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Contents
Figures
Figure 2-79 PRACH Configuration and Preamble Sequences Per Cell ...........................................................2-93
Figure 2-80 PUSCH Mapping ..........................................................................................................................2-94
Tables
Objectives
z D-AMPS (Digital - Advanced Mobile Phone System) - this is based on IS-136 (Interim
Standard 136) and is effectively an enhancement to AMPS which provides a TDMA
access technique. It has been primarily used on the North American continent, as well as
in New Zealand and parts of Asia-Pacific.
2G (Second
Generation)
GSM Other
cdmaOne D-AMPS
(IS-95) (IS-136)
In addition to being digital, as well as improving capacity and security, these 2G digital
systems also offer enhanced services such as SMS (Short Message Service) and circuit
switched data.
2.5G Systems
Most 2G systems are being evolved. For example, GSM was extended with GPRS (General
Packet Radio System) to support efficient packet data services, as well as increasing the data
rates.
As this feature does not meet 3G requirements, GRPS is often referred to as 2.5G. A
comparison between 2G and 2.5G systems is illustrated in Table 1-1.
2.75G Systems
GSM/GPRS systems also added EDGE (Enhanced Data Rates for Global Evolution). This
nearly quadruples the throughput of GPRS. The theoretical data rate of 473.6kbit/s enables
service providers to efficiently offer multimedia services. Like GPRS, since it does not
comply with all the features of a 3G system, EDGE is usually categorized as 2.75G.
4G (Fourth
Generation)
LTE UMB
Advanced (EV-DO Rev C)
WiMAX
802.16m
Phase 2+
Release 99 Release 6 Release 8
(Release 97)
GPRS UMTS HSUPA LTE
171.2kbit/s 2Mbit/s 5.76Mbit/s +300Mbit/s
Release 9/10
LTE Advanced
HSPA+
GSM EDGE HSDPA
28.8Mbit/s
9.6kbit/s 473.6kbit/s 14.4Mbit/s
42Mbit/s
Phase 1 Release 99 Release 5 Release 7/8
3GPP Releases enhance various aspects, not just the radio interface. For example, Release 5
started the introduction of the IMS (IP Multimedia Subsystem) in the core network.
1.2.1 Pre-Release 99
Pre-Release 99 saw the introduction of GSM, as well as the addition of GPRS. The main
GSM Phases and 3GPP Releases include:
z GSM Phase 1.
z GSM Phase 2.
z GSM Phase 2+ (Release 96).
z GSM Phase 2+ (Release 97).
1.2.2 Release 99
3GPP Release 99 saw the introduction of UMTS, as well as the EDGE enhancement to GPRS.
UMTS contains all features needed to meet the IMT-2000 requirements as defined by the ITU.
It is able to support both CS (Circuit Switched) voice and video services, as well PS (Packet
Switched) data services over common and dedicated bearers. Initial data rates for UMTS were
64kbit/s, 128kbit/s and 384kbit/s. Note that the theoretical maximum was 2Mbit/s.
1.2.3 Release 4
Release 4 included enhancements to the core network. The concept of All IP Networks was
included and service providers were able to deploy Soft Switch based networks, i.e. the MSC
(Mobile Switching Centre) was replaced by MSC Servers and MGW (Media Gateways).
1.2.4 Release 5
Release 5 is the first major addition to the UMTS air interface. It adds HSDPA (High Speed
Downlink Packet Access) which improves capacity and spectral efficiency. Figure 1-6
illustrates some of the main features which include:
z Adaptive Modulation - In addition to the original UMTS modulation scheme, QPSK
(Quadrature Phase Shift Keying), HSDPA also includes support for 16 QAM
(Quadrature Amplitude Modulation).
z Flexible Coding - Based on fast feedback from the mobile in the form of a CQI (Channel
Quality Indicator) the UMTS base station, i.e. the Node B, is able to modify the effective
coding rate and thus increase system efficiency.
z Fast Scheduling - HSDPA includes a 2ms TTI (Time Transmission Interval), which
enables the Node B scheduler to quickly and efficiently allocate resources to mobiles.
z HARQ (Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request) - In the event a packet does not get through
to the UE (User Equipment) successfully, the system employs HARQ (Hybrid Automatic
Repeat Request). This improves the retransmission timing, thus requiring less reliance on
the RNC (Radio Network Controller).
HSDPA UTRAN
Adaptive Modulation
Flexible Coding
Fast Scheduling (2ms)
HARQ
Iub
Node B RNC
UE
1.2.5 Release 6
Release 6 adds various features, with HSUPA (High Speed Uplink Packet Data) being of most
interest to RAN development. Even though the term HSUPA is widespread, this 3GPP
enhancement also goes under the term Enhanced Uplink. It is also worth noting that
HSDPA and HSUPA work in tandem and thus the term HSPA (High Speed Packet Access) is
used.
HSUPA, like HSDPA adds functionality to improve packet data. Figure 1-7 illustrates the
three main enhancements which include:
z Flexible Coding - HSUPA has the ability to dynamically change the coding and therefore
improve the efficiency of the system.
z Fast Power Scheduling - A key fact of HSUPA is that it provides a method to schedule
the power from different mobiles. This scheduling can use either a 2ms or 10ms TTI.
z HARQ - Like HSDPA, HSUPA also utilizes HARQ. The main difference is the timing
relationship for the retransmission.
HSUPA UTRAN
Flexible Coding
Fast Power Scheduling
HARQ
Iub
Node B RNC
UE
1.2.6 Release 7
The main RAN based feature of Release 7 is HSPA+. This, like HSDPA and HSUPA,
provides various enhancements to improve packet switched data delivery. Figure 1-8
illustrates the main features which include:
z 64 QAM - This is added to the DL (Downlink) and enables HSPA+ to operate at a
theoretical rate of 21.6Mbit/s.
z 16 QAM - This is added to the UL (Uplink) and enables the uplink to theoretically
achieve 11.76Mbit/s.
z MIMO (Multiple Input Multiple Output) Operation - this is added to HSPA+ Release 7
and offers various benefits including the ability to offer a theoretical 28.8Mbits/s in the
downlink.
z Power Enhancements -Various enhancements such as CPC (Continuous Packet
Connectivity) have been included. Thus enabling DTX (Discontinuous Transmission),
DRX (Discontinuous Reception) and HS-SCCH (High Speed - Shared Control Channel)
Less Operation. Collectively these improve the mobiles battery consumption.
z Less Overhead - The downlink includes an enhancement to the MAC (Medium Access
Control) layer which effectively means that fewer headers are required. This in turn
improves the system efficiency.
HSPA+
64 QAM (DL) UTRAN
16 QAM (UL)
MIMO Operation (DL)
Power Enhancements (DL)
Less Overhead (DL) Iub
Node B RNC
UE
1.2.7 Release 8
There are many additions to the RAN functionality in Release 8, such as enhancements to
HSPA+. However the main aspect is the inclusion of LTE (Long Term Evolution). Figure 1-9
illustrates some of the main features for Release 8 HSPA+ and LTE.
Release 8 HSPA+ enables various key enhancements, these include:
z 64 QAM and MIMO - Release 8 enables the combination of 64 QAM and MIMO, thus
quoting a theoretical rate of 42Mbit/s, i.e. 2 x 21.6Mbit/s.
z Dual Cell Operation - DC-HSDPA (Dual Cell - HSDPA) is a Release 8 feature which is
further enhanced in Release 9 and Release 10. It enables a mobile to effectively utilize
two 5MHz UMTS carriers. Assuming both are using 64 QAM (21.6Mbit/s), the
theoretical maximum is 42Mbps. Note that in Release 8 a mobile is not able to combine
MIMO and DC-HSDPA.
z Less Uplink Overhead - In a similar way to Release 7 in the downlink, the Release 8
uplink has been enhanced to reduce overhead.
HSPA+ UTRAN
64 QAM + MIMO (DL)
Dual Cell Operation
Less Overhead (UL)
Iub
Node B RNC
LTE
Enhanced Techniques UE
Flexible Bandwidth E-UTRAN
Flexible Spectrum Options
High Data Rates
Very Fast Scheduling
Improved Latency
eNB
LTE provides a new radio access technique, as well as enhancements in the E-UTRAN
(Evolved - Universal Terrestrial Radio Access Network). These enhancements are further
discussed as part of this course.
Release 10 includes the standardization of LTE Advanced, i.e. the 3GPPs 4G offering. As
such it includes modification to the LTE system to facilitate 4G services.
FDMA channels also suffer since they cannot be close together due to the energy from one
transmission affecting the adjacent/neighboring channels. To combat this, additional guard
bands between channels are required, which also reduces the systems spectral efficiency.
Devices must be allocated a timeslot; therefore it is usual to have one or more timeslots
reserved for common control and system access.
TDMA systems are normally digital and therefore offer additional features such as ciphering
and integrity. In addition, they can employ enhanced error detection and correction schemes
including FEC (Forward Error Correction). This enables the system to be more resilient to
noise and interference and therefore they have a greater spectral efficiency when compared to
FDMA systems.
Figure 1-14 illustrates the basic concept of CDMA. The narrowband signals are spread with a
wideband code and then transmitted. The receivers are designed to extract the encoded signal
(with the correct code) and reject everything else as noise.
UMTS, cdmaOne and CDMA2000 all use CDMA. However the implementation of the codes
and the bandwidths used is different. For example UMTS utilizes a 5MHz channel bandwidth,
whereas cdmaOne uses only 1.25MHz.
Normally the uplink channel (mobile transmit) operates on the lower frequency. This is done
because higher frequencies suffer greater attenuation than lower frequencies and therefore it
enables the mobile to utilize lower transmit levels.
Some systems also offer half-duplex FDD mode, where two frequencies are utilized, however
the mobile can only transmit or receive, i.e. not transmit and receive at the same time. This
allows for reduced mobile complexity since no duplex filter is required.
Downlink
and Uplink
Frequency
Asymmetric TDD
Allocation
GSM Bands
Table 1-3 illustrates the main frequency bands defined for GSM. However, this does not
guarantee that the spectrum is available since there may be regulatory issues, as well as
limitations in some handsets and base stations.
The initial GSM band was referred to as P-GSM (Primary GSM). This was mainly defined to
replace the TACS system which was also in the 900MHz band. Other 900MHz bands which
were added include E-GSM (Extended GSM) and R-GSM (Railways GSM) bands, providing
more channels and support of a railway based variant. Finally, other bands away from the
900MHz band are also available; however the support for 450MHz and 480MHz is limited.
The terms DCS (Digital Cellular Service) and PCS (Personal Communications Service) are
typically used in Europe and North America respectively to identify the higher frequency
deployment options. It was expected that these frequencies would offer a better re-use in built
up areas and therefore provide additional capacity.
UMTS Bands
UMTS, like GSM, has a number of frequency bands defined. These are identified by an
Operating Band number which is illustrated in Table 1-4, along with the associated Uplink
and downlink frequency ranges.
In addition to the previous UMTS FDD bands, various UMTS TDD bands are also defined.
Table 1-5 illustrates the main TDD bands, however the majority of these have never been
implemented.
1900 - 1920
2010 - 2025
1850 - 1910
1930 - 1990
1910 - 1930
2570 - 2620
GSM Deployments
Figure 1-18 summarizes the main GSM deployment bands. It can be seen that GSM 900 and
GSM 1800 are used in most parts of the world, i.e. Europe, Middle East, Africa and most of
Asia/Pacific. In contrast, GSM 850 and GSM 1900 are mainly used in North America and
Canada, as well as many other locations. Finally, the lower frequency bands, i.e. GSM
400/450 has limited support.
This list and usage of bands is not exclusive. As such other countries, as well as other cellular systems
may exist.
Band II
(W-CDMA
1900)
Band I Band IV
(W-CDMA (W-CDMA
2100) 1700)
Main UMTS
Deployments
Band Duplex FDL_low FDL_high NOffs-DL NDL FUL_low FUL_high NOffs-UL NUL
(MHz) (MHz) (MHz) (MHz)
The channel numbers that designate carrier frequencies close to the edges of the operating band are not
used. This implies that the first 7, 15, 25, 50, 75 and 100 channel numbers at the lower operating band
edge and the last 6, 14, 24, 49, 74 and 99 channel numbers at the upper operating band edge are not used
for channel bandwidths of 1.4, 3, 5, 10, 15 and 20 MHz respectively.
Example
It is possible to utilize the previous equations to calculate the frequency for a given EARFCN.
In addition, it is possible to calculate the EARFCN for a given frequency. Figure 1-21
illustrates an example with a defined uplink and downlink frequency. The calculation shown
in the figure translates a downlink frequency of 2127.4MHz to an EARFCN equal to 174.
100kHz Raster
Uplink Downlink
Frequency
1937.4MHz 2127.4MHz
(FDL - FDL_low)
NDL = + NOffs-DL
0.1
(2127.4 - 2110)
NDL = + 0 = 174
0.1
Channel Coding
Rate Matching
The coding stages in Figure 1-22 are indicative of the LTE DL-SCH (Downlink Shared Channel) and the
PCH (Paging Channel). Other channels, such as the UL-SCH (Uplink Shared Channel), BCH (Broadcast)
etc. are different but they can still utilize similar processes, e.g. they all have a channel coding stage.
Calculate Calculate
Transport Block CRC
CRC CRC
Compare
The LTE transport block is used to calculate the CRC parity bits. The size of the CRC is set to
24bits, 16bits or 8bits. This is typically indicated by higher layer signaling, i.e. RRC (Radio
Resource Control). Figure 1-24 illustrates the CRC parity bits, where A is the size of the
transport block and L is the number of parity bits. In addition, the lowest order information bit
a0 is mapped to the most significant bit of the transport block.
The parity bits are generated by one of the following cyclic generator polynomials:
gCRC24A(D) = D24 + D23 + D18 + D17 + D14 +D11 + D10 + D7 + D6 + D5 + D4 + D3 + D + 1
gCRC16(D) = D16 + D12 + D5 + 1
gCRC8(D) = D8 + D7 + D4 + D3 + D + 1
Parity Checking
The encoding is performed in a systematic form, which means that in GF(2) (Galois Field (2)),
the polynomial:
a0DA+23 + a1DA+22 ++ aA-1D24 + p0D23 + + p1D22+ p22D1 + p23
yields a remainder equal to 0 when divided by the corresponding 24bit CRC generator
polynomial. Note that the 16bit and 8bit CRC generators each have a different polynomial
which also yields a remainder equal to 0.
The input bit sequence to the code block segmentation is denoted by b0 , b1 ,.bB1.
Segmentation is performed if B is larger than the maximum code block size Z (6144bits).
Finally, an additional CRC sequence of 24bits is attached to each code block.
Note that if B < 40, filler bits are added to the beginning of the code block.
The code block CRC is different to the one used by the transport blocks. The polynomial is:
gCRC24B(D) = D24 + D23 + D6 + D5 + D + 1
The verification polynomial is the same one used for the gCRC24A transport block which also
yields a remainder equal to 0.
Example
Figure 1-26 illustrates an example for segmentation when B=8000. In this instance the initial
segment size is 4200bits (including the 24bit transport block CRC) which gets a 24bit code
block CRC. The remaining 3800bits also get a 24bit code block CRC, however an additional
16bits of filler is required to ensure that the segments meet a valid turbo coding code block
size.
In this example the total number of bits sent is 8064bits, thus an extra 64bits are sent (24bits
+24bits +16bits).
DL-SCH
UL-SCH
Turbo Coding 1/3
PCH
MCH
BCH Tail Biting Convolutional Coding 1/3
Repetition Coding
Repetition coding is used for coding the HI (HARQ Indicator) bit. The HI bit set to 1 is
termed an ACK (Acknowledgement) and the HI bit set to 0 is a NACK (Negative
Acknowledgement). The process of repetition coding is applied to increase the channel
robustness. As such, for one initial bit, three bits are generated. These three bits are then map
to an orthogonal sequence. The use of the HI bit, as well as the orthogonal sequences, is
discussed in Section 2.21 .
Block Coding
The main utilization of block coding in LTE is for the CFI (Control Format Indicator). This
parameter is used to convey vital information about the size of the downlink control region.
Table 1-9 illustrates how the CFI values are encoded into a 32bit CFI codeword.
1 <0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1>
2 <1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0>
3 <1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1>
4 (Reserved) <0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0>
The utilization of the CFI and the mapping to the Physical Channels is discussed in Section
2.9.2 .
Shift
Registers
DC BA
Input S1 S2
0110
XOR Gate
G0 G1
Output
It can be seen in this simple coder that the output is dependent on the input and the state of the
registers at any given time. What is also important is to understand how the output will
change for any given input. For example, if the first input bit is 0 (bit A) and S1 and S2 are
both at 0, both outputs will be 0. As the next bit arrives (bit B) it affects the output, such
that G0 and G1 are both set to 1. Table 1-10 illustrates bit B (in bold) clocking through the
shift registers, as well as the output for the given sequence.
Input S1 S2 G0 G1
0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 1
0 1 1 0 1
Using the example coder from Figure 1-28 there are two possible outputs from each state.
Figure 1-29 illustrates these, as well as the relationship for an input of 0 or 1.
Output
Current
Next State
State
00
Input 0 00 00
Input 1 11 11
10 10
00
10
01 01
01 01
11 11
10
Input
0 1 1 0
Sequence Indicate possible
Transmitted number of bits in
00 11 01 01
/Received error.
0 2 1 1
00 00 00 00 00
2 0 1 1
10 10 10 1 10 1 10
1 1
1
2 2
01 01 1 01 01 01
0 0 0 0
11 11 11 2 11 2 11
Input 0 Input 1
In order for the Viterbi decoding trellis to work all possible states are considered for the
sequence of bits. If errors did occur, it is the maximum-likelihood path which is chosen, i.e.
the one with the least amount of errors.
Table 1-11 Standard Convolutional Coding Verses Tail Biting Convolutional Coding
Initializes the shift register with zeros. Initializes the shift register with the last bits
of the stream, i.e. zeros are not added for
initialization.
Padded with zeros. The shift register finishes, such that the last
bits of input are the same as what was used
to initialize the shift registers.
The initial value of the shift registers are set to the values corresponding to the last 6
information bits in the input stream as illustrated in Figure 1-31. This ensures that the initial
and final states of the shift registers are the same for the decoding process.
The actual LTE tail biting convolutional coder is shown in Figure 1-32. There are six shift
registers and hence 6bits are required to initialize the coder. The input bit stream is identified
by ck, dk(0), dk(1) and dk(2) correspond to the first, second and third parity streams, respectively.
Turbo Coding
Turbo coding defines a high-performance FEC mechanism. The term Turbo coding can be
used to describe many different types of encoders. For example, in LTE the turbo encoder is
known as a PCCC (Parallel Concatenated Convolutional Code) and it has two 8 state
constituent encoders and one contention-free QPP (Quadratic Permutation Polynomial) turbo
code internal interleaver. As previously mentioned, the coding rate of the LTE turbo encoder
is 1/3, i.e. for each input bit, three bits are produced. The structure of a turbo encoder is
illustrated in Figure 1-33.
Systematic
Bits
xk
The dotted lines
are part of the 1st Constituent Encoder
zk
trellis termination.
Parity
ck D D D Bits
Turbo Code
Internal 2nd Constituent Encoder
Interleaver xk
Parity
ck Bits
D D D
zk
The LTE turbo encoder employs two recursive convolutional encoders connected in parallel,
with the QPP turbo interleaver preceding the second encoder. The outputs of the constituent
encoders are punctured and repeated to achieve the correct output. It can be seen that the turbo
coder encodes the input block twice, i.e. with and without interleaving, to generate two
distinct sets of parity bits.
The sub-block interleaver is a row-column interleaver with 32 columns. Table 1-12 illustrates
the column permutations.
The sub-block interlearver works by writing each stream of bits row-by-row into a matrix
with 32 columns. In so doing, the number of rows is based on the stream size. In addition,
padding is added to the front of each stream so that the matrix is complete.
The output of the sub-block interleaver consists of the columns read out in the permutation
order, i.e. 0, 16, 8 etc.
The bit collection block provides a circular buffer which can be read during bit selection and
pruning. The circular buffer is formed by concatenating the rearranged systematic bits with
the two rearranged/interlaced parity bit streams.
Finally, the bit selection and pruning block performs a very important function. It provides a
rate matching output, ek, of the correct length and utilizing the correct RV (Redundancy
Version). The redundancy version is identified by the parameter rvidx and can have the values
0, 1, 2 or 3. As such, this value impacts the HARQ (Hybrid ARQ) operation, enabling the
system to select and prune different sets of bits.
fk
The concept of OFDM is not new and is currently being used on various systems such as
Wi-Fi and WiMAX. In addition, it was even considered for UMTS back in 1998. One of the
main reasons why it was not chosen at the time was the handsets limited processing power
and poor battery capabilities.
LTE was able to choose OFDM based access due to the fact mobile handset processing
capabilities and battery performance have both improved. In addition, there is continual
pressure to produce more spectrally efficient systems.
Frequency
Channel
Bandwidth
FDM systems are not that spectrally efficient (when compared to other systems) since
multiple subcarrier guard bands are required.
Frequency
Channel
Bandwidth
The centre subcarrier, known as the DC (Direct Current) subcarrier, is not typically used in OFDM
system due to its lack of orthogonality.
At the receiver side, this signal is passed to the FFT which analyses the complex/combined
waveform into the original streams. Figure 1-40 illustrates the FFT process.
The subcarrier spacing of 15kHz is also used in the calculation to identify the OFDM symbol duration.
subcarriers. The next 12 subcarriers are mapped to the next OFDM symbol period. In addition,
a CP (Cyclic Prefix) is added between the symbols.
Time
Modulated
OFDM
Symbol
Amplitude
Cyclic
Prefix
Frequency
OFDM
Symbol
LTE allocates resources in groups of 12 subcarriers. This is known as a PRB (Physical Resource Block).
Energy
Delay Spread
Time
ISI (Inter Symbol Interference) is typically reduced with equalizers. However, for the
equalizer to be effective a known bit pattern or training sequence is required. However, this
reduces the system capacity, as well as impacts processing on a device. Instead, OFDM
systems employ a CP (Cyclic Prefix).
1st Received
Delayed
Signal
Signal
Interference
Caused
Cyclic Prefix
A CP (Cyclic Prefix) is utilized in most OFDM systems to combat multipath delays. It
effectively provides a guard period for each OFDM symbol. Figure 1-45 illustrates the Cyclic
Prefix and its location in the OFDM Symbol. Notice that the Cyclic Prefix is effectively a
copy taken from the back of the original symbol which is then placed in front of the symbol to
make the OFDM symbol (Ts).
The size of the Cyclic Prefix relates to the maximum delay spread the system can tolerate. As
such, systems designed for macro coverage, i.e. large cells, should have a large CP. This does
however impact the system capacity since the number of symbols per second is reduced.
LTE has two defined Cyclic Prefix sizes, normal and extended. The extended Cyclic Prefix is designed
for larger cells.
OFDM Disadvantages
OFDM also has some disadvantages:
z frequency errors and phase noise can cause issues.
z Doppler shift impacts subcarrier orthogonality.
z some OFDM systems can suffer from high PAPR.
z required accurate frequency and time synchronization.
Objectives
2.22 Describe the concepts of layers, channel rank, spatial multiplexing, open and closed loop
spatial multiplexing, TX diversity, beamforming, SU-MIMO and MU-MIMO.
E-UTRA
Uu
NAS Control
E-UTRAN EPC
Plane
S1-MME
MME
RRC
Control S11
Plane eNB
UE
S1-U
User S5/S8
Plane S-GW PDN-GW
Control Plane
NAS Signaling User Plane
RRC NAS User - IP
PDCP PDCP
RLC RLC
MAC MAC
PHY PHY
UE
eNB
NAS Signaling
In terms of NAS signaling, messages pass between the User Equipment and the MME. This is
illustrated in Figure 2-4.
NAS User
The NAS user plane is based on IP (Internet Protocol). As such, IP datagrams are passed to
the lower layers, i.e. PDCP, for processing.
2.2.3 RRC
The main air interface control protocol is RRC (Radio Resource Control). For RRC messages
to be transferred between the UE and the eNB it uses the services of PDCP, RLC, MAC and
PHY. Figure 2-5 identifies the main RRC functions. In summary, RRC handles all the
signaling between the UE and the E-UTRAN, with signaling between the UE and Core
Network (NAS signaling) being carried by dedicated RRC messages. When carrying NAS
signaling, RRC does not alter the information but instead, provides the delivery mechanism.
RRC provides the main configuration and parameters to the lower layers. As such, the PHY layer will
get information from RRC on how to configure certain aspects of the Physical Layer.
2.2.4 PDCP
LTE implements PDCP in both the user plane and control plane. This is unlike UMTS, where
PDCP was only found in the user plane. The main reason for the difference is that PDCP in
LTE takes on the role of security, i.e. encryption and integrity. In addition, Figure 2-6
illustrates some of the other functions performed by PDCP.
Control Plane
Encryption NAS Signaling
Integrity Checking
RRC
User Plane
PDCP
IP Header Compression
Encryption RLC
Sequencing and Duplicate Detection
MAC
PHY
eNB
In the control plane, PDCP facilitates encryption and integrity checking of signaling messages,
i.e. RRC and NAS. The user plane is slightly different since only encryption is performed. In
addition, the user plane IP datagrams can also be subjected to IP header compression
techniques in order to improve the systems performance and efficiency. Finally, PDCP also
facilitates sequencing and duplication detection.
2.2.5 RLC
The RLC (Radio Link Control) protocol exists in the UE and the eNB. As its name suggests it
provides radio link control, if required. In essence, RLC supports three delivery services to
the higher layers:
z TM (Transparent Mode) - This is utilized for some of the air interface channels, e.g.
broadcast and paging. It provides a connectionless service for signaling.
z UM (Unacknowledged Mode) - This is like Transparent Mode, in that it is a
connectionless service; however it has the additional features of sequencing,
segmentation and concatenation.
z AM (Acknowledged Mode) - This offers an ARQ (Automatic Repeat Request) service.
As such, retransmissions can be used.
These modes, as well as the other RLC features are illustrated in Figure 2-7. In addition to
ARQ, RLC offers segmentation, re-assembly and concatenation of information.
2.2.6 MAC
MAC (Medium Access Control) provides the interface between the E-UTRA protocols and
the E-UTRA Physical Layer. In doing this it provides the following services:
z Mapping - MAC maps the information received on the LTE Logical Channels into the
LTE transport channels. These channels and their mapping are discussed further in
Section 2.3 .
z Multiplexing - The information provided to MAC will come from a RB (Radio Bearer)
or multiple Radio Bearers. The MAC layer is able to multiplex different bearers into the
same TB (Transport Block), thus increasing efficiency.
z HARQ (Hybrid Automatic Repeat Request) - MAC utilizes HARQ to provide error
correction services across the air. HARQ is a feature which requires the MAC and
Physical Layers to work closely together. This is discussed further in Section 2.21 .
z Radio Resource Allocation - QoS (Quality of Service) based scheduling of traffic and
signaling to users is provided by MAC. There are various scheduling options, these are
described further in Section 3 .
In order to support these features the MAC and Physical layers need to pass various
indications on the radio link quality, as well as the feedback from HARQ operation.
2.2.7 Physical
The PHY (Physical Layer) in LTE provides a new and flexible channel. It does however
utilize features and mechanisms defined in earlier systems, i.e. UMTS. Figure 2-9 illustrates
the main functions provided by the Physical Layer.
Logical
Channels RLC
Transport
MAC Channels
PHY
Physical
Channels Radio
Channel
Logical channels are classified as either Control Logical Channels, which carry control data
such as RRC signaling, or traffic Logical Channels which carry user plane data.
z CCCH (Common Control Channel) - This is used to establish a RRC (Radio Resource
Control) connection, also known as a SRB (Signaling Radio Bearer). It is also used for
re-establishment procedures. SRB 0 maps to the CCCH.
z DCCH (Dedicated Control Channel) - This provides a bidirectional channel for signaling.
Logically there are two DCCH activated:
SRB 1 - This is used for RRC messages, as well as RRC messages carrying high
priority NAS signaling.
SRB 2 - This is used for RRC carrying low priority NAS signaling. Prior to its
establishment low priority signaling is sent on SRB1.
The DTCH is a bidirectional channel that can operate in either RLC AM or UM mode. This is
configured by RRC and is based on the QoS (Quality of Service) of the E-RAB (EPS Radio
Access Bearer).
z RACH (Random Access Channel) - This channel carries limited information and is used
in conjunction with Physical Channels and preambles to provide contention resolution
procedures.
z UL-SCH (Uplink Shared Channel) - Similar to the DL-SCH, this channel supports
dynamic scheduling (eNB controlled) and dynamic link adaptation by varying the
modulation and coding. In addition, it too supports HARQ (Hybrid Automatic Repeat
Request) operation to improve performance.
Integrity ROHC
PDCP Layer
Ciphering Ciphering
Logical
BCCH PCCH CCCH DCCH DTCH
Channels
MAC Layer
Transport
BCH PCH DL-SCH
Channels
Integrity ROHC
PDCP Layer
Ciphering Ciphering
Logical
CCCH DCCH DTCH
Channels
MAC Layer
Transport
RACH UL-SCH
Channels
In order to facilitate the multiplexing from Logical Channels to Transport Channels, the MAC
Layer typically adds a LCID (Logical Channel Identifier).
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Ts
7 OFDM
Symbols (Normal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Cyclic Prefix)
Ts
6 OFDM Symbols
(Extended Cyclic 0 1 2 3 4 5
Prefix)
CP (Cyclic
Prefix)
The use of the extended cyclic prefix is intended for scenarios when the range of the cell
needs to be extended, e.g. for planning purposes.
Table 2-2 illustrates the sizes of the cyclic prefix for different configurations. It can be seen
that the CP size can vary during a slot, such that the first CP is larger than the rest when the
normal CP size is chosen.
The 7.5kHz option is part of MBSFN (MBMS over Single Frequency Network) which is still in the
Release 8 PHY specifications, however the MBMS feature which utilizes this has been delayed until
Release 9. In addition, this option (7.5kHz) is only available in the downlink.
The symbol (Ts) consists of a guard period, i.e. the cyclic prefix, and the Tb data duration
which is 2048 LTE time units for both the normal and extended 15kHz option. Figure 2-21
illustrates an example of the normal cyclic prefix configuration for a slot.
DL
Nsymb OFDM Symbols (= 7 for Normal CP)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
160 2048 144 2048 144 2048 144 2048 144 2048 144 2048 144 2048
There are various frame configuration options supported for TDD. Table 2-3 illustrates the
different options. Configuration options 0, 1, 2 and 6 have a 5ms switching point and
therefore require 2 special subframes, whereas the rest are based on a 10ms switching point.
In the table, the letter D is reserved for downlink transmissions, U denotes subframes
reserved for uplink transmissions and S denotes a special subframe with the three fields
DwPTS, GP and UpPTS.
0 5ms D S U U U D S U U U
1 5ms D S U U D D S U U D
2 5ms D S U D D D S U D D
3 10ms D S U U U D D D D D
4 10ms D S U U D D D D D D
5 10ms D S U D D D D D D D
6 5ms D S U U U D S U U D
The DwPTS and UpPTS in a special frame may carry information. For example the DwPTS can include
scheduling information and the UpPTS can be configured to facilitate random access bursts.
Antenna
Codewords Layers Ports
Resource OFDM
Modulation
Scrambling Element Signal
Mapper
Mapper Generation
Layer
Precoding
Mapper
Resource OFDM
Modulation
Scrambling Element Signal
Mapper
Mapper Generation
It is important to note that the number of modulation symbols on each layer needs to be the
same. As such, when operating with three layers, the second codeword is twice as large as the
first. This can be achieved due to the supported TB sizes and the other Physical Layer stages.
2.5.2 Scrambling
The initial stage of the Physical Layer processing is scrambling. This stage is applied to the
signal in order to provide interference rejection properties. Scrambling effectively randomizes
interfering signals using a pseudo-random scrambling process. Figure 2-25 illustrates the
generation of the scrambling code which is applied to most of the Physical Channels. It is
worth noting that scrambling is not used on the downlink PHICH and on certain parts of the
uplink.
64QAM
Q
7
101111 101101 100101 100111 000111 000101 001101 001111
5
101110 101100 100100 100110 000110 000100 001100 001110
3
101010 101000 100000 100010 000010 000000 001000 001010
1
101011 101001 100001 100011 000011 000001 001001 001011
I
-7 -5 -3 -1 1 3 5 7
-1
111011 111001 110001 110011 010011 010001 011001 011011
-3
111010 111000 110000 110010 010010 010000 011000 011010
-5
111110 111100 110100 110110 010110 010100 011100 011110
-7
111111 111101 110101 110111 010111 010101 011101 011111
2.5.5 Precoding
The next stage is precoding the complex-valued modulation symbols on each layer for
transmission. Figure 2-28 illustrates the different precoding options:
z Single Antenna Port.
z Transmit Diversity.
z Spatial Multiplexing - This includes two options, i.e. with CDD (Cyclic Delay Diversity)
and without.
CDD (Cyclic Delay Diversity) is a method whereby a delayed version of the same OFDM symbol is
transmitted from multiple antennas. It provides a method for transforming spatial diversity into
frequency diversity thus avoiding Inter Symbol Interference.
N DLN RB / 2
RB sc
sl( p) (t ) = ( p)
1
k = NRB Nsc / 2
DL RB k =1
Frequency
Channel OFDMA
Bandwidth
E.g. 3MHz
PRB consists of 12
subcarriers for 0.5ms
Time
It is also worth noting that a device is typically allocated 1ms of time, i.e. a subframe, and not
an individual PRB.
identify the number of resource blocks in the uplink. Each RB (Resource Block) consists of
NSCRB subcarriers, which for standard operation is set to 12. In addition, another configuration
is available when using MBSFN and a 7.5kHz subcarrier spacing.
The PRB is used to identify an allocation. It typically includes 6 or 7 symbols, depending on
whether an extended or normal cyclic prefix is configured.
The term RE (Resource Element) is used to describe one subcarrier lasting one symbol. This
can then be assigned to carry modulated information, reference information or nothing.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Subframe
Slot 8 Slot 9
Physical Resource
NSCRB Subcarriers = 12 Block
NRBDL
Resource
Element
The different configurations for the downlink E-UTRA PRB are illustrated in Table 2-5.
The uplink PRB configuration is similar; however the 7.5kHz option is not available.
In LTE there are two synchronization sequences, known as the PSS (Primary Synchronization
Signal) and the SSS (Secondary Synchronization Signal). The location of these is dependent
on the transmission mode, i.e. FDD or TDD, as well as the use of the normal or extended
cyclic prefix.
Extended CP 0 1 2 3 4 5
PSS (Primary
Bandwidth Synchronization
Sequence)
Normal CP 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 72
Subcarriers
Bandwidth
SSS (Secondary
Synchronization
Sequence)
Slots 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19
Radio Frame
Repeated in
slots 0 and 10
0 0 1 34 4 6 68 9 12 102 15 19 136 22 27
1 1 2 35 5 7 69 10 13 103 16 20 137 23 28
2 2 3 36 6 8 70 11 14 104 17 21 138 24 29
3 3 4 37 7 9 71 12 15 105 18 22 139 25 30
. . . . .
. . . . 167 2 9
33 3 5 67 8 11 101 14 18 135 21 26
The concatenated sequence is scrambled with a scrambling sequence given by the primary
synchronization signal.
Normal CP Extended CP
R R R R
R R R R
R R R R
R R R R
Antenna Port 0 Antenna Port 0
This is used for a single TX (Transmit) antenna. The reference signals are transmitted during
the first and fifth OFDM symbols of each slot when the normal CP is used and during the first
and fourth OFDM symbols when the extended CP is used.
Cell ID Offset
It is worth noting that the position of the reference signals is dependent on the value of the
Cell ID. As such, the system performs a calculation (Cell ID mod 6) to determine the correct
offset. Figure 2-36 illustrates two cells, each producing a different offset.
Whilst Reference Symbols are transmitted on one antenna, the other antennas resource element is null.
x x R x x R R x x R x x x x x x R x x R x x x x
R x x R x x x x R x x R x R x x x x x x x x R x
x x R x x R R x x R x x x x x x R x x R x x x x
R x x R x x x x R x x R x R x x x x x x x x R x
Antenna Port 0 Antenna Port 1 Antenna Port 2 Antenna Port 3
Antenna port 2 and antenna port 3 both have a reduced number of reference symbols.
This is to reduce the reference signal overhead. It does also have a negative impact on the
system since the lack of reference signals will mean that in high mobility, i.e. fast channel
variations, the channel estimation will not be as accurate. This however can be offset by the
fact that spatial multiplexing MIMO with 4 antennas will mostly be performed in low
mobility scenarios.
Subframe Subframe
Slot
Extended CP
15kHz
Extended CP
7.5kHz
Normal CP Extended CP
Since the device has no information on the beamforming attributes applied by the eNB it
needs to estimate these as part of the channel estimation process.
The coded BCH TB (Transport Block) is mapped into four subframes within a 40ms interval.
This 40ms timing is blindly detected by the UE and the information within the subframe is
assumed to be self decodable. This means that it is not dependent on information in
subsequent transmissions of Transport Blocks on the PBCH. The PBCH is located in 4
symbols of slot 1 only (symbols 0, 1, 2 and 3).
MIB
CRC
Bandwidth
Channel Coding
System
Rate Matching
Scrambling
Modulation
Layer Mapping PBCH
Precoding
Mapping to REs
10ms Frame
Only the MIB is carried in the PBCH, other SIB (System Information Blocks) are sent using the
PDSCH.
Section 2.11.4 discusses the LTE SI (System Information) messages and scheduling options.
N RB > 10 N RB 10
DL DL
1 1 2
2 2 3
3 3 4
The control area within a PRB is grouped into multiple REG (Resource Element Group), with
one REG containing four Resource Elements. It is worth noting that the REG does not use
Resource Elements assigned to Reference Signals.
The PCFICH requires four REGs, i.e. 16 Resource Elements, which are distributed over the
channel bandwidth. The location of these varies depending on the system bandwidth (NSCRB)
and the NIDcell. Figure 2-43 illustrates the processes involved in mapping the CFI (Control
Format Indicator) to the correct REGs. In addition, the calculations required are also
illustrated.
Table 2-8 illustrates the CFI codewords which are mapped to the PCFICH. These can change
every subframe, i.e. 1ms.
1 <0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1>
2 <1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0>
3 <1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1,0,1,1>
4 (Reserved) <0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0>
Since there are 2bits, i.e. four combinations, coded to 32bits the result is 1/16 Block Coding.
In TDD the control regions are only available on the downlink subframes and the DwPTS.
assigned to PCFICH or PHICH is NREG. The CCEs available in the system are numbered from
0 and NCCE -1, where NCCE = NREG / 9. The PDCCH supports multiple formats, these include:
z PDCCH Format 0 - This consist of one CCE.
z PDCCH Format 1 - This consist of two CCE.
z PDCCH Format 2 - This consist of four CCE.
z PDCCH Format 3 - This consist of eight CCE.
Figure 2-45 illustrates the PDCCH mapping process.
PDCCH Mapping
Figure 2-46 illustrates the concept of mapping the PDCCH to REGs. It assumes that the
PCFICH indicated 2 symbols, as well as two antennas and one PHICH.
0
0
x 0 R x R
PCFICH 0
PDCCH #0 PDCCH #N 1
R 1 x R x
1
1
x 2 R x R
PHICH
2
REG 2
R 2 x R x
3 4
Interleaving and Cyclic 3 4
cell
Shift based on NID x 4 R x R
3 4
3 5
R 5 x R x
REG 6 5
6 5
x 7 R x R
6 7
6 7
R 7 x R x
Each control channel carries downlink or uplink scheduling information for one MAC identity,
namely a C-RNTI (Cell - Radio Network Temporary Identifier). This is implicitly encoded in
the CRC.
There are various rules governing when a PDCCH can start in a subframe. Effectively there is
a tree based method to the aggregation of CCE, these include:
z 1 - CCE - these start on any CCE position (0, 1, 2, 3, 4, ...).
z 2 - CCE - these start every second location (0, 2, 4, 6, ...).
z 4 - CCE - these start on every fourth (0, 4, 8, ...).
z 8 - CCE - these start on every eighth position (0, 8, ...).
Figure 2-47 illustrates how CCEs could be mapped.
1 CCE Level
4 CCE Level
8 CCE Level
Search Spaces
The set of PDCCH candidates to monitor are defined in terms of search spaces. The diagram
illustrates the concept of search spaces and the relationship to the CCEs.
Candidate Candidate
Aggregation Set Aggregation Set
for Common for UE-specific
Control Control
8 - CCE
4 - CCE
2 - CCE
1 - CCE CCE
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
There are two types of search spaces, namely common and UE specific. The common search
space corresponds to CCEs 0-15 at two levels:
z 4-CCE - CCEs 0-3, 4-7, 8-11, 12-15.
z 8-CCE - CCEs 0-7, 8-15.
These are monitored by all UEs in the cell and can be used for any PDCCH signaling. In
addition, a UE must monitor one UE specific search space at each of the aggregation levels 1,
2, 4 and 8. This may overlap with the common control search space. The location of the
UE-specific search space is based on the C-RNTI (Cell - Radio Network Temporary Identity).
The number of available CCEs in a cell is dependent on a number of attributes including:
z Bandwidth.
z Number of antenna ports.
z PHICH configuration.
z PCFICH value (1, 2 or 3).
Subframe
x R x R
PDSCH
R x R x
Symbols
x R x R
PDSCH R x R x
Symbol
x R x R
Mapping
R x R x
Reserved for x R x R
Control
R x R x
0 Scheduling of PUSCH
1 Scheduling of one PDSCH codeword
1A Compact scheduling of one PDSCH codeword and random access
procedure initiated by a PDCCH order
1B Compact scheduling of one PDSCH codeword with precoding
information (Rank-1 transmission)
1C Very compact scheduling of one PDSCH codeword
1D Compact scheduling of one PDSCH codeword with precoding and
power offset information (multi-user MIMO)
2 Scheduling PDSCH to UEs configured in closed-loop spatial
multiplexing MIMO
2A Scheduling PDSCH to UEs configured in open-loop spatial
multiplexing MIMO
3 Transmission of TPC (Transmit Power Control) commands for
PUCCH and PUSCH with 2-bit power adjustments
3A Transmission of TPC (Transmit Power Control) commands for
PUCCH and PUSCH with 1-bit power adjustments
The size of the DCI format depends on its function, as well as the system bandwidth. There
are various rules associated with the formatting of the DCI messages. As such, padding is
typically added to ensure the rules are met.
Otherwise, when used for compact scheduling of one PDSCH codeword the following
information is sent:
z Flag for format0/format1A differentiation - 1 bit, where value 0 indicates format 0 and
value 1 indicates format 1A.
z Localized/distributed VRB (Virtual Resource Block) assignment flag.
z Resource block assignment (localized VRB /distributed VRB).
z Modulation and coding scheme.
z HARQ process number.
z New data indicator.
z Redundancy version.
z TPC command for PUCCH.
z Downlink Assignment Index - This is present in TDD and is applicable to TDD
configurations 1-6.
Like format 0, various rules apply to the size of the message, such that zeros may need to be
inserted. In addition, depending on the channel usage, i.e. the CRC is scrambled with random
access, paging or system information RNTIs, certain fields may be reserved.
Table 2-11 Precoding Information Field for 4 Antenna Ports (Open Loop)
L
N = format 0 ,
2
The parameter Lformat 0 is equal to the payload size of format 0 before CRC attachment.
A power control parameter, namely tpc-Index, is provided by higher layers. This is utilized by
the mobile to determine the index to the TPC command for a given UE. Power control is
discussed in Section 2.19 .
Uplink Synchronization
Complete
PLMN/Cell RACH
Power On Cell Search
Selection Process
Downlink Synchronization
Complete
In order to access a cell the device must find and synchronize to the cell. It is then able to
decode the System Information messages and perform PLMN (Public Land Mobile Network)
and Cell Selection. Once this has been completed, the device is in a position to access the cell
and establish a RRC connection, i.e. a SRB (Signaling Radio Bearer).
Figure 2-53 PSS and SSS for Cell Search (FDD Mode)
Frame - 10ms
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
5MHz (25
Resource
Blocks)
PSS
SSS
PBCH
In order for the UE to identify the cell and synchronize with the downlink transmission, the
eNB sends synchronization signals over the centre 72 sub-carriers. For FDD mode (using a
normal CP) this is in the first and sixth subframes of each downlink frame.
These synchronization signals comprise of the PSS (Primary Synchronization Signal) and
SSS (Secondary Synchronization Signal). Together they enable the UE to become downlink
synchronized and identify the Cell ID (Cell Identity). There are 504 unique physical cell
identities, divided into 168 cell identity groups each containing three cell identities (sectors).
The Physical Cell ID is able to be reused based on the cell and frequency reuse mechanism employed.
At this stage the cell identity within the group is known. In addition, the location of the SSS is
also known because it occupies the previous OFDM symbol (FDD mode). However, at this
stage the frame synchronization is not known since subframe 0 and 5 both utilize the same
PSS sequence.
s ( m0 ) (n)c0 (n ) in subframe 0
d (2n) = 0( m )
s1 1 (n)c0 (n ) in subframe 5
s ( m1 ) (n)c1 (n )z1( m0 ) (n ) in subframe 0
d (2n + 1) = 1( m )
s0 0 (n)c1 (n )z1 1 (n ) in subframe 5
(m )
where 0 n 30 .
(1)
The indices m 0 and m1 are derived from the Physical Layer cell identity group N ID and
are shown in Table 2-6.
The references to the m-sequences include:
z The two sequences s0( m0 ) (n) and s1( m1 ) (n) are defined as two different cyclic shifts of
the m-sequence ~s (n) .
z The two scrambling sequences c0 (n) and c1 (n) depend on the primary
synchronization signal and are defined by two different cyclic shifts of the m-sequence
c~ (n) .
z The scrambling sequences z1( m0 ) (n) and z1( m1 ) (n) are defined by a cyclic shift of the
m-sequence ~z (n) .
Figure 2-56 illustrates the correlation of the SSS. Note that the device is
monitoring/processing a number of different SSS possibilities, i.e. more than the two shown.
NRB
Frame 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
The MIB is always transmitted in subframe 0. The MIB carries three very important bits of
information. It indicates the downlink bandwidth, i.e. 6, 15, 25, 50, 75 or 100 Resource
Blocks. This enables the device to know where it should be looking (subcarriers) for the
downlink control information. In addition, the PHICH configuration parameter is included.
This indicates that Ng is equal to 1/6, 1/2, 1 or 2 and whether Normal or Extended
PHICH mode is being used. These are used by the device to determine the number of PHICH
groups configured on the cell and their location. Finally, the SFN is also included.
Based on the MIB the UE is able to decode the PCFICH. This identifies the number of OFDM
symbols assigned to the downlink control region in the subframe.
NRB
Frame 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Acquisition of an SI Message
When acquiring an SI message, the UE performs various calculations to determine the start of
the SI-window for the concerned SI message:
z For the concerned SI message, determine the number n which corresponds to the order of
entry in the list of SI messages configured by schedulingInfoList in
SystemInformationBlockType1.
z Determine the integer value x = (n 1)*w, where w is the si-WindowLength.
z The SI-window starts at the subframe #a, where a = x mod 10, in the radio frame for
which SFN mod T = FLOOR(x/10), where T is the si-Periodicity of the concerned SI
message.
In order to identify the scheduling of SI messages the UE looks for the SI-RNTI (System
Information - Radio Network Temporary Identifier) on the PDCCH.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 SFN
SI1 {rf8, SIB3, SIB4, SIB5} SIB1 (System Information Block Type 1)
.
SI-Window=5ms
Scheduling Info List
- SI1 {rf8, SIB3, SIB4, SIB5}
- SI2 {rf16, SIB6, SIB7, SIB8, SIB9}
E-UTRAN should configure an SI-window of 1 ms only if all SIs are scheduled before subframe #5 in
radio frames for which SFN mod 2 = 0.
The PLMN selection process is performed using one of three options, namely an automatic
option, a manual option and a home environment specific option. The automatic and manual
options are implemented in the UE, whilst the home environment option is implemented
through intelligence in the home network.
Once a UE has synchronized with the cell and decoded the necessary System Information
messages, it must camp on it; or one of the surrounding cells. This is achieved through the cell
selection process. The UE is aiming to find the cell which will provide the best quality radio
link between it and the network. Figure 2-69 illustrates the S (Cell Selection) calculation.
Table 2-12 identifies the parameters used as part of the Cell Selection process.
Parameter Description
In terms of the radio channel, the UE measures the RSRP (Reference Signal Received Power).
The LTE downlink contains cell specific RS (Reference Signals) which are used for channel
equalization and determining the RSRP (Reference Signal Received Power).
The device calculates the Qrxlevmeas for each cell. It then gathers the related Qrxlevmin and
other parameters from the SI messages (each cell may provide different parameters). Once it
has gathered all the information it is able to calculate Srxlev for each cell.
All cells that return a value of Srxlev greater than zero are considered candidates for selection.
The cell with the most positive value is selected and becomes the camped on cell.
0
0
0
0
Subcarrier CP
DFT IDFT
Symbols Mapping Insertion
0
0
0
In Figure 2-70 the SC-FDMA signal generation process starts by creating a time domain
waveform of the data symbols to be transmitted. This is then converted into the frequency
domain, using a DFT (Discrete Fourier Transform). DFT length and sampling rate are chosen
so that the signal is fully represented, as well as being spaced 15kHz apart. Each bin
(subcarrier) will have its own fixed amplitude and phase for the duration of the SC-FDMA
symbol. Next the signal is shifted to the desired place in the channel bandwidth using the zero
insertion concept, i.e. subcarrier mapping. Finally, the signal is converted to a single carrier
waveform using an IDFT (Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform) and other functions. Finally a
cyclic prefix can be added. Note that additional functions such as S-P (Serial to Parallel) and
P-S (Parallel to Serial) converters are also required as part of a detailed functional description.
Figure 2-71 illustrates the concept of the DFT, such that a group of N symbols map to N
subcarriers. However depending on the combination of N symbols into the DFT the output
will vary. As such, the actual amplitude and phase of the N subcarriers is like a code word.
For example the first combination represents the first set of symbols. Since the second set of
symbols is different the amplitude and phase of the N subcarriers would then be different.
DFT
Modulated and
Coded Symbols
Second N Symbols
DFT
The process at the eNB receiver takes the N subcarriers and reverses the process. This is
achieved using an IDFT (Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform) which effectively reproduces
the original N symbols.
Figure 2-72 illustrates the basic view of how the subcarriers received at the eNB are converted
back into the original signals.
Note that the SC-FDMA symbols have a constant amplitude and phase and like ODFMA, a
CP (Cyclic Prefix) is still required.
N RB N sc / 2 1
UL RB
j 2 ( k +1 2 )f (t N CP ,l Ts )
sl (t ) = ak ( ) ,l e
UL RB
k = N RB N sc / 2
The SC-FDMA symbols in a slot are transmitted in increasing order of l , starting with l = 0 ,
l 1
where SC-FDMA symbol l > 0 starts at time ( N CP ,l + N )Ts within the slot.
l =0
Low PAPR Y X
Performance X Y
Uplink MIMO X Y
The Guard Period is required since the eNB does not know when the preambles will arrive.
Figure 2-76 illustrates an example with two UEs. The first is next to the eNB therefore there
is very little delay. In contrast UE B is some distance from the eNB, as such the initial
access preamble is delayed, i.e. there is a round trip delay. The eNB must allocate a large
enough window such that the preambles from UE at the edge of the cell dont arrive outside
of this window.
3168Ts 24576Ts
21024Ts 24576Ts
6040Ts 224576Ts
21024Ts 224576Ts
4 (TDD)
448Ts 4096Ts
Format 4 is only available for frame structure type 2 and special subframe configurations with UpPTS
For FDD format 0, 1 2 or 3 can be configured. Figure 2-77 visualizes the different formats. It
is worth noting that they can occupy more than a subframe and in addition the guard period is
not specified.
The actual PRACH channel utilizes 6 PRBs, i.e. it occupies 1.4MHz of uplink channel
capacity.
For FDD the subcarrier spacing is 1.25kHz and there are 839 subcarriers, whilst TDD utilizes
a 7.5kHz subcarrier spacing and 139 carriers. As such for FDD the duration is 1/T =
1/1.25kHz = 0.8ms.
The exact position of the PRACH is defined in the SI (System Information) messages by
using the PRACH Configuration Index. This is based on a table and can vary from 0 to 63.
Table 2-15 illustrates the first part of the table.
0 0 Even 1
1 0 Even 4
2 0 Even 7
3 0 Any 1
4 0 Any 4
5 0 Any 7
6 0 Any 1, 6
7 0 Any 2 ,7
8 0 Any 3, 8
9 0 Any 1, 4, 7
10 0 Any 2, 5, 8
11 0 Any 3, 6, 9
12 0 Any 0, 2, 4, 6, 8
13 0 Any 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
14 0 Any 0, 1, 2, 3, 4,
5, 6, 7, 8, 9
15 0 Even 9
. . . .
. . . .
63 3 Even 9
The random access preamble is generated from Zadoff-Chu sequences. These have key
properties:
z Constant Amplitude - This improves the PARP and increases the amplifier efficiency.
z Autocorrelation - This enables the eNB to provide accurate timing.
z Cross Correlation - This enables different base sequence cyclic shifts to be used.
Additional mechanisms are required when the cyclic shift is greater than the time
expected for round trip propagation and signal delay spread.
The set of 64 preamble sequences in a cell is found by including first, in the order of
increasing cyclic shift, all the available cyclic shifts of a root Zadoff-Chu sequence with the
logical index RACH_ROOT_SEQUENCE, where RACH_ROOT_SEQUENCE is
broadcasted as part of the System Information.
Additional preamble sequences, in case 64 preambles cannot be generated from a single root
Zadoff-Chu sequence, are obtained from the root sequences with the consecutive logical
indexes until all the 64 sequences are found.
The relation between a logical root sequence index and physical root sequence index u is
defined by various tables and calculations in the 3GPP 36.211 specification - Physical
Channels and Modulation.
where the length N ZC of the Zadoff-Chu sequence, e.g. 829 for Format 0. Various rules
apply to identify the chosen set. In addition, the parameter Highspeed-flag is provided by
higher layers and determines if unrestricted set or restricted set is used. The restricted set
adds additional rules on the cyclic shifts that can be used as preambles, i.e. taking Doppler
spread into account.
PUSCH
Symbols
PDSCH
Symbol
Mapping
Reference
Signals
Additional Resource Elements are typically required to carry extra control signaling, e.g. CQI (Channel
Quality Information), ACK/NACK, etc.
same subframe; therefore the control information needs to be multiplexed with the UL-SCH
Transport Channel before the DFT process.
Subframe
Figure 2-81 illustrates an example of control signaling to the PUSCH. In this example, three
additional types of signaling are added:
z ACK/NACK - These are part of the HARQ process and are located next to the RS. This
ensures that they benefit from the best possible channel estimation. The information is
punctured to make way for the ACK/NACK information.
z CQI/PMI - The CQI (Channel Quality Information) and PMI (Precoding Matrix
Indicator) can also be multiplexed onto the PUSCH. These are rate matched with the
UL-SCH. The mapping of these is sequential on one subcarrier before continuing on the
next.
z RI - RI (Rank Indication) - These are placed next to the ACK/NACK.
Various rules on the mapping and coding of control information exist. In addition, it is also
possible to send control information on the PUSCH without data, i.e. not the UL-SCH.
PRB=n
Control Region 0
Control Region 1
Control Region 2
PRB=0
Subframe
The PUCCH resource blocks are located at both edges of the uplink bandwidth. It uses
inter-slot hopping to improve frequency diversity. Note that a UE only uses the PUCCH when
it does not have any data to transmit on the PUSCH, i.e. no allocated resources.
There are various types of PUCCH formats associated with uplink control. Section 2.17
discusses these in detail.
TDD Timing
For TDD the timing relationship is more complex. As such, it now depends on the UL/DL
TDD configurations, namely 0 to 6. Table 2-16 illustrates the different K values for TDD.
0 4* 6* 4* 6*
1 6 4 6 4
2 4 4
3 4 4 4
4 4 4
5 4
6 7 7 7 7 5
The UE, upon detection of a PDCCH with DCI format 0 and/or a PHICH transmission in
subframe n intended for the UE, adjusts the corresponding PUSCH transmission in subframe
n+k, with k given in Table 2-16.
Figure 2-84 illustrates an example of frame configuration 2. In this configuration, K=4 in
subframes 3 and 8. This relates to transmission being scheduled for subframes 7 and 2
respectively.
Base Sequences
Reference Signals are generated using Base Sequences, with the same set of base sequences
used for demodulation and sounding Reference Signals. These sequences need to support
different bandwidth options whilst at the same time having auto correlation and cross
correlation properties. In addition, they need to have acceptable cubic metric values.
When using a fixed group, i.e. not group hopping, the same group is used for all slots.
However, the group number to use is dependent on the channel type. As such, the PUCCH
group number is based on the cell identity and the PUSCH group number is influenced by a
higher layer parameter.
If using group hopping, the group number changes with slots based on an equation. There are
17 different hopping patterns and 30 different sequence-shift patterns. As such, the PUCCH
and PUSCH have the same hopping pattern but may have different sequence-shift patterns.
PUSCH DRS
The DRS varies in its location depending on a number of attributes, such as the use of a
normal or extended cyclic prefix. Figure 2-87 illustrates the DRS location for the PUSCH and
a normal CP. In this case the DRS is located on the 4th symbol in each slot and uses the same
transmission bandwidth allocated to the UEs in the uplink. Reference Signals for different
UEs are derived by different cyclic shifts from the same base sequence.
12 Subcarriers
In contrast, if the system is utilizing an extended CP then the DRS is located in a different
OFDM symbol.
Subframe Subframe
No Channel
Information
5MHz (25 Resource Blocks)
eNB
UE
Assigned No Channel
Resources Information
The configuration of the sounding signal, e.g. bandwidth, duration and periodicity, are given
by higher layers. The SRS is transmitted in the last symbol of the subframe. Figure 2-90
illustrates an example, whereby the eNB has configured the mobile to send SRS over a
desired portion of the band.
Since the SRS can be sent when the UE has no current PUSCH or PUCCH assignment,
mechanisms must exist to stop the UE interfering with other users PUSCHs. This is done by
making sure all UEs know when the SRS are transmitted, such that the last symbol of the
subframe where SRS is transmitted is not used by any mobiles for their PUSCH.
SRS Transmission
There are various Sounding Reference Symbol parameters defined. Most are UE
semi-statically configurable by higher layers:
z Transmission comb.
z Starting physical resource block assignment.
z Duration of SRS transmission: single or indefinite (until disabled).
z SRS configuration index ISRS for SRS periodicity and SRS subframe offset Toffset .
In addition, cell specific parameters, SRS transmission bandwidths ( C SRS ) and subframe
transmission are configured by higher layers.
Figure 2-91 illustrates an example of multiplexing the SRS from different users. Notice that
multiple UEs can send the SRS at the same time, using different resources as well as a
different cyclic shift.
SRS Symbol
UE 1 and 2 (Using
different cyclic
shifts)
UE 3 and 4 (Using
different cyclic
shifts)
12 Subcarriers
Subframe
Note that the SRS may need to interact with ACK/NACK, CQI or SR information. If
interacting with ACK/NACK the SRS may be dropped or the ACK/NACK punctured. In
contrast, when interacting with the CQI and SR information, the SRS is dropped.
Note that various rules apply to the sending of scheduling requests, especially if the UE is
multiplexing it with CQI and/or ACK/NAK on PUCCH. In this case:
z CQI: Drop CQI when SR is transmitted.
z ACK/NAK: Support multiplexing of SR and ACK/NAK.
For an extended CP, there are six symbols and only two UL RS (Reference Signals).
Interference Issues
There should be no intra cell interference in a RB since the system is using the same base
reference sequence with different cyclic shifts and orthogonal codes. However there may be
inter cell interference. This is improved with the use of different cyclic shifts and orthogonal
codes, as well as applying different hopping patterns (since these are cell specific too).
PUCCH Format 2
Format 2 is used when CQI/PMI is transmitted without ACK/NACK or when CQI/PMI and
ACK/NACK are jointly coded for the case of the extended cyclic prefix. Format 2 is
characterized as follows:
z It is bit scrambled by a UE specific scrambling sequence.
z The initialization of the scrambling sequence generator is the same as that of the
PUSCH.
z It contains CS (Cyclic Shift) based sequences.
z CS hopping is performed on a symbol basis.
1 or 2 bit
ACK/NACK
Cyclically To Next
shifted Slot
length-12
sequence
IFFT
1st RS 2nd RS
Slot (Normal CP)
UE eNB
PRACH Preamble Sequence
RACH
MAC Scheduling Grant
MAC
Contention
RRC Connection Request
UL-SCH Resolution
RRC Connection Setup
DL-SCH
RRC Connection Setup Complete
UL-SCH
Signalling Radio Bearer
(RRC Connected)
In this example the initial probe is below the noise/interference level and thus is not heard.
The UE increases its power based on a step size until a response is heard on the DPCCH.
Parameter Description
numberOfRA-Preambles
0 1 2 3 4 63
UE
sizeOfRA-PreamblesGroupA
eNB
0 1 2 3 4 Preambles Group B
is used dependent
on messages size
and pathloss
Group Utilization
For the first Msg3 (Higher Layer Message) the selection of group B is based on message size
and pathloss attributes:
z Data size plus MAC and control is greater than messageSizeGroupA.
z Pathloss is less than (PCMAX preambleInitialReceivedTargetPower
deltaPreambleMsg3 messagePowerOffsetGroupB).
For retransmissions the UE uses the same group as was used for the initial preamble
transmission attempt.
The RA-RNTI is calculated using the formula: 1 + t_id+10*f_id, where t_id is the index of
the first subframe of the specified PRACH (Physical Random Access Channel) resource and
f_id is the index of the specified PRACH resource within that subframe.
The UE would postpone the PUSCH transmission to the next available UL subframe if the UL Delay
field is set to 1.
Where:
z PCMAX - This is the configured UE transmitter power. It relates to either the maximum
allowed by the eNB or the UE power class.
z M PUSCH (i ) - This is related to the bandwidth of the PUSCH resource assignment
expressed in number of resource blocks.
z PO_PUSCH ( j ) - This parameter is the sum of various cell and UE specific parameters. It is
also based on retransmission and scheduling options.
z - This is a 3bit cell specific parameter provided by higher layers (0, 0.4, 0.5,
0.6,.1).
z PL (Pathloss) - This is the downlink pathloss estimate calculated in the UE. Note
pathloss is calculated based on the reference signal power and other higher layer filter
configurations.
z TF - This is a UE specific parameter which relates to the MCS (Modulation and Coding
Scheme) and TF (Transport Format), i.e. TBS (Transport Blok Size).
z F - This enables UE specific power control, i.e. TPC (Transmit Power Control). Different
options can be configured, e.g. accumulation or current absolute power.
Power headroom
The LTE System also defines UE PH (Power Headroom) as:
A PHR (Power Headroom Report) is typically sent by the UE when the prohibitPHR-Timer
expires, or when the power headroom reporting functionality is configured or re-configured.
Where:
z PCMAX - This is the configured UE transmitter power. It relates to either the maximum
allowed by the eNB or the UE power class.
z PO_PUCCH - This is a parameter is the sum of cell specific and UE specific parameters.
z PL (Pathloss) - This is the downlink pathloss estimate calculated in the UE. Note
pathloss is calculated based on the reference signal power and other higher layer filter
configurations.
z h(n ) - This is a PUCCH format dependent value, where nCQI relates to the number of
CQI bits and n HARQ is the number of HARQ bits.
z F_PUCCH ( F ) - This is provided by higher layers and provides a frame format dB offset.
z g (i ) - This is the current PUCCH power control and enables UE specific power control,
i.e. TPC (Transmit Power Control).
Where:
z PCMAX - This is the configured UE transmitter power. It relates to either the maximum
allowed by the eNB or the UE power class.
z PREAMBLE_RECEIVED_TARGET_POWER - This is set to the
preambleInitialReceivedTargetPower + DELTA_PREAMBLE +
(PREAMBLE_TRANSMISSION_COUNTER 1) * powerRampingStep.
z PL (Pathloss) - This is the downlink pathloss estimate calculated in the UE. Note
pathloss is calculated based on the Reference Signal Power and other higher layer filter
configurations.
Paging Message
Subframes for this UE
eNB
Decoding every subframe would
impact battery performance
UE
To combat this, LTE supports DRX (Discontinuous Reception) of paging messages. Figure
2-106 illustrates the concept, whereby a UE looks at pre-determined times.
eNB
DRX improves battery
performance
UE
The eNB may have to buffer the paging message until a UEs paging occasion occurs. The UE
is given various parameters which enable it to identify a time when it should listen. This is
termed a PO (Paging Occasion) and relates to a subframe. In addition, the DRX parameters
also define a PF (Paging Frame), i.e. Radio Frame, which may contain one or multiple Paging
Occasion(s). The system information messages provide the necessary DRX parameters to
enable a UE to calculate listening times. Alternatively they can be sent to a specific UE as part
of higher layer signaling.
The mechanism for sending more packets between each transmission is relatively simple;
have a number of HARQ processes that can run in parallel. Figure 2-109 illustrates the
concept of the HARQ processes. In LTE there are various rules and options for how many
HARQ processes are configured, i.e. it depends on downlink, uplink, FDD or TDD. This
example illustrates the downlink FDD frame where 8 HARQ processes are used. It also
highlights one of these processes, namely process 3, being sent by the eNB and initially
acknowledged by the UE. Whilst the eNB is awaiting the ACK (Acknowledgement) for this,
the additional processes can be utilized to ensure the UE can receive a stream of packets.
If the mobile identified an error in the transmission it is able to send a NACK (Negative
Acknowledgement) to the eNB. The eNB is then able to quickly re-schedule the data.
There are two main concepts of HARQ, namely CC (Chase Combining) and IR (Incremental
Redundancy).
Chase Incremental
Combing Redundancy
Chase Combining
Chase Combining ensures that each retransmission is simply a replica of the data first
transmitted. The decoder at the receiver combines these multiple copies (of the same
information). This type of combining provides time diversity and soft combining gain at a low
complexity cost and imposes the least demanding UE memory requirements of all H-ARQ
methods.
Incremental Redundancy
The IR (Incremental Redundancy) method ensures that retransmissions include additional
redundant information that is incrementally transmitted if the decoding fails on the first
attempt. This causes the effective coding rate to increase based on the number of
retransmissions sent. Incremental Redundancy can be further classified in Partial IR and Full
IR. Partial IR includes the systematic bits in every coded word, which implies that every
retransmission is self-decodable, whereas Full IR only includes parity bits, and therefore its
retransmissions are not self-decodable.
Figure 2-111 illustrates an example showing how rate matching and redundancy versions are
used for retransmission. In addition, it highlights the concept of the effective code rate.
The number of HARQ processes for TDD is related to the frame configuration and varies
between 4 and 15.
Table 2-21 illustrates the different TDD HARQ configurations.
0 4
1 7
2 10
3 9
4 12
5 15
PDCCH+PDPSCH
Data
PHICH
Transmission Modes
In the downlink, the method of transmission is sent when a mobile is semi-statically
configured via higher layer signaling to receive PDSCH data. LTE includes the following
Transmission Modes:
z Mode 1 - Single-Antenna transmission, port 0, no MIMO.
z Mode 2 - Transmit diversity.
z Mode 3 - Transmit diversity or with Large Delays CDD (Cyclic Delay Diversity) is used.
z Mode 4 - Transmit diversity or Closed-loop spatial multiplexing.
z Mode 5 - Transmit diversity or multi user MIMO (more than one UE is assigned to the
same resource block).
z Mode 6 - Transmit diversity or closed loop precoding for rank=1 (i.e. no spatial
multiplexing, but precoding is used).
z Mode 7 - Single-antenna port, port 5 (beamforming).
Spatial Multiplexing
The most common MIMO category is referred to as SM (Spatial Multiplexing). This allocates
multiple modulation symbol streams to a single UE using the same time/frequency. The
differentiation of signals is achieved by the different Reference Signals which were sent as
part of the PRB (Physical Resource Block). Figure 2-116 illustrates the concept of Spatial
Multiplexing using a 2x2 MIMO system.
The main issue with Spatial Multiplexing in a cellular system is associated with high levels of
interference, especially at the cell edge. Unfortunately, this can affect both spatial streams and,
as such, twice as many errors could be introduced. Hence, SM is typically used close to the
eNB, i.e. not at the cell edge.
If a UE was at the cell edge it could still benefit from MIMO. However it would rely on
different implementations, such as using a STC (Space Time Coding) concept. Figure 2-118
illustrates the basic concept of STC in a MIMO system.
Other Techniques
In addition, the following techniques are supported in LTE:
z Code-book-based pre-coding.
z Rank adaptation with single rank feedback. Note: the eNB can override a rank report.
Antenna
Codewords Layers Ports
Resource OFDM
Modulation
Scrambling Element Signal
Mapper
Mapper Generation
Layer
Precoding
Mapper
Resource OFDM
Modulation
Scrambling Element Signal
Mapper
Mapper Generation
In order for the signal to be spatially multiplexed onto the different antenna ports various
mathematical processes are required. In addition, variances occur for 2 and 4 antenna
configurations, as well as open and closed loop spatial multiplexing.
1 2
0 1 1 1 1 0
2 1 2 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 2 1 1
2 1 1 1 1 1
2 j 2 j j
3 1 1 -
2 j
For the closed-loop spatial multiplexing transmission mode, the codebook index 0 is not used when the
number of layers is equal to 2.
0 out of range
1 QPSK 78 0.1523
2 QPSK 120 0.2344
3 QPSK 193 0.3770
4 QPSK 308 0.6016
5 QPSK 449 0.8770
6 QPSK 602 1.1758
7 16QAM 378 1.4766
8 16QAM 490 1.9141
9 16QAM 616 2.4063
10 64QAM 466 2.7305
11 64QAM 567 3.3223
12 64QAM 666 3.9023
13 64QAM 772 4.5234
14 64QAM 873 5.1152
15 64QAM 948 5.5547
The system defines multiple types of CQI, whereby the term wideband CQI relates to the
entire system bandwidth. In contrast, sub-band CQI relates to a value per sub-band. This is
defined and configured by the higher layers and relates to the number of resource blocks. It is
also worth noting that a CQI per codeword is reported for MIMO spatial multiplexing.
Depending on the scheduling mode, Periodic and Aperiodic CQI reporting can be used. In
Frequency Non-selective and Frequency selective mode the PUCCH is used to carry
periodic CQI reports. In contrast, for Frequency selective mode, the PUSCH is used to carry
aperiodic CQI reports.
RI (Rank Indication)
This indicates the number of useful transmission layers when spatial multiplexing is used.
Thus, in case of transmit diversity, rank is equal to 1 (RI=1).
Objectives
Since LTE is 100% packet based it makes the system design easier. This is because the eNB
does not have to interwork its scheduling algorithms with dedicated functions.
Figure 3-2 illustrates the basic scheduling concept. In this example three users, each with a
defined QoS, have data to send.
This is a simple example but it does highlight some of the fundamental concepts:
z Multiple users can have different amounts of data in the eNB buffers, as well as in their
uplink buffers.
z UEs could be in different locations and hence features such as MIMO may or may not be
available.
z Users and specifically the services (QoS) supported could have different priorities, thus
requiring the eNB to prioritize traffic. In the previous example, User Bs data was
scheduled, however User As data was delayed until the next subframe. This could have
been based on the service, e.g. a guaranteed service.
z The eNB only has a finite amount of resources. This can vary based on a number of
factors. One such factor is the location of users, whereby if they were all close to the
eNB, the scheduler could allocate SM MIMO resources.
E-UTRAN EPC
MME
UE
VoIP PDN-GW
eNB
S-GW
UE
FTP
Packet Packet
Classifier Scheduler
VoIP A
VoIP A x5
FTP B
FTP B X2
Proportional Fair
This is a very common scheduling method. It effectively allocates the same amount of
resources to all the users. In so doing, each user will get the resources they require
(throughput demand) or they will get an equal share. This is effectively the total amount of
resources divided by the total number of users.
MAX C/I
In order to achieve the best eNB throughput rates it makes sense to allocate resources to
those users with the best signal, i.e. C/I (Carrier to Interference). In this way features such as
MIMO SM and high order modulation schemes (64 QAM) can be used. In so doing this
increases the systems spectral efficiency.
Unfortunately, this means that users closer to the eNB continually get resources allocated up
to their maximum demanded rate. At the same time, users at the cell edge will be limited to
their minimum guaranteed rate. This could be detrimental to the marketing plan, since users
of LTE will expect higher data rates.
DCI Format 2
This is used for scheduling PDSCH to UEs configured in closed-loop SM (Spatial
Multiplexing). The following information is sent as part of DCI format 2:
z Resource allocation header - This indicates resource allocation type 0 or type 1. These
are detailed in Section 3.1.5 .
z Resource block assignment - This is for type 0 or 1 information.
z TPC command for PUCCH - Previous discussed under power control.
z HARQ process number.
z Transport block to codeword swap flag - This determines the transport block to
codeword mapping. However, if one of the transport blocks is disabled the mapping is
different.
z For the first Transport Block:
Modulation and coding scheme.
New data indicator.
Redundancy version.
z For the second Transport Block:
Type 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Subset 0
P P
P P Subset p
p Bits P P
0 2 0
1 2 1
2 2 2
3 2 3
4 2 4
5 2 5
6 2 6
7 2 7
8 2 8
9 2 9
10 4 9
11 4 10
12 4 11
13 4 12
14 4 13
15 4 14
16 4 15
17 6 15
18 6 16
19 6 17
20 6 18
21 6 19
22 6 20
23 6 21
24 6 22
25 6 23
26 6 24
27 6 25
28 6 26
29 2 reserved
30 4
31 6
The modulation order parameter indicates whether the scheduled transmission is QPSK (2
bits), 16QAM (4bits) or 64QAM (6bits). The UE is able to use this information, in
conjunction with the physical number of Resource Blocks, i.e. symbols, to receive all the bits.
Figure 3-9 illustrates an example of a scheduled message. As previously mentioned the
resource allocation, modulation order and precoding information enables the UE to determine
the number and location of the physical bits. The TBS (Transport Block Set) parameter in the
previous table enables the UE to identify the size of the transport block(s) using a mixture of a
table and equation. Since the coding is all predefined, the UE is able to replicate the number
of coded bits (pre puncturing) and therefore, using the RV (Redundancy Version) parameter,
identify which bits the eNB would have punctured/rate matched. Using this it can now
attempt to decoded the transport block and verify the CRC.
Scheduled
1/3 Rate coding
5RB (MIMO SM)
16QAM Punctured
RV
TBS(s) Size
RV Physical Bits
In order to correctly schedule resources, various layer 1 and layer 2 indications and
configurations are required. The link adaptation function manages the current MCS
(Modulation and Coding Scheme) based on feedback from both layer 1 in the eNB and the
UE. In addition, SRS (Sounding Reference Signals) provide intelligence about the channel.
Other reports from the eNB Layer 1, as well as UCI (Uplink Channel Information) from the
UE, can be collated to provide an up-to-date representation of the channel.
The scheduler also needs to interact closely with HARQ, since layer 1 NACKs and
subsequent retransmissions impact resources. Additional functionality which monitors the
relationship between retransmissions, the choice of MSC and power control is also vital,
enabling the system to adapt to the channel conditions.
0 1 2 3 4 5
PDSCH
Downlink
PDCCH D
Mobile Mobile
Receives Sends
Dynamic
ACK/
PUCCH
NACK
Uplink
Where SFNstart time and subframestart time are the SFN (System Frame Number) and subframe,
respectively, at the time the configured downlink assignment were (re-)initialised. Figure 3-12
illlustrates the basic concept of uplink Semi-Persistent Scheduling.
Retransmissions for Semi-Persistent Scheduling can continue after clearing the configured uplink grant.
Objectives
A UE in the Idle State has previously registered on the network and is performing two main
procedures, namely cell reselection and listening to paging messages.
Intra-Frequency Measurements
Criteria to perform intra-frequency measurements are as follows.
z If Squal > Sintrasearch - the UE may choose not to perform intra-frequency measurements.
z If Squal <= Sintrasearch - the UE performs intra-frequency measurements.
z If Sintrasearch is not sent for the serving cell then the UE performs intra-frequency
measurements.
Figure 4-3 illustrates the basic concept of Sintresearch.
Inter-frequency Measurements
E-UTRA includes a cell priority mechanism; as such, an inter-frequency cell may have a
higher or lower priority. The decision to monitor these cells is based on their priority, as well
as the presence of and the relationship to the Snonintrasearch parameter.
Ranking of Cells
The cell reselection evaluation process is known as R (Cell Ranking). The calculations for the
Rs (serving cell) and Rn (neighbouring cells) are illustrated in Figure 4-5.
Where:
z Qmeas - This is the RSRP (Reference Symbol Received Power) measurement quantity
used in cell reselections.
z QHyst - This the hysteresis to apply to the servingcell. It may have had some scaling
applied due to mobility.
z Qoffset - For intra-frequency cells this is equal to the Qoffsets,n parameter (if sent). For
inter-frequency cells this equals Qoffsets,n + Qoffsetfrequency.
Initially the measurement reports need to be configured. This could be a mixture of fixed
configuration triggers, as well as some triggers which are dynamically provisioned.
Figure 4-10 illustrates the difference between a periodic and event based reporting
mechanism.
Threshold
eNB
Periodic
UE
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Bandwidth
Fc
Fc
Bandwidth
Fc
where: T= TGRP/10
Two Gap Patterns, with associated TGRP (Transmission Gap Repetition Period), are defined.
These indicate either 40ms or 80ms.
4.3.3 UE Measurements
There are various intra and inter system UE measurements.
N RSRP
(E - UTRA carrier RSSI)
where N is the number of RBs of the E-UTRA carrier RSSI measurement bandwidth. The
measurements in the numerator and denominator are made over the same set of resource
blocks.