.

1
1.1 WATER

Water is the most essential commodity for all living creatures. Organisms cannot survive
without water. Water is one of the most essential constituents of the human environments. Man
needs it, in the first place for his physiological existence. It is used for many purposes e.g.
industrial water supply, irrigation, drinking, propagation of fish and other aquatic systems and
generation of fish and hydro-powers. Water is the source of energy and governs the evolution and
functions of the universe on the earth. Water, the most vital necessity of life, is in abundance
97.3% of the worlds water i.e. 1.45 billion cubic kms, Ocean water is salty and cannot be used for
agricultural, domestic and industrial purposes. Only 13106 cubic Kilometers water is available in
the form of stream, lakes, wells and tube wells i.e. 0.6%, 8.510 15 m3 is groundwater, occurs in the
depth of 80-135 m below the ground surface as water levels decreasing day-by-day. The run-off
water has large number of substances e.g. silt, organic impurities.

The global environment is changing continuously due to unfavourable alteration of surroundings,

wholly as a by product of mans actions, through direct or indirect effects of changes in energy
pattern, radiation levels, chemical and physical constitution of organisms. These changes may
affect man directly or through his supplies of water and of agricultural and other biological
products, the most common types of pollution and pollutants discharged, encountered in domestic
and industrial waste waters, along with their possible effects on the water resources are discussed.
Chemicals are a major source of water contamination 8that introduced during water movement
through geological materials, manufactured chemicals may cause problems.

Fertilizers and pesticides are major contributors to water pollution, Nitrates from fertilizers are a
common chemical pollutant of water. Heavy metals, sulphates, nitrates, chlorides, phosphates,
carbonates, ammonia, pesticides, phenols, soaps, detergents are the common chemical pollutants.
There are a number of pathogenic micro-organisms which cause water borne disease in man
Among the metals the severe pollutants are lead, cadmium, arsenic, copper, zinc, manganese,
iron, and calcium.

2
 Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. It is vital for all known forms of life. On Earth,
96.5% of the planet's water is found in seas and oceans, 1.7% in groundwater, 1.7% in glaciers
and the ice caps of Antarctica and Greenland, a small fraction in other large water bodies, and
0.001% in the air as vapor, clouds (formed of ice and liquid water suspended in air),
and precipitation. Only 2.5% of the Earth's water is freshwater, and 98.8% of that water is in ice
(excepting ice in clouds) and groundwater. Less than 0.3% of all freshwater is in rivers, lakes, and
the atmosphere, and an even smaller amount of the Earth's freshwater (0.003%) is contained
within biological bodies and manufactured products.

Water on Earth moves continually through the water

cycle of evaporation and transpiration (evapotranspiration), condensation,precipitation,
and runoff, usually reaching the sea. Evaporation and transpiration contribute to the precipitation
over land. Water used in the production of a good or service is known as virtual water.

Safe drinking water is essential to humans and other life forms even though it provides
no calories or organic nutrients. Access to safe drinking water has improved over the last decades
in almost every part of the world, but approximately one billion people still lack access to safe
water and over 2.5 billion lack access to adequate sanitation. There is a clear correlation between
access to safe water and gross domestic product per capita However, some observers have
estimated that by 2025 more than half of the world population will be facing water-based
vulnerability. A report, issued in November 2009, suggests that by 2030, in some developing
regions of the world, water demand will exceed supply by 50%. Water plays an important role in
the world economy, as it functions as a solvent for a wide variety of chemical substances and
facilitates industrial cooling and transportation. Approximately 70% of the fresh water used by
humans goes to agriculture.

Taste and odor

3
 Pure H2O is tasteless and odorless.

Water can dissolve many different substances, giving it varying tastes and odors. Humans,
and other animals, have developed senses that enable them to evaluate the portability of water by
avoiding water that is too salty or putrid.

The taste of spring water and mineral water, often advertised in marketing of consumer products,
derives from the minerals dissolved in it. The advertised purity of spring and mineral water refers
to absence of toxins, pollutants, and microbes, not to the absence of naturally occurring minerals.

1.2 TYPES OF WATER

Water can appear in three states; it is one of the very few substances to be found
naturally in three states on earth water takes many different forms on earth: water vapor and
clouds in the sky; seawater and icebergs in the ocean; glaciers and rivers in the mountains; and the
liquid in aquifers . .

Water can dissolve many different substance, giving it different tastes and odors. In fact ,humans
and other animals have developed senses which are, to a degree, able to evaluate the portability of
water, avoiding water that is too salty or putrid. Humans also tend to prefer cold water to
lukewarm; cold water is likely to contain fewer microbes. The taste advertised in spring water, or
mineral water derives from the minerals dissolved in it, as pure H2O is tasteless. As such, purity in
spring and mineral water refers to purity form toxins ,pollutants,and microbes.

Groundwater is the water located beneath Earth's surface in soil pore spaces and in the fractures
of rock formations. A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can
yield a usable quantity of water.The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractured and voids in
rocks become completely saturated with water is called the water table.

4
 Melt water Group is a software as a service (SaaS) company founded in Oslo, Norway, in 2001
based on research originally funded by the Norwegian Computing Center. Founder urface
and CEO Jrn Lyseggen also founded a number of other startups. Since 2001, it has added offices
in Europe, North America, Asia. Now headquarter in San Francisco, California, the company
offers a media intelligence software as service product for a variety of market verticals. The
company employs more than 1000 people and has more 23,000 clients internationally.

Surface water is water on the surface of the planet such as in a stream, river, lake, wetland, or
ocean. It can be contrasted with groundwater and atmospheric water non- saline water is
replenished by precipitation and recruitment from ground-water. It is lost through evaporation,
seepage into the ground where it becomes ground-water, used by plants for agriculture, living ,
industry etc. or discharged to the sea where it becomes saline.

5
 Mineral water is water from a mineral spring that contains various minerals, such
as salts and sulfur compounds. Mineral water may be effervescent (i.e., "sparkling") due
contained gas. Mineral waters were used or consumed at their spring sources, often referred to as
taking the water or taking the cure at places such as spas, baths, or wells. The term spa was
used for a place where the water was consumed and bathed in; bath where the water was used
primarily for bathing, therapeutics, or recreation; and well where the water was to be consumed.

Mineral water.

Brackish water (less commonly brack water) is salt water and fresh water mixed together. It is
saltier than fresh water, but not as salty as seawater. It may result from mixing of seawater with
fresh water, as in estuaries, or it may occur in brackish fossil aquifers. Brackish water contain

6
 between 0.5 30 grams of salt per litre more often expressed as 0.5 to 30 parts per thousand,
which is specific gravity of between 1.005 and 1.010.

Seawater is a complex mixture of 96.5 percent water, 2.5 percent salts, and smaller amounts of
other substances, including dissolved inorganic and organic materials, particulates, and few
atmospheric gases. Sea water in the worlds oceans has a salinity of about 3.5%, which is a
specific gravity kilogram of sea water has approximately 35 grams of dissolved
salts(predominantly sodium (Na+) and chloride(Cl-) ions).
.

Tap water (running water, city water, municipal water, etc.) is water supplied to a tap (valve).
Its uses include drinking, washing, cooking, and the flushing of toilets.

7
 Bottled water is drinking water (e.g., well water, distilled water, mineral water, or spring water)
packaged in plastic or glass water bottles. Bottled water may be carbonated or not. Sizes range
from small single serving bottles to large carboys for water coolers

8
1.3 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES.

Water is a necessary solvent for all known life, and an abundant compound on the earths surface.

Information and properties

IUPAC name Oxidane

Alternative names aqua, dihydrogen monoxide,hydrogen hydroxide

H2O
Molecular formula

7732- 18- 5
CAS number
IN Chl= 1/H2O/h1H2
In Chl
18.0153 g/mol
Molar mass
0
0.998g/cm3 [liquid at 200C , 1atm] 0.917g/cm3[solid
Density and phase 0 C, 1 atm]
00C [273.15k][320F]
Melting point
99.9740C [373.124k] [211.950F]
Boiling point
4.184 J/[g.k] [liquid at 200C] 74.539 J/[mol.K] [liquid
Specific heat capacity
at 250C]

9
 The major chemical and physical properties of water are:

Water is a liquid at standard temperature and pressure. It is tasteless and odorless. The
intrins

Ice color of water and ice is a very slight blue hue, although both appear colorless in small
quantities. Water vapour is essentially invisible as a gas.

Water is transparent in the visible electromagnetic spectrum. Thus aquatic plants can live in
water because sunlight can reach them. Infrared light is strongly absorbed by the hydrogen-
oxygen or OH bonds.

Since the water molecule is not linear and the oxygen atom has a higher electro
negativity than hydrogen atoms, the oxygen atom carries a slight negative charge, whereas the
hydrogen atoms are slightly positive. As a result, water is a polar molecule with an electrical
dipole moment.

Water is a good polar solvent and is often referred to as the universal solvent. Substances
that dissolve in water, e.g., salts, sugars,acids, alkalis, and some gases especially oxygen
and carbon dioxide (carbonation) are known as hydrophilic (water-loving) substances, while
those that are immiscible with water (e.g., fats and oils), are known as hydrophobic (water-
fearing) substances.

All of the components in cells (proteins, DNA and polysaccharides) are dissolved in water,
deriving their structure and activity from their interactions with the water.

Pure water has a low electrical conductivity, but this increases with the dissolution of a
small amount of ionic material such as sodium chloride.

The boiling point of water (and all other liquids) is dependent on the barometric pressure.
For example, on the top of Mount Everest water boils at 68 C (154 F), compared to 100 C
(212 F) at sea level at a similar latitude (since latitude modifies atmospheric pressure slightly).

10
 Conversely, water deep in the ocean near geothermal vents can reach temperatures of
hundreds of degrees and remain liquid.

At 4181.3 J/(KgK), water has a high specific heat capacity, as well as a high heat of
vaporization (40.65 kJmol1), both of which are a result of the extensive hydrogen
bonding between its molecules. These two unusual properties allow water to moderate
Earth's climate by buffering large fluctuations in temperature.

The density of liquid water is 1,000 kg/m3 (62.43 lb/cu ft) at 4 C. Ice has a density of
917 kg/m3 (57.25 lb/cu ft).

Water is miscible with many liquids, such as ethanol, in all proportions, forming a
single homogeneous liquid. On the other hand, water and most oils are immiscible, usually
forming layers with the least dense liquid as the top layer, and the most dense layer at the bottom.

Water forms an azeotrope with many other solvents.

Water can be split by electrolysis into hydrogen and oxygen. The energy required to split
water into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis or any other means is greater than the energy that
can be collected when the hydrogen and oxygen recombine.

As an oxide of hydrogen, water is formed when hydrogen or hydrogen-containing

compounds burn or react with oxygen or oxygen-containing compounds. Water is not a fuel, it is
an end-product of the combustion of hydrogen.

Elements which are more electropositive than hydrogen such

as lithium, sodium, calcium, potassium and cesium displace hydrogen from water,
forming hydroxides. Being a flammable gas, the hydrogen given off is dangerous and the reaction
of water with the more electropositive of these elements may be violently hydrogen bonds.

11
 water. Model of hydrogen bonds (1) between molecules

1.4 POLLUTION

Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into the natural environment that cause adverse
change. Pollution can take the form of chemical substances or energy, such as noise, heat or
light. Pollutants, the components of pollution, can be either foreign substances/energies or
naturally occurring contaminant

Types of pollution

Pollution is often classed a Different Types of pollution are categorized based on the part of the
environment which they affect or result which the particular pollution causes. Each of these types
has its own distinctive causes and consequences. Categorized study of pollution helps to
understand the basics in more detail and produce protocols for the specific types. Accordingly, the
main types of pollution are:

Water Pollution
Air Pollution
Soil Pollution

12
 Thermal Pollution
Radioactive Pollution
Noise Pollution
Light Pollution

1.5 WATER POLLUTION

Water pollution is a major global problem which requires ongoing evaluation and
revision of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and
wells). It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of deaths and
diseases, and that it accounts for the deaths of more than 14,000 people daily. An estimated 580
people in India die of water pollution related illness every day. Around 90% the water in the cities
of China is polluted and as of 2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water. In
addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed
countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in the most recent
national report on water quality in the United States, 45 percent of assessed stream miles, 47% of
assessed lake acres, and 32 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square miles were classified as
polluted. The head of China's national development agency said in 2007 that one quarter the
length of China's seven main rivers were so poisoned the water harmed the skin.

Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired by anthropogenic contaminants and

either does not support a human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its
ability to support its constituent biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such
as volcanoes, algae blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality
and the ecological status of water

13
Causes

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum

of chemicals, pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature and discoloration.
While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be naturally occurring
(calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration is often the key in determining what is
a natural component of water and what is a contaminant. High concentrations of naturally
occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic flora and fauna.

Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g. leaves and grass)
as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic substances may
cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant growth, and clogs the gills of
some fish species.

Many of the chemical substances are toxic. Pathogens can produce waterborne diseases in either
human or animal hosts Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change
in pH), electrical conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in
the concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases in the primary
productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication, subsequent negative
14
 environmental effects such as anoxia(oxygen depletion) and severe reductions in water quality
may occur, affecting fish and other animal populations.

CONTROL OF POLLUTION

Domestic sewage

utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve storm water management capacity

throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant]
repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment
increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very
expensive option).

Industrial waste water

Some industrial facilities generate ordinary domestic sewage that can be treated by municipal
facilities. Industries that generate waste water with high concentrations of conventional pollutants

(e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy metals, volatile organic compounds) or other
non-conventional pollutants such as ammonia, need specialized treatment systems. Some of these
facilities can install a pre-treatment system to remove the toxic components, and then send the
partially treated waste water to the municipal system. Industries generating large volumes of
waste water typically operate their own complete on-site treatment systems. Some industries have
been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce or eliminate pollutants,
through a process called pollution prevention.

Construction site storm water.

15
 Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of:

erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and

sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.

Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by use of:

spill prevention and control plans, and

specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as overflow
controls and diversion berms.

Urban runoff (storm water)

Techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques, called best management
practices (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on water quantity control, while others focus on
improving water quality, and some perform both functions.

Pollution prevention practices include low-impact development techniques, installation of green

roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil, fertilizers and
pesticides). Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration basins, bioretentionsystem, constructed
wetlands, retention basins and similar devices.

Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by storm water management facilities that absorb
the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins.
Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as the water may be heated by
the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.

16
1.6 WATER POLLUTION IN LAKES, RIVER AND PONDS

Lakes and ponds are stagnant water bodies unlike river. Therefore, any
pollution that takes place does not flow away but continue to accumulate. In case
ocean again the pollution are carried by river and steams but this is not always so in
case of lakes and ponds.
Ponds are usually found in village and are polluted due to human habits. Men and
cattle take bath releasing organic maters, which accumulates. Those who lived by
the side of the ponds usually place their clothing and utensil again to pollute water.
Such pollution not only makes the water unfit to pollute water. Such pollution not
only ,makes the water unfit for consumption but ultimately the water becomes so
dirty that it causes mosquitoes menace.

17
18
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Water resources are sources of water that are useful or potentially useful. Uses of water
include agricultural,industrial, household, recreational and environmental activities. The majority
of human uses require fresh water.

97 percent of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly
over two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater
is found mainly as groundwater, with only a small fraction present above ground or in the air.

Fresh water is a renewable resource, yet the world's supply of groundwater is steadily decreasing,
with depletion occurring most prominently in Asia and North America, although it is still unclear
how much natural renewal balances this usage, and whether ecosystems are threatened. The
framework for allocating water resources to water users (where such a framework exists) is
known as water rights.

19
2.2 DISTRIBUTION OF WATER

A graphical distribution
of the locations of water on
Earth. Only 3% of the
Earth's water is fresh water.
Most of it in icecaps and
glaciers (69%) and
groundwater (30%),
while all lakes, rivers and swamps combined only account for a small fraction (0.3%) of the Earth's total
freshwater reserves.

2.3 SOURCES OF FRESH WATER

Surface water

Surface water is water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally
replenished by precipitation and naturally lost through discharge to the oceans, evaporation,
transpiration and sub-surface seepage.

Although the only natural input to any surface water system is precipitation within its watershed,
the total quantity of water in that system at any given time is also dependent on many other
factors. These factors include storage capacity in lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs, the
permeability of the soil beneath these storage bodies, the runoff characteristics of the land in the
watershed, the timing of the precipitation and local evaporation rates. All of these factors also
affect the proportions of water loss.

20
Human activities can have a large and sometimes devastating impact on these factors. Humans
often increase storage capacity by constructing reservoirs and decrease it by draining wetlands.
Humans often increase runoff quantities and velocities by paving areas and channelizing stream
flow.

The total quantity of water available at any given time is an important consideration. Some human
water users have an intermittent need for water. For example, many farms require large quantities
of water in the spring, and no water at all in the winter. To supply such a farm with water, a
surface water system may require a large storage capacity to collect water throughout the year and
release it in a short period of time. Other users have a continuous need for water, such as a power
plant that requires water for cooling. To supply such a power plant with water, a surface water
system only needs enough storage capacity to fill in when average stream flow is below the power
plant's need.

Under river flow

Throughout the course of a river, the total volume of water transported downstream
will often be a combination of the visible free water flow together with a substantial contribution
flowing through sub-surface rocks and gravels that underlie the river and its floodplain called
the hyporheic zone. For many rivers in large valleys, this unseen component of flow may greatly
exceed the visible flow. The hyporheic zone often forms a dynamic interface between surface
water and true ground-water receiving water from the ground water when aquifers are fully
charged and contributing water to ground-water when ground waters are depleted. This is
especially significant in karst areas where pot-holes and underground rivers are common.

Ground water

21
 Sub-Surface water travel time

Sub-surface water, or groundwater, is fresh water located in the pore space of soil
and rocks. It is also water that is flowing within aquifer below the water table. Sometimes it is
useful to make a distinction between sub-surface water that is closely associated with surface
water and deep sub-surface water in an aquifer (sometimes called "fossil water").Sub-surface
water can be thought of in the same terms as surface water: inputs, outputs and storage. The
critical difference is that due to its slow rate of turnover, sub-surface water storage is generally
much larger compared to inputs than it is for surface water. This difference makes it easy for
humans to use sub-surface water unsustainably for a long time without severe consequences.
Nevertheless, over the long term the average rate of seepage above a sub-surface water source is
the upper bound for average consumption of water from that source.

The natural input to sub-surface water is seepage from surface water. The natural
outputs from sub-surface water are springs and seepage to the oceans.

Frozen water

22
 Several schemes have been proposed to make use of icebergs as a water source, however
to date this has only been done for novelty purposes. Glacier runoff is considered to be surface
water.

The Himalayas, which are often called "The Roof of the World", contain some of the most
extensive and rough high altitude areas on Earth as well as the greatest area of glaciers and
permafrost outside of the poles. Ten of Asias largest rivers flow from there, and more than a
billion peoples livelihoods depend on them. To complicate matters, temperatures are rising more
rapidly here than the global average. In Nepal the temperature has risen by 0.6 degrees Celsius
over the last decade, whereas globally, the Earth has warmed approximately 0.7 degrees Celsius
over the last hundred years.

Desalination

Desalination is an artificial process by which saline water (generally sea water) is

converted to fresh water. The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse
osmosis. Desalination is currently expensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and
only a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied by desalination. It is only economically
practical for high-valued uses (such as household and industrial uses) in arid areas. The most
extensive use is in the Persian Gulf.

23
2.4 SOURCES AND SUPPLY
Water resources refer to the supply of groundwater and surface water in a given area. Water
resources may also reference the current or potential value of the resource to the community and
the environment. The maximum rate that water is potentially available for human use and
management is often considered the best measure of the total water resources of a given region.
Approximately 30 percent of the worlds fresh water is in liquid form and therefore potentially
accessible for human use and management at any given time. The rest is either locked up in polar
or glacial ice or water vapor. Of the 30 percent of fresh water in liquid form, almost all is held
in groundwaters.

Historically, attempts to develop global assessments of available water resources have

resulted in limited applicability. The usefulness of resulting aggregated quantities, based upon
stream flow and population calculations, which lead to measurements in terms of relative
abundance and shortages of water regionally, have often been unreliable. The extreme difficulty in
preparing a global assessment stems from the general lack of sufficient and reliable information on
water availability, quality, and water use in many areas of the world. Efforts to balance supply and
demand, and plans for a sustainable future are severely hampered by this lack of reliable
information. Studies of water resources leading to meaningful assessments have been found to be
realistic only if conducted on a regional or local basis. Only then has proper accounting of seasonal
and inter-annual variability of streamflow as well as interactions between groundwater and surface
water been appropriately accounted for. Likewise, only then have the potentials for reusing the
water as it proceeds downstream and the balance of in-steam and withdrawal uses been
appropriately managed. Reductions in scale also allow assessments of water quality in determining
suitability for use, and perhaps most importantly the realistic evaluation of social, economic, and
political factors that help determine per-capita water use.

24
 Despite formidable constraints, some attempts to describe global water use have lead to
amenable conclusions. For example, estimates indicate that since 1900, global water withdrawal
has increased about nine-fold and per capita withdrawal has quadrupled. Globally, the largest use
of water is for irrigation (70 percent), while industry uses 20 percent, and the remaining 10
percent is utilized for direct human consumption. As a result, humans now withdraw about 35
percent of the worlds reliable runoff. At least another 20 percent of this runoff is left in streams to
transport goods by boats, dilute pollution, and sustain fisheries and wildlife. Obviously, these
percentages may vary greatly from one region to another depending on natural precipitation and
the degree of development and human population in the region. There may be further variance due
to the fact that the distribution of water resources over the landmass of Earth is uneven and
unrelated to population demographics or economic development. It is due to these complexities
and constraints that humans have attempted to increase available water resources by increasing
precipitation in various anthropogenic manners including cloud seeding. Humans have also
attempted to decrease evapotranspiration by altering vegetation management scenarios, and
sometimes through genetic manipulation. The benefits of alterations are usually minimal and most
often temporary, and unfortunately often have serious environmental, social, economic, and legal
ramifications.

Physical characteristics

Water is made available by the natural hydraulic cycle of the atmospheric-oceanic-terrestrial

system. In most forms, water is a renewable resource since its continued flows are not affected by
withdrawals or use. However, not all natural waters are renewable and renewable waters can
become non-renewable by human actions such as contamination, watershed modification, or
extraction in excess of inflow rate. Water is a vital resource for human and other animal and plant
health. Water bodies provide habitats for aquatic life and riparian systems provide moisture for
vegetation and terrestrial biota, transporting nutrients between one ecosystem and another (Gleick,
2002). As well, large water systems provide regional and climatic weather services. Large-scale
withdrawals or transfers of water can change ecological conditions and thus the in situ benefits of a
water body.

25
 Water use has grown rapidly in modern times. The first 80 years of the 20th century saw a
200 percent increase in the world's average per capita water use, which accounted for a remarkable
566 percent increase in withdrawals from the world's freshwater resources (ITT, 2003). In addition,
a significant portion of water resources have become unusable due to industrial
and agriculture pollution. Diversions or transfers of water from watersheds to other regions have
led to many ecological and human health disasters. For example, the diversion of water from the
Amu Darya and Syr Darya rivers in Central Asia has caused the destruction of the Aral Sea
ecosystem, the extinction of the Seas endemic fish populations, the dramatic shrinking of the Sea
itself, and widespread local health problems associated with the exposure to atmospheric salts
(Gleick, 2002). Similar withdrawals of water from North American and European rivers have lead
to a decline in ecosystem integrity. Worldwide, more than 20 percent of all freshwater fish species
are now threatened or endangered because of dams and water withdrawals.
Also, groundwateraquifers are threatened by exhaustion and saltwater intrusions from overuse
worldwide in places as far apart as India, China, and the United States. These inefficient and
detrimental uses of water have led to concerns that its physical value is not reflected in its cost, an
economic question.

Economic characteristics

In recognition of the above problems, the international development community clearly

expressed the need for applying economic tools and principals to water. The International
Conference on Water and Environment, held in Dublin, Ireland in January 1992, concluded, among
other things, that water has an economic value in all its competing uses and should be recognized
as an economic good (ICWE, 1992).

Water is used in economic activities and hence must be allocated among competing uses.
The commercial needs for water resources complicate matters, since water is a difficult to measure
and identify. Water flows, evaporates, seeps and is transpired. This evasive nature entails that
exclusive property rights are difficult to establish or enforce. As such it is difficult to subject water
to market forces in a market economy. Furthermore water has a long-term value to the

26
sustainability of life and economic activity, over periods that dwarf those considered in
conventional cost-benefit analysis. The value of useable water to future generations is hard to
quantify and define and requires considerations of quantity, quality, timing, and accessibility. As
well, the value of water to particular uses depends crucially on its location, quality, and timing. Its
location determines its accessibility and costs. Its quality affects whether it can be used, and what
treatment cost it will require. The time when it is available governs its reliability and its relative
value for power, irrigation, environmental or potable uses (FAO, 1995). Moreover, many
development economists agree that the widespread provision of water is a prerequisite for the
transformation of poorer economies into modern economies. For instance, new industries can be
constrained by lack of useable water. Currently, developed countries industry uses more than 40
percent of total worldwide water withdrawals versus 10 percent in developing countries (ITT,
2003). Lack of control on pollution and consumption of water could lead to greater scarcity as
developing countries pursue industrial growth.

Theoretically, managing water as an economic good entails that water can be allocated across
competing uses in a way that maximizes the net benefit from the amount of water in question.
Practically, the increasing financial burden on users to pay for clean water has social and political
implications. For example, more than three thousand million people worldwide have daily incomes
of less than $US 2, which places a severe limitation on their capacity to pay the full economic
costs of water services (FAO, 1995). There has been growing controversy over the privatization of
water worldwide as the economic principals of valuation, privatization, and efficiency are being
applied to water, a resource that many consider a basic human need and right.

Social characteristics

It is commonly accepted that access to water is a basic human right. The Dublin Conference
in 1992 asserted that it is vital to recognize first the basic right of all human beings to have access
to clean water and sanitation at an affordable price (ICWE , 1992). Moreover, it is argued that
water is a social good in that the widespread availability of clean and affordable water improves
both individual and social well-being. Clean water reduces the prevalence of water-related
diseases, a social benefit shared by all users of the same water source. The public health impacts of
inadequate water supply and sanitation has serious social and economic consequences for all.

27
Being a social good and private good are not mutually exclusive conditions. In fact, more water for
one individual can mean less water for other individuals who share a water-supply system.
Ensuring that the public receives an adequate supply of social goods requires some level of
governmental action, since purely private markets often do not find it profitable to provide social
goods (Gleick, 2002).

Classifying water as a basic human right introduces further social complications in terms of
equitable distribution. Only a fraction of water consumption is actually used for preserving life. A
large portion of urban water is used for convenience and comfort. For example in the arid western
United States, the per capita water withdrawal by households frequently exceeds 400 liters per day,
about half of which is used to irrigate lawns and gardens, the remainder being used for toilets,
bathing, and washing cars (FAO, 1995). Clearly with 1.1 billion people still lacking access to safe
drinking water, the allowance for such frivolous usage is inequitable. Moreover, the moral
dimensions of water management intersect with the property rights issues that underlie the
economic allocation of water. If local people own or have a right to water in its natural place,
they must be persuaded to voluntarily accept removal of water from its natural place (Gleick,
2002). Tens of millions of people have been forced from their homes, without compensation or
little warning to make way for economic water uses. The case of Chinas Three Gorges Dam
exemplifies these moral issues. In addition, water has cultural and symbolic importance. It is used
in religious rituals such as baptism and it acts as a source of national identities for many native
peoples (Graz, 1998). As such, the value of water to people will differ across cultures and further
complicates the characteristics of the resource.

Political characteristics

In addition, water is not evenly distributed throughout the world, and there are great variations
in natural abundance. For example, mountain areas produce 80 percent of global water resources
yet they have less than 10 percent of the global population (FAO, 1995). This uneven distribution
entails the need for large-scale transfers and agreements. Previously, large-scale transfers of water
occurred within national borders. Agreements were common among nations that shared
a watershed, such as the U.S. and Mexico (Gleick, 2002). Recently, as domestic, industrial, and
agricultural demands for fresh water have grown, proposals for bulk water transfers are being

28
made at the international level. Entrepreneurs have created a wide range of markets for water,
leading to various forms of international water trading and exchanges. Thus, fresh water has
become an issue in international trade negotiations and disputes. The lack of legal precedence
governing the trade of water has placed water at the forefront of international concern and tension.

As well, it is historically common for regions to experience vulnerability to water availability.

Disputes over shared water resources can lead to violence and continue to raise local, national, and
even international tensions (Gleick, 2002). Countries may be willing to go to war to defend their
interests. There is a serious risk of water becoming a casus belli in some of the arid parts of the
world (FAO, 1995). Rising conflict is expected as populations expand, economies grow, and the
competition for limited water supplies intensifies. Competition for and conflicts over water are not
new, although the mismatch between expected supplies and expected demand is historically
unprecedented.

In addition, decisions about water concern many interested parties or stakeholders. The
decision to use more water in agriculture, for instance, could have implications for power
generation, for municipal use, for industrial off take, for in-stream uses such as fishing, navigation
and recreation, and for the environment, including wetlands, deltas and game parks (FAO, 1995).
Decisions over water could also entail major public health risks, such as the spread of malaria. As
such, national political implications regarding water management are also a characteristic of
choosing among competing water uses.

The above physical, economic, social and political characteristics of water make it a unique
resource in which a degree of government involvement is inevitable. The discussion will now turn
to the governance structures which have been implemented in order to manage and provide this
complicated and vital resource.

29
2.5 WATER USES

Agricultural

It is estimated that 70% of worldwide water is used for irrigation, with 15-35% of
irrigation withdrawals being unsustainable. It takes around 2,000 - 3,000 litres of water to produce

30
enough food to satisfy one person's daily dietary need. This is a considerable amount, when
compared to that required for drinking, which is between two and five litres. To produce food for
the now over 7 billion people who inhabit the planet today requires the water that would fill a
canal ten meter deep, 100 meter wide and 2100 km long.

Industrial

It is estimated that 22% of worldwide water is used in industry. Major industrial users
include hydroelectric dams, thermoelectric power plants, which use water for
cooling, ore and oil refineries, which use water in chemical processes, and manufacturing plants,
which use water as a solvent. Water withdrawal can be very high for certain industries, but
consumption is generally much lower than that of agriculture.

Water is used in renewable power generation. Hydroelectric power derives energy from the force
of water flowing downhill, driving a turbine connected to a generator. This hydroelectricity is a
low-cost, non-polluting, renewable energy source. Significantly, hydroelectric power can also be
used for load following unlike most renewable energy sources which are intermittent. Ultimately,
the energy in a hydroelectric power plant is supplied by the sun. Heat from the sun evaporates
water, which condenses as rain in higher altitudes and flows downhill.

Household

It is estimated that 8% of worldwide water use is for household purposes. These

include drinking water, bathing, cooking, sanitation, and gardening. Basic household water
requirements have been estimated by Peter Gleick at around 50 liters per person per day,
excluding water for gardens. Drinking water is water that is of sufficiently high quality so that it
can be

31
consumed or used without risk of immediate or long term harm. Such water is commonly called
potable water. In most developed countries, the water supplied to households, commerce and
industry is all of drinking water standard even though only a very small proportion is actually
consumed or used in food preparation.

Environmental

Explicit environment water use is also a very small but growing percentage of total
water use. Environmental water may include water stored in impoundments and released for
environmental purposes (held environmental water), but more often is water retained in
waterways through regulatory limits of abstraction.environmental water usage includes watering
of natural or artificial wetlands, artificial lakes intended to create wildlife habitat, fish ladders, and
water releases from reservoirs timed to help fish spawn, or to restore more natural flow regimes
Like recreational usage, environmental usage is non-consumptive but may reduce the availability
of water for other users at specific times and places.

32
33
3.1 STUDY AREA

Satna [M.P] is a district place situated at formed in 1948 in India. The district an
area of 7,502 km square and population of 1,868,648, 20-63% of urban. To evaluate the water
quality an effort was made to investigate the water in satna river , Satna District, and Madhya
Pradesh, India. It lies between North latitude 18.38' and East longitude 79.12'. The total area of
the river is about 8,103 hectare and maximum depth is 21.9m. The climatic condition of the study
area was hot summer and cool winter. In the present study period temperature range a minimum
29C and a maximumof38C. The region gets much rainfall from north west monsoon. The place
gets most of its rainfall from June to September during the monsoon. In October and November
also increased rainfall from the north east monsoon. The average rainfall of this study area is
100.9 mm. The water of this River is used for drinking, agriculture and supports fish.

34
3.2 WATER PURIFICATION

Water purification is the process of removing undesirable chemicals, biological

contaminants, suspended solids and gases from contaminated water. The goal is to produce water
fit for a specific purpose. Most water is disinfected for human consumption (drinking water), but
water purification may also be designed for a variety of other purposes, including fulfilling the
requirements of medical, pharmacological, chemical and industrial applications. The methods used
include physical processes such as filtration, sedimentation, and distillation; biological processes
such as slow sand filters or biologically active carbon; chemical processes such as flocculation and
chlorination and the use of electromagnetic radiation such as ultraviolet light.

Purifying water may reduce the concentration of particulate matter

including suspended particles, parasites, bacteria, algae, viruses, fungi, as well as reducing the
amount of a range of dissolved and particulate material derived from the surfaces that come from
runoff due torain.

35
 The standards for drinking water quality are typically set by governments or by international
standards. These standards usually include minimum and maximum concentrations of
contaminants, depending on the intended purpose of water use.

Visual inspection cannot determine if water is of appropriate quality. Simple procedures such
as boiling or the use of a household activated carbon filter are not sufficient for treating all the
possible contaminants that may be present in water from an unknown source. Even natural spring
water considered safe for all practical purposes in the 19th century must now be tested before
determining what kind of treatment, if any, is needed. Chemical and microbiological analysis,
while expensive, are the only way to obtain the information necessary for deciding on the
appropriate method of purification.

According to a 2007 World Health Organization (WHO) report, 1.1 billion people lack access
to an improved drinking water supply, 88 percent of the 4 billion annual cases of diarrheal
disease are attributed to unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene, while 1.8 million
people die from diarrheal diseases each year. The WHO estimates that 94 percent of these diarrheal
cases are preventable through modifications to the environment, including access to safe
water. Simple techniques for treating water at home, such as chlorination, filters, and solar
disinfection, and storing it in safe containers could save a huge number of lives each
year. Reducing deaths from waterborne diseases is a major public health goal in developing
countries.

3.3 FLOW CHART OF PURIFYING RIVER WATER

36
3.4 TREATMENT OF WATER

37
Aims

The aims of the treatment are to remove unwanted constituents in the water and to make it
safe to drink or fit for a specific purpose in industry or medical applications. Widely varied
techniques are available to remove contaminants like fine solids, micro-organisms and some
dissolved inorganic and organic materials, or environmental persistent pharmaceutical pollutants.
The choice of method will depend on the quality of the water being treated, the cost of the
treatment process and the quality standards expected of the processed water.

The processes below are the ones commonly used in water purification plants. Some or most
may not be used depending on the scale of the plant and quality of the raw (source) water.

Pre-treatment

1. Pumping and containment The majority of water must be pumped from its source or
directed into pipes or holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to the water, this
physical infrastructure must be made from appropriate materials and constructed so that
accidental contamination does not occur.
2. Screening The first step in purifying surface water is to remove large debris such as
sticks, leaves, rubbish and other large particles which may interfere with subsequent
purification steps. Most deep groundwater does not need screening before other
purification steps.
3. a few days and many months to allow natural biological purification to take place. This is
especially important if treatment is by slow sand filters. Storage reservoirs also provide a
buffer against short periods of drought or to allow water supply to be maintained during
transitory pollution incidents in the source river.
4. Pre-chlorination In many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to minimize the
growth of fouling organisms on the pipe-work and tanks. Because of the potential adverse
quality effects (see chlorine below), this has largely been discounted.

38
pH adjustment

Pure water has a pH close to 7 (neither alkaline nor acidic). Sea water can have pH values
that range from 7.5 to 8.4 (moderately alkaline). Fresh water can have widely ranging pH values
depending on the geology of the drainage basin or aquifer and the influence of contaminant inputs
(acid rain). If the water is acidic (lower than 7), lime, soda ash, or sodium hydroxide can be added
to raise the pH during water purification processes. Lime addition increases the calcium ion
concentration, thus raising the water hardness. For highly acidic waters, forced
draft degasifiers can be an effective way to raise the pH, by stripping dissolved carbon dioxide
from the water. Making the water alkaline helps coagulation and flocculation processes work
effectively and also helps to minimize the risk of lead being dissolved from lead pipes and from
lead solder in pipe fittings. Sufficient alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness of water to iron
pipes. Acid (carbonic acid, hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid)may be added to alkaline waters in
some circumstances to lower the pH. Alkaline water (above pH 7.0) does not necessarily mean that
lead or copper from the plumbing system will not be dissolved into the water. The ability of water
to precipitate calcium carbonate to protect metal surfaces and reduce the likelihood of toxic metals
being dissolved in water is a function of pH, mineral content, temperature, alkalinity and calcium
concentration.

Coagulation and flocculation

One of the first steps in a conventional water purification process is the addition of
chemicals to assist in the removal of particles suspended in water. Particles can be inorganic such
as clay and silt or organic such as algae, bacteria, viruses, protozoa and natural organic matter.
Inorganic and organic particles contribute to the turbidity and color of water.

The addition of inorganic coagulants such as aluminum sulfate (or alum) or iron (III) salts
such as iron(III) chloride cause several simultaneous chemical and physical interactions on and
among the particles. Within seconds, negative charges on the particles are neutralized by inorganic
coagulants. Also within seconds, metal hydroxide precipitates of the aluminum and iron (III) ions
begin to form. These precipitates combine into larger particles under natural processes such
39
as Brownian motion and through induced mixing which is sometimes referred to as flocculation.
The term most often used for the amorphous metal hydroxides is "floc." Large, amorphous
aluminum and iron (III) hydroxides adsorb and enmesh particles in suspension and facilitate the
removal of particles by subsequent processes of sedimentation and filtration.

Aluminum hydroxides are formed within a fairly narrow pH range, typically: 5.5 to about 7.7.
Iron (III) hydroxides can form over a larger pH range including pH levels lower than are effective
for alum, typically: 5.0 to 8.5.

In the literature, there is much debate and confusion over the usage of the terms coagulation
and flocculationwhere does coagulation end and flocculation begin? In water purification plants,
there is usually a high energy, rapid mix unit process (detention time in seconds) where the
coagulant chemicals are added followed by flocculation basins (detention times range from 15 to
45 minutes) where low energy inputs turn large paddles or other gentle mixing devices to enhance
the formation of floc. In fact, coagulation and flocculation processes are ongoing once the metal
salt coagulants are added.

Organic polymers were developed in the 1960s as aids to coagulants and, in some cases, as
replacements for the inorganic metal salt coagulants. Synthetic organic polymers are high
molecular weight compounds that carry negative, positive or neutral charges. When organic
polymers are added to water with particulates, the high molecular weight compounds adsorb onto
particle surfaces and through inter particle bridging coalesce with other particles to form
floc. PolyDADMAC is a popular cationic (positively charged) organic polymer used in water
purification plants.

Sedimentation

Waters exiting the flocculation basin may enter the sedimentation basin, also called a clarifier
or settling basin. It is a large tank with low water velocities, allowing floc to settle to the bottom.
The sedimentation basin is best located close to the flocculation basin so the transit between the

40
two processes does not permit settlement or floc break up. Sedimentation basins may be
rectangular, where water flows from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward.
Sedimentation basin outflow is typically over a weir so only a thin top layer of waterthat furthest
from the sludgeexits.

In 1904, Allen Hazen showed that the efficiency of a sedimentation process was a function
of the particle settling velocity, the flow through the tank and the surface area of tank.
Sedimentation tanks are typically designed within a range of overflow rates of 0.5 to 1.0 gallons
per minute per square foot (or 1.25 to 2.5 meters per hour). In general, sedimentation basin
efficiency is not a function of detention time or depth of the basin. Although, basin depth must be
sufficient so that water currents do not disturb the sludge and settled particle interactions are
promoted. As particle concentrations in the settled water increase near the sludge surface on the
bottom of the tank, settling velocities can increase due to collisions and agglomeration of particles.
Typical detention times for sedimentation vary from 1.5 to 4 hours and basin depths vary from 10
to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 meters).

Inclined flat plates or tubes can be added to traditional sedimentation basins to improve
particle removal performance. Inclined plates and tubes drastically increase the surface area
available for particles to be removed in concert with Hazen's original theory. The amount of
ground surface area occupied by a sedimentation basin with inclined plates or tubes can be far
smaller than a conventional sedimentation basin.

Sludge storage and removal

As particles settle to the bottom of a sedimentation basin, a layer of sludge is formed on the
floor of the tank which must be removed and treated. The amount of sludge generated is
significant, often 3 to 5 percent of the total volume of water to be treated. The cost of treating and
disposing of the sludge can impact the operating cost of a water treatment plant. The sedimentation
basin may be equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean its bottom, or the
basin can be periodically taken out of service and cleaned manually.

41
Floc blanket clarifiers

A subcategory of sedimentation is the removal of particulates by entrapment in a layer of

suspended floc as the water is forced upward. The major advantage of floc blanket clarifiers is that
they occupy a smaller footprint than conventional sedimentation. Disadvantages are that particle
removal efficiency can be highly variable depending on changes in influent water quality and
influent water flow rate.

Dissolved air flotation

When particles to be removed do not settle out of solution easily, dissolved air flotation
(DAF) is often used. Water supplies that are particularly vulnerable to unicellular algae blooms and
supplies with low turbidity and high color often employ DAF. After coagulation and flocculation
processes, water flows to DAF tanks where air diffusers on the tank bottom create fine bubbles that
attach to floc resulting in a floating mass of concentrated floc. The floating floc blanket is removed
from the surface and clarified water is withdrawn from the bottom of the DAF tank.

Filtration

After separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining
suspended particles and unsettled floc.

Rapid sand filters

The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves vertically through sand
which often has a layer of activated carbon oranthracite coal above the sand. The top layer
removes organic compounds, which contribute to taste and odor. The space between sand particles
is larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. Most particles
pass through surface layers but are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective
42
filtration extends into the depth of the filter. This property of the filter is key to its operation: if the
top layer of sand were to block all the particles, the filter would quickly clog.

To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal
direction (called backflushing or backwashing) to remove embedded particles. Prior to this step,
compressed air may be blown up through the bottom of the filter to break up the compacted filter
media to aid the backwashing process; this is known as air scouring. This contaminated water can
be disposed of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation basin, or it can be recycled by mixing
with the raw water entering the plant although this is often considered poor practice since it re-
introduces an elevated concentration of bacteria into the raw water.

Some water treatment plants employ pressure filters. These work on the same principle as
rapid gravity filters, differing in that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is
forced through it under pressure.

Advantages:

Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand filters can.
Filters out virtually all particles larger than their specified pore sizes.
They are quite thin and so liquids flow through them fairly rapidly.
They are reasonably strong and so can withstand pressure differences across them of
typically 25 atmospheres.
They can be cleaned (back flushed) and reused.

43
Slow sand filter
Slow sand filters may be used where there is sufficient land and space, as the water must be
passed very slowly through the filters. These filters rely on biological treatment processes for their
action rather than physical filtration. The filters are carefully constructed using graded layers of
sand, with the coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at the bottom and finest sand at the top.
Drains at the base convey treated water away for disinfection. Filtration depends on the
development of a thin biological layer, called the zoogleal layer or Schmutzdecke, on the surface
of the filter. An effective slow sand filter may remain in service for many weeks or even months if
the pre-treatment is well designed and produces water with a very low available nutrient level
which physical methods of treatment rarely achieve. Very low nutrient levels allow water to be
safely sent through distribution systems with very low disinfectant levels, thereby reducing
consumer irritation over offensive levels of chlorine and chlorine by-products. Slow sand filters are
not backwashed; they are maintained by having the top layer of sand scraped off when flow is
eventually obstructed by biological growth.

A specific "large-scale" form of slow sand filter is the process of bank filtration, in which
natural sediments in a riverbank are used to provide a first stage of contaminant filtration. While
typically not clean enough to be used directly for drinking water, the water gained from the
associated extraction wells is much less problematic than river water taken directly from the major
streams where bank filtration is often used.

Membrane filtration

Membrane filters are widely used for filtering both drinking water and sewage. For drinking
water, membrane filters can remove virtually all particles larger than 0.2 um
including giardia and cryptosporidium. Membrane filters are an effective form of tertiary treatment
when it is desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic purposes, or before
discharging the water into a river that is used by towns further downstream. They are widely used

44
in industry, particularly for beverage preparation (including bottled water). However no filtration
can remove substances that are actually dissolved in the water such
as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal ions.

Removal of ions and other dissolved substances

Ultra filtration membranes use polymer membranes with chemically formed microscopic
pores that can be used to filter out dissolved substances avoiding the use of coagulants. The type of
membrane media determines how much pressure is needed to drive the water through and what
sizes of micro-organisms can be filtered out.

Ion exchange: Ion exchange systems use ion exchange resin- or zeolite-packed columns to
replace unwanted ions. The most common case is water softening consisting of removal
of Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions replacing them with benign (soap friendly) Na+ or K+ ions. Ion exchange
resins are also used to remove toxic ions such as nitrite, lead, mercury,arsenic and many others.

Precipitative softening: Water rich in hardness (calcium and magnesium ions) is treated with
lime (calcium oxide) and/or soda-ash (sodium carbonate) to precipitatecalcium carbonate out of
solution utilizing the common-ion effect.

Electrodeionization: Water is passed between a positive electrode and a negative electrode. Ion
exchange membranes allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the
negative electrode and only negative ions toward the positive electrode. High purity deionized
water is produced with a little worse degree of purification in comparison with ion exchange
treatment. Complete removal of ions from water is regarded as electrodialysis. The water is often
pre-treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non-ionic organic contaminants.

45
Disinfection

Pumps used to add required amount of chemicals to the clear water at the water purification
plant before the distribution. From left to right: sodium hypochlorite for disinfection, zinc
orthophosphate as a corrosion inhibitor, sodium hydroxide for pH adjustment, and fluoride for
tooth decay prevention.

Disinfection is accomplished both by filtering out harmful micro-organisms and also by

adding disinfectant chemicals. Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the
filters and to provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or inactivate potentially harmful micro-
organisms in the storage and distribution systems. Possible pathogens include viruses, bacteria,
including Salmonella, Cholera,Campylobacter and Shigella, and protozoa, including Giardia
lamblia and other cryptosporidia. Following the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent,
the water is usually held in temporary storage often called a contact tank or clear well to allow
the disinfecting action to complete.

Chlorine disinfection

The most common disinfection method involves some form of chlorine or its compounds
such as chloramine or chlorine dioxide. Chlorine is a strong oxidant that rapidly kills many
harmful micro-organisms. Because chlorine is a toxic gas, there is a danger of a release associated
with its use. This problem is avoided by the use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively
inexpensive solution that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. Chlorine solutions can be
generated on site by electrolyzing common salt solutions. A solid form,calcium hypochlorite,
releases chlorine on contact with water. Handling the solid, however, requires greater routine
human contact through opening bags and pouring than the use of gas cylinders or bleach which are
more easily automated. The generation of liquid sodium hypochlorite is both inexpensive and safer
than the use of gas or solid chlorine.

46
 All forms of chlorine are widely used, despite their respective drawbacks. One drawback is
that chlorine from any source reacts with natural organic compounds in the water to form
potentially harmful chemical by-products. These by-products, trihalomethanes (THMs)
and haloacetic acids (HAAs), are both carcinogenic in large quantities and are regulated by
the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) and the Drinking Water Inspectorate in
the UK. The formation of THMs and haloacetic acids may be minimized by effective removal of as
many organics from the water as possible prior to chlorine addition. Although chlorine is effective
in killing bacteria, it has limited effectiveness against protozoa that form cysts in water (Giardia
lamblia and Cryptosporidium, both of which are pathogenic).

Chlorine dioxide disinfection

Chlorine dioxide is a faster-acting disinfectant than elemental chlorine. It is relatively rarely

used, because in some circumstances it may create excessive amounts of chlorite, which is a by-
product regulated to low allowable levels in the United States. Chlorine dioxide is supplied as an
aqueous solution and added to water to avoid gas handling problems; chlorine dioxide gas
accumulations may spontaneously detonate.

Chloramine disinfection

The use of chloramine is becoming more common as a disinfectant. Although chloramine is

not as strong an oxidant, it does provide a longer-lasting residual than free chlorine and it will not
form THMs or haloacetic acids. It is possible to convert chlorine to chloramine by
adding ammonia to the water after addition of chlorine. The chlorine and ammonia react to form
chloramine. Water distribution systems disinfected with chloramines may experience nitrification,
as ammonia is a nutrient for bacterial growth, with nitrates being generated as a by-product.

Ozone disinfection

Ozone is an unstable molecule which readily gives up one atom of oxygen providing a
powerful oxidizing agent which is toxic to most waterborne organisms. It is a very strong, broad
47
spectrum disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. It is an effective method to inactivate harmful
protozoa that form cysts. It also works well against almost all other pathogens. Ozone is made by
passing oxygen through ultraviolet light or a "cold" electrical discharge. To use ozone as a
disinfectant, it must be created on-site and added to the water by bubble contact. Some of the
advantages of ozone include the production of fewer dangerous by-products and the absence of
taste and odour problems (in comparison to chlorination) . Another advantage of ozone is that it
leaves no residual disinfectant in the water. Ozone has been used in drinking water plants since
1906 where the first industrial ozonation plant was built in Nice, France. The U.S. Food and Drug
Administration has accepted ozone as being safe; and it is applied as an anti-microbiological agent
for the treatment, storage, and processing of foods. However, although fewer by-products are
formed by ozonation, it has been discovered that ozone reacts with bromide ions in water to
produce concentrations of the suspected carcinogen bromate. Bromide can be found in fresh water
supplies in sufficient concentrations to produce (after ozonation) more than 10 parts per billion
(ppb) of bromate the maximum contaminant level established by the USEPA.

Ultraviolet disinfection

Ultraviolet light (UV) is very effective at inactivating cysts, in low turbidity water. UV light's
disinfection effectiveness decreases as turbidity increases, a result of the absorption,scattering, and
shadowing caused by the suspended solids. The main disadvantage to the use of UV radiation is
that, like ozone treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water; therefore, it is sometimes
necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary disinfection process. This is often done
through the addition of chloramines, discussed above as a primary disinfectant. When used in this
manner, chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few of the negative
effects of chlorination.

48
49
4. MATERIAL AND METHODS FOR QUALITY OF DRINKING WATER

Physicochemical and biological parameters undertakes in the above study were Turbidity, PH,
Conductance, Hardness, Chloride, Sulphate, Fluoride, Manganese, Nitrate,Iron, Chromium,
Cadmium, Nickel, Bacteriological test. The satna river water sampling was done in summer
season, year 2015, glass wares and chemicals used in study were of high quality. All parameter
were analyzed as per the standard method for examination of water and waste water.

TURBIDITY IN DRINKING WATER

Sample container - Sampling bottle [polypropylene or glass]

Preservation - Refrigeration or chilling to 4oC
Duration of preservation - as soon as possible
Interference - color may cause low turbidity
Reagents - turbidity free water filter distilled water through
membrane of pore size. 45um 40 JTU/NTU (freshly
prepared, not more than one week old) Turbidity std.

50
 400NTU (prepare or purchase) Turbidity std 40
NTU,Prepare by diluting 400 NTU turbidity std.

Apparatus - Turbidity meter.

Measurement unit - NTU
Procedure - calibrate the turbidity meter using turbidity free water
blank (0 turbidity) and turbidity standard (40NTU).
Shake the sample and pour it in turbidity tube and
read them tubidity directly from metre.If the
Turbidity of sample is more than 40 NTU, Dilute the
sample with turbidity free water.

Calculation - Turbidity[NTU]= AX[B+C] / C

A= Turbidity will be reported as follows

Turbidity range Record in the nearest

0-1 0.05
1-10 0.1
10-40 1
41-100 5
101-400 10
401-1000 50
Greater than 1000 100

51
 PH IN DRINKING WATER
Sample container - Polypropylene or Glass container.
Preservation - filled completely and kept sealed.
Duration of preservation - As soon as possible preferably in the sampling.
Interference - Oil and grease and temperature.
Reagent - universal PH indicator [ In field]
NIScertified Ph Buffers of pH
4.0,7.0&9.00 OR 10.01 [For Imported meter]
Apparatus - PH / ISI meter
Measurement unit - PH Scale

[a] Lab Method

Calibrate the PH meter using at least two ph buffers. Gently wipe the PH
electrode in the sample beaker. Record the PH to the nearest coefficient or 0.01 unit and
temperature to the nearest 0 C.

[b] Field Method

52
 Take 100 ml sample in a glass hard tube add universal indicator and roughly
determine PH. Again take 20ml sample in a glass tube add 1ml universal indicator determine PH
by color comparison as follows-
PH Color
Up to 3 Red
4 Orange red
5 Orange
6 Yellow
7 Yellowish
Green
8 Greenish Blue
9 Blue
10 Violet
11 Reddish violet

CONDUCTANCE IN DRINKING WATER

Sample Container - Polypropylene or Glass container

Preservation - Nil
Duration of preservation - As soon as possible
Interference - Temperature , Organics
Reagents - Low conductivity Distilled water.
- Conductivity standard solution Made by dissolving
0.5232gm KCL in 1 ltr Distilled water or use AR
grade certified std.
Measurement unit - Micromho/cm2

Procedure - First Standardize conductivity STDs. Take sample

in a Beaker place Conductivity electrode in it. Record
the conductivity measured. Report conductivity as
micromho/cm2..
Specific conductivity = Temp. Factor - Measured conductivity Cell
Constant Temp.Factor (250C).
Where cell constant = DW/Factor - Actual conductivity at 250C+

53
 Conductivity of DW/ Measured
conductivityTemp.Factor conductivity Temperature

TEMPERATURE FACTOR-

Temperature Factor Temperature Factor Temperature Factor Temperature Factor

15 1.247 22.5 1.053 28.5 0.934 35 0.829

16 1.218 23 1.043 29 0.925 36 0.815

17 1.189 23.5 1.031 29.5 0.916 37 0.801

18 1.163 24 1.02 30 0.907 38 0.788

18.5 1.150 24.5 1.010 30.5 0.89 39 0.775

19 1.136 25 1.000 31 0.890 40 0.763

19.5 1.124 25.5 0.990 31.5 0.882 41 0.750

20 1.112 26 0.979 32 0.873 42 0.739

20.5 1.100 26.5 0.969 32.5 0.864 43 0.727

21 1.087 27 0.960 33 0.858 44 0.715

21.5 1.074 27.5 0.951 33.5 0.851 4 0.772

1.064 28 0.943 34 0.843 46 0.694

Note-
Determine the value of cell constant at least fortnightly.
Platinizng the cell once in every three month.
Calculated TDS in ppm= 0.65 conductivity in micromole/cm2 at 250C.

54
 HARDNESS IN DRINKING WATER

Sample container - Polypropylene or Glass container

Preservation - Nil
Duration of preservation - As soon as possible
Interference - Heavy metals
Aluminum [ revert end point]
Reagents - Ammonia Buffer solution [ PH 100.1]
EDTA N/50 Solution
Standard calcium solution [1ml = 1mg CaCO3]
Eriochrome Black T indicator solution inhibitors
Measurement unit - Mg/L as CaCO3
Procedure - First standardize EDTA with standard calcium solution
by taking calcium std in conical/porcelain basin and adjust the volume up to 50ml with
Distilled water. Add 1 ml Ammonia buffer. Add Eriochrome black T, Titrate slowly with
continuous stirring until the reddish tinge disappear, add few drop more to get sky blue colour.

correction factor = calcium std taken / EDTA used]

Now take 50 ml or a suitable portion of sample diluted to 50ml in a porcelain dish. Add
1ml Inhibitor. Add 1-2 ml Ammonia buffer solution. Add 2ml Eriochrome Black T indicator
solutions . Titrate with EDTA solution with stirring slowly up to dissappearence of red and purple
color and formation of sky blue colour [ End point]. If the end point is not sharp then add other
inhibitors.Repeat the procedure for sharp end point.

55
Calculation - Total Hardness, Mg/Ias CaCO3= 1000V1Correction Factor/ V2

Where
V1= Volume in ml of the EDTA standard solution used in titration.
V2= Volume of ml of sample taken for titration.
Reporting-
Report hardness in mg/I as CaCO 3 rounded to the first decimal place when the value
is less than 10mg/I and to the nearest unit if the value is more than 10mg/I.

SULPHATE IN DRINKING WATER

Scope and Application- Method is applicable to determine sulphate in

range 1 40 mili gram / ltr without dilution.
Interference - color and suspended solids
Apparatus - turbidity meter or spectrophotometer LP-20 mm at 420 nm

Reagents- a. barium chloride GR

b. conditioning reagents
c. stock sulphate solution 100 mg / litre
d. standard sulphate solution(from stock)
e. hydrochloric acid (1+9) (GR/AR).acid +water

Procedure - filter the sample through 0.45 m , if sample is turbid

take 20 ml sample.
Add 1 gm barium chloride.
Mix well for 30 seconds.
If sulphate conc. is more then dilute the sample.
Calibration curve- prepare a series of standards taking at least 4 standards
and run a blank using procedure
Calibrate the turbidity meter in range 0 and 100 NTU.

56
 Measure the turbidity formed in standards.
Calculate the slope with respect to standards and turbidity.
Read the sulphate concentration in milligram /l directly by
multiplying slope.

FLOURIDE IN DRINKING WATER

Sample container- polypropylene container

Preservation- nil
Duration of preservation- within 1 month.
Instruments- ionmeter
Reagents- TISAB III
standard fluoride solution (100 ppm) reference electrode
filling solution for fluoride electrode de ionized water.
Measurement unit- -mg/L as F.
Procedure- -first calibrate ionmeter using fresh and accurate
standards to achieve slope value in range -54-60 mv.

Following precautions must be taken in care for preparation for standards

Standards should within the range of the expected conc.

Use at least 2 standards in 10 fold.
Always use most diluted standard first.
Temperature should be constant.

Take 20 ml standard/ sample art 2ml TISAB III. Stir and dip the electrode until constant reading is
observed.
use blank for correction and sample of known conc. for confirmation of results
57
 report fluoride concentration in 2 digits after decimal place in form of m/l.

MANGANESE IN DRINKING WATER

Sample container Sampling bottle [ Polypropylene or glass] cleaned with 6N HNO3

Preservation Nitric acid Conc. [ 2ml/ltr]
Analysis with 5 days after acidification or within 24 hr without acidification.
Method used Per Sulphate Method [ range 0.02-1.0mg/l]
Reagent- Special Reagent for manganese
Ammonium per sulphate AR/GR [Highly oxidizable substances]
Manganese standard 100mg standard [ prepare in lab or use analytical grade / certified std]
Manganese free Distilled water

Instrument- Spectrophotometer Wavelength 525nm

Testing procedure- Always prepare blank using Distilled water

Shake the container vigorously then take 100ml sample in conical flask 250ml add 5ml special
reagent for Manganese add 3-4 glass beads boil to reduce the volume up to 80-90ml [ boil for 1-2
min] put off the flask from heating source and carefully add 4-5 gm Ammonium persulphate in
boiling solution, place the flask again on heating source for boil for further 10-15 sec. [ Note do
not over heat]. Per magnate color will developed if manganese is present. Cool at room
temperature and make up to 100ml. Measure the manganese concentration using
Spectrophotometer at wave length 525 nm.

Manganese as Mn in mg/l Standard matched 0.011000/ Sample take

58
 NITRATE [ ION METER ] IN DRINKING WATER

Sample container Polypropylene container

Preservation Nil
Duration of preservation As soon as possible
Instrument Ion meter
Reagents Standard Nitrate solution [1000PPM as NO3] References
electrode filling solution for Nitrate electrode
Deionized Water
Measurement unit mg/l as NO3
Procedure First celebrate ion meter using fresh and accurate standards
to achieve slope value in the range 54 to -60 mv.

Following precautions must be taken in care for preparation of stds.

Standard shouid within the range of the expected concentration.
Use at least two standard in 10 fold.
Always use most diluted standard first.
Temperature shouid be constant.

Take 50ml standard/ Sample add 1ml ISA Nitrate. Stir dip in the electrode until constant reading
is observed.
Use blank for correction and sample of known concentration for confirmation of results.
Report Nitrate concentration in one digit after decimal place in form of mg/L.

NOTE- Check the strength of Nitrate standard.Whether it may be in the formmg/l Nitrate as N or
mg/l Nitrate as NO3. If it is in form mg/l Nitrate as N then multiply the results with 4.43.

59
If it is in the form mg/l as NO3 Then no multiplication is required.

BACTERIOLOGICAL TEST IN DRINKING WATER

Sample container 250ml sterilized Glass bottle.

Method Membrane filtration
Preservation kept in ice or in a refrigerator
Duration 48 hours
Media M7hr FC Agar
Consumable Petri plates
Instruments Membrane filtration assembly with hand
Operated vacuum.
Filtration
Incubator
Autoclave
Membrane 47 mm individually sterilized girded, Pore Size 45mm.

Media preparation Weigh 4.8 gm M7 FC agar, dissolve in 100ml hot distilled water. Do not
boil. Heat for 5 min to complete dissolve. Cool to about 55-60 0C. Dispense media in sterilized
petri plates. In such manner that no air bubble will form in centre part of the plate. Allow to
solidify the media at room temp.Cover the lid. Wrap the plate with brown paper. Place in cool and
dry condition.

Procedure - Filter an appropriate sample volume through a membrane filter as specified above
using fiteration assembly. Place the filter on prepared Petri plates. Mark the description of the
sample on the plate including time and date of inoculation. Place the plate in inverted position in
incubator at 41.50C for 7 hour.
After 7 hours to 10 hour count pin point colonies as follows
No of all Pink +Green+Yellow colonies = Total Coliforms
No of Yellow Colonies = Thermo Tolerant coliform

60
Report in the form of total coliforms per 100ml = [No. of colonies recorded 100]/Sample
taken In filtration.
report in the form of thermo tolerant coliform per 100ml.

IRON IN DRINKING WATER

The water sample were collected in three different seasons of year and
iron content was analyzed. Sample were first acidified and refrigerated. The
analysis of iron was carried on Atomic Absorption Spectrometer by direct aspiration
method.
The standards in the present analysis were prepared as below:

Stock solution: 1 gm iron wire dissolved in 50 ml of 1+1 HNO 3 and the

solution was diluted to 1 ltr with distilled water.
1ml= 1mg Fe

Standard solution: With the help of subsequent dilutions of iron stock solution the
standard solution of 1,2,3,4,5 mg/l were prepared.

COPPER IN DRINKING WATER

The water sample were collected in three different seasons of year and
copper content was analysed. Sample were first acidified and refrigerated. The
analysis of copper was carried on Atomic Absorption Spectrometer by direct
aspiration method.
The standard in the present analysis were prepared as below:
Stock solution: 1gm of copper metal was dissolved in minimum volume of
1+1 HNO3. The solution was diluted to 1 ltr with 1% HNO3.

61
 1ml = 1mg Cu

Standard solution: Standard solution of concentration 0.02,0.05,0.07 and 0.1 mg/l

were prepared by subsequent dilution of stock solution.
CHROMIUM IN DRINKING WATER

The water sample were collected in three different seasons of year and
Chromium content was analyzed. Sample were first acidified and refrigerated. The
analysis of chromium was carried on Atomic Absorption Spectrometer by direct
aspiration method.
The standards in the present analysis were prepared as below:
Stock solution: 3.375 gm Potassium Chromate dissolved in distilled water. The
solution was diluted to 1 ltr with distilled water.
1ml= 1mg Cr

Standard solution: With the help of subsequent dilutions of Chromium stock

solution the standard solution of 0.01,0.02,0.03,0.04,0.05 and 0.1 mg/l were
prepared.

CADMIUM IN DRINKING WATER

The water sample were collected in three different seasons of year and
Cadmium content was analyzed. Sample were first acidified and refrigerated. The
analysis of cadmium was carried on Atomic Absorption Spectrometer by direct
aspiration method.
The standards in the present analysis were prepared as below:

62
Stock solution: 1.0 gm cadmium metal dissolve in minimum volume of (1+1)
HCl. Dilute to 1 litre with 1% (v/v) HCl.
1ml= 1mg Cd
Standard solution: With the help of subsequent dilutions of Cadmium stock
solution the standard solution of 1,2,3,4, and 5 mg/l were prepared.
NICKEL IN DRINKING WATER

The water sample were collected in three different seasons of year and Nickel
content was analyzed. Sample were first acidified and refrigerated. The analysis of
nickel was carried on Atomic Absorption Spectrometer by direct aspiration method.
The standards in the present analysis were prepared as below:
Stock solution: 1.0 gm nickel metal dissolve in minimum volume of (1+1) HCl.
Dilute to 1 litre with 1% (v/v) HCl.
1ml= 1mg Ni

Standard solution: With the help of subsequent dilutions of nickel stock solution
the standard solution of 1,2,3,4, and 5 mg/l were prepared.

MERCURY IN DRINKING WATER

The water sample were collected in three different seasons of year and
Mercury content was analyzed. Sample were first acidified and refrigerated. The
analysis of mercury was carried on Atomic Absorption Spectrometer by direct
aspiration method.
The standards in the present analysis were prepared as below:
Stock solution: 1.0 gm mercury (II) Oxide metal dissolve in minimum volume of
(1+1) HCl. Dilute to 1 litre with deionized water.

63
Standard solution: With the help of subsequent dilutions of Mercury stock solution
the standard solution of 1,2,3,4, and 5 mg/l were prepared.

64
 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

1. Turbidity Turbidity is measured by Turbidity meter. The value of the

turbidity during the study ranged 0.05 100.

2. pH The pH range from 0 7 are acidic, 7 14 are basic and 7 is neutral.

The Sample of Satna river water has Ph value during observation period is
7.59.

3. Conductivity Conductivity measured by conductivity meter, the value of

conductivity of the water sample during the study 0.25.

4. Total Hardness The value of total hardness during the study was 10mg/l.

5. Chloride Chloride give water a salty taste. In large concentration chloride

cause a brackish, briny taste that definitely is undesirable.In the present study
the chloride ranged from 5mg/l to 163mg/l.

6. Sulphate Sulphate can be found in almost all natural water. Sulphate is one of
the major dissolved components of rain. In the present study sulphate were
found 90mg/l.

65
7. Fluoride The association between the fluoride level in drinking water and the
degree of dental fluorosis has been documented world wide. Fluoride
concentration in the present work ranged from 0.29mg/l.- 3.8mg/l.

8. Manganese measured by Spectrophotometer Wavelength 525nm, the

value in water sample is 90mg/l.

9. Nitrate measured by ionmeter. The nitrate concentration in present

study is 4.43mg/l.

10. Bacteriological test measured by membrane filtration, Incubator,

Autoclave, concentration in water sample is 56mg/l.

11. Iron Iron is the fourth most abundant element, by weight, in the earths crust.
The concentration of Iron in the present study ranged between 0.01mg/l to
1.24mg/l.

12. Copper The concentration ranged from 0.020mg/l to 0.325mg/l.

13. Cadmium The concentration of cadmium varied between 0.006mg/l to

0.0125mg/l The value may be attributed to the run off from the agriculture
fields where cadmium containing phosphate fertilizers may have been used.

14. Nickel The primary source of nickel in drinking water is leaching from
metals in contact with drinking water such as pipes and fittings.The
concentration ranged between 0.008mg/l 0.032mg/l.

15. Chromium The range of concentration was 0.014mg/l 0.056mg/l.

66
16. Mercury None of the sample in the study showed the presence of
mercury in water. This means the water of the area is free from mercury
contamination.

67
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