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A conjunction may be used to indicate the relationship between the ideas expressed in a clause and
the ideas expressed in the rest of a sentence. The conjunctions in the following examples are printed
in bold type.
e.g. We could go to the library, or we could go to the park.
He neither finished his homework nor studied for the test.
I went out because the sun was shining.
1. Coordinate conjunctions
Coordinate conjunctions are used to join two similar grammatical constructions; for instance, two
words, two phrases or two clauses.
e.g. My friend and I will attend the meeting.
Austria is famous for the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people.
The sun rose and the birds began to sing.
In these examples, the coordinate conjunction and is used to join the two words friend and I, the
two phrases the beauty of its landscape and the hospitality of its people, and the two clauses the
sun rose and the birds began to sing.
The most commonly used coordinate conjunctions are and, but and or. In addition, the words nor
and yet may be used as coordinate conjunctions. In the following table, each coordinate conjunction
is followed by its meaning and an example of its use. Note the use of inverted word order in the
clause beginning with nor.
Coordinate Conjunctions
As illustrated above, when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which have the same subject,
the subject need not be repeated. For instance, in the example she tried and succeeded, the
pronoun she acts as the subject for both the verb tried and the verb succeeded. It should also be
noted that when a coordinate conjunction joins two verbs which do not have the same subject, the
two coordinate clauses may be separated by a comma or semicolon, in order to make the meaning
clear.
2. Correlative conjunctions
Correlative conjunctions are used in pairs, in order to show the relationship between the ideas
expressed in different parts of a sentence. For instance, in the following example, the expression
either ... or is used to indicate that the ideas expressed in the two clauses represent two alternative
choices of action.
e.g. Either you should study harder, or you should take a different course.
The most commonly used correlative conjunctions are both ... and, either ... or and neither ... nor.
In the table below, each pair of correlative conjunctions is accompanied by an example of its use.
Note that in the construction if ... then, the word then can usually be omitted.
Correlative Conjunctions
3. Subordinate conjunctions
As has been seen in previous chapters, subordinate clauses may begin with relative pronouns such
as that, what, whatever, which, who and whom, as well as with words such as how, when, where,
wherever and why. In the following examples, the subordinate clauses are underlined.
e.g. The house, which stood on a hill, could be seen for miles.
I wonder how he did that.
In addition, subordinate clauses may also begin with words which are commonly referred to as
subordinate conjunctions. In the following examples, the subordinate conjunctions are printed in
bold type.
e.g. Because it was cold, I wore my winter coat.
Let us wait until the rain stops.
The subordinate conjunctions below are accompanied by their meanings and examples of use.
Subordinate Conjunctions
As
1. because: As he is my friend, I will help him.
2. when: We watched as the plane took off.
After
1. later in time: After the train left, we went home.
Although or though
1. in spite of the fact that: Although it was after midnight, we did not feel tired.
Before
1. earlier than: I arrived before the stores were open.
Because
1. for the reason that: We had to wait, because we arrived early.
For
1. for, because: He is happy, for he enjoys his work.
If
1. on condition that: If she is here, we will see her.
Lest
1. for fear that: I watched closely, lest he make a mistake.
Note the use of the Subjunctive Mood in the clause with lest.
Providing or provided
1. on condition that: All will be well, providing you are careful.
Since
1. from a past time: I have been here since the sun rose.
2. as, because: Since you are here, you can help me.
So or so that
1. consequently: It was raining, so we did not go out.
2. in order that: I am saving money so I can buy a bicycle.
Note: When used with the meaning in order that, so is usually followed by that in formal English.
e.g. I am saving money so that I can buy a bicycle.
Supposing
1. if: Supposing that happens, what will you do?
Than
1. used in comparisons: He is taller than you are.
Unless
1. except when, if not: Unless he helps us, we cannot succeed.
Until or till
1. up to the time when: I will wait until I hear from you.
Whereas
1. because: Whereas this is a public building, it is open to everyone.
2. on the other hand: He is short, whereas you are tall.
Whether
1. if: I do not know whether she was invited.
While
1. at the time when: While it was snowing, we played cards.
2. on the other hand: He is rich, while his friend is poor.
3. although: While I am not an expert, I will do my best.
In addition, the following phrases are often used at the beginning of subordinate clauses.
As if
1. in a similar way: She talks as if she knows everything.
As long as
1. if: As long as we cooperate, we can finish the work easily.
2. while: He has lived there as long as I have known him.
As soon as
1. immediately when: Write to me as soon as you can.
As though
1. in a similar way: It looks as though there will be a storm.
Even if
1. in spite of a possibility: I am going out even if it rains.
In case
1. because of a possibility: Take a sweater in case it gets cold.
Or else
1. otherwise: Please be careful, or else you may have an accident.
So as to
1. in order to: I hurried so as to be on time.
Certain words, such as after, before, since and until may function either as prepositions or
subordinate conjunctions. However it should be noted that in some cases different words must be
used as prepositions and subordinate conjunctions, in order to express similar meanings. This is
illustrated in the table below.
Differing Prepositions and Conjunctions
In the following examples, the objects of the prepositions, and the verbs of the subordinate clauses
are underlined.
Preposition: They were upset because of the delay.
Conjunction: They were upset because they were delayed.
In the above examples, it can be seen that the prepositions because of, despite, during and like
have the noun objects delay, rain and storm; whereas the subordinate conjunctions because,
although, while and as if introduce subordinate clauses containing the verbs were delayed, rained,
raged and will rain.
It should be noted that like is sometimes used as a subordinate conjunction in informal English.
e.g. It looks like it will rain.
However, this use of like is considered incorrect in formal English.
4. Connecting adverbs
Connecting adverbs are often used to show the relationship between the ideas expressed in a clause
and the ideas expressed in a preceding clause, sentence or paragraph. In the following examples, the
connecting adverbs are printed in bold type.
e.g. I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.
We knew what to expect. Therefore, we were not surprised at what happened.
In the first example, the connecting adverb however shows that there is a conflict between the idea
expressed in the clause I was too tired and the idea expressed in the preceding clause I wanted to
study. In the second example, the connecting adverb therefore shows that there is a cause and
effect relationship between the idea expressed in the sentence we knew what to expect, and the
clause we were not surprised at what happened.
Connecting adverbs are similar to conjunctions in that both may be used to introduce clauses.
However, the use of connecting adverbs differs from that of conjunctions in the ways indicated
below.
In addition, in formal written English a clause containing a connecting adverb is often separated
from a preceding clause by a semicolon; whereas a clause beginning with a conjunction is usually
not separated from a preceding clause by a semicolon.
e.g. I wanted to study; however, I was too tired.
I wanted to study, but I was too tired.
In the first example, the connecting adverb however is preceded by a semicolon, and is separated
from I was too tired by a comma. In the second example, the conjunction but is preceded by a
comma rather than by a semicolon, and is not separated from I was too tired by a comma.
It should be noted that when no conjunction is present, a semicolon may be used to connect two
main clauses. For example:
The clouds dispersed; the moon rose.
In this example, the two main clauses the clouds dispersed and the moon rose are connected by a
semicolon rather than by a conjunction.
In informal English, coordinate conjunctions are sometimes used to show the relationship between
the ideas expressed in separate sentences. For example:
The wind was strong. And I felt very cold.
However, this use of coordinate conjunctions is considered to be grammatically incorrect in formal
English.
c. Position in a clause
A subordinate conjunction must usually be placed at the beginning of a clause. However, as was
seen in the discussion on, adverbs, a connecting adverb may be placed at the beginning, in the
middle, or at the end of a clause. This is illustrated below.
e.g. His visit was unexpected. Nevertheless, I was pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was, nevertheless, pleased to see him.
His visit was unexpected. I was pleased to see him, nevertheless.
As indicated in the following table, several connecting adverbs have meanings similar to those of
the conjunctions and, but or so.
Connecting Adverbs with meanings similar to And, But and So
5. Parallel construction
In English, it is considered preferable to use parallel construction whenever parallel ideas are
expressed.
Thus, whenever possible, parallel construction should be employed when correlative conjunctions
are used. In the following example, the correlative conjunctions are printed in bold type.
e.g. Incorrect: He has both a good education, and he has good work habits.
Corrected: He has both a good education and good work habits.
The first sentence is incorrect, since both and and are followed by different grammatical
constructions. Both is followed by the phrase a good education; whereas and is followed by the
clause he has good work habits. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the clause
he has good work habits into the phrase good work habits.
The following example illustrates the use of parallel construction with the correlative conjunctions
neither ... nor.
e.g. Incorrect: She turned neither right nor to the left.
Corrected: She turned neither right nor left.
or Corrected: She turned neither to the right nor to the left.
The first sentence is incorrect, since neither is followed by a single word; whereas nor is followed
by a prepositional phrase. The second sentence has been corrected by changing the phrase to the
left to the word left. Alternatively, as shown in the third sentence, two prepositional phrases can be
used.
Parallel construction should also be used when listing a series of ideas. For example:
Incorrect: The hotel is charming, well-situated and is not expensive.
Corrected: The hotel is charming, well-situated and inexpensive.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first two items in the series, charming and well-situated,
are adjectives, whereas the last item, is not expensive, contains a verb. The second sentence has
been corrected by changing is not expensive to the adjective inexpensive.
The following is another example of the use of parallel construction when listing a series of ideas.
e.g. Incorrect: I like to ski, skating and swimming.
Corrected: I like skiing, skating and swimming.
The first sentence is incorrect, since the first item in the series, to ski, is an infinitive, whereas the
second and third items, skating and swimming, are gerunds. The second sentence has been
corrected by changing the infinitive to ski to the gerund skiing.