie i rezerv mintal.
cauz imoral, a contractului de ntreinere
Din plasarea inexistenei n categoria ncheiat n scopul meninerii strii de concu-
anomaliilor i a remediilor contractuale, i binaj); Trib. Suprem, decizia civil nr.
nu n seciunea dedicat problemelor ge- 1912/1955, C.D. 1955, 1, p. 57 (este lovit de
nerale sau modalitilor de stingere a nulitate absolut, ca avnd o cauz ilicit, con-
obligaiilor, reiese dorina autorilor Ante- venia prin care un brbat cstorit se oblig a
proiectului de Cod European al Con- despgubi pe concubina sa n situaia n care nu
tractelor de a aeza pe primul plan ideea divoreaz de soia sa).
4
de salvare a contractului prin eradicarea, A se vedea Decizia nr. 1988/1989 a seciei
eliminarea, purificarea acestuia de vicii i civile a Trib. Suprem, n Dreptul nr. 7/1990, p.
66, n care se face diferena clar ntre lipsa
vede numai ca o soluie final nimicirea
discernmntului i lipsa total de consim-
actului. De altfel aceast idee reiese i din mnt artndu-se faptul c: Consimmntul
obligaia ce incumb prilor de a purta este unul dintre elementele eseniale ale
negocieri prealabile pentru a rezolva oricrui act juridic i exprim voina persoanei
problemele pe plan extrajudiciar18. la ncheierea actului. Lipsa cu desvrire a
Mai mult dect att, prin reglemen- consimmntului face ca actul astfel ncheiat
tarea distinct a nulitii n art. 140-152, s fie sancionat cu nulitate absolut. Lipsa
autorii Anteproiectului au dorit s deli- discernmntului n exprimarea voinei relev
miteze inexistena de nulitate, a crei clasi- ns nu inexistena consimmntului ci un
ficare urmeaz oarecum linia clasic a simplu viciu al acestuia, deoarece n acest caz
consimmntul exist. Ne aflm deci n faa
nulitii absolute i relative, terminologia
unui viciu de consimmnt, care nu atrage
folosit fiind aceea de nulitate, pentru dect nulitatea relativ a actului, sanciunea
cazurile de nulitate absolut i anulabi- nulitii fiind edictat de data aceasta, n
litate, pentru cazurile de nulitate relativ. vederea protejrii persoanei interesate.
5
Reglementarea unitar a gradelor de A se vedea i Trib. Suprem, decizia civil nr.
ineficacitate a contractelor n Statele Membre 473 din 7 martie 1985, I. Mihu, Repertoriu de
ale Uniunii Europene, lucru ce reprezint practic judiciar n materie civil a
principalul obiectiv al Anteproiectului de Tribunalului Suprem i a altor instane
Cod European al Contractelor, reprezint judectoreti, vol. 4 (1980-1985), Ed. tiinific
aadar posibilitatea eficient de eliminare a i Enciclopedic, Bucureti, 1986, p. 12, nr. 2.
6
A se vedea pentru dezvoltri L. Mirea,
barierelor existente n ceea ce privete
Nulitatea contractului. Viziunea reformatoare
libera circulaie n piaa unic. a Anteproiectului de Cod European al
Contractelor privit comparativ cu legislaia
Note romn i francez, Analele Universitii
1
I. Dogaru, S. Cercel, Drept civil. Partea Oradea, Fascicula Drept, Ed. Universitii din
general, Ed. C. H. Beck, Bucureti, 2007, p. Oradea, 2001, p. 277-305.
172-205 i urm; Gh. Beleiu, Drept civil romn. 7
Trib. Suprem, decizia civil nr. 273 din 5
Introducere n dreptul civil. Subiectele dreptului februarie 1977, C.D. 1977, p. 86 (anularea unui
civil, Ed. Universul juridic, Bucureti, 2005, p. testament pe motivul lipsei de discernmnt a
219-243; G. Boroi, Drept civil. Partea general. dispuntorului poate fi solicitat de motenitorii
Persoanele, Ed. Hamangiu, Bucureti, 2008, p. si).
297-340; V. V. Popa, Drept civil. Partea
general. Persoanele, Ed. C.H. Beck, p. 181-
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Libera circulaie n Uniunea European
8 13
Termenul curge, potrivit art. 9 din Decretul nr. Pentru dezvoltri privind teoria actelor
167/1958, pentru motiv de violen, de la data inexistente, a se vedea I. Dogaru (coord.), Drept
cnd aceasta a ncetat, iar n caz de eroare, dol civil. Idei productoare de efecte juridice, Ed.
sau alte cauze de anulare, prescripia ncepe s All Beck, Bucureti, 2002, p. 380 i urm; N.
curg de la data cnd cel ndreptit, Em. Antonescu, Nevaliditatea actelor juridice
reprezentantul su legal sau persoana care n dreptul civil, n materia nulitilor, Institutul
trebuie potrivit legii s-i ncuviineze actele, a de Arte Grafice Romnia Nou, Bucureti,
cunoscut cauza anulrii, ns cel mai trziu de la 1927, p. 200 i urm.
14
mplinirea a 18 luni de la data ncheierii actului. V. V. Popa, op. cit., p. 201.
9 15
V. V. Popa, op. cit., p. 208. Ibidem; G. Boroi, op. cit., p. 228; P. M.
10
O. Ungureanu, Drept civil. Introducere, Ed. Cosmovici, Tratat de drept civil, vol. I, Ed.
All Beck, Bucureti, 2000, p.185. Academiei, Bucureti, 1989, p. 220; A. Pop,
11
Pentru dezvoltri a se vedea N. Popa, M. C. Gh. Beleiu, Dreptul civil. Teoria general a
Eremia, S. Cristea, Teoria general a dreptului, dreptului civil, Bucureti, 1980, p. 360.
16
Ed. All Beck, Bucureti, 2005, p. 73 i urm. Gh. Beleiu, op. cit., p. 227.
12 17
I. Dogaru, N. Popa, D. C. Dnior, S. Cercel, V. V. Popa, op. cit., p. 201.
18
Bazele dreptului civil, vol. I, Teoria general, Ibidem, p. 193.
Ed. C.H. Beck, Bucureti, 2008, p. 1070.
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L
a reprsentation de limmigration 1. Objet et paramtres de ltude
dans les mdias reflte les processus
sociaux, les volonts politiques et les Priode dobservation: avril-juillet 2006.
comportements sociaux spcifiques pour Contexte vnementiel : La Bulgarie
chaque pays. Lobjectif de cette recherche1 attend encore son entre lUE. Les enqutes
est de relever les convergences et les sociologiques sur les comportements sociaux
divergences dans le traitement de ce pro- montrent une approbation gnrale de
blme par la presse bulgare et franaise. ladhsion (85%)2, dun ct, mais, de
Le texte ne contient que les pistes prin- lautre, la peur que les Bulgares ny seront
cipales de la recherche et quelques con- pas traits sur un pied dgalit.
clusions auxquelles elle a abouti. En France est vote la loi de N.
Sarkozy, annonce par lui-mme comme
* Snejana Popova est professeur la Facult une loi pour une immigration choisie et
de journalisme et de communication de pas subie .
masse, Universit de Sofia St. Kliment Les comportements sociaux dans les
Ohridski . pays ouest-europens rvlent plutt une
orientation vers des rgles plus svres
concernant limmigration.
Aux Etats Unis on prpare une
nouvelle loi tolrante sur limmigration,
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Discours mdiatiques sur limmigration
mais en mme temps, pour limiter limmi- dants, car la lecture parfois ne va pas plus
gration illgale, on btit un mur de 600 km loin que le titre.
la frontire avec le Mexique. Nous avons tudi seulement les titres
Journaux tudis : 24 tchasa/24 heures qui portaient explicitement ou implicitement3
lun des deux journaux bulgares aux plus sur le sujet Immigration .
gros tirages, dit par les experts tablode Le corpus bulgare compte 60 titres ( 24
hybride du fait quil mlange vrit, tchasa 14 ; Dnevnik 13 ; Sega
sensation, divertissement. Proprit du 15 ; Monitor 18) et le corpus franais
consortium WAZ depuis 1996 ; Dnevnik/ compte 57 ( Le Figaro 40, Libration
Journal considr par les experts 9, Le Monde 8)4.
comme un quotidien bulgare de qualit ; La notion dimmigration : Immigration
Sega/Aujourdhui qui prtend tre de va de paire avec migration . Les deux
qualit, neutre, mais qui ne se prive pas de lexmes prcisent le terme plus gnral de
certaines stratgies de la presse sensation migration , en lui ajoutant lide de
pour attirer plus de lecteurs ; Monitor/ frontire . Dans lopposition le sien -
niteur porte-parole des nationalistes ltranger , nous - eux , cest immi-
bulgares dans le pass (considrablement gration qui va dans le sens de ltranger
plus modr aprs lapparition dun et de eux . Si migration sous entend
journal du parti nationaliste Ataka en une diaspora (les ntres dehors), limmi-
2004-2005). Le Figaro le journal de gration sous entend une minorit.
la droite en France, li aux ides politiques Les sociologues soulignent dhabitude
de lUnion pour un mouvement populaire; que la notion de minorit est cre par la
Libration orient gauche et soutenant majorit. Du point de vue sociologique, la
par tradition les droits des minorits ; Le minorit est construite la base dune
Monde journal reconnu de qualit. accentuation politique de limportance de
Approche appliqu: Nous avons examin quelque trait dominant chez la minorit
les moyens linguistiques que les journaux dont les porteurs savrent ngativement
bulgares et franais ont utiliss pour crer marqus5.
les images de limmigration. Des tudes linguistiques aboutissent
Nous avons analys les termes dont une conclusion analogique. Dans son
les journaux se sont servis pour dsigner, analyse de lutilisation du lexme immi-
dun ct, limmigration/les immigrants et, gration vers 1984, Colette Guillaumin
de lautre, les actions produites ou subies souligne quelque chose de trs important :
par les immigrs. Nous avons cern les Immigration, dans le meilleur des cas est
champs smantiques prdominants qui im- un terme neutre [] il ne semble pas quil
posaient limage de limmigration dans puisse tre jamais positif 6.
lespace publique bulgare et franais. Le traitement du problme de limmi-
Ltude tait guide par le poids gration par les mdias est extrmement
(la frquence) des lexmes et des lexies important, car, comme nous le savons bien,
dans le corpus. les mdias peuvent ajouter des connota-
Description du corpus : Nous nous sommes tions positives ou ngatives aux mots en
limits aux titres. Les titres annoncent la fonction du contenu qui leur est associ en
nouvelle ou son analyse, reprsentent contexte. Les mdias peuvent utiliser aussi
souvent un condens du texte. On peut les des mots appartenant au discours xno-
considrer comme des messages indpen- phobe qui entrent dans le discours popu-
laire. Pierre Fiala analyse le terme
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Snejana Popova
Les Etats-Unis refusent la dlivrance de ne sont pas satisfaits des rgles actuels -
visas -Dnevnik. Le Figaro).
Lorsque les immigrants produisent En mme temps, le vocable immi-
une action (position de sujet), le lexme gration reste quand mme le terme le
immigrants est souvent prcd de plus neutre dans les titres des journaux
chiffres. Il savre que ltat principal des franais. Dans la priode observe la
immigrants cest dtre nombreux presse franaise suit le dbat politique en
( 191 millions dmigrs vivent hors de France qui dcompose limmigration en
leur patrie - Sega ; Les immigrs deux types admissible et rejete. Pour en
lUE dpassent cinq fois les attentes - parler, la presse reprend les formules
Dnevnik). Par suite de laccumulation de proposes par N. Sarkozy immigration
chiffres, une certaine dramatisation du choisie et immigration subie .
sujet se fait parfois sentir. Si on se fie aux titres dans les trois
La lexie /immigrants illgaux (10 journaux franais de la priode analyse, la
occurrences) se rencontre surtout dans sa presse franaise a mis laccent sur lanalyse
variante lexicale clandestins soulignant de la loi en tant que telle projet/loi (11
exactement laction illgale clandestin occurrences)10, ainsi que sur l immigra-
et pas illgalement entr sur le terri- tion choisie (6 occurrences). La lexie
toire dun certain pays. Bien que les immigration subie ne parat quune
mdias probablement ne visent pas une fois, sous sa variante explicative immi-
telle suggestion, ils associent aux clan- gration familiale . Les journaux franais
destins les gens qui traversent la frontire vitent la lexie immigration subie dans
pour demander un statut de rfugi. les titres.
Comme limage des immigrants, ainsi Pourtant, de point de vue des lecteurs
que limage des immigrants illgaux dans le terme immigration choisie va de
la presse bulgare est au plus haut point paire avec immigration subie , car ces
gnralise et dpersonnalise. deux termes dans la priode tudie
Voyons maintenant quelle est limage sutilisent dans les textes et circulent dans
de limmigration quoffre la presse franaise. lespace mdiatique. Dans le corpus franais
limmigration choisie est un euphmisme
2.2. La presse franaise de la paire de termes.
La presse franaise prfre clairement Projet , loi , immigration choisie
le lexme immigration (21 occurrences). fonctionnent en tant qu units textuelles
Les mdias ont dj cultiv chez leur pu- non compltement lexicalises 11 et la
blic lide que les mots les plus souligns perception leurs y ajoute sans obstacle le
dans le flux mdiatique indiquent les pro- terme cach le terme immigration
blmes principaux des socits. Lintensit subie (incontrl, dans le pass dite
de lutilisation du mot immigration sauvage ).
trace sa perception en tant que pro- En tant quacte politique, la loi de N.
blme qui mrite de lattention et incite au Sarkozy est dfendue et attaque. Une part
dbat. Lutilisation frquente de la syntaxe des titres annoncent la position de lintro-
du titre Immigration: (10 occurrences) ducteur du projet (Sarkozy dfend sa vision
renforce une telle interprtation, par exemple, ferme et juste - Le Figaro, il muscle son
Immigration: La ncessit dagir - Le discours etc.). Il a ses partisans (qui
Figaro, Immigration: 60% des franais approuvent), ainsi que ses opposants (qui
sopposent etc.), un dbat se droule par
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Discours mdiatiques sur limmigration
5
La pratique discursive prdominante Guillaumin, C., 1984., Immigrationsauvage,
de la presse franaise convient parfaite- Mots: Lautre, lEtranger (numro spcial),
ment au mdia dun pays qui abrite des Editions du CNRS, p.48.
7
immigrants et qui peut donner le ton des Fiala, P., 1984, Le consensus patriotique,
face cache de la xnophobie, Mots: Lautre,
grandes dcisions du problme.
lEtranger (numro spcial), Editions du
Les conclusions ci-dessus nous font CNRS, p.27.
penser avant tout de divergences impor- 8
Guillaumin, C.. op. cit., p. 43.
tantes entre les deux presses. Bien quils 9
Valette, M. 2004., Smantique interprtative
traitent du problme de limmigration de applique la dtection automatique de
deux points de vue diffrents, voire oppo- documents racistes et xnophobes sur Internet
ses, il existe un point commun entre les (en ligne), Disponible sur www.revue-
journaux franais et bulgares : labsence du texto.net/ Inedits/Valette/Valette_Princip.pdf
10
discours des droits de lhomme. Les mdias Dans la priode dobservation le projet est
tudis agissent en pleine adquation avec devenu loi.
11
Une analyse intressante sur ce sujet in:
les attentes politiques qui leur sont adresses.
Valette, M., op. cit.
Les presses des deux pays traitent du
problme en partant du point de vue des
attitudes majoritaires dans le pays, des pri-
orits nationales, des celles de lEtats. Alors,
on peut prsumer que dans le cadre de
cette tude, la presse bulgare et la presse
franaise se sont montres plus proches
des valeurs de ltat national, que de celles
de la socit europenne postmoderne.
Notes
1
La recherche est effectue dans le cadre du
projet Contrastes et comparaison inter-
langues: le discours journalistique en bulgare,
polonais, franais et anglais , programme
franco-bulgare de coopration scientifique
Rila , 2007-2009.
2
Eurobaromtre, octobre 2006.
3
Deux titres qui portent implicitement sur le
sujet comme exemples : Londres attend 15
000 ouvriers bulgares (le journal bulgare
Dnevnik ) ; Prs de des Franais
approuvent la loi de Sarkozy (le journal
franais Le Figaro ).
4
En ce qui concerne la position du Figaro ,
on peut supposer une activit considrable dun
journal droit sur un sujet dit droit , ainsi
que des styles diffrents du titre dans les
journaux diffrents.
5
Grekova, M., Minorit : construction sociale
et exprience vcue (Maltsinstvo : sotsialno
konstruirane i prezhivyavane), Sofia : Kritika i
humanisam, 2001.
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I
n this article we will examine how the certain concepts by which they define and
stylistic formulas of credibility work understand their reality. Thus, an indivi-
and then the persuasion mechanisms for dual's thinking is built on the basis of
the configuration of a press fact, and inner perceptions. The term territory
implicitly, to attract an audience as large as overlaps, in the vision of the same re-
possible. To do this, along with consulting searchers, with reality itself. At the level of
the specialty literature, we looked at how language maps persuasive agents2 must act
the Craiova events during 2006-2008 were either to meet specific needs of persuaded
reflected in the written press in Romania1, patients or to change the perceptions of the
events that led to the creation of a language latter3. Persuasive speech is built by spe-
map for this locality. Secondly, we will see culating what semiotic researchers call
the pieces that were assembled to create a side-signal which represents reactions
label. caused emotionally from symbolic acts,
The concept of language map has including the use of language, as they
been developed as a difference from the would occur in reality4. In our study, we
concept of territory. Researchers such as
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consider the symbolic acts produced with that for much of the public, television is
written language. the main source of information, even be-
From the perspective of the approach coming a family member. Gerbner
to the event, the written press in Romania called this type of public heavy viewers,
is classified by specialists as being part of the type of public which are building their
the French school. Unlike the English idea of the world, about the environment,
school, built by the principle of Facts are about their social circumstances through
sacred, French school supports greater the materials transmitted by television.
involvement of the journalist in the text, From our point of view, in the case of the
while retrieving and processing information. events studied, the function of interpreter
The subjective elements - comment, opinion, which was fulfilled by television, along
1st person reports, subjective evaluative with the aggressiveness of the cultivation
adjectives axiological and non axiological5 model made television write the agenda
- are not eliminated, but even cultivated. In not just of the public, but also of the written
the Romanian press, without a tradition of press7. One of the effects of this in-
nude story, classical press material - news, volvement of television has been an
story - takes many of the types of opinion, increasing audience8 of the written press.
commentary, i.e. genders biased by excellence. In this media mechanism, written press
This premise, which is the starting rather seems to have played the role of
point of our study, is accompanied by a interpreting and fixing the information,
second one, coming, this time, from the and less of transmission of it. Televised
universal characteristics of the press, and news journals supplied information such
we consider the functions and effects of as, newspaper reporters taking and deepening
mass media. The specialty literature records it in parallel with many programs like talk-
as general functions of the media: infor- shows that have accompanied the recon-
mation, interpretation, cultivation, education, figuration of this language map. Therefore,
setting public agenda, etc. Regarding the if with regard to the way in which
mass media effects, they are reduced to the televisions have treated this subject, we
way society is influenced by this type of recognize the mechanism of the magic
communicators. bullet9, written press follows the two
In the case we proposed, the model steps flow model. From this aspect results,
two steps flow operates, proposed and by insistence and generalization, a second
theorized by Elihu Katz6. In this case, the one: the pack journalism. When an event
material information does not move proposed by a press institution produces
directly between journalist (news reporter) audience, it attracts and maintains the
and receiver. It needs intermediaries - who publics attention, that event will be also
are leaders of opinion - and the degree treated by other press institutions. Clearly,
of involvement of the receptor is high. assaulted on more channels, for a longer
Between the written press reporter and the period of time, the public will be con-
public television news and talk shows vinced that the press event is a priority and
were interposed. Debates, comments, live a general interest event.
transmissions fully contributed to enhancing The press also used its function of
the meanings of events and highlighting interpretation. By this function, recognized
their interconnectivity. Television answered by researchers as the main way to inf-
the cultivation model, a model theorized luence public opinion, press gives meaning
by Georg Gerbner. The investigator noted to an event. The theory defines this function
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in that at the issuer level, thus at the level credible. It all depends in the end on the
of press material for publication, several context. [...] In journalism, only incredible
interventions are produced: selection, out of control becomes deficient, resulting
hierarchy, the context and commenting the from a poor or inconsistent management
news. By selecting the information that of the details10. At the level of creating
must reach the public a value judgment is credible significance, the issuer must
also produced, which implies compliance comply with the principles of coherence,
with rules, representations, symbols, principles must comply with the premise from which
or of the intervention in order to correct it starts, must control the text at all three
them. Hierarchy, in turn, implies the layout levels: textual, sub-textual and supra-
of information selected according to their textual. Also, the veracity of jour-nalism
importance importance also determined entails a combination of figures of speech.
at the level of the issuer, of the issuing Thus, metaphorical distances are excluded,
institution. Contextualizing and commenting personifications, built on the identity, in
is the main channel of intervention on favor of those built on inter-dependence,
linguistic maps, as new information is on contiguity11. In the latter category fall
connected to what the public already knows. the metonymical structures. These structures
have the advantage that they question an
2. Rhetorical mechanisms revealed implied meaning, without climbing the
system of signification, i.e. relying on
2.1. Mechanisms of credibility semantics continuity. The main trop impli-
Returning to media techniques, we cation of this category is metonymy12. As
will try to highlight the mechanisms that we see in the examples selected by us, one
not only kept awake the publics interest of the methods intensely used to obtain
for a press fact, but also generated a new credibility is the insistent use of the
linguistic map and produced a label. cartridge lead. This involves starting the
In order to keep the publics attention, material with the strongest element of the
to convince him of the importance of the speech. We saw, on numerous occasions,
message, to generate an attitude, an beginnings such as Shots in the streets
opinion, a certain type of behavior, a press and high tension in Craiova13, Craiova
material, among other stylistic requirements, cops still havent succeeded14, A Dolj
must have credibility. counselor claims15, Craiova is boiling16,
Measured by pragmatic acceptability, A bloody reckoning17 etc.
credibility is built on the mechanisms of
coherence and cohesion, and implies an 2.2 The methods of persuasion applied
attitude of the receptor of acceptance or Once credibility gained, the next step
rejection. Credibility is one of the re- is convincing, persuading the public. They
quirements to which a press material must must be convinced that what they read is
respond to in order to maintain the not only real, but also general and important.
receptors attention and it involves the According to Aristotles theory, persuasion
acquisition and evolution of a determined may be based on source credibility (ethos),
plan, defined as such by the specialty on emotional appeal (pathos) or the logic
literature, described before all, by the argument (logos) or a combination of the
consistency in the semantic, grammatical, three. Aristotle believed that the strategy of
logical argumentative level. As Sorin Preda persuasion is more effective when based
observed: Taken by itself, any claim is on common grounds existing between the
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persuasive agent and the persuaded patient, cations cited by us, these concepts adjacent
enabling the first to start with some to persuasion are met with very often. For
assumptions regarding the opinions and example, the title: Gypsy Battle in Craiova24
beliefs of the audience18. Kenneth Burke, on the one hand implies ethnic affiliation
continuing Aristotles theory, believes that of the protagonists of the incident and, on
persuasion is an effect of the artistic use of the other hand, implies the type of alter-
a resource of ambiguity. To Aristotles cation: unorganized, spontaneous, without
common grounds, the theorist added the legal support. The same newspaper uses
idea of creating a sense of identification. In the same technique in an inter-title as The
order to create this sense, the issuer must Interlopes shook hands25, by pointing on
use a language as close as possible to the the one hand, to a pacifist message, on the
linguistic register in which the receiver other hand, to a possible complicity.
addressed functions. Larson goes beyond
this definition, this requirement of the 2.2.1. Dramatizing the main means
mechanisms persuasion and shows that of rendering credible and persuading
persuasion is the joint creation of a state With the general guidelines of the
of identification between source and map established, reports on the scene are
receiver, as a result of using symbols19. In only to complement, emphasize and
our case, journalists felt that they must argument those set up at this time.
answer the publics need for a superlative. Argumentation, in this case, was done
Titles and keywords of materials are almost exclusively with dramatic evidence.
extracted from the catalog of the means of In this sense, the words were selected
achieving superlative, i.e. of achieving according to their dramatic potential,
sensational, of production and maintenance following the Burke model, which has
of strong emotions, language selections identified as the main narrative mechanism
being made solely by virtue of obtaining a the dramatic penta-valence. It is composed
thematic dimension, the creation and of five central elements: scene, act, agent,
proliferation of some families of terms20 to agency and purpose26. We have distinguished
support the feeling, mood, to contribute in that the scene was represented by the town
the shaping of an apocalyptic imaginary. of Craiova, the act: the systems inability
Such words are wars, fight, violent, to resist social violence, the agent: the
bloody, mafia, shoot-out, have shaken news story and the purpose: creating the
etc. The next step was the establishment of belief that there are serious deficiencies in
charismatic terms21, such as ferentarism, the security system of the locality in
mafia town, shady, brotherhood etc. question, with the possibility of them
From this moment on, the issuer journalist being generalized at national level.
takes the characteristics of the unifying Narrative materials are built on the same
persuasive agent22. Kenneth Burke also type of characters, from the same social
defines persuasion as an artistic use of category, on the same type of conflict.
resources of ambiguity. To this Larson What varies is the identity, at superficial
adds ambivalence, speaking two-way level, of participants and places where the
stylistic enthymeme, dubitative speech conflict occurs. Thus, the participants in
(Enescu, possible victim of the mafia the conflict are people with a criminal
members23), euphemism (the case of history, coming from the Rrom ethnic
quantitative assessments of the participants group, or have close links with it, and are
in various reported events). In the publi- organized into gangs or brotherhoods.
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The only exception, however, is the son of common symbols, in Larsons acceptance,
a judge involved, in similar incidents. But i.e. on allusions30 to the imaginary world
the number of participants is always low. of film, especially in those Hollywood
But his case served the argument that the productions which have as themes the
entire system is eiusdem farinae. The mafia and the Wild West. These are
conflicts were all held in public and involve common grounds.
the same logistics: guns, swords, axes, As will be seen in the analysis that
knives. The motivation is the same: solving follows, the success of the stories about
in an irrational way some of family or this will be a constant one. Although in the
individual conflicts. It is not attempted, first articles we selected the number of
however, from these data, to isolate a new views is of hundreds, in a short time,
world of street conflict, leaving the they will grow to several thousand. The
receiver to generalize alone. In their reports, readers interest will remain constant despite
journalists are trying to emphasize the the fact that publications do not supply
omnipresence of such incidents and to materials daily, and sometimes between
transform them into brands of an entire two materials there is a distance of several
locality. The frequency of such incidents months.
could not sustain argumentatively the
attention that the press gives to the matter. 2.3. Cotidianul
However, what individualizes and contributes The story from July 6 reported an
to building credibility is the progression of incident involving the son of a magistrate.
the number of articles written on this topic. The article was viewed 551 times (fig. 1).
For example, in Cotidianul27 from 6 July We identify here an adjacent theme, an
2006 until 28 August 2008 we can follow affluent of the general theme. By elliptical
an increase in the frequency of this theme transitivity, the main character is labeled as
Craiova. Thus, if in 2006 you can read Craiovas problem-child. On November
two articles (July 6, November 16, 16 2006 Cotidianul published an editorial
September 11), in 2007 only one article signed by Traian Ungureanu, entitled
(September 11), in 2008 the frequency Peak of the Ferentari underground. The
grows considerably. There are ten entries, article recorded 779 views. In turn, the
as follows: February 5 2008, February 12, editorialist tries to generalize and label this
April 29, April 30, May 8, culminating in type of event with the term ferentarism.
August, precisely two days of this month, Altercations on the streets are, according
August 26 and 28, the first having two to the journalist, a true underground reality
entries, the of the second, three. During and represent the way in which whole
this entire period, the rest of the articles on social stratum exists: Ferentarism has
this locality came, in their vast majority, been reported in other parts. In Craiova,
from the worlds of sports and, from time Galai, Trgu-Mure. Every time were
to time, about suspicious privatizations. talking about areas where the dirt hides
To the construction and illustration of things well thought-out. The world of
superlatives were added the expression of these neighborhoods is the expert director
the colloquial character, as a means of of a way of life where delinquency leads to
dramatizing the story. We find statements tacit cooperation with the authorities.
such as them among themselves28, has Justice has released them, and the police
put them in a meeting29, etc. Many of the closed their eyes to network chiefs and
stories about the matter are built with major incidents. Over time, these areas
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have realized that they can count on entire country: Ferentari doesnt need
support that this way of living is, indeed, something like that because it set up its
admitted and that official legal life is a own order in which the state itself take
form of travesty. That society is weak and parts, in lieu of complicity and fake
that the carriers of this unexpected news guardian. Gigi Becali smelled the place
are the peace-holders in uniforms and the well. The nose of the underground announced
dignitaries from the rostrum. Tuesday, that he would spend, on the spot, four
when they were disturbed by the dis- hundred thousand euro. Becali knows that
connections, the Ferentarioii protested in the trampoline started to work: the circuit
defense of precisely this way of life. This Vadu Rosca- Ferentari will swamp the
serves as a premise to the editorialist. voting box. The final descent of Romanian
Ferentarismul is unavoidable proof of the public world can be stopped only by an
inefficiency of state structures, is the attack to the heads of the underground, to
barometer of corruption, the course of an its direct and indirect patrons.
(Fig.1)
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to trace the authors of the scandal on phasize the seriousness of events, however,
Sunday, and on the other hand, inside the the journalist is trying to do a pun, casting
material is quoted as source the IPJ Dolj a shade of irony of the whole thing with
spokesman, saying: the aggressors have the process of rememorizing were often
been identified and are being looked for. approached in the newspapers and the
The second part of the article is built heads of two of the police chiefs fell.
metonymically highlighting links between On 8 May 2008, with 3483 page views,
members of the judiciary community and in the same ironic tone, they continue
those involved in the altercation. tracking the actions of officials. The
On February 12 2008, with 743 page material seems to suggest the dominance
views, Cotidianul published an article established by various local groups of
tracking, essentially a speculation. An offenders. This is done by ridiculing
official proposes a scenario that the street authorities. Thus, on the one hand, the
actions were staged. The effect of this journalist reported that over 500 em-
material is the deepening and the repre- ployees of the institutions have been
sentation of Craiova as a space for the checking, and on the other hand he
underworld. Without any rational evidence, designs/labels in apocalyptic language the
the newspaper published in the form of a gang actions: acts of violence that have
piece of news the politicians opinion. scarred Craiova lately. In emphasizing
On 29 April 2008, with 631 page the same ideas, are the following para-
views, there is already a standard approach graphs of news. Thus, by evocation, the in-
formula to news from this area: Craiova ventory of incidents is: Only this year in
underworld gunshots ambulance. the county of Dolj there were 12 conflicts
Moreover, the frequency of reports is between members of the underworld,
visibly increased, and the tension is fueled. involving several dozen injured people, the
On 30 April 2008, with 1308 views, in victims of these fights were also the
the scene of events come in the authorities local police chiefs, Ion Constantin and
under the title: Craiova Police was awakened Georgel Enescu, obliged to resign. Over
in the 12th hour. In approximately 5700 40 families suspected of being the perpetrators
words, from another incident, a reporter of violent crimes or of violations of the
makes a retrospect of the events that led to rules on the weapons and ammunition
the configuration of this tag. The under- were searched.
world has vowed revenge, rival groups, On the other hand, the scale of the
scandal, gunshots, bats and swords. police action is described: For this action
These are the key terms that characterize we used BCCOA of Craiova, DPIR,
the dominating evil, as opposed to the weak Gendarme Mobile unit Craiova and IPJ
good, represented by the state authorities. Dolj. The shaking is proven by involving
The words that characterize this part are the highest authorities, in the same ironic
quantitative came dozens of policemen, key: In the same action, police Quaestors
gendarmes and masked policemen, Gheorghe Popa, head of the General
stopped traffic and the access routes for Inspectorate of Romanian Police, visited
the police were blocked, belts of police the home of Vasile Velcu Nzdrvan, the
and gendarmes, the II Crusade, Joint prefects advisor on issues of the Rrom
patrols by police, gendarmes and community ethnic group, to whom he said: I want
police. An order of dismissals is suggested. you to understand that I no longer tolerate
Although it seems that he wants to em- such events in Craiova. I want peace in
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this town! I have other important pro- funeral of the person killed in the game of
blems, than to come into this town early in poker, all three included in the same supra-
the morning. In the neighborhood Faa theme Craiova dangerous city. The
Luncii of Craiova police set up special three materials are of different types: a
surveillance in the last weeks. story, a news-story and an editorial and it
The climax of the creation of this was viewed 6183 times, the second 4350
language map, for this newspaper, is and 2737, in the case of the editorial. The
reached in August. Now appear in two news projective is built around the
days, August 26 and 28, no less than five following key terms: street, block,
articles. luxury cars, over 2000 people, 600
On August 26, two accounts of the policemen and gendarmes. The story, in
same event, providing contradictory data, 6159 words, is entitled Flowers were
both materials trying to give the idea of thrown over Caiacs coffin and reported,
maximum tension. Thus, if one talks about building on the film imaginary, with
the tension from the first line of attack: allusions to the famous film Octopus,
Shots fired in the street shooting and high from the scene at Mihai Pirvus funeral.
tension in Craiova..., in an article called The announced number of participants
One of the heads of Craiova underworld amounts to over 1000 people, and
was shot dead after a game of poker, the regarding the forces of order, the journalist
other suggests the tension from the title: found out from a direct source that In
Craiova, a town under siege. Regarding this moment the entire shift is on the
the contradictory elements, they relate to street. In subtext the journalist builds the
the cause of death. Thus one of the articles atmosphere of a terrifying and grotesque
states that Shot several times in the head ceremony. Every paragraph brings new
and abdomen, but in contrast, the other, arguments highlighting the state of terror,
citing an official source says: The autopsy the threat that the participants intentionally
was performed and it determined that the provoke. Even in the attack, the reporters
victim was shot with one bullet in the intention is outlined. Thus, from the first
chest area; the bullet entered one side and word is underlined the deceaseds mem-
came out the other side. bership to the Brotherhood, and his
The difference between the materials position of leader within the group. It even
presented now and those in the past is the suggests the idea of a paramilitary group,
accumulation of data, the frequency of using terms from the specific army
such incidents, even if they themselves are vocabulary always supervised, lieutenant.
isolated. Because of this attempt to find The idea of the attack is developed inside
continuity in the conduct of events, to the article, by gradually building an image
expedite the qualification of the locality as of mafia-type organizations. Thus, came to
a city under siege the journalists attend the ceremony leaders from
arguments are syncopated. However, the everywhere in the country and abroad.
articles recorded 1957 page views, and Nick-names of some of the participants are
2001 views respectively. given, which work rather like code names.
In the August 28 edition we identify The second paragraph reinforces the idea
the highest number of reader and the most of playing an atmosphere of terror.
articles devoted to the topic in the same Presenting the mood of the participants,
edition of the publication. There are three sad, resigned, with their heads down, the
materials on the same sub-theme, the journalist immediately doubled these terms
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Xenia Negrea
with others to restore fully the specific of dark windows speeded very closely to the
the event: the death of a leader of a mafia journalists, in an attempt to intimidate
group with sunglasses and black shirts. them. While these events were predictable,
And in this paragraph the proximity to the the forces of order, who claimed that were
army and terrifying behavior is em- prepared to intervene in any situation,
phasized: They abruptly announced at the missed them entirely. Regarding the
microphone: Go to the cars. We are number of the forces of order involved, the
leaving. The starting of the group coincides reporter says there were on the street about
with the spread of the oxymoronic 120 policemen from the public order
atmosphere of mourning terror: blocking service and 80 gendarmes. The story ends
the street, had no right to photograph dubitatively, with a story from the hospital,
neither the curious people now the patients where the other person involved in the
from the hospital across the street, which original conflict, Catalin Mavrichie, was.
had climbed the fence to see the Caiac. This paragraph is based on confidential
Cameras down, said seriously one the sources and assumptions: it is suspected
guardians at Caiacs head, while he was that Mihai Pirvu had been shot by a third
being descended from the hearse. The person involved in the conflict (as an
novelty of that story is highlighting the element of novelty into the whole event),
hyper-receptiveness for this subject. The then it is suspected that the victim could
other citizens are involved, transformed have been saved if doctors had been
into a species of human-antenna through announced in advance and, ultimately, the
metonymy (person for the capture of guilt of the survivor was not yet determined.
information): Devices were quickly put The Editorial, signed by Costi
away and mobile phones were closed Rogozanu, re-contextualizes, with the
immediately. They stop working, leaving intent to irony, this conflict, comparing
the curious to contemplate the cortge from him from the attack to events not at all
the windows, as reported by the journalist. similar from abroad: tense situation
Now, in the film of the attendance, is also between Russia and Europe. In the second
inserted the relationship that the organizers paragraph of the editorial, the readers
have with the press. focus is moved on foreign affairs, on
Following numerous articles and tele- himself. In the opinion of the editorialist,
vised debates, it drew attention to the event what keeps the audience and the success of
and not for those involved. Therefore, this event, and its cultivation in the media
between those involved in the event and is the audience, is peoples interest for the
media, the relations are strained and tend events reported by journalists, an interest
to violence: The journalists present at so great that the editorialist compared it
Caiacs home were cursed, spit upon and with the fascination and enthusiasm that is
threatened by the close relatives of the stirred by an entertainment event, the
deceased. Cameramen were prevented guidelines used by the author being hip-
from filming, and reporters from two local hop music bands, Dr. Dre and 50 cent,
newspapers were chased down the street, successful bands of the moment and which
barely escaping the rage of the boys in address mainly teenagers. The common
black. We were cursed, we were sprayed point of two terms of comparison is, in the
with water, then they chased us. We barely opinion editorialist, the interested crowd.
managed to escape, said one of them. At The Editorialist builds his article on
Caiacs home, several limousines with judgments based on symptoms31, compared
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judgments and analogy and on sophistic national level. At the end of the material,
logic32. He used also the diversion technique33. Costi Rogozanu qualifies his journalistic
Unlike reporters who sought to gain intervention as explanations and con-
credibility in the reports from the scene, cludes that this couple (the press and its
the editorialist based his reasons on what audience) are struggling with instinct.
he saw on television, coming among The Editorial we analyzed proves how the
those who perceived events exclusively press has managed this event. The press
mediated by the press. What the edito- event was built primarily on literary means:
rialist remembers are the fierce faces, analogies, allegories, speculations, going
which take by force, are specialized in further away exponentially from the nucleus
heists, corruption, metonymy which he of real information.
converts, with a character-adjuvant34, a
colleague in a symbol of the entire country: 2.4 Evenimentul zilei
Thats real Romania. The Editorialist Another newspaper that has
does not clearly explain, although it contributed significantly to shaping the
appears that it is his aim, the source for the linguistic map was Evenimentul zilei36
success of these materials. In the next (fig. 2), the daily newspaper with the largest
paragraph, his vocabulary is increasing circulation in Romania. This provided a
now by entering in the text a loud term35 wider space for the subject. Limiting to the
such as hypnosis. The word covers, time reference we will also follow this
according to editorialist, the attraction that time how the subject has been treated. In
people have to underworld. Thinking late 2007 and early 2008, materials
sophistication goes beyond, in the phrase relating to the Craiova street altercations
immediately following, when he notes: are usually short news. But in this case the
Some are dumb with wonder not elements of emotions, the bias are easy to
resentment kwhen they see how an observe. Thus, the material from October
entire city is operated as dictated by a 1 2007, entitled Battle of the Gypsy in
group of gentlemen with black blouses Craiova, beyond compliance to the struc-
tight to the belly. Again, the editorialist ture of classical news, the reporter added
forgets commented that what was mediated terms such as rivals or warriors to give
by a press attentive to the audience. more significance, more dramatics to the
Serious words used, hyperboles, only give story, something to avoid when drafting
more meaning to the picture constructed news. But public attention is attracted. If
by the press. Although it seems to answer the news of October has 127 hits, the one
the demands of lucidity, required by the on April 18 has 2497. An explosion in the
editorialist profession, when he approaches number of readers happens when the news
specific entertainment information through of August 8 is published, when the
the phrase fans-viewers, he goes on with number of reads is 5453, although the
the speculation with purely literary means language is much closer to objectivity, the
(building allegories), seeing in the behavior space is much higher: 2820 words
of the specific entertainment public, in compared to 1451 for the article in April.
fact, a symptom of a human primary need On August 27, Evenimentul zilei
of order. They, according to editorialist, made a synthetic material called The
found in the organized attitude and most dangerous cities in Romania. The
(apparently) dominating of the group, the article occupied the first place among the
need for predictability and order at most read materials from the log, res-
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pectively, with 35805 reads. Craiova is, for their argument boils down to epithet
predictably, placed in the top ranking as qualifiers, on superlatives and simple
the most unsafe city in Romania, a town in sentences. In the view of the journalists,
which citizens security is precarious the south of the country presents maximum
because of the fights occurring between danger, and Craiova is gunmen heaven.
the underworld gangs. The article has The rating is not based on any scientific
10486 words, of which approximately research, and the argument is built on the
5757 are granted to Craiova. The remaining irony of one of the altercations, and on
signs go to towns such as: Constanta, listing street incidents known to the
Braila, Drobeta Turnu-Severin, Bora journalists concerned. In the case of the other
(Maramure). The style used by journalists localities, the arguments are summarizing.
(Fig.2)
newspaper materials made in the day, with war, and a hierarchy of para-social struc-
views of 24444. Designed as a story, the tures (neighborhood gangs, organized
material describes the funeral procession criminal groups) create the image of a
of the victim, Mihai Pirvu. The lead, and large bellicose fight.
the first paragraph marks a clear intention The article from September 1 2008,
of the author to dramatize. He uses simple Caiacs killer, arrested in hospital pajamas,
sentences. According to Weavers Grammar, had 7732 views. Although the angle of
this method of expression has the advan- approach and the title of the lead are
tage that it highlights a subject37: Luxury announcing a story in an ironic key, the
cars. Timid policemen. Designer clothes. end of the article overturns the reading,
Tattoos. Manelists. Expensive sunglasses. opening speculation of the most alarming.
Boxing people. Individuals with thick Once argued that the forces of order know
necks and full of muscles. The reporter in detail this para-social coagulation (19
will resume the nervous notation in the neighborhood gangs, which amount to
middle of the story, when he must approximately 200 members), the journalist
emphasize the importance, the leadership chooses to leave the last word to anonymous
of the victim in his social environment: sources, but from within the problematic
Some came from abroad. People he knew groups. The message from the end of the
from all over the country. In shaping the article is alarming, announcing not the
painting of the participants, he uses terms extinction of the phenomenon, but an
such as discreet presence, parade, have extension: It has gone too far. They are
paralyzed the traffic. Are listed, also the firing real guns. We will all get them and
public figures who were present or mani- walk around on the terrace with bullet-
fested their compassion. In the second part proof vests.
of material, the journalist added the On 3 February 2009, Evenimentul
premises of opposition, by bringing into zilei published an extensive material
question the officials of that part of the called Clean up the city mafia. It ranks
Establishment which should be directly second among the most read articles, with
involved in the battle to calm down the views of 28563. The articles message is
situation, but who are carrying out a slow aimed at demonstrating the incapacity of
inquiry: the Ministry of Interior, through state organizations to cope with the phe-
its then Minister Cristian David. The other nomenon. From the lead, the reader is
material from the same day, David held a informed that: The authorities have given
meeting with the chiefs of police, is a yesterday, a frail sign. In apparent opposition
simple story, but it has 4123 views. is described the other term, the gravity of
The article the following day, August the situation: the city of Craiova was the
30, 2008, Caiac makes victims after place where criminals had their way without
death occupies first place among the being disturbed. In this direction, the
newspapers conducted pole with 19425 argument that the altercations presented by
views. In this material, attention is cen- the press are not isolated incidents and that
tered on the system. The effect that is this behavior tends to involve the entire
stresses is the national importance this country, the material is built. In appro-
altercation has acquired. Extensive quotes ximately 10000 words are listed categories
from Minister David are supported even of facts that led to shaping a coherent
by interventions of the Prime Minister of picture: Fraud of scale, attempted murder,
Romania. Suggesting an atmosphere of bloody street battles. Then, in extenso, are
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Xenia Negrea
listed situation in which the system, justice ridiculed because from excessive zeal
seems complicit with this world. By during the raids, they stopped to check an
suggestion, allusion is being built the idea ambulance.
that Craiova mafia came up on top of
the Romanian political hierarchy, and that 2.5 Gardianul
also the judiciary, through two of its Another newspaper whose material
Craiova institutions, Dolj Court Prosecutor we have followed is the Guardian38 (fig.
and the Dolj Law Court are under the 3). Typological, this newspaper is
influence of the offenders. In support of approaching the structure of the serious-
the allegations, journalists do not bring popular press. Although its popularity lies
proof, but they use judgments based on in the numerous newspaper investigations
coincidences. They also published photos and debates it publishes, stylistic structures
of the inauguration of a company, which were derived from practice. Materials recall,
show together some of the important repeat, and reproduce. Each material re-
members of the criminal community and peats similar thread of events, repeating
some members of political and religious information from one material to another
life. It is a remembrance of events that or within the same material or even
would warrant, according to journalists, replicate the entire phrase literally. The
the label on Craiova as mafia town. way of addressing this issue however is a
The last article we selected for good illustration of the press. It doesnt a
illustrating the way in which this tag is very large circulation, or too many views,
constructed is of 16 February 2009 and it but we can see the same upward curve.
recorded 11764 views. Entitled Craiova The first material we have selected
armed for war, the article opens with a was published on 2 February 2008 and is a
hyperbolic image of the state of mind of story about a robbery at a currency ex-
the town: From Craiova to the farthest change office. The article recorded 178 views
common in the county, Dolj citizens seem and is prepared following the requirements
to be always ready for war, their arsenal of objectivity. The reporter does not sneak-
ranging from the banal kitchen knife worn in the text any sign of emotional invol-
at the to until the gun illegally detained. vement.
The exaggerations only have the effect of The article on March 4 2008, entitled
loss of credibility. There new examples of Five people involved in conflict in front
incidents with weapons, this time without of the Court of Appeal Craiova, sent to
victims, but only games that police inter- court is also a story told objective. The
preted as examples of criminal behavior. number of accesses increased to 225.
In the second part of the article, police are
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(Fig.3)
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Xenia Negrea
is shown. Then the reader is recalled the same edition, on the same subject, but
similar events that occurred in this locality, with different geographic data: Matters
culminating with the remembrance of the settled and policeman beaten in Maramure
resignation of the Head Commissioner. (610 visits). The article follows the evo-
On 30 April 2008 the material on lution of events on April 30, the incident in
Craiova recorded 1290 hits. Built on the courtyard of the County Hospital. It
paraphrase, the title warns the receiver of uses reverse narration, from present to
the seriousness of what is being transmitted: past. Thus, at present, the aggressors are in
Wild South. Gunshots inside the County custody. When the remembrance starts, so
Hospital Craiova. The particular kind of does the rush for expression. Thus, the
news is the story. In 4681 words two simi- confrontation is now interpreted in the
lar incidents are described. What intrigues caption as: Emergency Hospital took by
is that the narration is kept in indeter- storm. But the remembrance goes further.
mination and ambiguity, the information The reader learns that there is a conflict
being disclosed in steps. The actors are between two families, conflict and violence
inserted by terms such as a man, a shown in other occasions. He thereby
doctor and only to end the reader can discovers that the medical institution has
reconstruct the movie of the events, when no relevance in the title and that is simply
they will reveal the identity of the a ploy to capture attention. Moreover, in
aggressors, as well as the motive for the the final paragraph with the inter-title Six
incident. The aggressor receives a grade of years of fights and 1600 warriors, the
identity from the outset: shady. By the journalists desire intervenes even more
fact that the issuer does not disclose the obviously to shape the interpretation so as
identity of the parties concerned from the to maintain the attention of the reader. In
beginning, trying to create tension by main- addition to the figure given for credibility,
taining a state of confusion, we identify a the journalist qualifies police actions,
sort of transparent intentio auctoris, an which, according to him, lack firmness.
acute need of the issuer to create and The last sequence of the material brings
follow a strategy of persuasion. In the end into discussion other earlier incidents in
are other similar incidents which took the locality, involving people who have
place in Craiova are recalled, and is nothing to do with the reported subject,
recalled that, after such altercations, the just justifying the journalists desire to
Head Commissioner resigned. create a linguistic map.
On 1 May 2008, Gardianul published Judging by the numbers of the accessing,
the article Craiova, wild west of Romania. we could say that attention of the readers
The bullies arrested appealed. We identify was attracted. On 9 May 2008, Gardianul
here a stylistic hesitation published because published a story involving yet another
publishers desire to impose a label by title from Craiova: Minister Cristian David
paraphrase. They identified events Craiova has ordered dozens of searches in Craiova.
with the artistic movies in the years 50- The article had 1392 hits. Although the
60, about the lifestyle of people in the desire for persuasion and the emotional
western American continent. In this case, involvement are not so obvious, the article
they found that the common grounds were focuses on the figures to illustrate the
the aggressiveness of the two lifestyles. magnitude of the action. Thus, the first
The article has 775 visits, unlike another signs of lead are over 2000 gendarmes
material from the same publication and in and policemen. This number is then
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Techniques of rendering speech credible in todays Romanian press
supported by others, inserted in the text: 6 and Buzau, even attacking police. Gypsy
oclock in the morning, 40 searches Halloween. Nightly scandals with beatings
more, 40 people, 90 guns, 10 lethal and masked men. It does not refer to
weapons, more than 50 arms. Craiova, but it had 1156 hits.
On May 20 2008, Gardianul published On 26 August 2008, Dolj Counselor
the article: Iustin Cove, son of Craiova Constantin Iancu, accused by Constantin
magistrate, fined after having cursed the Dlgoci that he ordered the destruction of
cops. The number of hits increased to 3145. Mercedes, is investigated by DIICOT. The
The subject is constituted by an incident in scandal of the arson of a Craiova businessmans
which there is the same son of a Craiova car increases gathered 1447 hits. The
Judge. He also produced several incidents article presents the case of a political
covered by the law and which have not official, allegedly involved in illegal
been resolved. The journalist resumes in incidents. In the economy of our research,
detail and objectively the story. The it works with the power of an argument to
element of subjectivity and exaggeration is shape the label city of the mafia.
in the end of the material, when he On 27 August 2008, the article Caiac,
introduced the inter-title Covei jr. makes from Craiova, was killed by his right hand
the law in Craiova. after a game of poker, Gardianul reach
The newspapers next attempted to a record number of hits, namely 12421.
improve the linguistic map it tries so shape The material describes in detail the movie
and therefore have control over the in- of the events. Since the phrase bloody
formation that reaches the reader, dates reckoning and shady in even the first
from May 21 2008, when it publishes the words of the material, the journalist gives
news: Some of the money from the BRD details of the most intimate nature, such as:
Craiova fraud was meant for Hamas. But In the house were at the same time,
the journalist lost credibility right from the Caiacs wife and children. They slept in
first word in the lead, placing the origin of another room. Noted for great attention to
the information it presents in the phrase details, even if they do not coincide with
sources. The article is based on speculation, those offered by other publications, was
conditionals are used abusively and there shot under the left axils, and the bullet
are indeterminations throughout the material. went right through the back, hitting the
As a result, the article had only 682 hits. vital organs. An inter-title invites the reader
The following three materials are to experience an almost cinematographic
maintained at several hundred hits as experience, promising they will see the
follows: "Young man shot following a fight movie, a phrase that covers a
dispute in a bar of Craiova, 27 May 2008, description of the weapons used and the
is visited only 380 times; Craiova alleged moves the two would do. The
underworld members detained by Dolj ending belongs to the ritual remembrance.
police after beating and robbing a man" of Thus we find out that the city has been
25 July 2008, is visited 598 times, A studded by police and masked men. From
Craiova citizen, detained for trafficking this enthusiasm of labeling, there are some
weapons for the underworld, of 16 inconsistencies and contradictions. For
August 2008 recorded 674 hits. example, the flow of remembrance over-
On 19 August 2008, the daily news- laps two localities, otherwise distinct: The
paper published the material Agitators latest scandal in Craiova took place in
have hassled spirits in Mogosoaia, Bucharest May this year when police fired to settle a
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dispute with pitchforks and axes which and the aggression against them is re-
broke out between members of two produced several times, by repeating the
families from the village of Seaca de same group of words: Reporters were
Padure. After this article, the number of spit, cursed and threatened. On the other
accesses entered on a descending slope. hand, the forces of order are evaluated
The article in the next day, Mavrichie, quantitatively as follows: Hundreds of
killer of Caiac, was heard on a hospital policemen and gendarmes, and some
bed recorded 3722 hits and repeats much lines below, in the sequence next to the
of the information published so far on the article, the hundreds become two
case. Only two other articles recorded in hundred. In the same material is repeated
May over two thousand hits and they are the story of the shooting, the inability of
editorials published the same day, 29 the forces of order to cope with the si-
August 2008. One of them, Who wants to tuation is denounced, and an attempt by
blow up Craiova? was viewed 2622 times, the authorities not to solve the case is
and is written by Alecu Racoviceanu, a suggested. Gardianul covers Craiova until
member of the editorial college, the forum May 22 2009, when the article, Catalin
with the highest degree of responsibility in Mavrichie, accused of killing Caiac, was
the establishment of the newspaper. The sentenced to 25 years in prison, recorded
editorialist absolves the press of responsi- 617 visits.
bility, suggesting the idea that everything
is a diversion. Moreover, he is the one that 3. Conclusions
stresses the role of television in this over- In carrying out this study we started
fueling this case. This, when in the same from the main theories in the specialty
edition, three reporters signed a material literature that define credibility and per-
from the series of alarmist articles The suasion and we tried to check the way they
militia. While underlining the fact that operate at the level of the Romanian press.
the agitators are kids with hot heads, Its model is equivalent to the French
Racoviceanu takes over and strengthens model, which accepts a high degree of
the reporters stories, stories built on the subjectivity, of emotional involvement of
idea of solidarity and brotherhood and the journalist in selecting and processing
opens a series of speculations by asking information. However, as noted before by
rhetorically Who has the interest that there the important researchers of the phenomenon
be television images of new violence? By of Romanian journalism, in this space
this speculation, he opens a new stage in journalism has a greater freedom in the use
the perpetuation and reconfiguration of of means of expression and argumentative
this dj fait language map. techniques. After we have presented the
The other material article in this main ways to build credibility and per-
edition is called, for evocative purposes, suasion, we chose three of the most important
The Militia and it attracted 4537 visitors. daily newspapers, in terms of visibility and
On a fairly large area, approximately 12 popularity, and we watched how they have
000 words, reporters evoke the thread of managed a press issue: street conflicts in
events. The starting point is that, at the Craiova. The analysis led us to several
funeral, the journalists were attacked by the conclusions:
participants to the procession, and police 1. In managing this issue, the only rational
did not intervene. The term journalists is evidence that journalists brought were
articulated, suggesting by it a generalization their own observations on the scene,
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5
eye witness reports and press releases Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni, Lnonciation.
of the officials; De la subjectivit dans le langage, Armand
2. The journalists speech uses exclusively Colin, Paris, 1999, quatrime dition, p. 94
6
dramatic evidence, emotional, and not Daniel Dayan, Elihu Katz, Media Events,
Harvard University Press, Cambridge, 1992, in
the rational ones;
Mihai Coman, Introducere n sistemul mass-
3. When the subject was not placed in a media, Polirom Publishing House, Iai, 2007,
simple story, the journalists stylistic col. Media series Collegium, Third edition
arsenal of persuasion involved: meto- revised and advised
7
nymy, allusion, analogy, ambiguity, The agenda model that states the fact that
repetition, enumeration, dubitative speech; the press, by values, hierarchies, meanings that
4. The role of the press shifted the em- it promotes influences public thinking.
phasis on information, on the inter- Hierarchy implies that it puts on the priority list
pretation. This was revealed not only a certain event at the expense of another. This
at the level of the editorials, but also at time (and in many cases), the television made
the agenda not only of the public but also of
the level of stories and reports;
the media by giving value of news to a certain
5. Once the mechanism of pack jour- category of events
nalism set in motion with the help of 8
We use this term, used to assess receptor in
television, the main argumentative support radio and television, because, in his study, we
for building the linguistic map was the followed the metering of access and written
quantitative one: increased numbers of press on the Internet. As the graphs prepared by
journalists who have approached this the Romanian Audit Bureau of circulations
subject; the number of articles related (www.brat.ro), all circulations of the daily
to this theme increased, from edition newspapers follow an upward curve of about
to edition or in the same editions; the ten years. On the other hand, however, the
number of accesses increased for the pages of
number of newspapers which gave
those newspapers on the internet.
space for more then one article on this 9
Formula was proposed by Melvin De Fleur.
issue increased; Under it, the media functions as a social
6. The more titles and leads were ex- behavior triggered by "programmed" through
pressive, the more grew the number of campaigns that organize and determine
viewers to the website, outlining the changes in behavior receptor. Cf Melvin De
portrait of the journalist as a unifying Fleur, Sandra Ball-Rokeach, Theories of Mass
persuasive agent. Communication, Longman, New York, 1982
10
Sorin Preda, Tehnici de redactare npresa
Notes scris, Polirom Publishing House, Iai, 2006,
1
In our analysis we found the online editions Col. Media series Collegium, pp 48-51
11
of newspapers cited Cf. Umberto Eco, Tratat de semiotic
2
We use in this article the terminology by general, Ed Enciclopedic Scientific Publishing,
Charles U. Larson, Persuasiunea. Receptare i Bucharest, 1982, Translated by Anca Giurescu
responsabilitate, Polirom Publishing House, and Cezar Radu, afterword and notes by Radu
Iai, 2003, Col. Collegium series Public Caesar, p. 354.
12
Relations and Advertising, translated by. Cf. See Catherine Kerbrat-Orecchioni La
Odette Arhip. He defines the persuasive agent connotation, Presse Universitaires de Lyon,
as the one practicing persuasion and the patient 1977 and LImplicite, Armand Colin Editeur,
is persuaded (cf. p. 16) Paris, 1986
13
3
See Larson, op. cit., p. 123 Cotidianul, 26 aug. 2008
14
4
idem Idem, 2 febr. 2008
15
Ibidem, 12 febr. 2008
16
Gardianul, 29 august 2008
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17
Idem, 27 august 2008 text, in The Mechanics of Allusion, no. 5, p.
18
Larson, pp. 25-26 109.
19 31
Larson, op. cit., p. 26 Larson, p. 218
20 32
Larson, op. cit., p. 149 Idem, p. 37
21 33
Weaver defines charismatic terms as Ibidem, p. 36
34
words with a considerable expressiveness See Algirdas Julien Greimas, Despre sens.
whose referees are impossible to discover. Eseuri semiotice, Editura Univers, Bucharest,
Their meaning seems inexplicable unless we 1975, translated and prefaced Text Maria
accept assumptions of deriving the sense from Carpov.
35
an imperative of collective will that they mean Gianni Vattimo, Dialectica, difference,
something (in Larson, p. 152) weak thinking in Gianni Vattimo - Pier Aldo
22
Unifying persuasive agents address people Rovatti (coord.), Gndirea slab, Pontica
who already share their views. The unifying Publishing House, Constanta, 1998, Col.
agent is more idealistic they can be plethoric "Italian Library, Translated by Stefania Mincu
36
without risk that audience feel offended. He www.evz.ro.
37
can appeal to feelings, being less objective than Simple sentences usually express a
the one which faces an audience putting judgement or a completely singular aspect, they
everything into question. Unifying agent must have at least one subject or a noun and a
focuses on his there and when - past and word or a dynamic verb. These properties
future when things were great or when they emphasize the subject in relation to a verb and
will be ideal. Opinion is that everything will be object: see causes acting to achieve a result or
better in the future, by comparison, especially effect (in Larson, op. Cit., P. 139)
38
with this. Although a few aspects related to www.gardianul.ro.
unifying agent stimulate intellect, many others
call for emotional background. Words and
images provided by him are exactly what
listeners are convinced they would have said if
they were in the place of the speaker. Unifying
agent is thus a kind of sound panel of the
group, providing them with clues, but not the
details of the message. The public collaborates
to create a message, participate actively
encouraging or yelling in chorus or repeating
stereotyped phrases to emphasize words.
(Larson, op. cit., p. 152)
23
Cotidianul, 12 February 2008
24
Evenimentul zilei, 1 October 2007
25
Idem, 29 August 2008
26
Cf. Kenneth Burke, A Grammar of Motives,
Berkeley; Los Angeles; London; University of
California Presse, 1969
27
www.cotidianul.ro
28
Evenimentul zilei, 3 February 2009
29
Idem, 29 august 2008
30
According to Ben-Porot, the process of a
reader's actualization of an allusion involves:
recognition of marker; identification of evoked
text; modification of the initial local
interpretation of passage; activation of evoked
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Davian VLAD
A
lthough the world-wide fast and Marconis wonder. Nevertheless, the
furious spreading of cinema and ongoing fast changes of habits and con-
especially television led to a cerns in the modern world forces the radio
continuous decrease of persons listening stations world-wide to adopt a more
(more or less on daily basis) to the radio versatile strategy, in order to seize larger
programmes, the end of radio as we know market shares and to gain more and more
it has not happened and there are strong P1 listeners (constant listeners) to the
hints that it will not take place in the near detriment of the competition. That is why,
future. The new means of distributing in the last decades, the radio stations have
radio products (Internet, satellite, cellular been trying to focus on a niche, so
phones), the permanent need of getting nowadays the majority of the radio stations
information rapidly and the human are specialized and they aim to at least
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Davian Vlad
preserve their current audience. This a certain image/ perception of the station
specialization is achieved by adopting the (the listener should recognize at once the
right format for a certain niche and it is a specific sound of the radio station). The
process of market research, proper designing process consists of three phases: design
and deployment, as well as an efficient (defining the tasks and the methodology of
management of feedback. Thus, you should the research); field work (data input and
find out which research tools and methods processing); interpretation (data analyzing
can you use for your radio station. This and implementation).
complex process of research, interpretation
and implementation of a format (as re-
presented in the figure below) must lead to
The objective of this complex and why the radio stations attempt to come on
costly process is the identification of the the market with the most successful
right format for a radio station and of the strategies for news programmes and music.
niche which should be targeted. But it is not all about news and music: the
The most frequent answer to the radio formats bring with them different
question Why do you listen to the radio? is moods, and the listener will choose the
For news and music. That is the reason station in accordance to their desires (preferred
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The Main Music Radio Formats in Romania Today
moods). Though the format generally consists stations of today, and it is located at the
of structure + content + presentation, we basis of a format (figure no.2).
can easily notice that music (as a mood
setter) is the one which makes the difference
between the (commercial mostly) radio
ProgrammeLayout
Programming
Image
Presentation
Content
Layout
Music
Format
Research Marketing
Figure no. 2
The public (state) radios have a different population). As their meaning is to cater
status, due to their specific mission (they for all the interests and tastes, the public
are meant not only to inform and entertain, radios should be analyzed separately, though.
but also to educate), but they have to We can also notice easily that this
conceive a certain coherent music strategy specialization of the commercial radio
(format), too. Usually, the most used stations is not as strict today as it once was
music radio format by the European public (1960s 1970s, in the USA especially).
stations is Soft/Mix Adult Contemporary The formats intersected slightly or not
(Soft/Mix A/C), as the mission of a public even a bit in that period of time (figure
radio station cannot permit a strict specia- no.3), but the trend today is the certain
lization (this kind of stations broadcast formats to overlap each other and hybrid
also classical music, jazz, traditional music formats to take shape (as shown in the
and so on, because it must meet the ex- figure no.4). This tendency can be explained
pectations of a variety of groups of
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Oldies
70s, 80s Classic
Rock
Classic Hits
Easy Soft
Urban/Black
Dance/
Rhythmic
CHR Top 40
Figure no. 4; Source: Deutsche Welle & Steiner Media
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The Main Music Radio Formats in Romania Today
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We notice that A/C radios (public (AOR), such as City FM, and Adult
radios included) have 42.8 market share, Album Alternative (AAA) stations, such
CHR/ Top 40 radios have 29.2 market as Radio Guerilla, have no significant
share and 80/ Classic Hits stations (Europa market share in Romania. We must also
FM, Magic FM) have 13.5 (considering emphasize that Radio Oltenia Craiova
the frequent overlapping between genres, (part of Radio Romania Regional
the figures might skip from one cate- Romanian Radio Broadcasting Corporation
gory to the other, but this is, in our RDR), a public station which adopted
opinion, the most accurate image of the a Soft A/C music format, has a stunning
Romanian radio market today). We can 45.7 market share in its region (Oltenia),
also notice that Album Oriented Rock according to the same rating poll.This is
the situation at the urban level:
Daily Reach (000) Market Share (%)
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The Main Music Radio Formats in Romania Today
At this level, CHR/Top 40 radios have A/C and CHR/Top 40 (with all their sub-
an increased market share (34.2), the A/C categories). The rock-oriented radio stations
stations drop to a 30.9 market share, while are not very popular with the Romanian
80/ Classic Hits stations gain 16.6 market listeners. Thus, we can say that the Ro-
share. The rock oriented radio stations have manian radio market has its specific
no significant audience at the urban level, too. trends/developments, although there are
In conclusion, although the Oldies/ strong similarities to what can be found in
Classic Hits radios are present in Romania other European countries and, lesser, USA
and have a significant public here, the (where the rock-oriented stations are highly
most important music radio formats are popular).
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Vasile Boari - un vizionar european care stau la baza actualei dezvoltri social-
politice, Europa a fost i continu s fie n
Aurel Piurc centrul dezvoltrii universale, o lume
contradictorie i controversat.
Liceniat n filozofie n 1972 i doctor n cadrul acestor ample preocupri de
n aceiai tiin n 1978, decan al analiz a noii construcii europene, a
Facultii de tiine Politice i Admi- spiritualitii sale politice i morale, dar
nistrative din cadrul Universitii Babe mai ales a evidenierii identitii sale, se
Bolyai, n perioada 1995-2002 director nscrie i actualul volum al prof. Univ. Dr.
fondator al revistelor EAST i EUROPOLIS, Vasile Boari, Noua Europ n cutarea
director al Centrului de Analiz Politic al identitii. Ca orice nou entitate politic,
aceleiai universiti, prof. univ. Dr. Vasile Uniunea Europen trebuie s-i creeze i
Boari este un nume cunoscut i respectat s-i stabileasc propria sa identitate. Tema
de comunitatea tiinific i academic identitii U.E. nu este nou, dezbaterile de
romneasc, autor a numeroase volume, idei pe marginea acestei probleme au
studii i eseuri de filozofie politic i aprut nc din momentul punerii bazelor
moral sau de filzofia culturii i a moralei primei construcii europene. Identitatea
dintre care amintim Dialectica raportului este un concept de baz i referin n
contiin moral-contiin politic, O tiinele socio-umane, produsul contiinei
perspectiv filozofic (1987), Filozofia i colectivitii, cel ce individualizeaz, parti-
condiia moral a cetii (1991), Noua Europ cularizeaz o colectivitate, o entitate poli-
n cutarea identitii (Risoprint, 2009). tic de alta, i confer substana, origi-
Europa a constituit i constituie i as- nalitatea, i d un suflet al su. Dei volumul
tzi subiectul unor ample dezbateri i de fa elaborat de d-l Vasile Boari, Noua
meditaii politice, economice, culturale, mo- Europ n cutarea identitii, este constituit
rale, etice sau chiar teologice. Asupra pro- din trei eseuri, avnd iniial destinaii
blematicilor sale s-au aplecat oameni diferite, cum nsi autorul precizeaz, el
politici i de cultur, teologi, analiti ai este o lucrare unitar aceasta fiind dat de
teoriei i practicii politice, guvernani, tema comun abordat de-Europa i cu
strategi militari. n toate perioadele i precdere de Uniunea European.
epocile istorice, Europa s-a aflat n centrul n studiul su, Vasile Boari realizeaz
preocuprilor i dezbaterilor celor investii o analiz profund i detaliat a proble-
cu elaborarea i realizarea destinelor sale. maticii identitii, evideniind diversitatea
De tensiunile i framntrile sale, de abordrilor, pornind de la tradiionaliti
stabilitatea i echilibrul su, a depins starea care n definirea Europei pun accent pe
i evoluia umanitii. Dei a fost genera- factori primari; geografici, istorici, culturali,
toarea a celor dou mari conflagraii spiritali sau a constructivitilor care afirm
mondiale, aceiai Europ a fost i leagnul c identitatea Uniunii Europene este n
culturii i civilizaiei universale. De pe curs de realizare datorit, n principal,
meleagurile sale au pornit marile desco- factorilor politici, ei neexcluznd partici-
periri geografice, s-a nscut revoluia in- parea la acest proces i a altor factori
dustrial i noile tehnologii, tot de aici s-au precum ar fi cei economici, culturali, spi-
creat marile teorii i elaboratele doctrinare rituali i chiar religioi. In abordarea iden-
clasice i neoclasice (liberalismul, conser- titii Europei, prof.univ.dr. Vasile Boari
vatorismul, socialismul, neoliberalismul i are n vedere i impunerea unei definiii
neoconservatorismul sau democraia), teorii din perspectiva axiologic, fcnd apel la
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Sunt voci care susin c globalizarea zeaz multiple exemple: cazul Greciei
exportat din SUA se constituie, de mult Antice, a Romei, cnd, dup secole de
vreme, ntr-un proiect tendenios de de- prosperitate au intrat ntr-un declin pro-
molare a marilor valori europene, indiene, fund, al Chinei Imperiale, al Egiptului
sud-americane, ce nu se regsesc pe noul faraonilor.
continent ncrcat de o tineree ireductibil Creterea ampl i difereniat a eco-
i, drept consecin, nivelarea acestora, nomiei atrage dup sine i o realizare a
poate chiar dispariia lor n timp este cert. puterii ntre state, o altfel de orientare n
Fenomen ambiguu, globalizarea i politica mondial. Exist un principiu de
economia barbar se transform ntr-o baz al relaiilor internaionale care susine
limit a libertii omului, nstrinndu-l de c, pe msur ce puterea unui stat crete,
propriile valori, cunoscndu-se faptul c acesta, n mod implicit va cunoate o
singurele limite pe care o libertate le schimbare de sistem. John Harsany atrgea
ntlnete se regsesc n libertate, spunea atenia c, o posibil explicaie a acestor
Sartre. permutri politice i economice trebuie s
Interesele economice au determinat se fac n termenii echilibrului puterii
ntotdeauna evoluia politicii naionale i ntre diferitele grupuri sociale care fac
internaionale, constrngnd i influennd presiuni pentru aranjamentele cele mai
aciunea uman i comportamentul social. favorabile propriilor interese (incluznd
Variabilele economice sunt purttoare de posibilele interese altruiste)2. Aadar, o
efecte puternice asupra puterii i a societate cu un ridicat grad de prosperitate
echilibrului acesteia n relaiile internaio- economic, poate produce restructurri
nale ce modific, n unele situaii, bene- serioase, att n palierul politic naional, ct
ficiile i costurile schimbrilor sociale i i internaional, dar i ocuri grave n
politice. societatea mondial i n natura ei siste-
De fapt, orice schimbare n plan matic, ocuri care genereaz crize finan-
economic creeaz stimuli i obstacole ntr- ciare de proporii cum este cea prezent n
o societate care i modific regimul ori acest an, criz asemntoare unei maladii
apartenena la un sistem politic. Promi- contagioase de proporii. Specialitii sunt
siunea ctigurilor degaj energii uriae i de prere c actuala criz este una a
determinri consistente n expansiunea mondializrii, n sensul unei reele ample
pieelor, a implementrii de societi i or- de electricitate care se scurt-circuitizeaz
ganizaii nonguvernamentale, de sisteme pe diverse trasee, fie din cauz de
informatice i tehnologii avansate. n suprasolicitare, fie c sistemul nu permite
aceste condiii, la mentaliti i bunstare acces egal la consum. Andrew Haldane,
nou, noi constrngeri, cci orice schim- specialist n problema riscurilor la Banca
bare i dezvoltare restructureaz mrimea Angliei propune, prin comparaie, c
i distribuirea costurilor, precum i asu- distrugerea spaiilor i a speciilor ne duce
marea unor obligaii, uneori mpovrtoare. cu gndul la criza financiar i c
Creterea economic i a surplusului omenirea trebuie s reacioneze imediat n
economic, mondializarea tehnologiilor, acu- faa acestui fenomen.
mulrile uriae de capital creeaz ine- Alii consider c aceeai cauz a fost
galiti grave i schimbri politice semni- generat pe sol american, exportat n
ficative, ajungndu-se la un punct sensibil toat lumea, dar ea are i un caracter indi-
i periculos n evoluia societilor cu o gen, fiind i moral, ntr-o bun msur,
dezvoltare spectaculoas. Istoria ne furni-
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