5.1 THE DESIGN PARAMETERS Q AND 123 @ FIGURE 5.5 FIGURE 5.6 (6.15) Once Q is determined, then Eqs. (5.9) and (5.12) give the pole location as u oo =wdi-ag= 2 am 5g front we 6.16) If wo is also specified, then the pole locations are fixed. Returning to the circuit of Fig. 5.la and the associated transfer function which described it, Eq. (5.2), we see that the specification of the three element values R, L, and C completely specifies T(s). But we have now shown that the specification of the two parameters Q and w. also specifies T(s), as given by Eq. (6.1). We now have to relate Q and «, to the magnitude and phase responses which we will in turn relate to specifications. In doing so, we now assume that the second-order circuit can be specified by the parameters Q and wo, as suggested by the block diagram of Fig. 5.6. 5.2 THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT* The transfer function for the low-pass filter derived as Eq. (5.7) was written in a normalized form such that T(j0) = 1. A more general form for 7(s) will recognize the possibility of gain and also that the associated circuit may be inverting or noninverting. Such a transfer function is tHe,” 9) = Hot _ 5.17 TO) 55 (el Ost oe an * The name biquad for this circuit was first suggested by J. Tow, “Active RC Filters—a State-space Realization.” Proc. IEEE, vol. 56, pp. 1137-1139, 1968 and by L. C. Thomas in two papers, “The Bi- quad: Part I—Some Practical Design Considerations,” [EEE Trans. Circuits and Syst., vol. CAS-18, Bp. 350-357, 1971, and “The Biquad: Part IIA Multipurpose Active Filtering System,” [EEE Trans. Circuits and Syst., vol. CAS-18, pp. 358-361, 1971. It is also sometimes called the ring of 3 cir- aan124 CHAPTER 5 THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT Next we do what will be done frequently in the chapters to follow: we scale fre- quency so that « = 1. We also choose the negative sign in Eq. (5.17), meaning that we anticipate an inverting realization from the transfer function. Then Eq. (6.17) becomes -H Vy 1) = sy Gjone1” (6.18) We wish to manipulate this equation until it has a form that can be identified with simple circuits which have been studied in past chapters. We rewrite Eq. (5.18) as [pre } V,=—HV, (5.19) If we divide this equation by the factor s(s + 1/Q), it becomes —!_)y__-# _ [} +64 170| 7564170)" ey We may now manipulate this equation to the form -1 1 n=| eh 10"| | | oN) (5.21) Starting at the right-hand side of this equation, we recognize that the (—1) term may be realized by an inverting circuit of gain 1. Similarly, the factor (—1/s) is realized by an inverting integrator. Two operations are indicated by the remain- ing factor. The circuit realization must produce a sum of voltages, and it must have a transfer function of the form 1/(s + 1/Q). The three circuits that provide for these three operations are shown in Fig. 5.7. The circuit marked T, sums volt- ages V, and V; with appropriate multiplication, and also realizes the first-order transfer function with a circuit that is sometimes called a lossy integrator. The circuit marked T, is the standard inverting integrator circuit, and the circuit marked T; is an inverting circuit of unity gain. If we connect the three circuits to- gether, including a feedback connection of the output V; to the input, the result is the circuit shown in Fig. 5.8. This is a scaled version of the circuit called the bi- quad circuit or the ring of 3 circuit, or sometimes the Tow—Thomas biquad. Q 1 ae i 2 1 1 % WH = 7, = 1, = 7, FIGURE 5.75.2. THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT 125 Asa different approach to the study of this circuit, suppose that we start with the circuit itself, with the elements identified by R’s and C’s as in Fig. 5.9. Think- ing of this circuit would be quite natural for an engineer with a background in analog computers since the three modules involved are familiar in analog com- puters. Routine analysis of the circuit gives us hee IR RCC, VY, 2 +(/R.C)s + 1/RRGG We may identify this result with the standard form of the low-pass filter transfer function by equating the appropriate coefficients here to those of Eq. (5.17): Ts) = 6.22) 1 o = RREG (6.23) RG, = 5.24) Q 7 (5.24) R ang (6.25) To the design parameters introduced in Section 5.1 we now add a third, which is identified with the low-frequency gain. We wish the design to satisfy the parameters @, Q, and H, and we have six circuit elements to adjust to satisfy these parameters. This is a typical situation in design, and our approach will al- ways be to arbitrarily select any three and then examine the consequences on the remaining three. Since we intend to use both frequency and magnitude scaling, we have no hesitation in selecting unit values for the circuit elements. Let us make the following choices: C=C, and R= 1 (5.26) Let us also decide that we will scale frequency so that w, = 1. Then we may solve Eqs. (5.23)-(5.25) to obtain the values R,=Q, R=1, R (5.27) This choice gives us exactly the circuit previously derived and shown as Fig. 5.8. Vi FIGURE 5.8126 CHAPTER 5 THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT Ry FIGURE 5.9 ‘An important property of the biquad circuit is that it can be orthogonally tuned, By this we mean that R, can be adjusted to a specified value of w». 2. R,can then be adjusted to give the specified value of Q without changing «», which has already been adjusted. 3. Finally R, can be adjusted to give the desired value of H or gain for the cir- cuit, without affecting either w, or Q which have already been set. These steps are often called the tuning algorithm. This algorithm provides for or- thogonal tuning. If this tuning is not possible, then the tuning is called iterative, meaning that we try to adjust successively each of the tuning elements until all specifications are met. Orthogonal tuning is always much preferred, especially when the filter is to be produced on a production line with a laser used to adjust each circuit element value. One other voltage in the biquad circuit is of special interest. Referring to Fig. 5.9, observe that V,/V, = —1, so that Ye Vay Va be Beye YoU VW vy, (5.28) This tells us that the transfer function V/V, represents a noninverting low-pass filter. Moving back one module in the circuit, we see that V, is related to V,' by the transfer function yt v7 Re (5.29) From the chain rule By hy hi (5.30) we obtain the result Vi (CI/R,G)s V, "FF UIRG)s + VRRCC ae5.2 THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT 127 We show in the next section that this is the transfer function of a bandpass filter. To emphasize that the filter is a bandpass filter, the schematic of Fig. 5.9 may be redrawn as shown in Fig. 5.10. Referring to Fig. 5.9, let us consider the function of the unit-gain inverting section of the biquad circuit, which was referred to as 7; in Fig. 5.7. This biquad Circuit operates with negative feedback. Since each section in the biquad is in- verting, there must be an odd number of sections, for otherwise the feedback would be positive. So the circuit marked T, has the function of inverting the out. put marked V; to provide negative feedback. The same would be accomplished by any odd number of sections in cascade. An alternative approach, which ac- complishes the same objective, is to have one inverting stage and one non. inverting stage, as shown in Fig. 5.11. The second stage will be recognized as a noninverting integrator (see Problem 5.5), so that it accomplishes the same object- tive as T, and T, together. Example 52 We require a circuit that will provide poles at -577 +t 816 and a de (20) gain of 2. Using the equations of Section 5.1, we find that these pole locations cor. respond to w) = 1000 rad/s and Q = ./3/2, and that the gain of 2 requirement means that 2 © 2. First we set = 1, and then use the biquad circuit of Fig. 5.8, noting that H and Q values are specified. To do the necessary scaling, we set k, = 1000, and then note that se- lecting k= 10,000 gives convenient element sizes in the circuit shown in Fig. 5.12. 5.3_ FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF THE BIQUAD CIRCUIT We have found that the biquad circuit shown in Fig. 5.9 is described by two transfer functions, depending on our selection of the output. To begin, let the out- Put be V2 so that the transfer function that applies is that given by Eq, (6.18). We are interested in the magnitude and phase of this T(jie). For simplicity, let H = 1 FIGURE 5.10