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    IST Unit-1

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    of 10
    ‘CHAPTER 9: The Space Environment 255 CHAPTER 9 FIGURE 9.1 monan ge | Piz + dz) nf af apo a The Space Environment Consider the small cube of air shown in Figure 9.1, It has density p and therefore mass m = p dx dy dz. If the atmosphere is in equilibrium, this small is not accelerating, and therefore the forces on it must sum to zero, top of the cube, P(z + dz) ~ P(z) + dP/dz dz, on te ae Jess than the pressure at the bottom of the cube. The pressure force on a face of the cube is P dx dy, so force equilibrium in the vertical direction requires ~natstysrs Pasdy—(04 LE ae)andya0 0.) After simplification this becomes ap a This is called the hydrostatic equation. ‘To make further progress, we need to specify the equation of state for the medium. For an atmosphere, tis isthe perfect-gas law P= pRT 03) =—8 2) system. 92 THE ATMOSPHERE of ae Jc ry emi ate mom a epauaal pees the atmosphere during launch and perhaps return ty wok wth morpersehrfa cac ven by R= kN, where k {Taaringrentbrhio, the epcegere can be ted olin sap ej i lemons ea ne nce fr mas fe, aerobrakins Gan of the state of the earth’ However, we cannot simply substitute 2) in order to relate pressure psi he aod Se ae ial P to density p, since (93) introduces ane the temperature, Knowledge of the temperature as a function of altitude within the atmosphere would require 254 RT/g is termed the atmospheric scale height. Separating vari most ofthese object, although they have not been studied ity as the earth. 93 LIGHT AND SPACECRAFT TEMPERATURE, Alenecraf a bit shor bea the sun. Its internal power sources fi energy, most of which will eventually be converted ransport: conduction, convection, and radiation. A Of the first two and is forced to radiate away waste rocesses at once. absorber or emitter of electromagnetic radiation where ¢ = speed of light, * 2.998 x 10! cm/s, ‘h = Planck's constant, * 6,624 x 10°” erg s, 4k = Boltzmann constant, ~ 1.380 x 10-6 ergideg. Figure 9.2 shows several blackbody curves, as they are called, for different temperatures. The 6000 K blackbody curve is a decent to the energy output of the sun, which has an effective blackbody te cof about 5800 K. As an object becomes hotter, the maximum of the ‘curve shifts to shorter (more energetic) wavelengths, while the area curve (the total energy output per square em per sec per solid angle) larger. However, the blackbody spectra above are less useful to the engineer than two other results. These were known experimentally before explained the actual mechanism of blackbody emission in detail, Wein's law that the wavelength at which blackbody emission peaks is given by 0.2897 dan = ‘and setting the result equal to zero, On the other nana, une vsaemenney apne — integrated over wavelength (a nontrivial task), the tal energy outpat as function of temperature alone becomes E(T) =oT* ergs/em? s 9) ‘over the entire 47 solid angle. The Stefan-Boltzmann constant o has a value of 5.672 x 10° in cgs units. A spacecraft using a radiator system to radiate heat to space will find that the system disposes of much more heat at even a slightly the sun the incoming solar energy amounts to 1.371 x 10° erps/s em*, This value is called the solar constant. If the spacecraft is a perfectly absorbing sphere of radi r, it will intercept energy Ey = xP? x 1311 x 100 exgs/s 9.10) If the spacecraft is in thermal equilibrium, it must be radiating exactly as much energy as it receives, of it would be still heating up or cooling down. So, we can equate (9.10) to the energy output rate over the surface of the spacecraft from if is in centimeters and in degrees Kelvin, This relation can be derived, (9.9) to find course, by differentiating the blackbody spectrum (9.7) with respect to wavel ae ea oan Solving for the temperature, we find ™ rs (22 i) =78K o12 to 1x1 KIO em FIGURE 9.2 Blackbody radiation curves about 300 K. Now, if these radiators face the blackness of space, they will absorb ‘cuarrer 9: The Space Environment 261 B FIGURE 9.3 A dipole magnetic field very litle incoming radiation: mainly just the energy of starlight and the 3 K microwave background radiation. Under these conditions, the radiator should be capable of rejecting energy at a rate of Bou = SaT*A = 2.55 10" exes/s Ou 3) is necessary to account for the fact that the ‘one side, Their other side is near the payload bay 3 KW, 50 the shuttle radiators should carry a heat load. nearly 25 kW when facing off into space. However, the situation changes if the payload bay faces toward the From low orbit, the earth will cover nearly half of the sky. and the radiators be forced to absorb incident blackbody radiation at the effective temperature of earth, (The fundamental problem is that a good radiator is also a good So, the net energy transfer will now be given by: Here, 140 is the permeability of free space and m is the magnetic dipole moment of the earth, This is a whose magnitude sets the intensity of the overall field and whose ‘earth's north magnetic pole Or 1 4 Foe = 5 (Tang — TIA igure 9.3, but only senses the local field at its nearly uniform in a small region of space, we tudy the motion of a charged particle in a uniform local magnetic field na force on a particle with electric charge @ is given by ‘or about 6.7 kW, assuming the earth’s effective temperature is 278 K. This is close to the carrying capacity of 6.3 kW advertised for the shuttle while in The situation changes again if the payload bay faces squarely into sun is nearly a perfect black body at an effective tet re of 5800 K, but does not cover radiator panels F=qvxB where ¥ is the velocity of the particle. Note that the force on a charged partic! ergs per second, ‘magnetic field is always perpendicular to the velocity, and hence a magnetic field is clear that can do no work on a charged particle. So, the kinetic energy of the charged particle specific heat calculate the temperature of the coolant as it returns to the 5 @.17) does not change. ‘As shown in Figure 94, let us divide the velocity vector of the particle into 94 vp. the component parallel 10 the magnetic-feld vector B, and vq, the component CHARGED-PARTICLE MOTION tint 9 ‘The dilute gas in space is a plasma: it is hot enough that it is ionized. S B 8 Pe Plasma: it, 7 4p ‘ Particle motion in a uniform magnetic field. of the electrons in the outer shells of each atom have’ been stripped off, leavi the atom with a net positive the electrons, of course, carry a negative ccharge. Although plasmas are very hot, at least several thousand degrees Kelvin, the interplanetary gas is so dilute that a spacecraft will not notice its temperature. Rather, it sees the gas as 4 hailstorm of very fast moving individual particles. Near the earth the motion of these particles is governed by "s magnetic field. ‘The magnetic field of the earth is nearly a dipole field, lest magnetic-field configuration. For a dipole field, the magnetic-field vec Ber) = ~H0¥ ES 0.3) —_— 1262 Spaceflight Dynamics ‘curren 9: The Space Evironment 263 normal to the field vector. Neither vp nor vy can change in magnitude, since the cin nl cn sf es pe me m= aud @.18) ‘This immediately gives R= a ou which is called the Larmour radius of the paticle. Electrons, which have This force acts to retard the drift velocity vp, since B, is negati magni eld, Thu, tere is «tendency for a converging counter the atmosphere, leading to permanent belts of charged particles ao the earth 95 ‘MAGNETIC MIRRORS 1 Maida R= aR R= IHR (9.22) We now proceed to demonstrate that this is, indeed, a second constant of the patadTic abate on eld bars otterpee v-B=0 (9.23) the magnetic field in a lowly converging geometry. Uf we aname thal a nearly a constant over the area of the Larmour orbit (this is equivalent to assuming the field is conical on the scale of the orbit), (9.24) becomes . 3B, 2 adr= [Berar 9.25) [O detar= [Fora 025 After integrating, we get Bren = ~p RE 026) Now, armed with an approximation to the structure of the magnetic field in the slowly conversing case, we can return to the assertion thatthe magnetic moment ‘of the orbit is constant. Taking the time derivative of (9.22), we obtain aM _ dm at dr 2B, 1 ‘Qu, dv, v2 dBy aa in(# di BS at oa ‘when the Larmour radius (9.19) is substituted, and the magnetic field changes with time as the particle enters areas of higher field density. Now, energy conservation implies that Unin + Ypip = 0 Replacing dB, /dt with vp 9B, /22, and substituting (9.28) and (9.26) int then using (9.20) and the expressic to the statement that dif /d¢ =O; that is, the magnetic moment ‘magnetic moment of the orbit, M = qv, the expression for the Larmour radius, this becomes i enicee: 9.29) Now, at some point, the drift velocity up will become zero, the entire velocity will now reside in the component v,, and the particle will be reflected. Depending on the initial value’of the magnetic moment M, equation (9.29) allows us to calculate ty B at which reflection occurs. A slowly converging magnetic ‘HARTER 9: The Space Environment 265 96 ‘THE VAN ALLEN BELTS ‘The first satellite launched by the United States, Explorer I, carried charged- particle detectors. These instruments found a belt of high charged-particle den- sity that had not been expected. Later stelites showed that there wee actully particles to maintain such a belt was known. Without such a source, the natural leakage of the earth’s magnetic mirrors would quickly deplete such a belt. To understand the need for a source, first we will consider why any such belt will Teak. ‘A single charged particle in the earth's magnetic-field can spiral about a ‘magnetic-field line, with refiections near each pole, provided that the magnetic ‘moment M is high enough. The magnetic moment of the particle Mam (9.30) ‘depends on the velocity of the particle normal to the field direction, vp. As the particle approaches the poles, the magneticfeld intensity B increases, and since the parallel component vp becomes zero, the particle is reflected. If this does not happen before the particle hits the earth's atmosphere, the particle will be lost to the belt However, tere are other prices within the bel and when two particles ddo very well when asked to retain a single particle but become leaky asthe Banas density increases. “The radiation belts about the earth thus continually lose particles tothe earth's be dumped into the Van Allen belt from the solar wind. This will greatly increase the collision rate in the belts, leading to intense auroral activity, disruption of some 266 Spaceflight Dynamics FIGURE 9.6 ‘The earth's radiation bets, radio communications, and greatly inereased radiation hazard for spacecraft, those in low-altitude orbits ‘There are two mai about the same energy per particle, the ek since their mass is only that of ap the stronger magnetic field close to the earth sphere, a source of p of plasma flowing out (@ x 10° K) outer atmosphere of the sun. The speed of the so about 400 of particles in solar fare, The the reverse of the mg with it the magnetic field of the sun. ‘hereby a single particle is tapped by « magneti-fil ed particles can drag the field along with them. the magnetic field of the earth, there occurs a com= iynamic, plasma, and magnetic effects. Because e-seale structure of the earth's magnetic ‘wind is decelerated to subsonic velocities with ‘cuarren 9: The Space Environment 267 FIGURE 9.7 Structure of the earth's magnetosphere, ‘Van Allen belts. Their residence in the belts is only temporary, however, since they eventually diffuse info trajectories that cause them to enter the earth's a ‘Outside the bow shock, a spacecraft is completely naked to the solar wind. the magnetopause, a It is within this region that almost all manned spaceffight takes place. 97 RADIATION EFFECTS High-energy charged-particle radiation in space can represent a danget to both ‘manned and unmanned spacecraft. The danger that ionizing radiation poses to biological organisms has been studied for many years. The radiat i ‘creatures is measured by the rad (radiation absor iving creatures by disrupting the structure of the the chemical machine that keeps us running, In small produces small quantities of damaged molecules, most ie body simply replaces or recycles. The one exception is the DNA molecule, which carries the basic instructions for life. Damage to the genetic material is cumulative, since the DNA molecule is not repaired, and so long-term exposure to low radiation levels ‘can increase the possibility of undesirable mutations in offspring. At higher levels, radiation produces enough damage that the biochemical machinery is disrupted and 268 Spaceflight Dynamics the fragments of damaged molecules can poison the body. Vomiting and nausea are common early symptoms of jon sickness. Longer-term effects include the disruption of the in the bone marrow, with the serious immune system. short period of time, so that the body does not have time to regenerate healthy human can tolerate doses up to 50 rads. As the dose increases into the hundreds of rads, vomiting and ni fare the first symptoms to appear. Between 300 and 600 rads, many people wi survive the immediate effects of the radiation, but an increasing percentage stem, A dose of 1000 mic rays. Only very strike the atmosphere, and the is below the Van Allen belts. In a 300-1 dose to an unshielded human would intensity point within the Van Al astronaut would receive a dose the only manned vehicles ever to penetrate this region, and they -speed portion 1-year sunspot cycle and the occurrence of major it solar flare can deliver a dose of 150 rads to an unshiel radigtion dose to the same astronaut There are two methods available to protect a spacecraft’s crew. The first method consists of running for home. In low orbits it should be possible to return to the earth's surface in a short period of time. the space shuttle were hin the continental United States, the worst case would | ‘orbit, still protected from the worst radiation by: ‘manned vehicle in geosynchronous orbit, however, ‘would also require about 8 h to return to the earth, but most of that time would the earth's magnetic field, exposed to the ful of a major we the lives of the crew in these last two (0 run for home, then the crew must be half of this figure to ensure the safety of the crew. The entire crew area may not have to be covered with a half meter of lead, however. ‘The major danger comes from solar flares, so provision of a “storm shelter” large enough to contain the ‘curren 9: The Space Environment 269 crew for several days combined with moderate shielding over the rest of the crew ‘area should suffice. Also, the material of which the shielding is made is much less important tan its sheer mas. By proper tangement of equipment, upplis and the vehicle's structure and fuel, nae ¢ can all contribute to shielding the crew. 1p on the amount of radiation shielding. This another atom, In this process kinetic energy of the particle is converted according to the famous E = mc”, resulting in the creation of two new particles. the original parent, and the parent contain more than enough energy ic particle can create a shower of by bone and muscle. It therefore accumulate ion.) larger than the char’ hardly avoid hitting them, however. particles down, creating showers of low-energy secondary p: is not performing its function. ‘Charged-particle radiation can also cause difficulties with electronic hardware. puters. Charged particles propagating through a vacuum tube do not anything. At worst, in exceedingly high levels, they constitute a through the tube that was not anticipated. However, semicondu: another matter entirely. In these materials, a ‘manium is “doped” High-energy charged- fect erystal with very little interaction. However, when imperfections are present in a crystal lattice, the radiation will interact mainly with the imperfections. So, semiconductors literally channel the radiation to where it will do the most harm. Se peated ar ‘ouartex 9; The Space Enviroument 271 AAs digital electronic devices are fabricated at ever smaller sizes, it takes progres sively less and less radiation exposure to produce “hard errors”: permanent circuit errors. Solar cells are also semiconductor devices and suffer a progressive loss of efficiency when subjected to charged-particle radiation ‘grains or smaller. Rocks large enough to survive entry into the earth's atmosphere ‘and land in museum collections are rather rarer. Meteorites have been studied by astronomers for many decades. Camera networks were established before the Sec- ‘ond World War and have obtained simultaneous photographs of many thousands ‘of meteors from two or more observing sites. From this type of data the path of the meteor through the atmosphere can be calculated and its velocity found. enough secondary particles within one cell of a microcircuit to change the digi state of that element. Even on the earth's surface, modern microcomputers using sopeat to always be lets than this ra, appears that meteors ae ong erm f the solar system, and that visitors from the outside are quite rare, if at all. Some meteors are members of meteor showers. These occur at ‘commands. The recent lunar probe Clementine computer suddenly locked up, but not before to continually fire an atttude-control thruster. BY. the attitude-control fuel tanks the dust particles are swept outward, often bbe calculated) and associated frag- ve entry have masses of several wwe can see at the rate of a Be ie on ey ee tad ws or a ‘mon type of meteorite in the solar system, but utterly alien to the earth. They can the early solar nebula as molten droplets, which then beads. When the temperature in the solar nebula dropped inner solar system, and a small . These last objects are the present surveying large impact sites on the earth's surface. the number of meteorites N per second of mass greater than m face 1 cm square is given approximately by Jogo. = —17 — logo 0.32) at the earth’s distance from the sun. This law is apparently valid for meteor masses in the range 10 g

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