Professional Documents
Culture Documents
2013 Costs
for
Capital
Equipment
PAGE 36
www.che.com
Rotary Valves in
Pneumatic
Conveying
PAGE 30
Systems
Facts at Your
Fingertips:
Polymer-based
Piping
Focus on
Level
Measurement
Cooling-tower
Water
Treatment
CO2
Utilization
Circle 6 on p. 56 or go to adlinks.che.com/45774-06
www.che.com
30
JULY 2013 VOLUME 120, NO. 7
COVER STORY
30 Cover Story Securing Industrial Control Systems
When it comes to security, modern industrial control systems have im-
portant differences from business networks, and also some unique vul-
nerabilities. This article takes a look at what is working to secure them
and what is not
NEWS
11 Chementator A salty way to scrub CO2; These scavengers of water
pollutants have a magnetic attraction; Burner technology enables 16
reduced NOx with short flame length; Improved corrosion control in
refinery steam systems; A biotech process that could benefit sharks;
and more
ENGINEERING 20
28a Facts at Your Fingertips Polymer-based Piping
This one-page reference discusses the advantages and limitations of
polymer-based piping in the CPI Equipment
COMMENTARY
5 Editors Page 2013 Kirkpatrick Award finalists Five finalists for the
2013 Kirkpatrick Award for Chemical Engineering Achievement have been an- 24
nouced. The winner will be named an at awards banquet in September during
the ChemInnovations Conference and Tradeshow
DEPARTMENTS
6 Letters 58 Whos Who
8 Bookshelf 59 Economic Indicators
56 Reader Service
ADVERTISERS
54 Product Showcase/Classified
57 Advertiser Index
27
COMING IN AUGUST
Look for: Feature Reports on Hazardous Waste Disposal; and Liquid Mixing;
an Engineering Practice article on Ethylene Oxide Absorber Optimization; a *ONLY ON CHE.COM
Focus on Screening; A Facts at Your Fingertips on Heat Transfer; News Ar- Look for additional CO2
ticles on Bio-based Chemicals; and Simulation and Modeling; and more utilization coverage;
New Products;
Cover: David Whitcher Latest News; and more
In base mounted
units, the
Pendulink
system isolates
98.5% vibration
from the structure.
You can feel the
difference.
Circle 21 on p. 56 or go to adlinks.che.com/45774-21
W ER E EN H A N C I N G T HE
O F S T R E N G T H.
2013 The Lubrizol Corporation, all rights reserved. All marks are the property of The Lubrizol Corporation.
The Lubrizol Corporation is a Berkshire Hathaway company.
GC 121100
Circle 14 on p. 56 or go to adlinks.che.com/45774-14
Winner of Eight Jesse H. Neal
Awards for Editorial Excellence
Editors Page
W
PUBLISHER ART & DESIGN
MICHAEL GROSSMAN DAVID WHITCHER have been selected as finalists for the 2013 Kirkpatrick Award
Vice President and Group Publisher Art Director/
mgrossman@accessintel.com Editorial Production Manager
for Chemical Engineering Achievement. The winner will be an-
dwhitcher@che.com nounced on September 25 at an Awards Banquet in Galveston, Tex. dur-
EDITORS PRODUCTION ing the ChemInnovations Conference and Expo (www.cpievent.com). Here
DOROTHY LOZOWSKI JOHN BLAYLOCK-COOKE is a brief summary about the finalists:
Executive Editor
Ad Production Manager
dlozowski@che.com
jcooke@accessintel.com
Braskem Sugarcane-based ethylene and polyethylene. Braskem
GERALD ONDREY (Frankfurt)
INFORMATION
has developed a bio-based polyethylene (PE) that, at the end of its life, can
Senior Editor
gondrey@che.com SERVICES be reused, recycled, or incinerated to generate energy, with the main advan-
SCOTT JENKINS CHARLES SANDS tage of having neutral carbon emissions. The process starts with sugarcane,
Senior Editor Senior Developer which is fermented to ethanol that is in turn converted to ethylene monomer
sjenkins@che.com Web/business Applications Architect
MARY PAGE BAILEY csands@accessintel.com via a high-yield dehydration technology. The bio-ethylene is then polymer-
Assistant Editor AUDIENCE ized to produce various grades of bio-PE. The polymers can be transformed,
mbailey@accessintel.com DEVELOPMENT using existing equipment, into products for a wide-range of applications,
CONTRIBUTING SARAH GARWOOD including blow molding, injection molding and films.
EDITORS Audience Marketing Director
sgarwood@accessintel.com Eastman Chemical Co. Perennial wood. Alternatives to wood as
SUZANNE A. SHELLEY GEORGE SEVERINE a building material have been developed to overcome the disadvantages
sshelley@che.com Fulfillment Manager
CHARLES BUTCHER (U.K.) gseverine@accessintel.com
of using real wood, such as shrinking, swelling, rotting and warping. But,
cbutcher@che.com JEN FELLING many say that there is no substitute for real wood. Eastman has com-
PAUL S. GRAD (Australia) List Sales, Statlistics (203) 778-8700 mercialized a wood that has been chemically modified through acetyla-
pgrad@che.com j.felling@statlistics.com
TETSUO SATOH (Japan)
tion to offer a real-wood alternative that is said to be three times more
EDITORIAL
tsatoh@che.com ADVISORY BOARD stable than unmodified wood. The acetylation modification permanently
JOY LEPREE (New Jersey)
JOHN CARSON modifies the woods cellular structure while leaving no toxic substances
jlepree@che.com
GERALD PARKINSON
Jenike & Johanson, Inc. in the wood.
DAVID DICKEY
(California) gparkinson@che.com MixTech, Inc.
Genomatica Bio-based butanediol. Working with its partner DuPont
MARKETING MUKESH DOBLE Tate & Lyle BioProducts, Genomatica has successfully commercialized the
IIT Madras, India
MICHAEL CONTI production of bio-based butanediol (BDO). A total of 5-million lb of product
Marketing Director HENRY KISTER
TradeFair Group, Inc. Fluor Corp. was produced in only five weeks. According to the company, this is the first
michaelc@tradefairgroup.com TREVOR KLETZ time BDO has been produced at commercial scale from renewable feed-
Loughborough University, U.K.
JENNIFER BRADY
GERHARD KREYSA (retired)
stocks. The bio-based process is said to have a smaller environmental foot-
Assistant Marketing Manager
TradeFair Group, Inc. DECHEMA e.V. print and is designed for better overall economics than conventional BDO
jbrady@che.com RAM RAMACHANDRAN made from fossil fuels. Genomatica credits its fast scaleup success, in part,
(Retired) The Linde Group
HEADQUARTERS
to good chemical engineering discipline.
88 Pine Street, 5th Floor, New York, NY 10005, U.S. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) Propylene glycol
Tel: 212-621-4900 Fax: 212-621-4694 from renewable resources (PGRS). Up to 2.5-billion lb of petroleum are
EUROPEAN EDITORIAL OFFICES consumed each year to meet worldwide demand for propylene glycol (PG).
Zeilweg 44, D-60439 Frankfurt am Main, Germany
Tel: 49-69-9573-8296 Fax: 49-69-5700-2484 Scientists at PNNL have developed novel catalysts for producing PG from
CIRCULATION REQUESTS: renewable sources. PGRS is said to be the worlds first industrial-scale
Tel: 847-564-9290 Fax: 847-564-9453 process for producing U.S. Pharmacopeia-grade PG from renewable plant
Fullfillment Manager; P.O. Box 3588,
Northbrook, IL 60065-3588 email: chemeng@omeda.com
sources, utilizing glycerol obtained from soybean processing. The process
ADVERTISING REQUESTS: see p. 56
is economically competitive with petroleum-based routes, and results in
For photocopy or reuse requests: 800-772-3350 or info@copyright.com up to 61% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions, according to PNNL. The
For reprints: Wrights Media, 1-877-652-5295, sales@wrightsmedia.com technology was licensed to Archer Daniels Midland Co., which designed,
ACCESS INTELLIGENCE, LLC engineered and commissioned a new 100,000 metric ton per year produc-
DON PAZOUR ROBERT PACIOREK tion facility.
Chief Executive Officer Senior Vice President,
ED PINEDO
Chief Information Officer Rive Technology Molecular Highway catalyst
Executive Vice President SYLVIA SIERRA technology. Innovations in fluid catalytic cracking (FCC)
& Chief Financial Officer Senior Vice President,
MACY L. FECTO
Corporate Audience Development catalysts have largely focused on improvements to matri-
Exec. Vice President, MICHAEL KRAUS ces, binders and additives rather than on the zeolite com-
Human Resources & Administration VP, Production, Digital Media
HEATHER FARLEY
& Design ponent. Rive has focused on the zeolite, and has developed
Divisional President, STEVE BARBER a mesoporous zeolite technology for improved mass trans-
Access Intelligence Vice President,
DANIEL MCKINNON
Financial Planning and Internal Audit fer into and within the zeolite crystals. This technology
Vice President, GERALD STASKO makes traditional zeolite cracking catalysts more acces-
Energy and Engineering Events Vice President/Corporate Controller
sible to large hydrocarbon molecules and thereby allows
increased production of gasoline and diesel fuels.
Dorothy Lozowski, Executive Editor
4 Choke Cherry Road, Second Floor
Rockville, MD 20850 www.accessintel.com CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013 5
Easily Apply KALPOXY
800-876-3837 | www.badgermeter.com/valvepos16
SOME THINK
Introduction to Fluid Mechanics. By
Faith A. Morrison. Cambridge University
YOU CAN
Press, University Printing House, Shaftes-
bury Road, Cambridge CB2 8BS, U.K. Web:
cambridge.org. 2013. 940 pages. $135.00.
SPECIALIST
wiley.com. 2013. 360 pages. $175.00.
APPLICATIONS.
Chromatography for the Petroleum
Industry. By Fabrice Bertoncini, Marlene
Courtiade-Tholance and Didier Thibaut.
WE THINK
Editions Technip, 25 rue Giroux, 75015,
Paris, France. Web: editionstechnip.com,
DIFFERENT.
2013. 368 pages. $72.00.
CONTOUR transmits a 3D
graphical display to capture
powerful consumption data.
Circle 10 on p. 56 or go to adlinks.che.com/45774-10
C HEMENTATO R
Bio-butanol scaleup
moves ahead with trials . . .
I n April development tests, Cobalt Technologies (Cobalt;
Mountain View, Calif; www.cobalttech.com) produced
n-butanol at the fermentation scale of 100 m3 per run,
demonstrating lower production cost than butanol pro-
duced from petroleum. This represents production that is
a factor of 10 larger than previous trials conducted at the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL; Golden,
Colo.; www.nrel.gov), and one-tenth of full-scale commer-
cial production. The trials were conducted at a site in
Florida owned by biofuels company LS9 Inc. (San Fran-
cisco, Calif.; www.ls9.com)
Cobalt is exploring opportunities in the U.S. for retro-
fitting an existing corn ethanol plant to eventually pro-
duce butanol from available biomass, explains Cobalt
CEO Bob Mayer.
Developed using a range of biomass sources, including
sugarcane bagasse, woody biomass, and other agricultural
residuals, the Cobalt bio-butanol process involves a carbo-
hydrate extraction process that is integrated with fermen-
tation and distillation. Cobalt employs fermentation strains
specially selected for their ability to metabolize both five-
and six-carbon sugars. The company has developed propri-
etary bioreactor technology that will allow continuous fer-
mentation, as well as an advanced batch process.
By combining integrated extraction, continuous fermen-
tation and strain selection technologies with an efficient, With over 50 independent subsidiar-
reduced-energy distillation process and low-cost biomass, ies and more than 220 engineering
Circle 19 on p. 56 or go to adlinks.che.com/45774-19
the company can produce butanol at savings of 4060% and sales offices spread across the
compared to petroleum-derived butanol, Mayer says. world, SAMSON ensures the safety
and environmental compatibility of
your plants on any continent.
. . . and a bio-butadiene plant is planned To offer the full range of high-quality
O n the heels of its successful scaleup of bio-butanol, Cobalt
is looking for pathways to use that molecule as a build-
ing block for other products. The company has announced
control equipment used in industrial
processes, SAMSON has brought
plans to build the first bio-butadiene plant in Asia. Pro- together highly specialized compa-
jected to come onstream in 2017, the plant will utilize tra- nies to form the SAMSON GROUP.
ditional chemical catalysis technology to take bio-butanol
to butadiene.
Cobalt CEO Bob Mayer says the company is developing
an intellectual property package for the bio-butadiene that
will be marketed worldwide. As a key raw material for au- SAMSON AG MESS- UND REGELTECHNIK
tomobile tires and other products, butadienes worldwide Weismllerstrae 3
market is eight times larger than the $5-billion annual 60314 Frankfurt am Main Germany
market for butanol, Mayer notes. Phone: +49 69 4009-0 Fax: +49 69 4009-1507 (Continues on p. 19)
E-mail: samson@samson.de www.samson.de
SAMSONCHEMICAL
GROUP www.samsongroup.net
ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013 15
A01120EN
Newsfront
CO2 UTILIZATION
Researchers are developing new
technologies for using CO2 as a feedstock
FIGURE 1. This miniplant in Leverkusen, Germany
to make a variety of chemicals is being used to develop CO2-containing polymers for
making polyurethane foam used in cars and furniture
n May 9, atmospheric carbon di- petroleum-derived feedstock needed mol that is being used to accelerate
Circle 5 on p. 56 or go to adlinks.che.com/45774-05
F ence on CO2 as Feedstock for Chemistry and Polymers, which takes place October
79 at the Haus der Technik, in Essen, Germany. Organized by nova-institut GmbH
(Hrth, Germany; www.nova-institut.de), the event is expected to draw more than 300
project is lead by Sunfire GmbH (Dres-
participants from leading industrial and academic players in CO2 utilization.
den, Germany; www.sunfire.de), with
seven partners from German research
is the use of bifunctional catalysts to cell, but Dioxide Materials recently won institutes and companies. The idea is to
lower the voltage needed to convert a $5 million DOE Advanced Research produce syngas by the reverse water-
CO2 to CO or HCOOH. Bifunctional Projects Agency (ARPA-E) award and gas shift (RWGS) reaction (CO2 + H2
catalysts are quite well known in in- is collaborating on the project with > H2O + CO) using H2 generated by
dustry, but they usually involve two 3M (St. Paul, Minn.; www.3m.com), a high-temperature steam electrolysis.
different metals or a metal and a metal sub-recipient of the ARPA-E award, The syngas is then converted to liquids
oxide. Dioxide Materials advance was and is currently evaluating the tech- (gasoline, diesel, kerosene, methanol)
to develop novel bifunctional catalysts nology. Since the ARPA-E funded work and methane via F-T synthesis.
that combined a metal and an organic started in February 2013, the team What makes the project unique is the
species (ionic liquids) to lower the has already increased the CO output use of a 10-MW prototype, solid-oxide
overpotential for the reaction (that of the cell by three orders of magnitude fuel cell (SOFC) electrolyzer operating
is, reducing the energy barrier for the (from microliters per minute to milli- under pressure. Using electricity gen-
formation of the CO2 intermediate). liters per minute). The final goal of erated from renewable sources (solar
Dioxide Materials technology cre- the ARPA-E project is to increase the or wind power), and by utilizing steam
ates a new reaction pathway for the re- output to liters per minute, in a design generated from the downstream RWGS
action, that does not require the high- that is scalable to the industrial (thou- and F-T reactions, the HT electrolyzer
energy intermediate so the wasted sands of tons per day) scale. has an efficiency of over 90%, according
energy is much less. Research (pub- Meanwhile, the BMBF-funded Sun- to Sunfire. An integrated 159-L/d test
lished in Science) showed that CO2 fire project was started in May 2012 facility will be constructed and used for
can be converted to CO and O2 at 80% with the aim to produce Fischer-Trop- validating the process under realistic
energy efficiency and 98% selectivity. sch (F-T) liquids from CO2 and H2O operating conditions.
The initial work was done in a 1-cm2 using renewable energy. The three-year Gerald Ondrey
Circle 1 on p. 56 or go to adlinks.che.com/45774-01
Newsfront
COOLING-TOWER WATER:
A HYBRID PROBLEM
CALLS FOR A FIGURE 1. Processors are faced with
the traditional cooling-tower water-treat-
ment issues, as well as new problems re-
HYBRID SOLUTION
lated to water scarcity and intake and dis-
charge restrictions, which require a new
approach to water-treatment programs
BWA Water Additives
S
caling, fouling and corrosion have senior vice president of corporate sales
long been the enemy of cooling- with C.C.I. Chemical Corp. (Vernon,
tower water. While these issues Calif.; www.ccichemical.com). Every
still present significant water- program will differ because make-up
treatment hurdles, todays processors water will differ based on where it
are also dealing with impaired water comes from, the region in which the fa-
streams and increasing restrictions cility is located, and factors such as the
affecting intake and discharge water, alkalinity, hardness, and other charac-
among other challenges. This one-two teristics of the water.
punch has necessitated a hybrid ap- Usually, a robust treatment pro-
proach one that includes both ad- gram will include a balanced chem-
vanced chemistries and modern, auto- istry containing one or more biocides, FIGURE 2. Here, BWA scientists are
mated equipment to cooling-tower algaecides, biodispersants, corrosion developing biodegradable, high-perfor-
water treatment (Figure 1). and scale inhibitors, anti-scalants, mance antiscalants for water treatment
and cleaners.
Classic treatment objectives their cooling tower water from else-
Cooling-tower water treatment is an Todays treatment objectives where, says Kaveh Someah, global
integral part of operations for proces- As if finding the proper chemistry bal- director, oil-and-gas and refining and
sors because productivity and product ance were not tricky enough, a recent petrochemical industries with Ovivo
quality can be adversely affected by set of water-related issues complicate USA (Salt Lake City, Utah; www.ovi-
scale, corrosion, fouling and microbio- matters further. The scarcity of water vowater.com).
logical contamination. These water- in many places and the tightening of For these and other reasons, its not
treatment problems can be very costly discharge permits are among some of unusual to see a cooling system with
when they lead to the loss of heat the reasons processors need to optimize multiple sources of water blended to-
transfer in the cooling tower, equip- water use. Additional factors include gether in varying ratios being used
ment failure, and health and safety the anticipated U.S. Environmental as cooling tower makeup water, says
concerns, according to Narasimha Rao, Protection Agency (EPA; Washington, Eric Thungstrom, global cooling prod-
vice president, R&D and Automation, D.C.) regulation surrounding cooling- uct manager, water and process tech-
with Nalco Co. (Naperville, Ill.; www. tower intake water. Section 316(b) nologies, with GE Power & Water (Tre-
nalco.com). of the Clean Water Act will require vose, Pa.; www.ge-energy.com). This
For this reason, delicately balanced that the location, design, construction can lead to variable water quality, and
chemistries are used to prevent scale, and capacity of cooling-water intake if a treatment program is designed
fouling and corrosion in cooling tower structures reflect the best technology around a projected water quality, but
water. A good water treatment com- available for minimizing adverse envi- if that water quality is more variable
pany will create a tailored program to ronmental impact. These anticipated than what was projected, it may put
help processors tackle the particular regulations will force processors to ei- additional stress on the treatment
issues that apply to the local stream ther install equipment that will reduce program and cause performance is-
of make-up water, says Tom Falsey, fish entrainment at the intake or draw sues, such as corrosion or scaling.
20 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
CLEANING BEYOND
THE COOLING TOWER
ith so many processors using re-
F in water chemistry so frequent that white rust corrosion of galvanized steel resulted in
capital cost expenditures of $750,000 to replace failed cooling towers.
White rust caused premature failure of galvanized-steel components. A white gelatinous or waxy
deposit often identifies white-rust corrosion. This deposit, a zinc-rich oxide, is porous and gener-
ally non-protective. High alkalinity, high pH and low hardness cause the problem. All of these
conditions existed at this facility and were aggravated by variations in water chemistry that made
control problematic.
The cooling-system make-up water contained 46 parts per million (ppm) of calcium hardness,
necessitating high-cycle operation to obtain the minimum 50 ppm calcium hardness recommended
by the Cooling Tower Institute (CTI; Houston; www.cti.org) to prevent white rust. Acid feed was also
required to bring the alkalinity within CTI guidelines.
New evaporative condensers were installed in November 2003, and a very small amount of white
rust became apparent upon inspection months later. Concerned that this condition would result in
further damage to the cooling towers, the plant engineering staff installed Nalcos 3D Trasar system in
January 2004. The technology measures key parameters related to system stress. When upsets occur,
3D Trasar technology takes timely, appropriate, corrective action. It then communicates with system
users, informing them of what happened, as well as the actions taken to compensate.
High-cycle operation required acid feed in order to reduce alkalinity. If the acid-feed system failed,
the tower pH would rise. At higher pH, conditions would be right for white rust formation. Timely at-
tention to any failure of the acid-feed system was critical to preventing this operational problem. The
automated technology provided alarm notification via cell phone, text message, email, or digital pager,
ensuring the right people knew about any problem immediately and could take corrective action.
Weekly inspections are conducted on the cooling tower and results since installation of the technol-
ogy have been excellent. The automation program has been able to better control the system water
chemistry, white rust has been abated and an expected $45,000 per year in cost savings has been
realized. An important key to the success of the program is the alarm notification feature. It contacts
FIGURE 3. TrueSense Online Nalco via cell phone and communicates specific problems so that immediate response can occur.
for Cooling is an integrated This has helped keep the program in compliance more than 99% of the time.
platform that directly measures No scale or other mild steel corrosion problems have been observed and cost savings have come
and controls applied chemis- from longer expected evaporative condenser life ($25,000 per year), reduced cooling-water sewer
tries that are critical for man- costs ($10,000 per year), reduced treatment chemical costs ($8,000 per year) and labor savings
aging cooling-water efficiency from reduced testing ($2,500 per year).
and preserving key assets in
industrial cooling systems
Nalco
sponsible use of chemicals, has caused nologies that can help consis-
many processors to pursue control- tently, accurately and automati-
ling these factors within the plant cally dose the chemicals and keep
rather than passing them on to the track of making sure nothing is
local water treatment facility, which off balance.
might be treatment limited or invoke New and advanced chemistries
surcharges for wastewaters with high might include something like BWA
levels of certain constituents, says Water Additives Belclene 810,
Hamidi. This has led to processors which is a biodegradable PMA, or
targeting reduction or elimination of polymaleic acid, that can be used in
any contributors to the plant effluent cooling-water treatment programs
that will tip the limits for phosphorus, where the processor requires P-
nitrogen and other constituents, she free, N-free or metals-free formu- FIGURE 4. A technician looks inside a 3D
Trasar Controller, which helps maintain con-
says. Often, typical phosphonate- lations and also wants to achieve trol over critical cooling assets
based cooling water chemistries will very high cycles of concentration
be the largest contributor of phospho- within the cooling tower to save water. ant used to control organic deposits
rus and nitrogen, and therefore will This chemistry is considered envi- that can develop on RO membranes.
spur substitution to P-free and N-free ronmentally acceptable and is both In addition to chemistries that meet
cooling-water treatment chemistries. a threshold and a crystal growth in- modern discharge requirements, Thun-
hibitor, which makes it better at scale gstrom says processors also require
Solving combined challenges inhibition than phosphonates that more stable and effective chemistries.
Between handling tough-to-treat are typically just threshold inhibitors, GE Power & Water offers GenGard
water sources and stricter discharge while meeting P-free and N-free treat- 8000 for control of corrosion and de-
limits, water treatment experts say a ment objectives (Figure 2). posits in open recirculating cooling
hybrid water-treatment approach is For the processor who has RO mem- systems. GenGard programs can be
needed. New and advanced chemis- branes in their operations, BWA has applied across the entire pH spectrum
tries designed to meet the discharge also developed Flocon 885, a biode- from neutral to alkaline and ensure re-
limits should be combined with tech- gradable, P-free and N-free antiscal- sults even under stressful conditions.
22 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
Nalco Nalco
Circle 18 on p. 56 or go to adlinks.che.com/45774-18
FOCUS ON
Level Measurement
Precision Digital
Vega Grieshaber KG Krohne Messtechnik
Reliable switching in storage or process tanks with pro- volume, percent or a custom label. The
down to 196C cess temperatures up to 250C and meter also features a 20-segment tank-
The Vegaswing 66 vibrating level pressures up to 40 bars. The unit has level indicator that displays the height.
switch (photo) is said to be the first of been designed and developed for use The meter is optimized for wide-angle
a kind for extreme temperatures. Es- in SIL-2 safety-related systems ac- viewing of about 80 deg. The meter has
pecially suitable for cryogenic liquids, cording to IEC 61508. The polypropyl- FM, ATEX, CSA and IEC Ex approv-
the device switches reliably in process ene (PP) and polytetrafluoroethylene als, and is housed in a cast-aluminum
temperatures from 196 to 450C, and (PTFE) Wave Horn antennas are pro- NEMA 4X enclosure. Precision Dig-
operates at pressures from vacuum to cess sealed by their antenna material ital Corp., Hollister, Pa.
160 bars. The level switch offers in- instead of a traditional O-ring seal www.predig.com
creased protection and safety for gas- construction. These gasket-free anten-
liquefaction plants and liquefied gas nas are therefore suited for extreme This capacitance probe is
tanks used for processing, transport- corrosive environments, says the com- flexible for tight fits
ing or storing liquefied natural gas pany. The new meter is compliant with This bendable capacitance probe
(LNG) or liquid nitrogen. The device requirements such as SIL and Namur (photo) is designed to fit into tight
has standard approval for explosion recommendations NE 107, 21, 43 and spaces or in vessels where obstruc-
protection according to ATEX and FM, 53, and offers a 420-mA HART com- tions prevent the installation of a
as well as for use on ships and offshore munication with dedicated PACTware straight probe. The probe can be bent
platforms. Vega Grieshaber KG, DTMs. Krohne Messtechnik GmbH, to avoid obstructions in a vessel while
Schiltach, Germany Duisburg, Germany still allowing adequate probe surface
www.vega.com www.krohne.com area to confirm the presence or ab-
sence of material. Mounted on the side
Corrosive environments are This explosion-proof meter of the bin, the bendable probe can be
not a problem for these meters displays level and volume used in a wide range of solid materials
Launched in February, the Optiwave The PD6801 ProtEX F&I Level Meter or slurries. These capacitance probes
5200 C/F is a new 10 GHz FMCW (fre- (photo) is an easy-to-read, explosion- work at 6 kHz far below the radio-
quency modulated, continuous wave) proof meter designed for safe or haz- frequency (RF) level of 9 kHz and
radar level meter (photo) for liquid ardous environments, such as oil wells will not interfere with two-way radios
applications up to 300-m measuring or chemical storage. The 420-mA or other equipment operating in the
range. The two-wire, loop-powered loop-powered input displays level in radio spectrum, says the company.
device measures level and volume feet and inches; a second line shows Standard probes feature a triple-
24 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
American Sensor Technologies
Focus
sors. This controller may be used with Draw, view and share molecular cal blenders are gentler, allowing for
constant wattage, mineral-insulated structures in realtime mixing of powders, pellets, granules
or self-regulating heat-trace cables. New ChemDraw and Chem3D apps and fibers in delicate and abrasive
Chromalox, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pa. for iPad tablets (photo) provide mobile conditions. In vacuum drying opera-
www.chromalox.com access to robust molecular drawing tion, the blenders can accommodate
and viewing tools for use in education, slurries, wet cakes, pastes and flow-
This jet fuel analyzer enhances R&D and publishing. The apps feature able solids. Requiring only low heat
safety through automation the unique Flick-to-Share tool, which to drive off moisture or solvents, vac-
The Alcor JFTOT 230 Mark IV (JFTOT gives users the ability to rapidly share uum drying in a vertical blender dries
IV) is a new jet-fuel thermal oxidation molecular structures across mobile de- heat-sensitive materials without risk
analyzer (photo) designed for increased vices, eliminating the need for emails of thermal degradation, while also
safety and simplicity. New safety mea- and cloud storage services. Chem3D consuming less energy. The blender
sures in this compact model ensure min- is a molecular viewer app where sci- features a mechanical arm that ro-
imal jet-fuel vapor-exposure to person- entists can explore structures in three tates an auger around the conical ves-
nel and the environment through the dimensions by using the touchscreen to sel. The auger turns on its own axis.
sample and waste containers. The slid- rotate, expand and contract models for Spray nozzles may be installed for liq-
ing test door also prevents exposure to a clearer display of spatial properties. uid addition and coating purposes.
the high-temperature heater-tube test Chem3D can display 3-D models of pro- Charles Ross & Son Co., Hauppauge,
section. The JFTOT IV simplifies op- teins, DNA, crystals and assemblies in N.Y.
erational capabilities through automa- many formats, such as ball-and-stick, www.mixers.com
tion of tasks, such as priming the pump, wireframe, space-filling and cartoon.
monitoring sample flow and aerating PerkinElmer, Inc., Waltham, Mass. Avoid cross-contamination with
the sample. The JFTOT IV is listed in www.perkinelmer.com this lubrication system
Table 1 of ASTM D3241-13, Standard This Lubrication Storage and Dis-
Test Method for Thermal Oxidation Use this vertical blender for low- pensing System (photo, p. 28) consists
Stability of Aviation Turbine Fuels, shear mixing or vacuum drying of two 65-gal containers and one 130-
as an acceptable instrument model. This companys vertical blenders gal container. Features to the cus-
The Petroleum Analyzer Company (photo, p. 28) are used for low-shear tomizable system include three-way
(PAC), L.P., Houston, Tex. blending and vacuum drying. Com- product diverter valve assemblies,
www.paclp.com pared to other blender varieties, verti- individual pumping systems, and
Note: For more information, circle the 3-digit number CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013 27
on p. 56, or use the website designation.
New Products
SESSION HIGHLIGHTS
KEYNOTE SESSION: The Shale Gale is Blowing:
Plotting a Course That Avoids the Shoals and Rocks
Shale gas has revitalized the Chemical Industry in the U.S. The economic benefits have been
widely described, but there is little discussion if the impacts of the great increase in ethane David S. Bem, Ph.D.,
cracking. The shifting feedstock slate creates both challenges and opportunities for new Global R&D Director,
technologies. The shoals and rocks caused by the shale gale will be described and a course
The Dow Chemical Company
described that can provide an even brighter future for the industry will be described.
Securing Industrial
Control Systems
ICSs are vulnerable
targets to cyber attacks.
More than conventional
IT-security solutions are
needed to protect them
Andrew Ginter
Waterfall Security Solutions
S
ecurity of SCADA (supervisory
control and data acquisition) and
other industrial control systems
(ICSs) is a complex subject, and
one that has received much attention
in recent years. While modern indus-
trial control systems use many of the
same computers, operating systems
and networking components as con-
ventional business networks, the two suggests that on industrial networks, is it that the proposed change will so
kinds of networks are managed very these priorities are often reversed so badly impair the operation of the con-
differently. As a result, what is com- that availability and integrity are the trol system that we are forced to shut
mon wisdom on business networks highest priorities for industrial net- down this billion-dollar physical asset,
can be utter nonsense on control sys- works. While this was the best wisdom because we are no longer confident of
tem networks. available when much of this advice our ability to operate it safely? Safety
On the other hand, control system was written, we know better now. is always our first priority, and reli-
networks are notoriously vulner- Every time any group of people at ability is our second. And yes, some-
able to certain kinds of attacks, and a chemical facility gathers for a meet- times we have trade secrets to protect
whether common security wisdom ing, the first order of business, without as well.
works on these networks or not, exception, is safety. The discussions in- What does this mean for cybersecu-
these vulnerabilities must still be ad- clude familiar statements, such as Are rity? Consider the business network
dressed. This article looks at what the there any newcomers in the group? A in any large enterprise. Millions of
differences between control-system long, continuous alarm means evacu- Web pages and hundreds of thousands
and business networks are, what is ate the building. The emergency exits of emails are pulled into the network
working and what is not, and at what are around the corner to your left, and every day. Each of those Web pages
leading security practitioners in the so on. and each of those emails is a potential
chemical process industries (CPI), as Safety is the highest priority at every attack. Business networks are under
well as other industries, are doing to industrial site, and also for every con- constant attack. How do profession-
address these problems. trol system network. For every change als deal with this constant, perva-
to any control system component we sive threat? In part, they deal with it
Safety first always ask how likely is it that this through constant, aggressive change.
Cybersecurity concerns for business change will kill anyone? or will it Stay ahead of the bad guys. Update
networks are prioritized according to create a public safety risk? or will it anti-virus signatures several times
confidentiality, integrity and avail- cause an environmental catastrophe? per day. Apply the latest vendor se-
ability, in that order. Most existing When we have acceptable answers to curity updates within two days of the
advice for industrial cybersecurity those questions, we ask how likely vendors release.
30 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
This is the exact opposite of how passwords, to simple denial-of-service eration of old equipment equipment
control system networks are man- network flooding attacks. that is extremely costly to replace, be-
aged. Control system networks are A confusing factor associated with cause the testing and scrutiny neces-
generally configured to be unable to these vulnerabilities has been the sary to ensure that replacement hard-
exchange information directly with responsible disclosure debate. How ware and software are sufficiently
the Internet, and so are not under should new vulnerabilities be dis- reliable and are configured and de-
constant attack. The biggest risk to in- closed? Responsible disclosure holds ployed correctly.
dustrial networks is the connection to that details of newly discovered vul- Deploying a new version of soft-
the business network. nerabilities should not be disclosed ware is more than a process of a little
The discipline used to keep a control publicly until the vendor has had an testing. Deploying sweeping changes
system safe and operating reliably is opportunity to produce a fix for the to control systems or to the physical
called engineering change control. problems, and anti-virus and intru- process itself, as often occurs at long
Every change to a control system is a sion-detection vendors have had an intervals during site refurbishment,
potential threat to safety and reliabil- opportunity to craft new signatures. is a daunting task. The task involves
ity. Anti-virus signatures can cause Security researchers who have dis- months and even years of planning,
false-positive matches that shut closed vulnerabilities outside of this then an intense burst of effort deploy-
down and quarantine essential parts process have been sharply criticized. ing and upgrading everything, and
of control system software. Security But think about it how much then additional weeks of all hands on
updates can contain arbitrary changes less secure are we if someone pub- deck effort to bring the plant back on-
to operating system and application lishes a serious security vulnerability line, safely, to full production.
code, and must be assessed, tested in industrial software before a fix is Take all this together and it is easy
and very cautiously rolled out in order available? Most industrial sites are to see that while control systems use
to preserve safety and reliability. Be- unable to apply security updates in technologies that are similar to IT sys-
cause of their constant change, anti- a timely manner because of safety- tems, control systems are constrained
virus systems and security updates and-reliability-focused testing re- in ways that are alien to IT systems.
are very costly programs to roll out quirements, even if those updates are As a result, a wide array of IT-style
on control system networks, and ev- available. Worse, any attacker worth cybersecurity approaches are either
eryone has a horror story to tell about their salt can spend a morning with ineffective on control systems, or are
the impact of these programs on at the software and find their own half in fact counter-productive on control
least reliability. dozen zero-day undisclosed, criti- systems, resulting in net impairments
cal vulnerabilities themselves. They of safety, or reliability, or both.
Vulnerabilities dont need disclosed vulnerabilities
The bad news is that vulnerabilities when finding their own undisclosed Cyber-threat spectrum
and security problems do not go away ones is trivial. If control systems are more vulner-
simply because IT (information tech- The extreme vulnerability of con- able than IT systems, what are they
nology) solutions to those problems trol system software is compounded vulnerable to? Who are we worried
work badly. Control system software by well-known problems, such as the about? Todays cyber-threat spectrum
is notoriously vulnerable to even very use of plain-text communications pro- is outlined in Table 1.
simple attacks. Back-of-the-envelope tocols and very old software compo- Organized crime. Organized crime is
calculations suggest that there are nents. An attacker with access to an still responsible for the vast majority
at least 100,000 buffer-overflow vul- industrial network can simply send of malware circulating on the Internet.
nerabilities, alone, waiting to be dis- plain-text commands to any device Professional virus authors produce
covered in control system software. on the network and those devices will products that steal credit-card and
Security researchers who look for carry out the commands without ques- banking information, and that har-
vulnerabilities confirm this calcula- tion. Very old equipment presents a ness compromised machines to send
tion. They report that after only a similar problem. How many anti-virus spam and launch denial-of-service at-
mornings effort, they typically find vendors still support their products on tacks. Organized crime has resources
up to a dozen critical vulnerabilities Windows NT systems? Does Microsoft (money and talent) to spend producing
in every bit of industrial software issue security updates any more for sophisticated attack tools. And by and
product they examine. Windows 2000 systems? large, the resulting attacks are autono-
The problem is not limited to buffer- All of these problems will take a mous they spread automatically to
overflow vulnerabilities. Until very very long time to solve, if that is even as many machines as possible.
recently, cybersecurity was simply not possible. Control systems administra- Insiders. Disgruntled insiders are a
a design criterion for industrial-soft- tors have proven to be very reluctant perennial threat, one typically dealt
ware product development. Industrial to deploy device-communications with via personnel and background
control-system products are notori- encryption because of the impact on checks, as well as via detailed audit-
ously vulnerable to everything from maintainability and reliability. Old ing. With sufficient auditing, it is dif-
SQL (Structured Query Language)-in- software versions on old operating ficult for an insider to be confident
jection attacks, to hard-coded vendor systems are often essential to the op- of causing damage without being
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013 31
Cover Story
TX agent RX agent
host
Hardware-enforced
one-way communications
IP IP
Plant Replica
historian TX gateway RX gateway historian
appliance appliance
FIGURE 1. Unidirectional security gateways can replace one or more levels of irewalls. In this example, the RX software on the
outside network populates replica servers with the data
The goal is to design safety and pro- a laser, and the receive (RX) gateway Server replication is, in general, very
tection systems so thoroughly that no contains a photocell. Together, the possible. Protocol emulation or prox-
matter what the cyber attack, these two are able to transmit information ies generally are not possible over
systems are able to detect unsafe con- out of a control system network, with- unidirectional hardware.
ditions and trigger a safe shutdown. out any risk of any attack penetrat- This technology is being deployed
To accomplish this cybersecurity func- ing back into that network. widely in conventional power genera-
tion, the safety and protection sys- With firewalls, every connection tion as well as nuclear-power genera-
tems must themselves be thoroughly through the firewall that allows data tion plants. The cybersecurity regu-
protected from attack, often by physi- out of a network, also allows attacks lations for nuclear power generation
cally controlling access to the systems, back into the network. Firewalls do not have encouraged hardware-enforced
and by isolating them, to some degree, provide access to data on protected net- unidirectional technology for some
from the plant network. If this design works; they provide access to systems years already. In more conventional
succeeds and protecting against all on those networks. With the gateways, power generation, the new North
possible cyber-sabotage is not easy it does not matter what kind of attack American Electric Reliability Council
then the cyber threat is reduced to a is launched on the receive-side of the (NERC) critical infrastructure protec-
threat to reliability only, not a threat gateway no signal at all, not a mes- tion (CIP) regulations (NERC-CIP V5)
to safety. In many industries, reliabil- sage, not a byte, not a bit can pass have been updated to recognize the
ity is a business problem, not a public through the unidirectional hardware strong security offered by this alterna-
safety problem, and can be addressed to interfere with the safety-critical or tive to firewalls.
with mechanisms such as buying in- reliability-critical network. Power plants even nuclear sites
surance if additional cyber protec- Now, since nearly all modern com- tend to be much smaller and sim-
tions are cost-prohibitive. In other munications protocols are fundamen- pler than chemical plants or petro-
industries, such as the power grid, or tally bi-directional, no normal proto- leum refineries, though. Most deploy-
in geographies where petroleum re- cols can be used to push data through ments in the power industry use the
fineries or other installations perform the unidirectional hardware. Instead, gateways to replace the layer of fire-
functions that are essential to society the gateway software replicates serv- walls between the plant network and
or national security, reducing a safety ers. The software runs on conventional the business network at a site. At CPI
threat to a reliability threat is a step computers on the control system and sites, deployment models are more
in the right direction, but more action external networks. The TX software varied. Some sites are deploying the
is needed. on the control system network gathers gateways at the high-volume connec-
data from servers, such as production tion between the plant network and
Unidirectional gateways historians, or OPC servers, or even the business network, but not all of
Unidirectional security gateways are PLCs (programmable logic control- them. Some large sites are associat-
a security technology that replaces lers), which are Modbus servers in ing their reliability-critical assets
one or more layers of firewalls in a TCP (transmission control protocol) with smaller control network seg-
defense-in-depth architecture. The parlance. The data are sent over the ments. These sites manage the plant-
technology consists of both hardware unidirectional hardware using custom wide network in much the same way
and software. protocols. The RX software on the out- as their corporate network. These
The hardware is a pair of network side network populates replica servers sites deploy the gateways deeper into
appliances called gateways, con- with the data. Users on the outside the defensive architecture, replac-
nected by a short fiber-optic cable. networks access the data they need ing either the firewalls protecting
The transmit (TX) gateway contains by connecting to the replica servers. individual DCSs (distributed control
34 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
systems), or sometimes the firewalls site, and none other, will never appear reliability-critical change control im-
at the perimeter of safety and protec- on a signatures list. Application con- peratives are put in charge of security
tion systems. trol simply blocks all software that is programs. This confusion is becoming
In principle, safety and protection not explicitly approved to run, assum- commonplace, as the trend is toward
systems really should not be connected ing that everything new or changed consolidating operations network en-
to control networks or plant networks is forbidden, no matter whether the gineering and cybersecurity teams
at all. These systems should be as software comes from a USB stick or a with corporate IT teams under a sin-
safe from outside interference, and network connection. gle CIO/CSO executive.
as tightly change-controlled, as pos- The allow only known good soft- CIOs need to start asking their IT
sible. In practice, there is enormous ware approach is a good match for security experts the same questions
value in monitoring all equipment at a change-controlled networks. On such that operations teams are asking
site, including the health and activity networks, every unauthorized, un- those experts: how likely is it that
of safety systems. Connecting these tested change is a threat to safety and this change youre proposing will kill
systems to networks via firewalls is reliability. Application control adds one of us? CIOs need to start ask-
dangerous. Making data from safety extra steps to the software deploy- ing which operations-specific security
and protection systems available to ment process, but these are exactly technologies these experts are consid-
outside consumers using hardware- the steps that change-controlled en- ering, or if they are simply assuming
enforced unidirectional gateways is vironments demand. The extra steps that confidentiality-protecting tech-
much safer. validate the changed software, add it nologies will somehow also work to
to allowed lists, and send those lists protect safety and reliability.
Application control to equipment where it is safe to ex- CEOs need to start asking their
An infected USB stick could still be ecute the new software. CIOs what they are doing to protect
carried into the industrial network. Application control is recognized in the safety and reliability of the plants
To protect this soft interior of con- the new CIP V5 standards protecting controlled by the industrial systems
trol system networks, industrial sites the power sector. It is supported by those CIOs now have authority over.
are starting to deploy application con- a growing number of control system What programs are in place to ensure
trol software, or whitelisting as it is vendors, and is starting to be deployed that leading-edge safety-preserving
sometimes called, to protect the inte- in control systems in many sectors. and reliability-preserving technologies
rior of industrial networks. These sys- The vendors who are most mature in and approaches are in place, in addi-
tems are effective at controlling the terms of their adoption of this tech- tion to the confidentiality-preserving
execution of software, not just from nology are the device vendors. A good systems the CIOs have known about
hard drives on industrial systems, but number of modern PLCs and other in- for decades?
also software coming in via USB sticks dustrial devices are based on realtime SCADA security is difficult. Blindly
and other removable media as well. Windows-operating-system variants of applying conventional IT security so-
Application control systems work one sort or another. These vendors are lutions to safety-critical and reliabil-
by producing a list of software that embracing the application control ap- ity-critical systems is a costly under-
is allowed to run on a protected com- proach because their embedded Win- taking, and the constant change that
puter. This list may include names, dows systems are seen as uniquely comes with such programs increases,
signatures, cryptographic checksums vulnerable. These systems often can- rather than decreases, the risk of
and other characteristics. When a pro- not be updated to the latest Microsoft plant outages. While cybersecurity
gram asks to run another program, or security updates in a timely way, and for industrial control systems is not
to load a library, the application con- so benefit disproportionately from the easy, it is do-able, provided we keep
trol subsystem springs into action. strong security protections offered by safety and reliability priorities fore-
Application control asks the question application-control systems. most in our minds.
is the requested software allowed to Edited by Dorothy Lozowski
run? by checking the characteristics Looking forward
of the software against the allowed The SCADA/ICS security picture is a Author
Andrew Ginter is the vice
list. If there is a match, the software complex one. This article has focused president of Industrial Se-
is allowed to run. If there is no match, on emerging trends rather than mea- curity at Waterfall Security
Solutions (Calgary, Alberta,
then this software has never been seen sures that most sites are deploying Canada; Email: andrew.
before, and is not permitted to run. routinely, such as using physical se- ginter@waterfall-security.
com; Website: www.waterfall-
Contrast this with anti-virus sys- curity as a compensating measure security.com). He spent 25
years leading the develop-
tems, which generate lists of millions for control system vulnerabilities, or ment of control-system soft-
of signatures, trying to identify spe- using additional layers of firewalls ware products, control-system
middleware products, and
cific pieces of malware that should as a compensating measure for plain- industrial cybersecurity products. Ginter rep-
never be allowed to run. New malware text communications. resents Waterfall on ISA-SP99, NERC-CIP and
other cybersecurity standards bodies, and writes
exploiting zero-day vulnerabilities SCADA security programs can be- and speaks frequently on industrial cybersecu-
takes time to appear on the list. Cus- come very confused when IT experts rity topics. He holds a B.Sc. in applied mathe-
matics and an M.Sc. in computer science, both
tom malware that is used to attack one not familiar with safety-critical or from the University of Calgary (Alta., Canada).
Capital Equipment
In the CPI Operation
Lifecycle
cost
Maintenance
in capital-cost assessments
FIGURE 1. Initial capital costs alone
are too often the primary criteria for se-
Jeff Hoffmann lecting process equipment
Paul O. Abbe
W
hen considering project pro- ment parts available for both routine Lifecycle cost
posals for new processes in and non-routine maintenance? The purpose of lifecycle-cost (LCC)
the chemical process indus- analysis is to make informed deci-
tries (CPI), capital equip- Minimizing total cost sions based on available alternatives
ment costs often become the primary The emphasis on total operating in order to achieve the most economi-
focus. The purpose of this article is costs over the life of a process does cal process from inception to decom-
to provide a detailed examination of not imply that the initial equipment missioning. LCC takes into account
the total cost of process equipment costs are unimportant. On the con- the design, equipment selection, op-
and the implications that the initial trary, it is precisely the investment eration, maintenance and final dis-
equipment cost has for longterm costs in the correct equipment in the first position costs of a project over its
over the full life of the process. place that is to be examined. The pur- lifespan. LCC is useful for engineers
Aside from equipment costs, other pose of the procurement of process in justifying equipment and process
critical costs to consider include, op- equipment is to perform a particular design based on total costs rather
eration, maintenance and decommis- function within a unit operation. The than the initial purchase price of
sioning (Figure 1). Also, since a pro- goal is not the purchase of a particu- equipment alone.
cess generates revenue only when it lar piece of equipment. If we add the Procurement strategies focused on
is operating, downtime must be added dimension of time, then our defini- lowest initial costs are more likely
to the total costs. When the whole life- tion for process equipment becomes to lead to higher longterm costs. We
time of a process is considered, equip- a piece of equipment that performs a are often directed to reduce costs and
ment costs may account for as little as specific function under various con- work within budgets. In the short run,
510% of the total cost (Figure 2). ditions over a prescribed period of this approach can make us and our
There are a number of questions time. Therefore, we should not focus department appear efficient. How-
that should be considered before mov- on equipment with the lowest initial ever, the lower initial capital costs
ing ahead with projects. How should cost, but rather on the realistic long- may come with maintenance or other
you define the product output, quality, term cost of that purchase. problems that eventually will be real-
unit operations, support equipment In the early 1980s, Edward Deming ized by the company shareholders in
and profitability? Who is responsible the father of quality management the coming years and decades. LCC
for operating and maintaining the stated that organizations should can help avoid unnecessary downtime
process? Do the demands for process end the practice of awarding business and help make a process more com-
performance conflict with operating on the basis of price tag alone and, in- petitive and profitable. At the very
and maintenance realities? What is stead, minimize the total cost. This least, an LCC analysis may prompt
the likelihood that the equipment sentiment is consistent with evaluat- engineers to consider a wider range
will operate trouble-free? Are replace- ing lifecycle cost. of possibilities.
36 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
Installation Environmental
5% 3%
Flush water Process
7% requirements
Downtime
32%
Subcontract
Decommissioning Define unit
all or part of
8% operations
process
Supplier Define
designs equipment
Capital costs
9%
Installation
Operating cost
9% Operation Anticipate
Electric downtime risk
13%
Causes of failure
Maintenance Equipment design
14%
Proper operation
FIGURE 2. Initial capital costs represent a small fraction of the total lifecycle costs Maintenance
Maintenance
for process equipment. The graph depicts the case of a worst case situation with Parts availability
considerable downtime costs (see Table 1, scenario 1, p. 41)
Decom-
The remainder of this article pres- Maintenance costs mission
ents a more-or-less qualitative view Decommissioning costs
of the LCC analysis process and the These components are further subdi- FIGURE 3. The LCC analysis process
elements that go into LCC. The Fur- vided (Figure 4). shown here is designed to minimize total
ther reading list at the end of the cost, even if initial capital costs are higher
article refers readers to several more STEPS IN LCC ANALYSIS
analytic versions of LCC, includ- LCC considers everything in the life tem be modified to accommodate in-
ing Weibull analysis, risk-based cost of a process, starting with a definition creased output of product, changes
analysis, Monte Carlo modeling, and of the process, its unit operations, and in formulation or the addition of a
other what-if analyses. the equipment required to fulfill those step in the process?
The main goals of LCC are: 1) To unit operations, as well as operating Quantify waste. What percent of
identify risks to process operation costs, maintenance costs and finally waste is acceptable? What is the cost
and efficiency; 2) Quantify these risks decommissioning costs. The following of waste disposal? How can waste be
in terms of downtime; and 3) Deter- are the major steps involved in deter- minimized by a change in the pro-
mine how to avoid these risks and mining LCC. cess? Can off-specification product
subsequent losses early in the design be reprocessed or sold off-spec to a
of the system (Figure 3). Assess process requirements. different market?
Tasks to consider when undertaking a
LCC for the CPI new process include the following: Define unit operations
Of all the industries and all the types Determine present and future ca- This step involves identifying the unit
of manufacturing plants in the world, pacity for the product operations and types of equipment re-
it is safe to say that the process in- Anticipate the lifetime of the pro- quired by the process.
dustries are some of the most variable cess. Some processes may have a Subcontract. Subcontracting one or
and complex. With more than 70 mil- lifespan of anywhere from a year or more operations in a process is some-
lion identifiable chemicals and a near- two to decades. Anticipating process thing often overlooked, but can in-
infinite number of combinations, and lifetime will either concentrate or crease cost efficiencies and flexibility.
given the number of unit operations extend cost impacts and affect the Few manufacturers of process equip-
possible, there are many opportuni- long-term maintenance and reliabil- ment manufacture everything mo-
ties to examine process costs. The four ity of the process tors, gear drives and bearings are not
primary components involved in the Define product quality based on cus- manufactured in-house. Likewise,
LCC are: tomer requirements chemical companies do not manufac-
Capital equipment costs Determine process flexibility. How ture all of their raw materials, nor
Operating costs easily can the equipment and sys- do they necessarily perform all tasks
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013 37
Feature Report
FIGURE 8. Different downtime scenarios for availability of parts and other factors can yield variable costs
Scenario 2 Year
High-pressure 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
reactor mixer
Initial capital costs $380,000 $450,000
Split seal and bearing $70,000
option
Installation and $230,000 $230,000
commissioning
Utilities - electric $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $600,000
($0.12/kWh)
- flush water ($0.04/gal) $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $30,000 $300,000
Operating costs $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $40,000 $400,000
(normal supervision)
Maintenance costs $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $60,000 $600,000
Downtime costs $48,000 $48,000 $48,000 $48,000 $148,000 $48,000 $48,000 $48,000 $48,000 $48,000 $480,000
($48,000/d x 1 d)
Environmental costs $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $13,000
$13,000 $13,000 $13,000 $130,000
Decommissioning $350,000 $350,000
Total $931,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $251,000 $601,000 $3,540,000
purchase new equipment be- TABLE 2. COMPARISON OF NEW, USED AND REFURBISHED EQUIPMENT
cause of cost considerations New Refurbished Used
or time. Used equipment may Application Application definition Limited Limited to none
also be the appropriate alter- assistance and machine design
native when time is a con- Design fea- Unlimited Some variations or None (whatever is
sideration, either in terms of tures modifications possible in stock)
delivery or usage. Used equip- as part of the rebuild
process
ment is frequently available
Delivery 48 months 12 months Immediate
for immediate delivery, com-
pared to the relatively long Price 100% 4050% of new 2040% of new
lead times that are typical Mechanical 12 months from instal- 90 days to a few None (as is)
of new capital equipment. In warranty lation or 18 months
from shipment
months
these cases, used equipment
Right to return None None 1030 days
may provide the optimal al-
Parts In-stock or readily The fact that the unit Call OEM and find
ternative (Table 2). availability available is being refurbished out how available
The following scenarios indicates that parts parts are before pur-
favor the purchasing of used are available from the chasing. Parts avail-
or refurbished equipment: OEM. Variable parts ability diminishes
When price is of prime im- availability with time
portance because of invest- Aftermarket Complete technical Limited None
technical support
ment limitations support
When the equipment is
needed immediately for an
emerging market tant to be sure you can obtain parts acquire equipment that will accommo-
When the equipment will be used when needed, especially if the OEM date your process.
for a limited time, such as a feasibil- is located in another country. Trying Mechanical warranty. Mechanical
ity study or short-production run for to get parts for an overseas machine warranties are a certainty with new
a special product or market made 30 years ago, for example, may equipment, but their real purpose
When the equipment can be eco- be a challenge. Is the company still should not be overestimated. Warran-
nomically modified to fit the pur- in business? Where are their foreign ties are not substitutes for proper op-
pose. This will have a lot to do with offices? Some resourceful companies eration or preventative maintenance
your ability to refurbish and main- have recognized a gap in the supply and should not be construed as pro-
tain the equipment chain and decided to manufacture cess guarantees. Mechanical warran-
When the process is routine, low parts for older domestic or foreign ties provide benefits especially during
output or low risk. Infrequently equipment. Once you find them, you the initial startup period. If faults
run equipment will have more op- may be in good shape. arise, they will likely occur during the
portunity for PM and will be more Aftermarket technical support. initial warranty period.
forgiving With new equipment, the availabil- Avoid surprises and disappointment
ity of good aftersale support is almost by verifying the specifics of the warran-
Aftermarket support assured. But when purchasing used ties before purchasing.
Most companies that manufacture equipment, the OEM may or may not Delivery timing. The delivery time
process equipment would rather sell provide adequate technical support. for used equipment is typically just
new, but most are quite pleased to Find out if drawings, manuals and days, while new equipment will likely
support their older equipment. parts lists are available. They may be months.
Not every company has the same charge $500 to $1,000 for these docu- Design features. Within limits, new
business model. It is important to ments, but it is a good investment to equipment can be outfitted with vir-
know your equipment and the parts ensure you have the right information tually every manner of control, CIP
supply chain. on hand. systems, quick access to internal
The following are some areas of com- Application assistance. There is no parts, and other features to improve
parison that must be considered when doubt that a new equipment manufac- productivity and uptime. Used equip-
deciding between new, refurbished or turer has a vested interest in guiding ment is sold as-is, so you will either
used equipment: you toward the correct equipment for need to find a good match or compro-
Aftermarket parts. This is a very- your application. Due to the nature of mise on the features you would like
important consideration for mainte- chemical processing, subtle changes to have. Refurbished equipment may
nance and repair turnaround time. in product characteristics can have present some opportunities for up-
No matter if you are considering new significant effects on the process and grades and modifications.
or used equipment, you should con- the equipment, which is why process Price. New equipment is not expen-
tact the OEM to find out the avail- guarantees are very rare. It is in the sive if you buy into Edward Demings
ability of parts. It is especially impor- best interest of the OEM to help you idea that you are purchasing total
42 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
value. If you only consider price, then is made and work is undertaken. erating, maintenance and decommis-
new equipment may appear to be more Most used equipment dealers will sioning costs. The other major longterm
costly. LCC is blind to new versus used allow equipment returns within 10 to cost is the cost of downtime compared to
equipment, so let the risk data fall 30 days if it does not work as antici- investments in training, preventative
where they may. pated. All dealers differ, so it is impor- maintenance and spare parts. Lifecycle
Right to return. With new equip- tant to ask specifically before making cost analysis can be done in a rudimen-
ment, once you have placed the the purchase. tary fashion or it can employ complex
order, you are essentially committed what-if algorithms, but in either case,
to the equipment. Backing out after Concluding remarks the benefits of taking a broader view of
the initial deposit has been made Understanding the lifecycle costs of one the factors that may impact the long-
will have some definite costs. If you piece of equipment or an entire process term cost of a process will benefit you
buy refurbished equipment, you requires examining not just the cost of and your company.
are also committed once a deposit the capital equipment, but also the op- Edited by Scott Jenkins
Author
Further reading Jeff Hoffmann is a vice
Hydrocarbon Processing Industries, Fourth president at Paul O. Abbe
Abernethy, Robert B. The New Weibull Handbook Co, (735 East Green Street,
(4th ed.). North Palm Beach, Fla., 2002. International Conference on Process Plant
Reliability, Gulf Publishing Company, Bensonville, IL 60106; Phone:
Landers, Richard R. Product Assurance Diction- Houston, Tex., 1995. 630-258-4720; Email: jhoff-
ary, Marlton Publishers, Marlton, N.J., 1996. mann@pauloabbe.com). Hoff-
Goble, William M. Evaluating Control Systems mann has an educational
Bloch, Heinz P. and Fred K. Geitner. Practi- Reliability, Instrument Society of America, background in chemistry and
cal Machinery Management for Process Research Triangle Park, N.C., 1992. a M.S. in industrial and orga-
Plants,Volume 2: Machinery Failure Analysis nizational psychology. During
and Troubleshooting, 2nd Edition, Gulf Pub- Ireson, W. Grant, Clyde F. Coombs Jr., Richard the past 20 years, Hoffmann
lishing Company, Houston, Tex. 1994 Y. Moss. Handbook of Reliability Engineer- has held sales, marketing and
ing and Management, 2nd edition, McGraw- executive positions at several process equipment
Bloch, Heinz P. and Fred K. Geitner. Simplified Hill, New York, 1996. companies. He also holds six U.S. patents for
Life-Cycle Cost Computations Applied in the various process equipment designs.
Circle 2 on p. 56 or go to adlinks.che.com/45774-02
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013 43
Process P&ID PFD
Feature Report
Engineering Practice Revise Revise
Process datasheet P&ID PFD
(PDS)
Electrical
F
or most engineering-procure- such as electric motors. When it comes Requistion package
ment-construction (EPC) proj- to piping, the piping group does not
ects in the chemical process in- necessarily design the piping items
dustries (CPI), the data sheets per se, but this group is responsible
developed at the beginning of the pro- for buying standard and off-the-shelf
Vendors Proposals
cess provide the shopping lists that piping components. Typically, the pip-
guide the procurement group on the ing group provides a list of available
purchase of equipment, system pack- pipes, valves and fittings, and the de- FIGURE 1. This low chart shows how
a given data sheet may work its way
ages, instruments and more. Data sign engineer selects the most suitable
through the different disciplines. Eventu-
sheets should function as the central items from those piping-specification ally, completed data sheets will guide the
document, into which all final result document. discussion with vendors, and the data
of design or specification calculations For the piping items that are listed from the inal revised data sheet will be
will be transferred, to commence the and specified in the piping-specifica- used to update other key documents,
such as the process low diagram (PFD)
procurement process. tion documents, there is no need to and the P&ID.
During the operation of the facility, prepare separate data sheets for them.
well-crafted data sheets will be used However, there may be some items that and switching valves, is prepared by
as key reference documents. They can will be installed on or in the piping but the process group first. Then, the I&C
also provide crucial information dur- that are not listed in the piping-speci- group completes the data sheet by
ing debottleneck and retrofitting proj- fication documents. These include spe- adding information that is required to
ects on existing plants. cialty items, such as strainers, injec- make the purchase.
There are usually five disciplines tion quills and more. These are items However, the data sheet for the of-
that deal with tangible goods (such that are not typically standardized in fline elements of control systems such
as equipment or instruments) in an the piping-specification document and as transmitters and indicators can be
EPC project. They are the mechanical thus must be described in a data sheet. initiated by the I&C group, by using
group, the instrumentation-and-con- As a result, the data sheet should be process data that was already pro-
trol (I&C) group, the piping group, the provided for all specialty items. vided by the process group for the rel-
electrical group and the civil group. As noted, the process group is the evant primary elements. For example,
Another group the process group only group that is not the owner (and an I&C engineer can prepare the data
does not typically manage the pur- buyer) of any tangible items. How- sheet for a flow transmitter based on
chasing of items. Rather, the process ever, this group is often the first group the information that was provided on
group is principally responsible for that does the preliminary design of the flowmeter data sheet.
designs and specifications. They dont items required by almost all other
own any tangible goods (such as disciplines, the process group is often Equipment data sheets
equipment or instruments) and thus, responsible to start preparing data The amount of information on any
they usually dont manage the pro- sheets for equipment components and given data sheet can vary greatly
curement process. systems, instruments, specialty items from a few sentences on information
Each of these groups is generally the and even process-related civil items. in a call-out box showing the equip-
owner and buyer of certain items However, not all the data sheets ment components in P&ID up to infor-
required by the project or facility. For start with the process group. For ex- mation in the equipment-specification
example, the mechanical group is the ample, some purely mechanical items document. The information in that
owner and buyer (working through (such as gear boxes) might start with datasheet should be more in-depth
the procurement group) of equipment mechanical group. than the information in the call-out
components. The I&C group is re- Usually the data sheet for inline ele- box but definitely more brief than the
sponsible for design and purchase of ments, such as sensors, control valves information in the equipment-specifi-
44 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
EQUIPMENT TYPES FOR WHICH STANDARD DATA SHEET TEMPLATES
ARE AVAILABLE
Equipment Industry standard
Centrifugal pumps API-610, ASME B73.1, B73.2 Heating Bundle
Controlled volume (PD) pumps API-675
Heat exchangers, S&T API-660 Replacement
Centrifugal compressors API-617
Steam turbines API-611
Rotary pumps API-676
Reciprocating pumps API-674
to m
design different types of systems that For standard equipment such as
could meet the requirements of the cli- pumps and heat exchangers, a variety
ent. of data sheet templates can be found
Conventional (detailed) data sheets in the respective standards. The Table
are those that include all the detailed shows a non-inclusive example of the
information that is needed for the types of data sheet templates that can Reconditioning & capacity
vendor to design the requested equip- be found in the industry standards.
increasing of your
ment. These offer less room for vendor/ For less popular or custom-made
manufacturer creativity. equipment, the primary template existing evaporator
could be found in different techni- system
Data sheet templates cal books. For instance, Ref. [1] offers
There are generally two ways to de- a good collection of equipment data Production of heating
velop data sheets. In the first method, sheets. If a package is to be bought,
the process group starts with the the design engineer should develop
bundles in own workshops
data sheet (specifically, a process data tailor-made data sheets.
sheet, or PDS). This group does the Turn-key performance by
work to create the first version of a Avoid poor practices skilled and experienced
data sheet, and then the individual The process of preparing strong, rel- specialists
disciplines amend and revise that evant data sheets will be improved by
data sheet to add relevant, discipline- avoiding the following poor practices:
specific information. The group then 1. Using TBD (to be determined)
issues the final data sheet to the en- notations. If the TBD convention is to
gineering discipline, which is respon- be used as a place-holder until final
sible for the procurement activities details can be gathered, be sure to fol-
(through the procurement group). For low up to make sure the missing infor-
example, in preparing the data sheet mation is provided in suitable time.
for equipment, the mechanical group 2. Using by vendor in places that the
will issue the final (amended) version data should really be provided by the
of the data sheet, which could then be client or engineering company. To be system solutions
named mechanical data sheet (MDS). more specific, all of the boundary in- for evaporation and biopharma
Figure 1 shows a non-inclusive formation (such as pressure, tempera-
flow chart of how a given data sheet ture and so on at the edge or border of www.gigkarasek.at
may travel through the different dis- vendors scope of work) should be pro-
ciplines. As shown, the data sheets vided by the engineering company. For
will eventually be updated based on example, engineering company must Circle 11 on p. 56 or go to adlinks.che.com/45774-11
report the required pressure at the cific mechanical requirements, such ahead of time. For instance, if an MDS
edge of the package boundary. as maximum rpm or the clearance of is developed based on a PDS and the
3. Failure to clarify definitions of key the pump. It is better to cover these process group changes a number in a
terms. The engineering company and limitations in a note within the data design, should they go and reflect the
vendor should clarify the definitions of sheet rather than in the main body changes directly in the MDS, or do they
critical terms, such as normal, design, of the data sheet, because process need to start from the PDS? Similarly,
rated, maximum, design and rated ca- requirements are not the only cri- if the vendor (with the agreement of
pacities. In some companies, rated teria required to specify the rpm of the client) decided to change a num-
and design are two names for the the impeller. ber in the equipment design, should it
same concept, and maximum doesnt 7. Putting extra notes in note area. The be reflected only on MDS, or on both
necessarily mean the design param- use of notes should be avoided unless MDS and PDS. All participants should
eter. it is truly justifiable. Notes typically agree on these issues ahead of time.
4. Failure to define potential material- have several inherent issues. First, 10. Inconsistency with other docu-
compatibility and corrosion issues. they are often overlooked. Second, ments. The information on the data
There are two approaches for specify- they introduce the chance of being in sheet should be consistent with other
ing materials of construction for spe- conflict with the information in the documents that have similar content,
cific equipment components and pack- main body of the data sheet. If one such as P&ID or LDT. For example, a
ages. Using the strict approach, the data sheet has too many notes in the line-designation table (LDT) which
engineering company or client wants note area, it suggests that the selected is basically a list of all pipes in the
to have the equipment with a specific, data sheet template was not suitable plant specifies the design tempera-
stated material. In this approach, in- for the required equipment. The tem- ture and design pressure of the pipes.
stead of reporting potentially corro- plate should be designed in such a way These parameters on the data sheet
sive materials that the components that the data are mentioned in the should be matched with the parame-
may be exposed to, the material of main body of the data sheet, as much ters on the LDT. However, matching
construction should be requested di- as possible. doesnt mean the numbers should be
rectly. For example, if the team wants 8. Including too much information. identical. For instance, a designer can
to have equipment built from an acid- Putting in information that is not re- decide to put a lower design tempera-
resistant material in Region two of lated to manufacturing the equipment ture and pressure (on the instrument
NACE 175, reporting the corrosive can be confusing for the vendor. The data sheet) for a sensor in a pipe with
agents and their concentrations may engineering company should be care- higher design temperature and pres-
leave the decision open to vendor to ful to put in just the most relevant sure. This is acceptable as long as the
interpret the data and suggest sour information. For example, for a pump residual risk of this action is within
or non-sour materials. If the design data sheet, the normal and maximum tolerable range of the client.
engineers intend to leave the mate- flowrate must be specified. However, Considering the above practical
rial-selection decision on the vendor, for the pump to work in different points during the preparation and is-
they need to choose the second option, services and flowrates, the engineer- suing the data sheets will minimize
which reports corrosive or erosive spe- ing company might choose to put one the debate with vendors and decrease
cies with their concentrations. representative condition (including the number of frustrating cost-ad-
5. Using brand names instead of ge- flowrate and required head) in the ders during the project. n
neric names for required equipment pump data sheet. In such cases, the Edited by Suzanne Shelley
and packages. Brand names should be engineering company (not the vendor)
avoided as much as possible to ensure is responsible to verify whether the Reference
the fairest, most competitive bids from proposed pump can handle all of the 1. James, R.,and W. Roy Penney, James R. Fair,
Chemical Process Equipment: Selection and
all vendors. operating cases properly. Design, 2nd Ed., Gulf Professional Publish-
6. Risking errors by inserting informa- In some cases, the manufactur- ing, 2009.
tion or data that should more appro- ing company may be willing to work
priately come from other disciplines. closely to cooperate with the engineer- Author
Sometimes the boundaries between ing company if competing operating Mohammad Toghraei,
the disciplines are not very clear. In scenarios are complicated. P.Eng., is an instructor and
consultant with Engrowth
such cases, the test question should 9. Erratic management of data sheet Training (Phone: 403-808-
be Am I completely competent to pro- revisions. The procedure for revising 8264; Email: engedu.ca),
based in Calgary, Alta. He has
vide this number or information? For the data sheet during the design and more than 20 years of experi-
ence in the field of industrial
example, in pump-related data sheets, procurement process should be agreed water treatment. His primary
specifying the rpm of the impeller is to by all parties. The procedure could expertise is in the treatment
of wastewater from oil and
not generally the responsibility of the be more complicated if there are more petrochemical complexes. He
process group. However, if the pump than one data sheet for an equipment holds a B.Sc. in chemical engineering from Is-
fahan University of Technology, and an M.Sc. in
will be handling oily water or water like process data sheet (PDS) and me- environmental engineering from Tehran Univer-
with fragile, suspended solids, the chanical data sheet (MDS). All partici- sity, both in Iran. He is also a member of APEGA
(the Assn. of Professional Engineers and Geosci-
process engineer could have some spe- pants should agree on confusing issues entists of Alberta).
R
otary valves are used almost uni- size. When the rotor starts outlet
versally in pneumatic conveying to turn, the empty rotor
pockets are filled by the FIGURE 1. In a drop-through valve, the solids inlet
systems. They serve three main
and solids outlet are typically the same size and are
functions: 1) to provide a pres- solids flowing vertically vertically aligned. As the rotor turns, the empty rotor
sure-seal (airlock) between two adjacent down from a hopper above pockets are illed by solids that low vertically down
processes, 2) to provide solids metering the valve. These valves from a hopper located above the valve
(feeding) and 3) to provide a combination can have square, rectan-
of solids metering and a pressure-seal gular, or round inlets and
FIGURE 2. In a side-entry ro-
for feeding solids into a pneumatic con- outlets; the square shape
tary valve, the solids inlet and
veying system. is more common because solids outlet are typically offset
Rotary valves are common devices it provides a larger open- from the vertical low line by
for feeding solids into a pneumatic ing area compared to a 3045 degrees. This allows the
conveying pipeline, and they function round-shaped opening. upcoming empty rotor pocket
to be illed only partially as the
in different ways in different circum- In a side-entry valve rotor turns, helping to minimize
stances. For instance, rotary valves (Figure 2), the solids inlet shearing and jamming of solid
can function as follows: is offset from the vertical, particles during operation
As an airlock at locations where an solids-gravity-flow line by
air-seal is needed, such as at the end 30 deg. This offset allows the upcom- pocket, and carries the solids to the
of a pneumatic conveying system ing empty rotor pocket to fill only par- opposite end of the rotary valve and
where the conveyed solids are dis- tially when the rotor turns past the directly into the conveying line. These
charged from a receiving vessel into valve inlet. This partial filling mini- valves are used for materials that are
a storage hopper, bin or silo mizes shearing of the solid particles sticky and have difficulty in flowing
As a feeder when they are used that sometimes get trapped between out from the rotor pocket.
to discharge a fixed or a vari- the rotor and the valve housing. Par- Rotary valve construction. Rotary
able volumetric flow of solids from tial filling also prevents jamming or valves have three main components: A
an upstream process to a down- seizing of the rotor by solid particles cylindrical body with both ends closed,
stream process that sometimes becometrapped be- a horizontal rotor that rotates inside
As a combination airlock and a tween the rotor and the valve housing. this body, and a drivetrain that drives
feeder when they meter solids into a The volumetric fill efficiency of the the rotor. These components are de-
pneumatic conveying pipeline empty pocket depends on the solids scribed below:
Key aspects of how rotary valves flow properties, but it is generally Rotary valve body. The valve body is
are designed and used are discussed about 60%. These valves should have a horizontal cylinder with a top inlet
below. an adjustable slide plate in their inlet and a bottom outlet, and with vertical
Types of rotary valves. Rotary valves section to allow for the increase or de- plates to close both sides of the cylin-
are generally made in the following crease of pocket filling. der. The body is generally cast from a
three varieties: Blow-though valves are similar to metal such as cast iron, carbon steel,
1. Drop-through type drop-through valves except that they stainless steel or aluminum, although
2. Off-set or side-entry type are installed directly in the conveying other materials are used for special
3. Blow-through type line without any intermediate device. applications, such as very high tem-
In a drop-through valve (Figure 1), the In this design, the conveying gas en- peratures or highly abrasive solids.
solids inlet and outlet are vertically ters from one end of the rotary valve, All internal surfaces of the cylindri-
inline and are generally of the same blows through the emptying rotor cal body are made smooth by polish-
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013 47
Solids Processing
Design Design
ing or chrome-plating because clearance clearance
smooth surfaces are needed to
maintain the required tight clear-
Pipe tap for
ances between the valve body and purging
Pipe tap for
purging
the rotor. A surface finish of 2B is (2) each end (2) each end
desirable.
The valve rotor is of welded-
steel or stainless-steel construc-
tion with eight or more pockets.
Its horizontal shaft is also steel or
stainless steel.
The entire valve is designed
to withstand the maximum and 3/4 in. 3/4 in.
minimum pressures and tempera-
tures to which the valve will be
exposed. These include both pro-
cess and ambient conditions. FIGURE 3. In an open-bottom rotary valve, FIGURE 4. Closed-bottom rotary
To maintain the required clear- solids that may have entered the clearance valves are widely used in pneumatic
ances, in locations where the between the rotor ends and valve body are al- conveying applications because they
lowed to drop out. This option is not viable for provide a good air seal between the
valve is exposed to extremely low feeding solids into positive-pressure convey- rotor edges and the valve body
temperatures (such as 40F), the ing systems, but they are suitable for vacuum-
valve body is jacketed, heated and type conveying systems, such as airlocks
insulated. The heating medium
is a heat-transfer fluid that is circu- ured inlet plow in their inlet section. that are welded at each end. Blades
lated throughout the body to maintain This plow prevents solids from enter- are welded to the shaft and also to
a constant and uniform temperature. ing the clearance between the rotor the two end-plates, thereby provid-
Alternatively, the valves can be in- and the valve housing, thereby pre- ing strength and rigidity to the rotor.
stalled inside heated enclosures that venting the resulting jamming or seiz- Closed-end rotors are, therefore, more
are provided with easy access for the ing of the rotor. The plow is V-shaped, rigid and sturdy, and are less prone to
valves inspection and maintenance. is cast or welded into the downstream flexing and bending under high dif-
In locations where temperatures side of the rotary valve inlet, and di- ferential pressures than open-ended
are not extreme, electrically heated rects the solids flow into the rotor rotors. They are used for a large va-
blankets placed over the valve body pocket. riety of materials. Open-ended rotors
can be used to maintain a uniform Rotors. Rotors are of welded construc- cost less but are more susceptible to
body temperature. tion with rectangular-shaped blades bending and rubbing with the internal
The valve bottom may have an open that are welded to a shaft. Blades are surface of the valve housing, resulting
or closed space between the rotor and evenly spaced around the rotor, form- in its wear and erosion.
the valve body. As shown in Figure 3, ing triangular pockets. The bottom In closed-end rotors, the clearance
open bottoms allow solids that may of the pockets can be flat or curved, space between the end plates and the
have entered the clearance between depending on whether the solids are valve housing is generally about
the rotor ends and the valve body to free-flowing or sticky. to in.
drop out. Open-bottom rotary valves The number of blades is at least Rotary valve drive. Rotary valves are
are unsuitable for feeding solids into eight for any size rotary valve. Large generally driven by a gear-head motor,
positive-pressure-type conveying sys- size valves, such as thouse with 4 ft3/ instead of by a separate motor and a
tems, because they allow the conveying rev. capacity or larger, can have have gear box, because this method is more
air to flow upward into the clearances, 10 or 12 blades. economical. The gear-head motor re-
thereby increasing the potential for Blade tips are generally hardened duces the output speed to about 30
conveying air leakage. These valves with stellite or tungsten carbide to re- rpm. From this motor, the rotary valve
can be used in vacuum-type convey- duce their wear. When handling coarse rotor is driven by chain and sprock-
ing systems such as airlocks, or as a solids, such as plastic pellets, tips are ets to arrive at the valve speed that
feeder. In most pneumatic convey- generally relieved at a 45-deg angle on is needed. This motor can be installed
ing applications, closed-bottom rotary their trailing edge to prevent clipping either at right angles to, or parallel
valves, such as that shown in Figure 4, of the pellets and the resulting binding to, the rotary valve. Parallel installa-
are more commonly used because they of the rotor inside the valve housing. tion with a chain-and-sprocket drive is
provide a better air seal between the The two ends of the rotor can be preferable because valve speed can be
rotor edges and the valve body. open or closed. In open-end rotors, changed easily by changing sprockets.
For feeding coarse particles such as rotor pockets are fully open on both Right-angle installation is more dif-
plastic pellets, drop-through rotary ends. In closed-end rotors, rotor pock- ficult because it requires changing of
valves are provided with a well-config- ets are fully closed by full-size plates worm gears to change the speed.
48 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
Bin hopper Bin hopper
Region of complete Region of partial Line injectors are used to connect the
pocket filling pocket filling rotary valves to the conveying lines
Their design is important because
excessive turbulence in this region has
an adverse effect on the performance of
the conveying system
Rotary valves should be installed at right
Feedrate
Maximum feedrate
decreasing angle to the conveying line
Direction of rotation should be clockwise
Feedrate
with rotor
speed Line facing so that the gas inlet is on the left
Feedrate
increasing injector
with rotor
speed
Gas Gas and
inlet solids
outlet
FIGURE 8. When the rotary valve is used to feed solids into a conveying line, the
rotary valve and the line injector below it are perpendicular to the conveying line.
Rotor speed
FIGURE 7. Rotor speed impacts the Leakage-calculation methods. the rotor pocket to the valve bottom,
feed rate of a rotary valve, as shown Complete information on rotary valve solids face both gravitational and cen-
here. Theoretically, the solids-throughput
rate should increase linearly with valve
leakage calculations can be found in trifugal forces. At high rotor speeds,
speed, althought as shown here, the feed Ref. [1]. because of centrifugal forces, some
rate decreases after reaching a maxi- The flowrate of clearance leakage of the solids remain in the emptying
mum rate over a typical speed range of can be calculated using Equation 1: pocket. This results in reduced fresh
1522 rpm material that can flow into the valve
Q = C A ( 2 g )( dp )
1/ 2
inlet, thus reducing the fill efficiency
(1)
to completely vent out the entire air of the valve.
volume contained in the rotor pocket. Q = Leakage flowrate, ft3/s The capacity of a rotary valve (CFR)
For large valves, a rectangular-shaped C = Orifice constant = 0.5 is calculated using Equation 2. It is
vent port about one-half the length of A = Clearance area, ft2 expressed as volumetric flow per revo-
the pocket width is recommended. g = Gravitational constant, 32.2 lution of the rotary valve (ft3/rev of
When conveying powders or fine ft/s2 solids flow):
granular materials, air that is vented dp = Pressure differential across the W
out from this vent port may contain rotor, lb/in.2 CFR = (2)
B N E 60
significant amounts of these solids. As shown in Equation 1, leakage flow
To prevent their loss, these materials is directly proportional to the clear- where:
should be fed back into the rotary valve ances between the rotor and the valve
using a properly designed vent hopper housing. For medium-sized rotary CFR = Capacity of a rotary valve,
installed at the rotary valve inlet. valves, this clearance is 0.0040.006 ft3/rev
In addition to the carryover air de- in., or 0.100.15 mm. W = Solids flowrate, lb/h
scribed above, there is also air leak- The flowrate of carryover air can be B = Solids bulk density, lb/ft3
age from the circumferential and end calculated by using the following rela- N = Valve speed, rpm
clearances between the rotor and the tionship: E = Pocket-fill efficiency
valve housing. These leakages should Pocket-fill efficiency. Shown below
Carryover air flowrate (ft3/s) equals
be vented out so that they do not in- are typical pocket fill efficiencies for
Rotor displacement (ft3/rev) multi-
terfere with the flow of incoming sol- different types of rotary valves:
plied by rotor speed (rpm/60)
ids. This is done by using a specially Side-entry rotary valve: 40 60%
designed insert that extends from the Rotary valve capacity. Figure 7 Drop-through, flood-fed valve: 60
inlet of the valve up to its rotor tips. shows the solids-throughput rate 80%
This insert provides an annular path attainable in a rotary valve versus Drop-hrough, flood-fed valve with
between the insert and the valve body rotor speed. Theoretically, the solids body vent and leakage-air inlet in-
to vent out the leakage air. This insert throughput should increase linearly sert: 9095%
should extend from the inlet of the ro- with the valve speed that is, with In general, the following factors pro-
tary valve up to the rotor surface with the number of valve rotations. vide better fill efficiencies:
a gap of about 1/8 in. between the rotor In practice, however, throughput Lower valve speeds
and the insert. Details of this venting increases only up to a maximum Lower P across the valve
method are shown in Figure 5 for di- value, and then starts to reduce when Proper venting of the leakage gases
lute phase systems and in Figure 6 for the speed is further increased. This from the rotary valve
dense-phase systems. happens because while falling from Rotary valve installation. Rotary
50 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
valves that are used to feed solids into matic conveying. Presently, rotary abrasive or sticky materials, those
a conveying line are installed such valves used in dense-phase pneumatic handling very high or very low solids
that the rotary valve and the line in- conveying are designed to withstand or ambient temperatures, but the basic
jector below it are perpendicular to differential pressures up to 6 bars and design principles described above still
the conveying line (Figure 8). A line maximum solids feed rates of about apply to these designs. n
injector is used to connect the rotary 5,000 ft3/h. High circumferential Edited by Suzanne Shelley
valve to the conveying line. Its design clearance leakage that occurs due to
is important because excessive turbu- these high pressures is minimized by Reference
lence in this region has an adverse ef- increasing the number of rotor blades. 1. Agarwal, Amrit, Improving Rotary Valve
Performance, Chem. Eng., March 2005, pp.
fect on the performance of the convey- Some good designs have as many as 2933.
ing system. 24 blades.
In pressure-type conveying systems, Rotor-end leakage is prevented by Author
any intermediate spool pieces between using a specially designed, gas-tight Amrit Agarwal is a con-
sulting engineer with Pneu-
the rotary valve and the line injector, seal between the rotor and valve body. matic Conveying Consulting
or between the line injector and the A well-designed venting system to (7 Carriage Rd., Charleston,
WV 25314; Email: polypcc@
conveying line, should not be used be- properly vent out the clearance leak- aol.com). He retired from The
cause the resulting air turbulence can age air and the rotor carry-over air is Dow Chemical Co. in 2002
where he worked as a resident
adversely affect the flow of solids into a necessity for these high-pressure- pneumatic conveying and sol-
the conveying line. drop rotary valves. ids-handling specialist. Agar-
wal has more than 40 years of
The direction of rotation of the ro- Rotary valves with special fea- design, construction, operat-
ing and troubleshooting experience in pneumatic
tary valve should be clockwise when tures. Rotary valves are made with conveying and bulk-solids-handling processes. He
facing the valve, such that the convey- special design features for applica- holds an M.S. in mechanical engineering from the
University of Wisconsin, Madison Wisconsin,
ing air enters the conveying line from tions such as food grade installations, and an MBA from Marshall University (Hunting-
the valves left side. those requiring quick and easy access ton, West Va.). He has written a large number of
articles and given classes on pneumatic convey-
Rotary valves in dense-phase pneu- for cleaning, those handling corrosive, ing and bulk solids handling.
Workson3phase,xedorvariable 18
frequency,DCandsinglephasepower 16
POWER
SENSOR
14
SENSITIVE
10timesmoresensitivethan 12
0
BATCH 1 BATCH 2 BATCH 3
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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013 51
Now Available in the Chemical Engineering Store:
Process Water and Wastewater Treatment
and Reuse Guidebook- Volume 2
This guidebook contains how-to engineering articles formerly published in Chemical Engineering. The
articles in Volume 2 provide practical engineering recommendations for process operators faced with the
challenge of treating inlet water for process use, and treating industrial wastewater to make it suitable for
discharge or reuse.
There is a focus on the importance of closed-loop or zero-discharge plant design, as well as the selection,
operation and maintenance of membrane-based treatment systems; treating water for use in recirculated-
water cooling systems; managing water treatment to ensure trouble-free steam service; designing stripping
columns for water treatment; and more.
Table of Contents
Process Water Treatment Challenges and Solutions Facts at Your Fingertips: Controlling Membrane Fouling
Water Reuse and Conservation in the CPI Biodegradation and Testing of Scale Inhibitors
Strategies to Minimize Wastewater Discharge Keeping Cooling Water Clean
Strategies for Water Reuse
Caring for Cooling Water Systems
Wastewater: A Reliable Water Resource
Purifying Coke-Cooling Wastewater
Membranes for Process Water Reuse
Strategies for Controlling Membrane Fouling Non-Chemical Water Treatment
Fact at Your Fingertips: Membranes CPI Water and Steam Chemistry
Facts at Your Fingertips: Membrane Configurations Designing Steam Stripping Columns for Wastewater
Diane Burleson
Email: dburleson@accessintel.com
Tel: 512.250.9555 Fax: 512.213.4855
54 CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013
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vices 32 250 to 499 employees 49 Safety equipment & Services
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17 energy incl. Co-generation 34 1,000 or more employees equipment
03 inorganic Chemicals
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12 Stone, Clay, glass, Ceramics EMPLOYEE SIZE 45 motors, motor Controls 58 materials of Construction
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1 16 31 46 61 76 91 106 121 136 151 166 181 196 211 226 241 256 271 286 301 316 331 346 361 376 391 406 421 436 451 466 481 496 511 526 541 556 571 586
2 17 32 47 62 77 92 107 122 137 152 167 182 197 212 227 242 257 272 287 302 317 332 347 362 377 392 407 422 437 452 467 482 497 512 527 542 557 572 587
3 18 33 48 63 78 93 108 123 138 153 168 183 198 213 228 243 258 273 288 303 318 333 348 363 378 393 408 423 438 453 468 483 498 513 528 543 558 573 588
4 19 34 49 64 79 94 109 124 139 154 169 184 199 214 229 244 259 274 289 304 319 334 349 364 379 394 409 424 439 454 469 484 499 514 529 544 559 574 589
5 20 35 50 65 80 95 110 125 140 155 170 185 200 215 230 245 260 275 290 305 320 335 350 365 380 395 410 425 440 455 470 485 500 515 530 545 560 575 590
6 21 36 51 66 81 96 111 126 141 156 171 186 201 216 231 246 261 276 291 306 321 336 351 366 381 396 411 426 441 456 471 486 501 516 531 546 561 576 591
7 22 37 52 67 82 97 112 127 142 157 172 187 202 217 232 247 262 277 292 307 322 337 352 367 382 397 412 427 442 457 472 487 502 517 532 547 562 577 592
8 23 38 53 68 83 98 113 128 143 158 173 188 203 218 233 248 263 278 293 308 323 338 353 368 383 398 413 428 443 458 473 488 503 518 533 548 563 578 593
9 24 39 54 69 84 99 114 129 144 159 174 189 204 219 234 249 264 279 294 309 324 339 354 369 384 399 414 429 444 459 474 489 504 519 534 549 564 579 594
10 25 40 55 70 85 100 115 130 145 160 175 190 205 220 235 250 265 280 295 310 325 340 355 370 385 400 415 430 445 460 475 490 505 520 535 550 565 580 595
11 26 41 56 71 86 101 116 131 146 161 176 191 206 221 236 251 266 281 296 311 326 341 356 371 386 401 416 431 446 461 476 491 506 521 536 551 566 581 596
12 27 42 57 72 87 102 117 132 147 162 177 192 207 222 237 252 267 282 297 312 327 342 357 372 387 402 417 432 447 462 477 492 507 522 537 552 567 582 597
13 28 43 58 73 88 103 118 133 148 163 178 193 208 223 238 253 268 283 298 313 328 343 358 373 388 403 418 433 448 463 478 493 508 523 538 553 568 583 598
14 29 44 59 74 89 104 119 134 149 164 179 194 209 224 239 254 269 284 299 314 329 344 359 374 389 404 419 434 449 464 479 494 509 524 539 554 569 584 599
15 30 45 60 75 90 105 120 135 150 165 180 195 210 225 240 255 270 285 300 315 330 345 360 375 390 405 420 435 450 465 480 495 510 525 540 555 570 585 600
Hovione (Loures, Portugal), a devel- USA (North Brunswick, N.J.), a divi- control solutions for delayed coker,
oper of active pharmaceutical ingredi- sion of Heraeus, a precious metals iron and steel blast furnaces and tur-
ents and drug-product intermediates, and technology company headquar- bine units.
appoints Justin Hughey, to lead the tered in Hanau, Germany.
particle-design sciences team at its Polyolefins maker Borealis AG (Vi-
New Jersey site. Akro-Mils (Akron, Ohio), a provider enna, Austria), names Gilles Rochas
of plastic and metal storage, organi- vice president, energy and infrastruc-
Bayer MaterialScience LLC (Pitts- zation and transport products, names ture, for the application segment.
burgh, Pa.) names Christine Bryant Mike Iafigliola new product develop-
as head of commercial operations for ment manager. Greenes Energy Group (Houston),
its coatings, adhesives and specialties a provider of testing and specialty
business unit for the NAFTA region. M. Metin Gerceker becomes managing services, promotes Mark Yuille to
director of Zimmermann & Jansen CFO of its testing and services busi-
Douglas Joy becomes general man- (Z&J) Technologies GmbH ness unit.
ager of Heraeus Sensor Technology (Dren, Germany), a maker of flow- Suzanne Shelley
S U
om s
Focus
on Ga
New s De
Engine tection
ering
Closed Mater
Liquid ials
Dispen
Findin sing
g the
To Fit Right
the Ap Gloves
Facts plicatio
at You n
r Fin
Vacuum gertips:
Pump
Flowm s
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Augu
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2008
www. Sterili
8
che.c zation
More and more, business in the Chemical Process Industries (CPI) is not
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local, its global. To keep up with this rapidly evolving marketplace, you
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need a magazine that covers it all, not just one country or region, not just
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FOR MORE ECONOMIC INDICATORS, SEE NEXT PAGE CHEMICAL ENGINEERING WWW.CHE.COM JULY 2013 59
Economic Indicators 2011 2012 2013
Annual
Apr. 13 Mar. 13 Apr. 12
(195759 = 100) Index:
Prelim. Final Final 600
CE Index 569.5 568.3 595.9 2005 = 468.2
Equipment 689.5 688.2 730.2 2006 = 499.6
Heat exchangers & tanks 626.2 624.2 686.9 550
Process machinery 656.5 651.1 680.7 2007 = 525.4
Pipe, valves & fittings 875.6 879.8 935.7 2008 = 575.4
Process instruments 413.3 414.3 430.8 500
2009 = 521.9
Pumps & compressors 924.5 920.4 921.8
Electrical equipment 512.6 514.4 514.9 2010 = 550.8
Structural supports & misc 746.8 741.1 774.2 450
2011 = 585.7
Construction labor 319.8 319.2 320.7
Buildings 536.5 534.4 527.1 2012 = 584.6
Engineering & supervision 328.1 326.4 328.4 400
J F M A M J J A S O N D
CPI output index (2007 = 100) May. '13 = 87.8 Apr.'13 = 87.6 Mar.'13 = 88.0 May'12 = 86.7
CPI value of output, $ billions Apr. '13 = 2,089.2 Mar.'13 = 2,126.0 Feb.'13 = 2,228.4 Apr.'12 = 2,142.5
CPI operating rate, % May. '13 = 74.1 Apr.'13 = 74.1 Mar.'13 = 74.5 May'12 = 74.2
Producer prices, industrial chemicals (1982 = 100) May. '13 = 301.7 Apr.'13 = 308.7 Mar.'13 = 313.5 May'12 = 321.2
Industrial Production in Manufacturing (2007=100) May. '13 = 95.3 Apr.'13 = 95.2 Mar.'13 = 95.5 May'12 = 93.7
Hourly earnings index, chemical & allied products (1992 = 100) May. '13 = 156.2 Apr.'13 = 154.6 Mar.'13 = 154.6 May'12 = 157.1
Productivity index, chemicals & allied products (1992 = 100) May. '13 = 104.8 Apr.'13 = 104.4 Mar.'13 = 104.7 May'12 = 106.0
CPI OUTPUT INDEX (2007 = 100) CPI OUTPUT VALUE ($ BILLIONS) CPI OPERATING RATE (%)
120 2500 85
110 2200 80
100 1900 75
90 1600 70
80 1300 65
70 1000 60
J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D J F M A M J J A S O N D
Current Business Indicators provided by IHS Global Insight, Inc., Lexington, Mass.
CURRENT TRENDS
Equipment Cost Index Available P reliminary data for the April
2013 CE Plant Cost Index
(CEPCI; top; the most recent avail-
Exclusively from Marshall & Swift able) indicate that the composite
index increased by 0.2% com-
pared to the final March value,
reversing three consecutive de-
creases in the months prior. The
higher numbers included increases
in a number of subindices, such as
process machinery, pumps & com-
pressors and heat exchangers &
tanks. The April 2013 preliminary
PCI index value stands at 4.4%
lower than the corresponding final
PCI value from April 2012. Mean-
while, the latest Current Business
Indicators from IHS Global Insight
Quarterly updates of our industry-leading Equipment Cost Index (middle) moved in both directions,
with CPI output index inching
are now available at www.equipment-cost-index.com. higher while CPI value of output
decreased slightly.
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