Hydraulics and Hydrology (CIVL2004/2104)

Boundary Layer and Wake

1. Introduction

(a) Boundary Layer at Pipe Entrance

Consider the steady laminar flow through a well rounded entrance transition from a
reservoir to a smooth pipe (Fig. 1.1).

Fig.1.1 Development of boundary layer at pipe entrance (a) laminar flow (b) turbulent flow
(Douglas, et al.)

The streamlined entrance ensures that the flow is fairly uniform across the entrance. This uniform
profile is sometimes referred to as the core. The retardation of the flow at the wall due to viscous
resistance (no slip condition at the pipe wall for real fluids) results in the gradual growth of the
thickness of the retarded fluid layer adjacent to the wall and a consequent shrinking of the
concentric core. This retarded fluid layer is referred to as the boundary layer which grows in
thickness along the downstream direction. A fully developed laminar flow is eventually
established further downstream with the disappearance of the core. The fully developed laminar
flow occurs beyond a certain distance from the entrance that is greater than the length of the core.
The length of this transition xL is obtained from experiments and is given by

(1.1) x L = 0.03Re D

This length clearly depends on the flow through the Reynolds number Re (so long as the flow is
laminar) and the diameter D of the pipe. Once fully developed, the velocity profiles will be
identical since the flow is steady. For turbulent flow, a corresponding general relationship giving
the turbulent entrance length is not available. The turbulent entrance length depends on the local
conditions at entry and it is sometimes more and sometime less than xL in Eq. (1.1).
(b) Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate

Consider a smooth flat plate aligned parallel to a steady stream of flow where the pressure
is uniform as shown in Fig. 1.2. When the flow encounters the plate, the fluid layer in contact
with the plate is retarded due to viscosity and more and more layers of fluid are retarded as the
flow continues downstream.

Fig.1.2 Development of the turbulent boundary layer over a flat plate

The laminar region begins at the leading edge of the plate and grows in thickness. With
increasing thickness, however, the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable and a transition
region is reached where the irregularities in the flow develop into turbulence with consequent
rapid thickening of the turbulent boundary layer. The turbulent boundary layer may be assumed
to start from a small distance x0 from the leading edge of the plate (Fig. 1.3). The transitions of
boundary layers over an airfoil are shown in Figure 1.4.

Fig. 1.3 Transition from laminar to turbulent boundary layer

The point at which the laminar boundary layer becomes unstable depends on
(a) roughness of the surface, where a rough surface tends to hasten the transition to
turbulence.
(b) turbulence in the mainstream
(c) pressure gradient in the mainstream just outside the boundary layer
(d) the local Reynolds number Rex defined by

(1.2)
where x is measured from the leading edge of the plate, Um is the local mainstream velocity and
is the kinematic viscosity of the fluid.

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Fig. 1.4 Transitions from laminar to turbulent boundary layers around an airfoil (Fox, et al) and
around a car (http://www.maxgladwell.com/2009/01/coefficient-fastskinz/?awcom-0209)

Even with the turbulent boundary layer, the random movements of the flow die out very close to
the surface where viscous conditions prevail. Thus, the growth of the turbulent boundary layer is
accompanied by the development of a very thin layer adjacent to the wall where the effects of
viscosity are predominant. This layer is called the viscous sublayer S within which the velocity
profile is assumed to be linear because viscous forces are predominant (see Fig. 1.2). With the
existence of the viscous sublayer in the turbulent boundary layer, the shear stress at the plate is
given by

u
(1.3) w =
z z =0

In turbulent flow, there is strong intermingling of the fluid particles resulting in a more
uniform velocity than in laminar flow. As a result, the turbulent boundary layer has a steeper
velocity gradient at the plate as shown in Fig. 1.5.

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 Fig. 1.5 Normalised laminar and turbulent velocity profiles

(c) Boundary Layer Thickness

The thickness of the boundary layer is the distance from the wall to the point where the
fluid velocity is within 1% of the local mainstream velocity. This is illustrated in Fig. 1.5(a).

(a) (b)
Fig. 1.5 Definitions of the boundary layer thickness and displacement thickness

Another measure is the displacement thickness * which is defined as the distance by which the
boundary would have to be displaced if the entire flow were imagined to be frictionless and the
same mass flow is maintained as shown in Figure 1.5(b). Mathematically, the displacement
thickness * is represented as:

(1.4)

(1.5)

(1.6)

For fluids of low viscosity such as air and water, the flow outside the boundary layer may

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be considered to be frictionless. For streamlined bodies, the boundary layers are extremely thin
and can be neglected in calculating the structure of the main flow. Once the main flow has been
established, the boundary layer thickness and velocity profile in the boundary layer can be
calculated using the pressure distributions evaluated from the main flow pattern. For the flat plate,
a uniform pressure is assumed along the freestream implying that there is no other solid surface in
the vicinity of the plate that will cause a non-uniform distribution.

2. Von Karman Integral Momentum Equation

Consider a control volume at location x downstream from the leading edge of the smooth
flat plate. The flow is assumed to be incompressible, steady with a uniform mainstream pressure.
It needs to be noted that the boundary layer line (denoted by b.l. in Fig 2.1) is not a streamline.
The streamline (denoted by in the same figure) intersects the boundary layer line. At this level,
the horizontal and vertical components of velocity of the mainstream are Um and Vm respectively.

Fig. 2.1 Control volume for boundary layer flow

The continuity equation for the control volume:

Mass flow rate entering the control volume through AB and BD

(2.1)

Mass flow rate leaving the control volume through CD and BD

(2.2)

For steady flow, mass flow rate entering the control volume = mass flow rate leaving the control
volume

(2.3)

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 Fig. 2.2 Control volume for momentum calculation

The momentum equation for the control volume:

The force acting on the control volume in the x-direction (Fig. 2.2)

(2.4)

Momentum flux entering the control volume through section AB

(2.5)

Momentum flux leaving the control volume through section CD

(2.6)

Momentum flux entering the control volume through section BD

(2.7)

Momentum flux leaving the control volume through section BD

(2.8)

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For steady state conditions, the momentum equation gives

Fx = u 2 dz + u 2 dz x + (Vm x )U m
0
x 0


(2.9) u 2 dz (U m )U m
0


= u 2 dz x + U m (Vm x U m )

x 0
continuity equation

Upon closer scrutiny, the last term on the RHS of (2.9) is found in the continuity equation. By
substituting Eq. (2.3) into Eq. (2.9), Eq. (2.10) simplifies to

(2.10) Fx = u dz x U m udz x
2

x 0 x 0

By substituting Eq. (2.4) into Eq. (2.10), the momentum equation becomes

dp* d d
(2.11) W = u 2 dz U m udz
dx dx 0 dx 0

This is the von Karman integral momentum equation for the boundary layer of a steady flow over
a smooth surface. This equation is applicable to laminar, turbulent or transition flow for steady
state conditions. Note that the integrals involving u and u2 are functions of the upper limit ,
which is the boundary layer thickness and is a function only of x. Hence, the partial derivative
with respect to x is replaced by their total derivative.

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3. Laminar Boundary Layer over a Smooth Flat Plate

For the case of an incompressible, steady laminar flow over a smooth flat plate, the
boundary layer thickness can be estimated by

(a) Using the pressure gradient in the x-direction of the flow outside the boundary layer

(b) Using Newton's viscosity formula for W = (u / z )W

(c) Assuming some reasonable velocity profile of the flow inside the boundary layer. The
velocity profiles are assumed to be similar wherein u/um is expressed as some function of
z/.
[This is the approach used in this module]

If the pressure gradient is zero (i.e., dp / dx = 0 ), then U m is essentially constant. Taking

away the first term on the LHS of Eq. (2.11) and combining the RHS, the von Karman integral
momentum equation simplifies to:

d
(3.1) - w = [ [ u 2 - U m u ] dz ]
dx 0

Velocity profiles within the boundary layer are assumed to be similar along the plate although the
boundary thickness varies with x. This means that

u z
(3.2) = f ( ) = f ( )
Um

where = z / for any x. By substituting Eq. 3.2 into Eq. 3.1,

U m df ( ) 2
1

(3.3) = U m [1 f ( )] f ( )d
d =0 x 0

By defining,

df ( )
(3.4) B=
d =0

1
(3.5) A = [1 f ( )]f ( )d
0

Eq. (3.3) reduces to,

Um B
(3.6) = U m2 A
x

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Rearranging and integrating, Eq. (3.6) becomes,

1
(3.7) Bx = U m A 2 + const
2

With = 0 at the leading edge of the plate where x = 0, then const = 0 and

2B x
(3.8) =
A Re
U m x
where Re = . Further, from Eq. (3.1) the wall shear stress is,

d
W = (U m u )udz
dx 0
d
= U m2 A
dx
2 B 1 1 / 2
= U m2 A x
U m A 2

AB
(3.9) W = U m2
2 Re

The total friction force on one side of the smooth flat plate between x = 0 and x = L for a unit width
of the plate,

L
F = W dx
(3.10) 0

= U m2 A
L
0

F= [2 ABU L] 3
m

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4. Turbulent Boundary Layer over a Flat Plate

In the case of the turbulent boundary layer, the shearing stress at the plate may be
expressed by the following relationship:

u
(4.1) w = ( + t )
z z =0

However, the eddy viscosity, t, is a property of the flow. The eddy viscosity can be different all
over the flow and it is not readily determined.

To overcome this problem and approximate the growth of a turbulent boundary layer over
a flat plate, some established facts about turbulent flow in circular pipes are used. In other words,
certain approximations are used to solve the integral momentum equation for a turbulent
boundary layer along a smooth flat plate.

dp* d d
W = u dz U m
2

udz
dx dx 0 dx 0

The steps involved are:

(a) Determine the relationship between w and the friction factor f through the head loss
relationship. (i.e., link w and f)
(b) Use an established relationship between f and Reynolds number (i.e., link f and Re) to
relate w to the Reynolds number (i.e., link w and Re)
(c) Assume a velocity profile within the boundary turbulent layer
(d) Substitute the velocity profile and the w relationship into the integral momentum
equation

This approximate procedure will not involve the use of the eddy viscosity. For the growth of the
boundary layer over the flat plate, the pressure gradient in the main stream is taken to be zero.

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Step (a) link w and f

Fig.4.1 Wall shear stress in a pipe

For the control volume in the turbulent flow in a pipe (steady flow) as shown in Fig. 4.1,
the momentum equation is:

Rearranging the above equation to give the wall shear stress w,

(4.3)

Substituting the Darcy equation for head loss in turbulent pipe

into Eq. (4.3),

The wall shear stress in the pipe with steady flow is then given by

(4.2)

where f is the friction factor and U is the mean velocity in the pipe.

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Step (b) link f and Re, and then w and Re

Blasius formula for f for smooth pipes is given by

1 / 4
UD
(4.4) f = 0.32

where U is the mean velocity in the pipe and D is the diameter of the pipe. This appears to fit the
experimental results for Reynolds number between 3000 and 105. However, U 0.8Umax in a pipe.
It is now assumed that the velocity at the centreline of the pipe Umax can be taken also as the main
stream velocity outside the boundary layer of the flat plate. With this assumption, Blasius formula
becomes:

1 / 4
0.8U m D
f = 0.32

1 / 4
1.6U m R
(4.5) = 0.32

1 / 4
1.6U m
= 0.32

Similarly, for the wall shear stress from Eq. (4.2),

fU 2
W =
8
1/ 4

= (0.32 ) (0.8U m )2
8 1.6U m

1/ 4

(4.6) W = 0.0227 U 2

U m
m

Step (c) assume a velocity profile

The velocity profile within the turbulent boundary layer may be expressed by

n
u z 1
(4.7) = n=
Um 7

It is important to acknowledge that there are other formulae for the velocity profile. The choice of
this is merely to illustrate the procedure and the 1/7th power also gives a reasonable representation
of the velocity profile for turbulent flow. There exists a very thin viscous sublayer in the turbulent
boundary layer next to the pipe wall. The viscous sublayer is very thin such that s << and for
practical reasons, so we take as the thickness of the turbulent boundary layer.

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(Note that the 1/7th power law for the velocity profile, du/dz = at z = 0. Thus, it is necessary to
assume that the 1/7th power law applies down to z = S. In the viscous sublayer, the velocity
profile is assumed to be linear and the shear stress is constant in the sublayer.)

Step (d) substitute into the integral momentum equation

Setting = z / and putting dp / dx = 0 , the integral momentum equation becomes:

u (U m u )dz
x 0
w =

2 1/ 7
( )
1
= U m 1 1 / 7 d
x 0
7 d
(4.8) w = U m2
72 dx

Equating the above integral momentum equation in Eq. (4.8) with the wall shear stress
relationship in Eq. (4.6) gives the turbulent boundary layer thickness along x with = 0 at x =
0:

1/ 4
7 d
0.0227 U 2
= U m2
U m
m
72 dx
Integrating the above equation,

1/ 5

(4.9) = 0.374 x4/5
Um

1/ 5

(4.10) = 0.374 = 0.374 Re 1 / 5
x Umx

The thickness of the turbulent boundary layer along a smooth flat plate varies as x 4 / 5 . In the
laminar boundary layer, the thickness varies as x 1 / 2 . Thus, the turbulent boundary layer grows
faster along x than the laminar case.

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5. Drag

The drag force of an object immersed in a fluid stream of velocity Um and mass density
is defined using the drag coefficient CD,

Drag force = C D U m2 ( Area )

1
(5.1)
2

The area is the projected area to a plane normal to the flow or the area that contributes to the drag
force. In the case of a sphere, the projected circular area is used, mainly for convenience rather
than the curved surface area. In the case of the flat plate set perpendicular to the flow, the area is
given by the length and breadth of the plate. Where the plate is set parallel to the flow and it is of
infinite extent, the flow is two-dimensional and the unit breadth is usually taken.

To determine the drag coefficient on a smooth plate that is completely immersed in the
fluid stream, the wall shear stress function given by Blasius (i.e., combining Eq. (4.6) and Eq.
(4.10)) may be used. The drag for unit width on both sides of the smooth plate is:
L
Drag force = 2 w dx
0
1/ 5

(5.2) = 0.072 U L2
m

m
U L
= 0.072 U m L Re 1 / 5
2

The drag coefficient for a smooth flat plate in a turbulent flow (with the plate is parallel to
the flow) is thus obtained by combining from Eq. (5.1) and Eq. (5.2):

0.072 U m2 L Re 1 / 5
CD =
(5.3) 0.5 U m2 2L
two sides

= 0.072 Re 1 / 5

The above equations are valid only for the range in which Blasius resistance equation holds (i.e.,
Re between 3000 and 105). The relationships between the drag coefficient and Reynolds number
in different flow regimes are shown in Figure 5.1. The three equations for the drag coefficients in
the different regimes are:

1.328
(Eq. A) CD =
Re

0.455 1700
(Eq. B) CD = 2.58

(log Re) Re

0.455
(Eq. C) CD =
(log Re) 2.58

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 (Eq. C)

CD

(Eq. B)

(Eq. A)

Re=UmL/v
Fig. 5.1 Drag coefficients for smooth flat plates (Finnermore and Franzini)

Fig. 5.2 and Fig. 5.3 respectively show the drag coefficient plotted as a function of the
Reynolds number for axisymmetric and two-dimensional bodies. The representative length
dimension for use with the Reynolds number is also indicated in the figures. For example, the
diameter of the sphere/cylinder is the representative length dimension. Figure 5.4 lists the drag
coefficients for different vehicles, demonstrating the effects of vehicle body shapes on
aerodynamic drag.

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 CD=24/R

Re=UmD/v
Fig. 5.2 Drag coefficients for axisymmetric bodies (Finnermore and Franzini)

Re=UmD/v
Fig. 5.3 Drag coefficients for two-dimensional bodies (Finnermore and Franzini)

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Fig. 5.4 Drag coefficients for different vehicles (Finnermore and Franzini)

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6. Separation and Wakes

Along the flat plate, the turbulent boundary layer grows and continues growing regardless
of the length of the plate so long as the pressure gradient remains zero. Imagine the situation when
the flat plate is replaced by a curved surface shown in Fig. 6.1 with the mainstream pressure
increasing in the downstream direction giving an adverse pressure gradient. The boundary layer
thickens rapidly. This adverse pressure gradient is accompanied by the decrease in the
momentum in the boundary layer and after a sufficient distance downstream, fluid in the boundary
layer near the wall come to rest and the boundary streamline separates from the wall giving a wake
region with backflow as shown in Fig. 6.1. The point of separation on the wall surface represents
the location where the velocity profile shows an inflexion point at the wall. The wake represents
the zone where strong eddy motions exist. The effect of separation is the incomplete pressure
recovery leading to more flow losses (pressure drag). Reduction of the wake reduces pressure
drag.

The drag on the flat plate which is aligned parallel to the flow was entirely on the shearing
resistance at the plate and is termed the skin friction drag. For the curved surface with an adverse
pressure gradient environment, we have skin friction drag for the part before separation and
pressure drag for the part where the wake exists. Thus, in general, the drag on an immersed object
consists of both skin friction drag and pressure drag and separation occurs only when there is an
adverse pressure gradient from the main flow.

Fig. 6.1 Flow separation over a curved surface

Fig 6.2 shows the large wake region downstream of the body with a rectangular section set
normal to the flow direction and where the drag is overwhelmingly pressure drag. The points of
separation at the edge of the plate are now fixed.

Fig. 6.2 Flow past a plate

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 Consider an infinitely long smooth circular cylinder aligned perpendicular to the flow.
Fig. 6.3 shows the variation of the drag with the Reynolds number. At very low Reynolds
number (Re<1.0) in Fig. 6.3(a), drag is overwhelmingly due to skin friction and the flow clings
to the cylinder all around it. As the Reynolds number increases (Re around 30) in Fig. 6.3(b),
the laminar boundary layer separates almost symmetrically from the cylinder forming a pair of
standing eddies. The streamlines come together further downstream of the eddies. When Re is
around 70 in Figure 6.3(c), the eddies detach themselves alternately and get carried
downstream by the flow, forming the von Karman vortex street.

(a) (b)

(c)

Fig. 6.3 The wake downstream of a cylinder.

The alternate shedding of the eddies also results in an alternating lateral force on the cylinder.
The frequency with which the eddies shed from the cylinder can be found from the empirical
equation

(2.1)

where f = frequency of shedding (cycles/sec), U = freestream velocity, D = cylinder diameter.

This dimensionless number is called the Strouhal number.

Further increases in the Reynolds number will result in higher angular velocities of the
eddies and higher rates of shear and dissipation into random turbulence. The size of the wake
depends on the location of the separation points. When Re is around 5(105) to 3(106), the
separation points shift downstream resulting in a narrower wake and a sharp drop in the CD.
We note that the turbulent boundary can better survive an adverse pressure gradient than a
laminar boundary layer. And when the laminar boundary layer separates, it may become
turbulent. Thus, the points of separation for a laminar boundary layer occur further upstream

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resulting in a fairly wide wake. Figure 6.4 introduces the design of a vehicle wrap that can trip
a laminar boundary layer to turbulent, shifting the point of separation downstream and reducing
the size of the wake. It therefore reduces the pressure drag on the vehicle and increases gas
efficiency.

Fig. 6.4 A vehicle wrap that is designed to reduce wake size and thus pressure drag
(http://www.maxgladwell.com/2009/01/coefficient-fastskinz/?awcom-0209)

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