Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180

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Composites: Part B
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/compositesb

A short review on basalt ber reinforced polymer composites

Vivek Dhand a, Garima Mittal a, Kyong Yop Rhee a,, Soo-Jin Park b, David Hui c
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, College of Engineering, Kyung Hee University, 446-701 Yongin, Republic of Korea
b
Department of Chemistry, Inha University, Incheon, Republic of Korea
c
University of New Orleans, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, New Orleans, LA 70148, United States

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: A recent increase in the use of ecofriendly, natural bers as reinforcement for the fabrication of light-
Received 3 September 2014 weight, low cost polymer composites can be seen globally. One such material of interest currently being
Received in revised form 28 November 2014 extensively used is basalt ber, which is cost-effective and offers exceptional properties over glass bers.
Accepted 9 December 2014
The prominent advantages of these composites include high specic mechano-physico-chemical proper-
Available online 16 December 2014
ties, biodegradability, and non-abrasive qualities to name a few. This article presents a short review on
basalt bers used as a reinforcement material for composites and discusses them as an alternative to
Keywords:
the use of glass bers. The paper also discusses the basics of basalt chemistry and its classication. Apart
A. Fibers
A. Polymer (textile) ber
from this, an attempt to showcase the increasing trend in research publications and activity in the area of
B. Mechanical properties basalt bers is also covered. Further sections discuss the improvement in mechanical, thermal and chem-
B. Thermal properties ical resistant properties achieved for applications in specic industries.
Basalt 2014 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction low loadings. The problems of weakness and brittleness in the

Since its discovery in 1923 by American scientists, basalt was a
classied material of choice for military research and was exten-
sively used in defense and aeronautical applications during World
War II by the United States (US), Europe and the Soviet Union
[13]. Fig. 1 shows basalt ber and carbon woven fabrics, which
are extensively used. In recent decades, an increasing research
interest in the use of basalt bers due to their enhanced mechan-
ical properties has taken the polymer industry by storm. These
bers are now used in fabricating light, high-end hybrid composite
materials for infrastructural and civil applications [4].
In general, hybrid nanocomposites are fabricated when two or
more combined foreign materials are embedded or reinforced
within a common host matrix. With this mixing of two or more
materials, a synergistic effect is realized, which provides new and
superior properties within the material like improved elastic mod-
ulus, ductility, light weight, and ame retarding ability [57].
These qualities are already present in carbon-bers (CFs), which
are useful in a plethora of large scale engineering applications like
aircraft (civil and defense), automobiles, shipping, sports equip-
ment and construction [811]. CF-based composites are, however,
pliable to stress concentrations owing to the brittleness of the
carbon ber [8]. The major drawback in the carbon composite
industry is the expense of production, resulting in the use of very
Corresponding author. Tel.: +82 31 201 2565; fax: +82 31 202 6693.
E-mail address: rheeky@khu.ac.kr (K.Y. Rhee).
composite (carbon ber reinforced plastic-CFRP) can be resolved
by a hybridization technique, that is, by replacing the layers of
the carbon bers with ductile bers. This may result in cost bene-
ts and improvement in the physical and mechanical properties.
By using this technique, novel types of materials can be synthe-
sized and fabricated. For example, Park and Jang [12] introduced
bers of polyethylene (PE) along with carbon bers within an
epoxy matrix to fabricate a hybrid laminated composite material.
In their experiment, they chose PE bers because of the high elon-
gation at break followed by its high specic-strength and stiffness.
Based on their observations, it was concluded that the superior
mechanical properties of the hybrid-based composite depends
strongly upon the position of the reinforcing ber. So, whenever
the CF was placed at the peripheral (outermost) layer, the compos-
ite delivered a high degree of exural strength.
Based on the above observations, strong, lightweight, durable
and economically viable bers are currently required for fabricat-
ing the hybrid composites. Presently, several organic and inorganic
bers are available in the market, but many of them either lack
structural strength or durability, or are extremely costly for use
in moderate loadings. Basalt ber is the material of choice pres-
ently and is an inorganic ber with extremely good modulus, high
strength, improved strain to failure, high temperature resistance,
excellent stability, good chemical resistance, and it is easy to pro-
cess, non-toxic, natural, eco-friendly and inexpensive [1318].
Basalt ber is obtained after extrusion from basalt-based molten
igneous volcanic rock, which is found in owing lava [19]. The

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.compositesb.2014.12.011
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 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180
extrusion process of basalt ber is very energy efcient and sim-
pler than that of any competing bers. The ber dimensions are
generally in the range of 1020 lm [16,19]. Several of these prop-
erties (like tensile and compressive properties of basalt) are better
than the bers of E-glass and are also far cheaper than their carbon
counterparts [2022]. Hence, basalt bers have received increasing
attention as a novel type of reinforcement material for the fabrica-
tion of hybrid composites/laminates.
Based on the merits of basalt ber, potential applications exist
in the fabrication of basalt-epoxy composites, which are also light-
weight and have strong load-bearing properties useful in the heavy
automobile industry. Currently, the CF composites are being exten-
sively adopted in the automotive industry due to their superior
mechanical properties. By utilizing this reinforcing material, one
could decrease vehicle body weight by 4060%, but the cost of
the whole process is not currently economically viable [23]. Thus,
the need for lowering the production and delivery cost without
enduring a loss in CFRP-based composite mechanical properties
is important. As stated above, the promising nature, low cost and
effective properties of basalt bers could make basalt a prospective
candidate for reinforcement in CFRP based composites. Several
accounts of reports are available which report the introduction of
basalt bers with different reinforcements within composite lam-
inates. Lopresto et al. [13] investigated and compared the compres-
sive strength, Youngs modulus and exural behavior of basalt ber
reinforced plastics or polymers (BFRP) with glass ber reinforced
plastics (GFRP), and they found that basalt was superior and has
the potential to replace glass. A similar report was prepared by
Manikandan et al. [24]. On the other hand, the mechanical, physi-
cal and physico-chemical properties of the ber reinforced plastics
or polymer were further improved by the introduction of foreign
llers like nanoparticles [2527], ber llers [6,28], and by surface
alterations [29] of the bers. At present, very few researchers have
carried out surface treatments of the basalt bers to enhance its
properties. Another possible alternative to enhance the properties
of basalt as discussed previously is to hybridize it with carbon
bers. This would make it extremely light weight, durable, cost
effective and also opens numerous opportunities in the hybrid
composite world [30].
Carmisciano et al. [20], reported higher exural modulus and
seemingly higher inter-laminar shear strength for their basalt
Fig. 1. Woven fabrics: (a) basalt ber fabric, (b) carbon ber fabric, (c) strands of carbon ber, (d) strands of basalt ber.
167
woven ber reinforced composites (BWFRC). They also found that
their fabricated BWFRC had similar electrical properties in compar-
ison with E-glass composites. As for the structural properties of the
basalt ber, several reports are available which show promising
capacities of the material. Previously, basalt was a preferred choice
of material (as bers) in the construction industry, and has been in
extensive use since as an external or internal reinforcement within
concrete materials [18,31,32]. Moreover, basalt can also be used in
other applications like marine [16], impact or ballistic resistance
applications [6,32]. Eslami-Farsani et al. [33] fabricated a compos-
ite by chopping the basalt ber and mixing it in a polypropylene
clay mixture. This approach not only improved the yield strength
but also the elastic modulus of the composite dramatically. As
basalt is more utility-friendly and ductile, basalt can be introduced
as a reinforcement within the matrix in various shapes other than
bers. Shapes like rods, bars and textile fabrics are possible
[6,18,19,25,3450].
The present review focuses on the extensive use of basalt bers
as stable, inert, eco-friendly and non-reactive reinforcement mate-
rial used in the synthesis and production of light-weight compos-
ites with highly improved mechanical properties. Also, the present
review highlights the applications of the composites made by using
a polymer matrix reinforced with basalt ber.
1.1. Chemistry of basalt
Basalt is chemically rich with oxides of magnesium, calcium,
sodium, potassium, silicon and iron, along with traces of alumina.
Fig. 2 depicts the overall percentage distribution of the chemical
constituents in basalt. The chemical content may differ based on
the geographical distribution. Basalt is abundant and comprises
up to 33% of the earths crust. Basalt bers are manufactured from
nely powdered basalt, which is melted at around 15001700 C to
yield a glassy molten liquid, which is then extruded in the form of
thin threads.
The bers are chemically composed of pyroxene, clinopyroxene,
olivine, and plagioclase minerals [51]. Based on the above chemis-
try, if the basalt is rich in silica and poor with sodium it is catego-
rized as tholeiitic basalt. If the basalt is rich in sodium and decient
in silica then it is categorized as alkali basalt. Further, if the mineral
is rich in alumina with a concentration over 17%, then the basalt is
168 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180
Fig. 2. Percentage distribution of chemical constituents in basalt.
Fig. 3. Basalt tetrahedron depicting different phases of basalt mineral based on the
silicate concentration.
Fig. 4. Typical mechanical properties of basalt ber.
categorized as an intermediate between the tholeiitic and alkali
basalt. Magnesium-rich basalt is called boninite, which has extre-
mely small concentrations of titanium and other trace metals
[52]. A basalt tetrahedron diagram in Fig. 3 depicts the mineral dis-
tribution within basalt, which reects the chemical nature and
kind of basalt produced during a geological event. Basic mechanical
properties of basalt bers (Fig. 4) and a comparison with different
other commercial bers are depicted in Fig. 5, which shows that
basalt has an excellent tensile strength and also a good modulus.
When compared with other materials, one can infer that the
majority of the materials of choice are costly, heavy, chemically
unstable, or tough to handle and require longer curing prepara-
tions and methodologies to obtain good composites. In contrast,
basalt is eco-friendly, nontoxic, lightweight and easily affordable,
making it an ideal candidate for fabricating composites for several
applications.
2. Need/importance of reinforcement
Reinforcements are constituents within a polymeric matrix of a
composite which help improve the strength, rigidity, matrix inter-
action, conductivity, heat resistance and resistance against chemi-
cal and physical corrosion. Several types of reinforcements are
used in different composites depending upon their applications.
Nonetheless, bers in the form of single strands or bundles have
also been used in processes like lament winding, but these bers
are arranged and woven in the form of a sheet or fabric for easy
handling. The various arrangement and assembly of bers, and
their orientations within the fabric lead to characteristic changes
in mechanical properties. In short, these bers act as load bearing
components. Different types of ber stacking are displayed in
Fig. 6, which exhibits different types of woven fabrics used for
composite fabrication.
2.1. Properties of reinforcing bers
As reported earlier, the mechanical properties of the reinforcing
bers are substantially higher than that of the non-reinforced
resin-based composites. The properties of these composites
(ber/resin based) are dependent upon the contribution of these
bers, which result in a synergistic effect in strengthening the
composite. The main contributors that govern the role of bers
in composites are: (1) the inherent mechanical quality of the ber,
(2) the physico-chemical interaction between the ber and resin
component (interface interactions), (3) the volume fraction of ber
within the composite, (4) the position, orientation and ber-layout
in the composite, and (5) recyclability.
If the above conditions are met, then the reinforcement success-
fully enhances the composite matrix and makes it much stronger
and stiffer than the matrix. This helps in mitigating deformation
effects and also possibly changes or delays failure mechanics in
the composite.
3. Physical attributes of reinforcements
As discussed above, reinforcements, when introduced into the
matrix, improve physical properties of the composite. The present
section discusses the mechanical and thermal properties of the
basalt ber reinforced composites as reported in the literature.
3.1. Mechanical properties
As previously outlined in the above section, the use of basalt
bers as the source of brous reinforcement has gained much more
attention than any other conventional llers (glass bers) due to
 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180
Fig. 5. Stacked bar chart depicting the comparative mechanical properties of different known materials.
Fig. 6. Figure depicting different types of stacking in the woven fabrics in use for
improving the mechanical properties of the reinforced composite.
their enhancement of mechanical properties [47,53,54]. It was pre-
viously reported that the elastic modulus of the basalt ber rein-
forced composite strongly depends upon the chemical afnity and
composition of the individual basalt ber. Basalt is also known for
higher tensile strength and elongation at break [47,54]. With the
help of these improved parameters, one can also enhance the
impact resistance and environmental sustainability of the proper-
ties within the composite. To date, several reports are available
on the mechanical properties of basalt ber-based composites for
applications like thermosets [2,20,21,24,47,5557], thermoplastics
[22,47,5860], and impact behavior [4,6,13,32,43,47,6163].
169
Recently, Ary Subagia et al. [53] fabricated basalt/epoxy composites
with tourmaline micro/nano particles (0.52 wt%) using the vac-
uum assisted resin transfer molding technique. Laminates of TM/
basalt/epoxy showed that the tensile and exural strength
increased by 16%, whereas an increase of 27% and 153% was
observed for the tensile and exural modulus, respectively. Sarasini
et al. [47], recently reported the effects of hybridization using basalt
ber on quasi-mechanical properties and also addressed the low
velocity impact behavior of their carbon-epoxy based laminates.
They tested the interplay hybrid system by stacking two laminates
employing different sequences (sandwich-like and intercalated) at
three different energies. Results showed that the hybrid laminates
fabricated with the intercalated stacking sequence (alternating fab-
ric layers of basalt and carbon) possess better absorption of impact
energy with enhanced tolerance toward damage than the laminates
consisting of only carbon bers. Hybrid laminates resembling a
sandwich pattern (basalt:carbon:basalt, 3:7:3) layer showcased
promising exural behavior. Wang et al. [15] proposed an enhance-
ment method for BFRP based on hybridization, where its design was
optimized for the application in a long-span cable based bridge. The
results obtained showed that, due to the effect of hybridization of
the ber, the composite showed an increase in the overall modulus,
potential strength and also fatigue behavior. Similarly, Zhang et al.
[59], fabricated composites of basalt ber (BF) reinforced with poly-
butylene succinate (PBS) with variable contents of different types of
bers. They employed an injection molding method and assessed
the tensile strength, exural, and impact properties along with
the thermal stability of the composite (Fig. 7). They observed an
improvement in the tensile and exural properties of the PBS
matrix due to the synergistic strength offered with an increasing
number of basalt bers in the composite. They demonstrated that
the Vicat softening temperature (VST) and heat deection temper-
ature (HDT) of the composite was signicantly higher than the neat
polymeric (PBS) matrix. Further, morphological analysis showed
that the fractured surface demonstrates superior interfacial adhe-
sion and the linkage is stronger between the basalt bers and the
matrix component. When composite laminates prepared with
basalt bers are analyzed for their impact behavior, the basalt ber
within the composite has shown excellent impact and energy
shielding in the composite. The strength of the composite is higher
if basalt bers are either placed on the surface or pre-preged using
alternative layers within the composite (as in intercalating,
170 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180
Fig. 7. Figure depicting (a) exural, (b) tensile, (c) heat deection and (d) impact strength properties of basalt ber reinforced composite, where the basalt ber content in the
poly (butylene succinate) matrix is varied. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier Publishers. Ref. [59].
sandwich). This stacking results in dissipation of a large amount of
the kinetic energy resulting in a series of changes upon contact of
the impactor. The mechanisms in action for the enhanced abidance
are the changes in elastic and plastic deformations, friction, matrix
cracking, pull outs, delamination, debonding and ber breakage.
Based on these accounts, it can be inferred that the load bearing
ability of the composite laminates made of basalt have higher toler-
ance for the incident high kinetic energy based impactor when
compared to their counterparts like glass or carbon laminates
[32,43,47,6469]. Also, it is known that the sensitivity of the ex-
ural properties is much higher than the tensility and ber loadings,
which means that the tensile modulus of a ber reinforced polymer
composite is primarily dependent upon the ber modulus and the
modulus of the resin matrix, orientation of ber, length of ber
and the content of the ber [59,70,71].
One can also enhance the properties of basalt ber composites
by altering the surface (functionalization) or by using the glow dis-
charge method. Plasma treatment is a more eco-friendly approach
than the usual wet processing technique where the wetting solu-
tions used are either acidic, alkaline or silane-based. Using this
approach, the surface modication of basalt ber can be achieved
with improved mechanical results [45]. Kurniawan et al. [72] inves-
tigated the effects of atmospheric pressure glow discharge plasma
polymerization on silane treated basalt ber to assess the mechan-
ical and thermal properties of the basalt ber/polylactic acid com-
posite by irradiating basalt bers from zero to six minutes at
intervals. The results obtained showed that the composite proper-
ties (strength and modulus) were 45% and 18% higher, respectively,
than the untreated ones (Fig. 8). The optimized time for such
improvement was found to be 4.5 min. They also found that when
the irradiation time is below 1.5 min, it leads to a decline in the
properties of the composite. This decrease in the properties can
be attributed to the breakage of the silane bonds instead of the for-
mation of the polymeric bonds. The fact that bond dissociation
energy of the SiAC bonds within the ber is lower than that of
the C@C polymer bonds makes this composite vulnerable even at
short exposures of plasma. The strength of the composite is not only
dependent upon the curvature of the ber, but also on the matrix of
the composite [7375]. Reinforced composites often display excit-
ing impact behavior, which is due to the fact that the inter-laminar
region is basically resin-rich due to the type of stitch made within
the composite fabric. The adjacent layers result in overlap in such
a way that the ber helps in reducing crack propagation during
delamination [7688]. Kim et al. [45] investigated the mechanical
properties of surface treated basalt bers using a low-temperature
atmospheric oxygen plasma. They studied the inter-laminar frac-
ture, toughness and the behavior of the basalt/epoxy woven com-
posites. The main goal of their study was to understand the
wettability of the basalt ber through contact angle studies. The
results obtained showed a remarkable increase in the wettability
of the bers along with enhancement of functionalization of the
ber surface through physical etching. As a result, the inter-laminar
fracture test showed a remarkable 16% improvement in the
strength when the samples were plasma treated using oxygen. They
also reported that, by surface alteration and with the collective
inuence of adhesive forces and increased wettability, the basalt
bers mechanical properties improve greatly when reinforced with
a resin matrix [45,89]. Similarly, Botev et al. [90] fabricated and
enhanced the mechanical properties (impact strength and tensile
strength) of basalt/polypropylene composites by using chopped
basalt bers treated with polypropylene-g-maleic anhydride (PP-
g-MA). Bashtannik et al. [91] modied the basalt ber surface by
etching it with hydrochloric acid (HCl) and a sodium hydroxide
(NaOH) solution. The composite displayed high adhesive strength
between the ller (basalt ber) and the matrix (high density poly-
ethylene). An improved tensile strength in basalt/vinylester com-
posites was reported by Czigny et al. [87] when they modied
the basalt ber surface using a silane precursor as a coupling agent.
 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180
Fig. 8. Figure depicting different mechanical properties of the basalt and polylactic
acid reinforced composite: (a) strength and stiffness data, (b) tensile strength and
modulus data. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier publishers. Ref. [72].
Likewise, Fiore et al. [92] analyzed ways to connect an aluminum
alloy (AA6086) to BFRP by exercising three different joining tech-
niques, i.e., mixed, self-piercing riveting and adhesive co-curing
bonding on the rivets. They also employed the hand layup tech-
nique and vacuum bagging process to realize the fabrication of
the composite laminates for joining the structures. Results show
that vacuum bagging allows a 23% increase in their average failure
load due to the improvement in adhesion strength between the riv-
ets and the BFRP. This helps in modifying the failure mechanism.
Mixed joints fabricated through the hand layup method demon-
strated a higher adhesive resistance of 43% compared to the mixed
vacuum bagging based laminates. On the other hand, the hand
layup fabricated composite showed an equal resistance. If co-curing
adhesion was attained by the process of vacuum bagging, the adhe-
sive joints offered a conjoined resistance 67% higher than the mixed
samples. This shows that the surface treatment allows the matrix
chemical moieties to form strong bonds with the surface function-
alized bers and synergistically provide higher strength to the
ber-matrix medium, thereby improving the adhesion properties
and increasing the mechanical properties of the composite [59,91].
The merits of basalt composites have long been utilized in civil
infrastructural applications. Sim et al. [31] investigated the rele-
vance of the use of basalt ber to strengthen skeletal material for
the infrastructural industry. They assessed the durability, mechan-
ical qualities and also the exural strength of the concrete material
fabricated using basalt bers. The group employed a high-grade
Russian basalt ber, which is reported to have 1 GPa as its tensile
strength. Chemically, the ber is 30% carbon and 60% high strength
s-glass ber. The bers were also examined for their weathering
171
resistance, and they showed higher adaptability than the glass ber.
Fibers were also tested for their thermal stability where they were
kept at 600 C for 2 h, and they still retained a maximum of 90% of
their normal temperature strength. Flexural strength was evaluated
and was found to improve with a yield of 27% based on the layers of
bers employed. They concluded that the use of two layers of basalt
ber sheet is enough to express the desired strength in the concrete.
Earlier, Brik [93,94] studied the properties of basalt bers and
emphasized its fundamental use as a possible replacement to steel
as a reinforcing agent in concrete-making. Similarly, the use of
short bers like basalt and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) improved the
mechanical properties of geo-polymers. Since these bers provide
considerable support and control cracking (thereby increasing the
fracture toughness of a matrix), they ought to be brittle due to
the bridging action occurring during the process of micro and
macro cracking [95,96]. Previously, Dias and Thaumaturgo [97]
studied the fracture toughness of basalt ber reinforced geopoly-
mer concrete. They found that with 0.51.0% basalt loading the geo-
polymeric concrete showed higher fracture toughness than the
concretes made of commercially available Portland brand cement.
Similarly, Li et al. [98] noted that with very low loadings of basalt
bers (<0.3% volume fraction) in geopolymeric concrete there was
a signicant improvement in energy absorption and deformation
capacities [95104]. Borri et al. [105], reinforced wood with natural
bers, including basalt for testing the mechanical strength of the
timbers. They introduced a series of natural bers in the tension
zone. Analysis showed that the reinforcement of basalt bers for
the low quality timber beams demonstrated high strength with a
good level of ductility and deection. However, other natural bers
also provided some exceptional results in terms of the mechanical
strength when compared to basalt. Further, it was noted that the
unidirectional basalt ber based reinforcements beams having 2
and 3 strips of basalt bers expressed a dramatic increase of 26%
and 11%, respectively, in load carrying capacities when tested by
the 4 point bending method.
Zhu et al. [40], recently studied the mechanical properties of the
BFRP bars and also assessed its re resistance capabilities at higher
temperatures by using different types of heat resistant vinyl and
epoxy resins. They found that the mechanical properties and the
thermal resistance improved even at higher temperatures up to
100 C. This increased mechanical and thermal stability of the BFRP
bars up to 100 C is due to the impregnation of the heat resisting
resins with basalt bers and sufcient cohesion between them.
Fan et al. [106] investigated the impact-mechanical properties of
basalt ber reinforced concrete (BFRC). The volumetric loading of
basalt in the concrete was from 0% to 0.3%. Split Hopkinson pres-
sure bar (SHPB) dynamic stressstrain curves showed that the
BFRC had promising and favorable impact properties at high strain
rate because the volume content of the concrete was mainly basalt
bers. When the basalt ber volumetric loading was 0.1%, they
found that the concrete demonstrated higher toughness, impact-
compression strength, strain rate strengthening effects, and strain
rate sensitivity to impact-compression.
Harsh environments are always a threat to conventional archi-
tectural components. They present the clear danger of weathering
and bio-activity in moist and cold atmospheres and cause damage
due to the development of crack and fatigue within the structures
[107,108]. In order to understand the dynamics of composites
under harsh cold conditions, the freezethaw (FT) tests are used
[109113]. Due to the thermal incompatibility, moisture build-up
and chemical reactivity, damage to the FRP composite is imminent,
which not only inuences the tensile properties but also causes
severe damage. There are very few reports published on this
account [114117]. More recently, Shi et al. [118] investigated
the FT resistance for basalt, glass and carbon ber reinforced poly-
mers (BFRP, GFRP, CFRP) along with their hybridization. Coupon
172 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180
tests were carried out to investigate the tensile characteristics of
the FRP sheets along with their representative epoxy resins up to
300 FT cycles. The results obtained show that, due to the effects
of hybridization, the BFRP has improved FT resistance in compari-
son to GFRP and CFRP sheets. Secondly, continuous FT cycle results
show degeneration of the tensile properties of the resin matrix due
to sustained loading. Since the co-efcient of thermal expansion of
basalt is much closer to the epoxy resin, the samples exhibited
strong bonding between the matrix and bers after FT cycling
[119,120]. Recently, Diab and Farghal [121] assessed the bond
strength and the bond length of FRP-based concrete applied using
an adhesive. They created an extensive database of FRP-concrete
joints to validate the choice of adhesive layer.
Wu et al. [108] showed the tensile fatigue behavior for the ber
reinforced polymer (FRP) and hybrid-FRP based composites.
Amongst the several FRPs used, BFRP showed some incredible
results and is promising for use in civil infrastructure and develop-
ment. Wu et al. documented that there was a 36% increase in the
tensile strength/modulus when compared to the GFRP. Further-
more, they assessed the rupture strain of the BFRP, which was
found to be 2.56% higher than that of polyparaphenylenl benzobis-
oxazole (PBO) composites. They also compared the load carrying
capacity for each and every FRP composite (pre and post fatigue
load). For BFRP, due to fatigue load, there was a 45% capacity drop.
These failure modes within the BFRP composite demonstrated the
existence of transverse cracks. This shows that the bers tensile
moduli within the composite inuenced the failure mode. Also,
due to the consequence of low moduli in composites of both GFRP
and BFRP, the stress (i.e., transverse cracks) were more readily
absorbed by the adhesive layers within the hybrids. The modulus
results obtained showed that the BFRP could withstand 90 GPa of
stress, and this resulted in transverse cracks caused due to the
transfer of stress to the adhesive layer. They concluded that the
BFRP did not exhibit any kind of delamination within their com-
posite sheets, thus explaining its nature as a promising material
for manufacture of heavy, load-bearing infrastructure and civil
applications due to strong bonding [122]. Wang and Wu [123]
investigated the merits of using high performance hybrid basalt/
carbon FRP composites in the construction of a thousand meter
long cable-stayed bridge. Their results show that the hybrid com-
posite (B/CFRP) cables displayed superior performance in mechan-
ical, aerodynamic, static, dynamic and long-term properties
compared to a bridge made of steel cables. They emphasized that,
with the aid of hybridization, properties like fatigue, and resistance
of the B/CFRP could be enhanced for sufcient times, which is
highly benecial for bearing dynamic loads.
Lim et al. [124] studied the stacking effect and the mechanical
qualities like fracture and exural properties of basalt ber sheets
sandwiched with carbon sheet in the presence of epoxy resin. Two
types of composites were made. For the rst case, the composite
was formed by making four sheets of basalt ber cloth at the center
covered with two sheets of carbon ber cloth on either side (i.e.,
2C4B2C), this was dubbed a carbon skin-basalt core (CSBC) com-
posite. A second set was formed by making four sheets of carbon
ber cloth at the center covered with two sheets of basalt ber
cloth on either side (i.e., 2B4C2B), this was dubbed a basalt skin-
carbon core (BSCC) composite. The composites were then investi-
gated using exural and mode I interlaminar fracture tests. They
found that the exural modulus of the CSBC composites was
around 245% greater than that of BSCC composites. On the other
hand, the exural strength of CSBC was found to be 32% greater
than that of BSCC. In the CSBC case, the inter-laminar fracture
toughness was found to be 10% less than that of the BSCC compos-
ite. They found that in the case of the CSBC composite, the ber
breakage and the cracking of the matrix were the dominant fea-
tures for initiating the fracture mechanisms from within. In the
case of the BSCC composite, debonding between the matrix and
bers was the prime cause for the initiation of fracture. This
implies that basalt stacked as a core material is sure to improve
the mechanical properties of the composite. Several other authors
have also reported similar results with improved mechanical prop-
erties when basalt was used as a central/core material during the
fabrication of composites [125127].
3.2. Thermal properties
Mishaps that occur mainly in chemical and petrochemical
industries are caused due to the spontaneous combustion of acci-
dentally released volatile/combustible substances leading to jet
res [128]. Eventually, these res may lead to a major catastrophic
secondary event leading to loss of lives and property. Passive re
protection (PFP) is the need of the hour and can prove to be a reli-
able solution where the chosen material is not only able to endure
elevated temperatures, but also retains its mechanical strength.
The system is maintenance-free and does not involve any kind of
activation or power or triggering in its action. The main function
of such a system is to maintain low temperatures and also protect
its targets against any re hazard or impending mishap. This can be
achieved by the use of a dissimilar variety of materials and prod-
ucts. Safety requires a thermal shield made of cementitious, ceram-
ics, vermiculite, mineral-based and tumescent materials, which
can be utilized to make composites [128134]. Presently, the only
way to fabricate a composite is to impregnate organic and inor-
ganic materials. The choice of inorganic material over the organics
serves the purpose, since they are completely neutral toward re
and also maintain the conguration of the material and product
with a good balance of thermal resistance. However, re exposure
makes these materials weak and brittle. Hence, these materials are
best suited for xed or static installations, specically for large
scale modern industries [128]. However, Landucci et al. [128] fab-
ricated composites of basalt bers, impregnating it with organic
and inorganic matrices. They experimentally studied the suitability
of these materials during accidental ame impingement under
strict conditions. To further understand the suitability, they
designed and also simulated jet res at bench-scale. They deter-
mined the response of various kinds of materials by using the time
and rupture sequence, temperature prole, and weight loss during
the imposed conditions of ame impingement. Their results
showed that basalt composites demonstrated low wall tempera-
ture with excellent residual strength, which decelerated the panel
failure. They concluded that, with such an outcome, basalt bers
may perhaps be considered as a fundamental constituent for the
manufacture of novel thermal shields for PFP. Table 1 shows a
comparison of thermal properties between basalt, berglass and
silica laments.
Czigny [58] not only investigated basalt ber (BF) strength
properties but also checked its thermal properties in comparison
to glass ber (GF). Tensile strength results of BF were found to be
568 267 MPa, whereas its modulus was around 60.4 18.9 GPa.
Apart from the superior mechanical performance of BF, there are
other properties which make basalt a remarkable ber. BF is
known to possess outstanding thermal resistance, sound insulation
ability, chemical resistance and low water absorption. Recently, BF
has gained attention for its potential application as a reinforcing
material for composites and also its use in thermoset-matrix based
composites and re-resisting thermoplastics [58,135138].
Militky et al. [122] studied the tensile properties of BF by tem-
pering it at different temperatures of 50, 100, 200, and 300 C. They
found that, due to the thermal effect, there were some morpholog-
ical and structural changes observed within the bers including a
change in tensile properties. They concluded that the bers
showed strong tensile properties when the bers were treated
 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180
Table 1
Comparison of various thermal properties of basalt bers, berglass, and silica laments [128].
Thermal properties SI units
Maximum application temperature (K)
Sustained operating temperature (K)
Minimum operating temperature (K)
Thermal conductivity (W/m K)
Melting temperature (K)
Thermal expansion coefcient (1/K)
below 300 C for a period of 1, 15 and 60 min. Ozturk et al. [84] fab-
ricated hybrid composites of basalt bers and ceramics for study-
ing its hot wear properties. The ber content of basalt was varied
between 0 and 40 vol%, and the ceramic content was kept constant
(10 vol%) throughout the experiment. They studied the mechanical
and the wear friction properties by using a heated pin-on-disc
apparatus. They observed that the wear test coefcient of friction
increases directly when the disc temperature is increased up to
300 C. They also showed and concluded that with an increase in
the volume content of basalt ber, the friction coefcient of the
hybrid composite also increases dramatically.
Medvedyev and Tsybulya [139] showed the effective use of
basalt ber composites in the area of hot gas ltration. They
showed that by incorporating basalt bers in the fabrication of a
bag house increases its life span by 710 years [140,141]. They also
explained the importance of the use of basalt composite-based l-
ter fabrics for remediating hot corrosive gases and polluted air con-
taining suspended hot particles with temperatures up to 800 C.
They emphasized that even though the life span of a basalt com-
posite under these drastic conditions may be less than a year, there
is no other known ltering fabric which can be employed under
these conditions. They also showed that when the bags are fabri-
cated with other high-temperature based synthetic bers, the
strength of these bags decreased by 2030% in less than two years
of operation at a temperature of 190 C. In contrast, the strength of
the basalt ber composite bag retained the same strength even
under similar conditions. This ability of basalt to retain strength
may be attributed to the fact that the fabric is more resistant
toward higher temperatures than the synthetic bers grown using
a similar technique. To the best of our knowledge, there are only a
few authors who have reported the thermal properties of basalt
bers composite for diverse areas. All these authors conclude in
their work that the use of basalt bers in composites allows the
material to be much cooler on one side than the side exposed to
higher temperatures. They all also reported that the mechanical
properties of the basalt ber composite varied with its matrix
and result in different types of deformity/damage to the composite
only after the limit of thermal saturation at elevated temperature
is achieved [17,49,142144].
3.3. Chemo-resistance activity
Several high performance laments (carbon, glass, and ceram-
ics) have been used in composites as reinforcements. The compos-
ite derives its strength synergistically due to the presence of bers
incorporated within the weak matrix [24]. During the service of the
composite, the reinforced bers play a pivotal role in balancing the
external load and stress [31,145,146]. For a composite, the most
challenging hurdle is its long term performance and durability
and maintenance under critical environments. It is also a crucial
point to understand how these materials behave in such harsh
environments in applications [147,148]. Chemical corrosion of
composites is also a major challenge. The resistance offered by
the laments during corrosion is dependent upon the resistance
activity, toughness, corrosion crack-propagation, and degradation
173
Basalt laments Fiberglass Silica laments
1255 923 16402070
1093 753 1470
15 210 100
0.0310.038 0.0340.04 0.0350.04
1720 1390 2070
8.0  10 6 5.4  10 6 5.0  10 8
properties of the resin. There is presently a lack of basic under-
standing of the complete mechanism involved in ber damage
and degradation during chemical corrosion of a composite. It has
been reported that, upon prolonged exposure to an unfavorable
environment, morphological and structural changes in the bers
arise. To avoid such circumstances, there is a need for an alterna-
tive ber, which is not only chemically inert but also resistant to
any kind of environmental. Recently, basalt has been used to
address the above challenges. Basalt, in addition to its superior
mechanical properties, also possesses high chemical stability when
exposed to different environmental conditions [149]. For the above
reasons, basalt bers are extensively used to counteract chemical
corrosion. This section further highlights some work carried out
by researchers related to the use of BF as a chemo-resistant
material.
Wei et al. [150] studied the effects of surface chemical corrosion
on basalt and glass bers in both acidic (HCl) and alkaline (NaOH)
media (Figs. 9 and 10). They also examined post-treated bers in
terms of their strength maintenance ratio and mass loss ratio. They
observed that basalt bers were extremely resistant to acid attack
rather that alkaline attack, whereas for glass ber, alkali and acid
resistance was similar [145]. They concluded that amongst these
solutions, alkaline conditions were the most corrosive for basalt.
Due to the long-term chemical action on the mineral/natural bers,
it is difcult to measure or determine the corrosion effect. The rate
of corrosion depends on several intrinsic and extrinsic factors like
temperature, ber composition, aging time, solution composition,
pH and size of the bers. Wei et al. [14] reinforced basalt and glass
bers in an epoxy resin to study composite degradation in seawa-
ter. The tensile strength and bending results of seawater treated
composites indicated a decreasing trend based on the time of treat-
ment. They observed that BFRC expressed anti-seawater corrosion
properties similar to GFRP. They concluded that by effectively low-
ering the content of Fe2+ ions within the basalt bers, one can
achieve better and improved stability of composites in seawater
environments. Reports in the literature have revealed that basalt
bers have higher chemical durability and superior corrosion resis-
tance [14,150152].
Rybin et al. [153] employed a solgel technique to coat a dense
and a porous layer of zirconia on basalt ber to assess the chemical
resistance of the bers in an alkaline medium. They also studied
parameters like surface topology, elemental mapping and phase
composition for determining the etching effect on the ber surface
with respect to time. As zirconia is generally used as a coating
material against corrosion, they attempted to slow down the corro-
sion rate of basalt ber in alkaline solution. They found that the
thickness of a denser zirconia coating on BF is promising in pro-
tecting the ber against corrosion rather than the porous zirconia
coating. Schefer et al. [152] investigated the aging of basalt and
glass bers in alkaline solutions of NaOH and cement (Fig. 11).
They chose bers with different compositions and observed that
calcium ions play an important role in the inhibition of corrosion
activity. Also, they observed that during aging in a NaOH solution,
the outer surface of the bers corroded extensively when com-
pared to the bers exposed to the cement solution for a very long
174 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180

Fig. 9. Figure depicting activity of acid and alkali on the basalt bers and glass bers, respectively. (a) Relation between mass loss ratio and treating time of bers during acid
treatment. (b) Relation between mass loss ratio and treating time of bers during alkali treatment. (c) Relation between strength maintenance ratio and treating time of bers
during acid treatment. (d) Relation between strength maintenance ratio and treating time of bers during alkali treatment. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier
publishers. Ref. [150].

Fig. 10. Cross sectional SEM images of basalt ber before and after acidic (HCl) treatment, (a) original basalt ber, (b) 1 h post acidic treatment, (c) 3 h after acid treatment.
Alkali (NaOH) treated SEM images of (d) glass ber and (e) basalt ber surface. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier publishers. Ref. [150].

time. Under such conditions, local attack was revealed on the dominantly a characteristic feature of NaOH corrosion. This brittle
bers. During aging with NaOH, they observed the formation of a layer often is peeled off, resulting in a decrease in the diameter of
brittle layer surrounding the axial length of the bers, which is pre- the ber and degradation of its mechanical properties.
 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180
Fig. 11. SEM image revealing the formation of corrosion layer on the surface of (a)
glass berAR grade stored at 60 C in 5% NaOH for 7 days and (b) basalt ber
stored at 40 C in 5% NaOH for 7 days. Reprinted with permission from Elsevier
publishers. Ref. [152].
Manikandan et al. [24] explored of the effect of corrosion on the
physical properties of BF. They note that bers corrode due to dif-
fusion of corrosive agents through the matrix following the path of
a degraded interface leading to matrix cracking [154]. The mecha-
nisms involved in acid or alkaline attacks on the bers are totally
different. The strength of both of these attacks is directly propor-
tional to time and temperature. Further, the chemical makeup of
the bers determines the resistance to wetting by water. During
an alkali attack, the chemical resistance depends purely upon the
mixture of various oxides. The acid resistance increases with
increasing silica content, whereas the alkali resistance increases
due to the presence of a high concentration of alkaline earth ele-
ments and alumina. An attack over a long period of time dissolves
the SiAO skeleton structure, which results in loss of mass and also,
the surface of the ber eventually becomes rough. Further, this
deteriorates the ber elasticity and makes it brittle. Thus, the ber
surface progressively forms a loosely bound layer of reaction prod-
ucts, which thickens over the time and does not prevent further
alkali attack. This corrosive activity of an alkali over the bers
results in loss of rigidity within the composite. Nasir et al. [155]
investigated crack formation and corrosion of basalt ber in sulfu-
ric acid. Using microscopy and elemental mapping tools, they
attempted to examine and explain the cause of corrosion in terms
of leaching of calcium and ferric ions from the surface of the basalt
ber. The appearance of spiral and axial cracks throughout the sur-
face of the ber is attributed to longer exposure times. In compar-
ison to glass ber, they found that the strength of basalt ber was
too high and glass ber degraded earlier than the basalt. Thus, they
concluded that basalt ber was superior to glass bers in their
study. Liu et al. [156] studied the tolerance level of BFRP compos-
ites immersed in salt water. Apart from this, they also studied the
tolerance and effect of temperature, moisture absorption, and
175
cycling on BFRP. Composite aging for 240 days was carried out in
salt water. Post-aging results showed that the tensile strength
and Youngs modulus of the composite decreased only slightly.
There was no change in the shear strength for the BFRP composites
even after 199 freezethaw (FT) cycles. But, when the composites
were immersed and aged under hot salt water at 40 C, a sudden
decrease in the shear strength occurred. They infer that, for BFRP
composites, the vulnerability of the interfacial region is the pre-
dominant factor which results in the damage of the composite.
Shokrieh and Memar [157] investigated the stress corrosion behav-
ior in bending loading of epoxy/basalt composites when sub-
merged in 5% corrosive sulfuric acid. They observed that the
above parameters degraded gradually with respect to time. When
the loading of bers is beyond 50% of the ultimate strength, there
seems to be an accelerated degradation. They observed an intense
effect of plasticization within the broken cross sectional zones of
the sample. Finally, they concluded that the mode of the nal fail-
ure is widely affected by the degree of corrosion stress induced
within the composite. Eventually, future equipment will be made
of basalt-ber based composite materials, which not only possess
high strength but also exhibit extreme anti-corrosive properties.
Basalt bers in the future may serve as an effective substitute
against the use of traditional bers for manufacturing several types
of ber reinforced composites.
4. Applications
Many authors in the past have discussed the various applica-
tions of basalt bers especially in the eld of composites and high
performance end uses. Basalt, being an ecologically pure substance,
has a wide spectrum of applications. Unlike the conventional
asbestos/glass bers, which can cause health hazards, basalt bers
are non-hazardous as they are spun with a diameter higher than
6 lm [13]. Basalt bers also have three times the heat insulating
capability of asbestos. Abrasion of the basalt only produces thick
ber fragments that pose no respiratory hazard. However, as with
most substances, care in handling is recommended. Basalt ber is
non-reactive toward water and does not cause air pollution. It
has favorable bio-persistence and has been made a label-free
material in the USA and Europe. Basalt bers are mainly produced
for structural and electro-technical purposes and its applications
include electromagnetic shielding structures, automobile, aircraft,
ship and household appliance components [5,811]. The type of
application determines the surface densities, and they range
between 160 g/m2 and 1100 g/m2 for insulation-type applica-
tions. Owing to its inherent thermal properties, both woven and
knitted basalt bers are used in making re-blocking materials
for public transport systems. Basalt inter-liners in mattresses are
commonly used to prevent accidental res. Glass reinforced with
these bers is used in opto-mechanical applications [97]. The fol-
lowing section discusses the potential of basalt bers in various
industries for diverse applications.
4.1. Geocomposites
Basalt bers are useful in transporting and storage of radioac-
tive nuclear materials since they do not absorb any kind of nuclear
radiation. Basalt-based geo-composites are extensively used in
making radiation-proof protective caps for nuclear waste disposal
sites. These caps provide protection for several centuries to protect
public health and the environment against leaching or release of
nuclear underground wastes [158]. Nuclear landll sites are often
situated in arid, sub-humid zones, which have zero or limited
underground water; the area is often devoid of any life forms, is
leak-proof and should also be a maintenance-free zone. These
176 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180
dumping pits are often deep and made of several layers of sand,
gravel, coarse materials and basalt rock armor. Another example
is basalt geo-mesh [159], which possesses remarkable properties
like chemical inertness, very high thermal sustainability against
molten asphalt/tar and is lighter than other known metallic
meshes. Therefore, glass and metals used for pavement reinforce-
ment are thus substituted by basalt geo-meshes. Since basalt is
environmentally friendly, it is appropriate for use in soil and
embankment stabilization. Furthermore, basalt ber-based geo-
polymeric concretes show enhanced mechanical properties over
conventional cement [93,94].
4.2. Abrasion resistance for industrial pipes
During the 1980s and 1990s, basalt lined pipes were widely
installed. These basalt lined pipes (BLPs) are known for their hard-
ness (89 Mohs). They are often used in making impact resistant
and abrasion units [160]. Transport of slag is a major challenge
and this results in severe strain on the pipes and their components.
BFRP-based high pressure pipes are also known to withstand
higher pressures up to 1000 atm when compared to steel. These
basalt pipes are used extensively as components in shaft linings
and transportation of corrosive chemicals. The pipes lined by basalt
are expected to give a longer shelf life up to 6080 years, which is
comparatively much higher than the metallic pipes. BLPs are tough
and require almost negligible maintenance even when they are
carrying abrasive material like a coal slurry. Even today, industrial
furnaces also employ basalt to contain the hot liquid slurry of the
ash [161]. It should be noted that low-sulfur coal, when liqueed at
high temperatures, is more abrasive than any material, hence the
basalt lining within the boilers helps to counteract this. Similarly,
BLPs are extensively used in mining. For example, the transport
of mining chemicals like chlorides of sodium and potassium are
known to be highly abrasive and corrosive in slurry form and can
cause severe, irreparable damage and premature wear in ordinary
pipes if not lined by the basalt. Further, collection of salt and par-
afn within the pipe decrease due to the lower thermal conductiv-
ity of basalt.
Also, due to heat, friction and chemical resistance, basalt bers
are also used in the manufacture of some machines [162]. Due to
its exceptional chemical resistant properties, basalt-lined equip-
ment and pipes are ideal for transportation and storage of highly
corrosive chemicals like hydrogen sulde, mineral/organic acids
and alkali chemicals. On the other hand, BFs are known to have
high wettability, through which various chemicals can be applied
on the surface to yield nishes which are resistant to attack from
oil, abrasion, soil, and colors. A few other advantages of BLPs are
as follows:
 Basalt is an insulator often found to be resistant toward electro-
chemical corrosion.
 Basalt bers are resistant toward fungus and microorganism
attack.
4.3. Laminates and pre-pregs
One of the widely used examples of these composites employ-
ing basalt is basalt ber tissue, which is basically an ordered dis-
persion of basalt ber in a binder matrix such as PVA, polylactic
acid, phenyl formaldehyde, melamine, latex, epoxy, phenolic resin,
poly(ethylene terephthalate), poly(butylene terephthalate), poly-
amide, starch resin, or polyamide [163]. It is a porous, non-woven
structure which has impressive resistance against alkalis, acids,
environmental conditions and UV-rays. Soft roong, water proof-
ing with bituminous coatings, tissue tapes for joining two boards,
anti-corrosion material, geotextiles, and plastic foams with foam
linings are general applications of basalt ber tissues. Basalt ber
reinforced plastics are another example of these composites and
they have a broad spectrum of applications [5,811]. Enhanced
surface properties of basalt plastics make them a better choice
for paint applications. Surface treatment of basalt bers has been
achieved by using silane coupling agents, which enhance the inter-
facial properties between the polymer matrix and basalt bers, fol-
lowed by enriched exural properties [25,57,159]. As pre-pregs of
these modied basalt bers (chopped and laments), reinforced
polymer composites can be stored for several years at 40 C with
hermetical packing, and they are suitable for a large array of appli-
cations. Pre-pregs of basalt bers with modied polyester resins
are appropriate for die-casting, winding lying, vacuum molding,
and direct pressing autoclaves. To further enhance the properties
of the composites some combination of the reinforced materials
are used. Basalt ber laminates synthesized using resin transfer
molding (RTM) are used as composite panels in graph plotters,
printable circuit boards, and electrical circuits to provide good
insulation [2].
4.4. Basalt lined castings
Basalt casting can be a good solution for the equipment facing
high wear and tear in the mining industry. Since basalt has impres-
sive anti-corrosion and anti-frictional properties, it can be coated
onto friction-contacting parts to make a smooth, abrasion resistant
surface. For example, during the production of slag cement, which
is an additive of Portland cement, pipes carrying lime, silica, alu-
mina and magnesia containing granulated furnace slag cause high
wear due to their high abrasiveness. This issue can be resolved by
using basalt lined casted pipes [160]. In case of abrasiveness life
span of the pipes can be improved up to 8 years.
4.5. Electrical insulation
Basalt is known for its insulation properties and has long been
in use as an insulating fabric around electrical wiring and appli-
ances. After metallization, the basalt fabric exhibits shielding prop-
erties to electromagnetic radiation. Basalt is extremely resistant to
temperature. Specically, it can withstand wide range of tempera-
tures from 260 C to 800 C, making it superior to glass ber
[162]. Basalt has already replaced asbestos as a heat insulator
due to its low thermal conductivity. Apart from these examples,
basaltic tapes/fabrics have also been in use for insulating high ten-
sion wires during power transmission and for protection against
re hazards [16,164].
4.6. Generalized industrial applications
Basalt bers have been employed in several high temperature
applications. For example basalt ber is used in hot gas/particle
separation industries, where the lter bags often are damaged
due to excess heat, causing leaks and hazards. In order to avoid
accidents, these lter bags requires proper maintenance so that
they are leak proof. Thus, basalt ber based sewing threads are
used, which help in repairing leaks [122]. By introducing basalt
fabrics into industrial ventilators, re safety also increases since
these natural inorganic geo-mineral bers are non-ammable,
which makes them an ideal candidate for providing re resistance.
As previously described, basalt in the presence of thermoset
resins have been successfully employed in various sectors from
construction to aerospace industries. In the automobile industry,
basalt bers are employed in the fabrication of car brakes [165
167]. Being a natural geo-mineral, basalt is easy to recycle and also
poses no threat to the environment. To date, no known toxicity has
been reported. In the medical research eld, basalt bers in the
 V. Dhand et al. / Composites: Part B 73 (2015) 166180
presence of organic binders make an ideal cryogenic storage con-
tainer t for storing and transporting biological samples [168].
Intumescent, non-woven basalt bers with epoxy have
demonstrated re-proof properties used to meet re code safety
standards for construction of concrete bridges and also for marine
applications [16,46,169]. Acoustic proong of basalt bers has
shown that the bers can act as a barrier [13,31] and absorb up
to 8095% of the sounds propagating in the frequency of
1800 Hz. Basalt as a mineral has also been employed in agricultural
practices and applications like hosing and irrigation pipes, land
drainage, seeding, vegetable growth, development of antifriction,
non-abrasive, agrarian machines and construction [170,171]. Last
but not least, basalt has also been used by the tile industry to
enhance the glaze of the surface and also bring out colors
[172176].
5. Conclusions
In this review, the research trends for the use of basalt ber as a
reinforcement for composites has shown that, since its discovery, it
was mainly used for clandestine military operations involving the
fabrication of strong and lightweight material for anti-ballistic
applications and automobile and aerospace applications [13,43].
In later years, new properties of basalt were found when the
material was open for civilian research. Basalt was found to have
superior properties than the conventional asbestos and glass bers
put together. Presently, basalt bers are almost as favorable as
carbon bers, but have an edge as they are ecofriendly, non-toxic,
and green. Further, basalt is chemically inert, highly resistant to
corrosion, and possesses very low thermal conductivity making it
superior to any other reinforcement available today. This review
also provided an overview of the eld of work covered for the pro-
duction of basalt composites including what kind of publications
are favored by readers, and how the choice of journal shows the
specic elds that are most active. The analysis also provided
geographical activity of basalt research. To assist the beginner in
understand the basics of basalt, its properties and chemistry have
also been discussed in terms of its function as a reinforcement in
composites. A large portion of the review deals with its superior
physical thermal and chemical properties assessed by different
researchers in comparison with glass and carbon bers. Finally,
the article also showcases some attributes of basalt in the form
of applications used presently in modern industries.
Researchers have also shown that by hybridizing the surface of
basalt bers with coupling agents like silanes, the bonding
between the matrix and the basalt ber increases, which leads to
the exceptional improvement of the mechanical properties
[177,178]. Using this principle, several researchers have success-
fully reinforced basalt bers in various organic, inorganic and
cementitious media and have shown promising results in the eld
of civil, automobile, sports, and aerospace industries. The ability of
basalt to resist chemical attack has also been investigated. Alkaline
attack is the most corrosive of all chemicals, and several attempts
are still being carried out to prevent corrosion of the bers, but
there is a long way to go to achieve this goal. Presently, basalt lin-
ings in several machine parts have proved promising in containing
these corrosive chemicals. Further, in the future the use of basalt
may reduce costs in industrial applications, stimulating research
in the eld of basalt materials and composite science.
Though there are a few review papers available on the basalt
ber reinforced composites, they are focused only on synthesis,
processing and applications, but none of the reviewers have
reviewed the mechanical, thermal and chemical resistance offered
by basalt bers. Here, we have attempted to show the latest trends
in basalt bers used in modern composites with a detailed analysis
177
of the abovementioned properties. Still, the authors feel that there
is presently a great need for a detailed review or research to be
carried out in the use of basalt bers in the eld of biology for
the fabrication of biodegradable composite materials, electromag-
netic absorption, nuclear remediation and transport, mining engi-
neering, deep sea civil infrastructure and environmental
applications.
Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the Basic Science Research
Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea
(NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology
(Project Number: 2013R1A1A2A10063466).
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