Object 1

WORD FORMATION RULES

Object 2

Las familias de palabras son todos aquellos vocablos que comparten una misma raz, que es la
parte de la palabra que se mantiene en todos los otros trminos pertenecientes a la misma familia.
Te dar un ejemplo con palabras en espaol.

- flor

- florera

- florero

Estas tres palabras estn en la misma familia, porque comparten la misma raz, que he resaltado
en negrita. De un verbo, por ejemplo, se puede obtener un sustantivo, un adverbio o un adjetivo;
como tambin de un adjetivo se puede sacar un adverbio o un verbo, y viceversa; dependiendo
del caso. Veamos este ejemplo.

- accuse (verbo): acusar

- accusation (sustantivo): acusacin

- accused (sustantivo): acusado

- accusing (adjetivo): acusador

Te preguntars, cmo pude llegar a desglosar ese verbo en las otras palabras que pertenecen a
la misma familia? La respuesta es simple, usando sufijos. Un sufijo es una letra o un grupo de
letras que se agregan al final de una palabra para formar otra palabra.

Formemos otros vocablos tomando en cuenta el siguiente trmino:

- critic (sustantivo): crtico (persona)

- criticize (verbo): criticar (En ingls britnico -ise)

- critical (adjetivo): crtico

- critically (adverbio): crticamente

Como puedes ver, las letras en negrita son los sufijos, los cuales, al ser agregados a la raz de la
palabra, forman otra nueva. En el ingls hay muchsimos sufijos. Un grupo para formar verbos,
otro para adjetivos, otro para adverbios, para sustantivos, etc. Sinceramente, no conozco regla
alguna que diga qu sufijos debe llevar cada palabra, pero lo que s debemos saber con claridad,
son los sufijos ms utilizados con sus respectivas funciones.
Para formar verbos:

-ize, (NAmE) -ise (BrE): stabilize, symbolise, etc. Generalmente se traduce como -izar. Ejemplo:
estabilizar, simbolizar

-ate: liquidate, duplicate. Generalmente se traduce como la terminacin -ar. Ejemplo: liquidar,
duplicar.

-fy: classify, simplify. Generalmente se traduce como -ficar. Ej. clasificar, simplificar, justificar, etc.

-en: fasten, shorten. (abrochar, acortar).

Para formar sustantivos:

-tion / -sion: Indica accin o el estado. Ej. complication, expansion. La mayora de las veces se
traduce como -cin / -sin: complicacin, expansin.

-er: Indica la persona que hace la accin que se describe en el verbo raz. - Painter, dancer,
geographer. - pintor, bailarn(a), gegrafo.

-ment: Indica la accin o el resultado de algo. Ej: development, punishment. - desarrollo, castigo.

-ant / -ent: Indica la persona o cosa que hace algo. Ej: assistant, student. - asistente, estudiante.

-al: Indica un proceso o estado de algo. Ej. proposal, dismissal. - propuesta, despido.

-ence / -ance: Indica accin o estado. Ej. assistance, preference - asistencia, preferencia.

-ship: Indica estado, cualidad o habilidad. Ej: friendship, citizenship - amistad, ciudadana

-dom: Indica condicin o estado. Ej: freedom - libertad

-cy: Estado o calidad de. Ej: urgency, efficiency - urgencia, eficiencia.

-ness: Estado o cualidad de. Ej: darkness, sadness - oscuridad, tristeza.

Para formar adjetivos:

-al: Indica conexin o relacin: central, political, national - central, poltico, nacional

-ent: que es o hace algo: different, excellent - diferente, excelente.

-ive: Que tiende a, que tiene la naturaleza de...: attractive, interactive - atractivo, interactivo. Suele
traducirse como la terminacin -ivo, -iva.
-ous: Que tiene la naturaleza o cualidad de..: dangerous, famous - peligroso, famoso - Suele
traducirse con la terminacin -oso, -osa.

-ful: Lleno de, teniendo las cualidades de: wonder (maravilla) + ful = wonderful (maravilloso).
Beauty (hermosura) + ful = beautiful (hermoso). Color (color) + ful = colorful = colorido.

-less: Sin algo. Ej: endless (sin fin), careless (descuidado)

-able: Que tiene la habilidad de: drinkable (bebible), countable (contable).

Para formar adverbios:

Sin duda, el ms usado y conocido de todos es -ly. Y equivale al sufijo espaol -mente. Indica la
manera en que se hace algo.

Ejemplos:

sadly - tristemente

fortunalely - afortunadamente

quickly - rpidamente

slowly - lentamente

Tambin se da que a veces, un sufijo + ly se juntan, y forman adverbios. Fjate.

Success (sustantivo: xito)

Successful (adjetivo: exitoso)

Successfully (adverbio: exitosamente)

Wonder (sustantivo: maravilla)

Wonderful (adjetivo: maravilloso)

Wonderfully (adverbio: maravillosamente)

Origin (sustantivo: origen)

Original (adjetivo: original)

Originally (adverbio: originalmente)

En algunos casos, es posible que no podamos encontrar un verbo, o un adverbio dentro de una
familia de palabras. Y cuando te pidan encontrar trminos especficos desde una palabra, lo que
debes hacer es "jugar" con los sufijos, hasta llegar a la palabra indicada.

Por ejemplo, te piden que busques un verbo a partir de critical, sacamos el sufijo y nos queda el
sustantivo critic, y como sabemos que tenemos que buscar un verbo, le agregamos -ize, que en
este caso es el sufijo apropiado para esta familia de palabras, por lo que llegas a criticize.
Selecting vocabulary: Academic word list
Academic Word List Coxhead (2000). The most frequent word in each family is in italics. There are
570 headwords and about 3000 words altogether. For more information see The Academic Word
List. For more practice see: Schmitt & Schmitt (2005), or the Compleat Lexical Tutor.
If you have an iPhone or an Android phone and want to practise these words, you could try:
Flashcards Deluxe. Install the application, then search in the shared library for "Academic Word
List". Or on an iPhone you might like to try Testmaker: Install the application, then follow the
instructions to use this file, or iMemento: Install the application, then follow the instructions to use
this file,
*Definitions linked to: Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary (Used with permission)
Headwords Other words in the family. Definition*
abandon abandoned, abandoning, abandonment, abandons, e.g. abandon
abstract abstraction, abstractions, abstractly, abstracts, e.g. abstract
academy academia, academic, academically, academics, academies, e.g. academy
accessed, accesses, accessibility, accessible, accessing,
access access
inaccessible
accommodated, accommodates, accommodating,
accommodate accommodate
accommodation
accompanied, accompanies, accompaniment, accompanying,
accompany accompany
unaccompanied
accumulate accumulated, accumulating, accumulation, accumulates accumulate
accurate accuracy, accurately, inaccuracy, inaccuracies, inaccurate accurate
achievable, achieved, achievement, achievements, achieves,
achieve achieve
achieving
acknowledged, acknowledges, acknowledging,
acknowledge acknowledge
acknowledgement, acknowledgements
acquire acquired, acquires, acquiring, acquisition, acquisitions acquire
adaptability, adaptable, adaptation, adaptations, adapted,
adapt adapt
adapting, adaptive, adapts
adequacy, adequately, inadequacies, inadequacy, inadequate,
adequate adequate
inadequately
adjacent adjacent
adjusted, adjusting, adjustment, adjustments, adjusts, readjust,
adjust adjust
readjusted, readjusting, readjustment, readjustments, readjusts
administrates, administration, administrations, administrative,
administrate administrate
administratively, administrator, administrators
adult adulthood, adults adult
advocate advocacy, advocated, advocates, advocating advocate
affect affected, affecting, affective, affectively, affects, unaffected affect
aggregate aggregated, aggregates, aggregating, aggregation aggregate
aid aided, aiding, aids, unaided aid
albeit albeit
allocate allocated, allocates, allocating, allocation, allocations allocate
alter alterable, alteration, alterations, altered, altering, alternate, alter
 alternating, alters, unalterable, unaltered
alternative alternatively, alternatives alternative
ambiguous ambiguities, ambiguity, unambiguous, unambiguously ambiguous
amend amended, amending, amendment, amendments, amends amend
analogy analogies, analogous analogy
analysed, analyser, analysers, analyses, analysing, analysis,
analyse analyse
analyst, analysts, analytic, analytical, analytically
annual annually annual
anticipated, anticipates, anticipating, anticipation,
anticipate anticipate
unanticipated
apparent apparently apparent
appendix, appended, appends, appending, appendices,
append append
appendixes
appreciable, appreciably, appreciated, appreciates, appreciating,
appreciate appreciate
appreciation, unappreciated
approachable, approached, approaches, approaching,
approach approach
unapproachable
appropriacy, appropriately, appropriateness, inappropriacy,
appropriate appropriate
inappropriate, inappropriately
approximated, approximately, approximates, approximating,
approximate approximate
approximation, approximations
arbitrary arbitrariness, arbitrarily arbitrary
area areas area
aspect aspects aspect
assemble assembled, assembles, assemblies, assembling, assembly assemble
assessable, assessed, assesses, assessing, assessment,
assess assessments, reassess, reassessed, reassessing, reassessment, assess
unassessed
assigned, assigning, assignment, assignments, assigns, reassign,
assign assign
reassigned, reassigning, reassigns, unassigned
assistance, assistant, assistants, assisted, assisting, assists,
assist assist
unassisted
assume assumed, assumes, assuming, assumption, assumptions assume
assure assurance, assurances, assured, assuredly, assures, assuring assure
attached, attaches, attaching, attachment, attachments,
attach attach
unattached
attainable, attained, attaining, attainment, attainments, attains,
attain attain
unattainable
attitude attitudes attitude
attribute attributable, attributed, attributes, attributing, attribution attribute
author authored, authoring, authors, authorship author
authority authoritative, authorities authority
automatic, automated, automates, automating, automatically,
automate automate
automation
available availability, unavailable available
aware awareness, unaware aware
behalf behalf
beneficial, beneficiary, beneficiaries, benefited, benefiting,
benefit benefit
benefits
bias biased, biases, biasing, unbiased bias
bond bonded, bonding, bonds bond
brief brevity, briefed, briefing, briefly, briefs brief
bulk bulky bulk
capable capabilities, capability, incapable capable
capacity capacities, incapacitate, incapacitated capacity
categories, categorisation, categorise, categorised, categorises,
category category
categorising, categorizing
cease ceased, ceaseless, ceases, ceasing cease
challenge challenged, challenger, challengers, challenges, challenging challenge
channel channelled, channelling, channels channel
chapter chapters chapter
chart charted, charting, charts, uncharted chart
chemical chemically, chemicals chemical
circumstance circumstances circumstance
cite citation, citations, cited, citing, cites cite
civil civil
clarify clarification, clarified, clarifies, clarifying, clarity clarify
classic classical, classics classic
clause clauses clause
code coded, codes, coding code
coherent coherence, coherently, incoherent, incoherently coherent
coincided, coincides, coinciding, coincidence, coincidences,
coincide coincide
coincident, coincidental
collapse collapsed, collapses, collapsible, collapsing collapse
colleague colleagues colleague
commenced, commences, commencement, commencing,
commence commence
recommences, recommenced, recommencing
commentaries, commentary, commentator, commentators,
comment comment
commented, commenting, comments
commissioned, commissioner, commissioners, commissioning,
commission commission
commissions
commit commitment, commitments, commits, committed, committing commit
commodity commodities commodity
communicable, communicated, communicates, communicating,
communicate communication, communications, communicative, communicate
communicatively, uncommunicative
community communities community
compatible compatibility, incompatibility, incompatible compatible
compensate compensated, compensates, compensating, compensation, compensate
 compensations, compensatory
compile compilation, compilations, compiled, compiles, compiling compile
complement complementary, complemented, complementing, complements complement
complex complexities, complexity complex
component componentry, components component
compound compounded, compounding, compounds compound
comprehensive comprehensively comprehensive
comprise comprised, comprises, comprising comprise
computation, computational, computations, computable,
compute compute
computer, computed, computerised, computers, computing
conceivable, conceivably, conceived, conceives, conceiving,
conceive conceive
inconceivable, inconceivably
concentrate concentrated, concentrates, concentrating, concentration concentrate
conception, concepts, conceptual, conceptualisation,
concept conceptualise, conceptualised, conceptualises, conceptualising, concept
conceptually
concluded, concludes, concluding, conclusion, conclusions,
conclude conclude
conclusive, conclusively, inconclusive, inconclusively
concurrent concurrently concurrent
conduct conducted, conducting, conducts conduct
confer conference, conferences, conferred, conferring, confers confer
confine confined, confines, confining, unconfined confine
confirm confirmation, confirmed, confirming, confirms confirm
conflict conflicted, conflicting, conflicts conflict
conformable, conformability, conformance, conformation,
conformed, conforming, conformist, conformists, conformity,
conform conform
conforms, nonconformist, nonconformists, nonconformity, non-
conformist, non-conformists, non-conformity
consent consensus, consented, consenting, consents consent
consequent consequence, consequences, consequently consequent
considerable considerably considerable
consisted, consistency, consistent, consistently, consisting,
consist consist
consists, inconsistencies, inconsistency, inconsistent
constant constancy, constantly, constants, inconstancy, inconstantly constant
constituencies, constituency, constituent, constituents,
constitute constituted, constitutes, constituting, constitution, constitutions, constitute
constitutional, constitutionally, constitutive, unconstitutional
constrained, constraining, constrains, constraint, constraints,
constrain constrain
unconstrained
constructed, constructing, construction, constructions,
construct constructive, constructs, reconstruct, reconstructed, construct
reconstructing, reconstruction, reconstructs
consultancy, consultant, consultants, consultation,
consult consult
consultations, consultative, consulted, consults, consulting
consumed, consumer, consumers, consumes, consuming,
consume consume
consumption
contact contactable, contacted, contacting, contacts contact
contemporary contemporaries contemporary
contexts, contextual, contextualise, contextualised,
context context
contextualising, uncontextualised
contract contracted, contracting, contractor, contractors, contracts contract
contradicted, contradicting, contradiction, contradictions,
contradict contradict
contradictory, contradicts
contrary contrarily contrary
contrast contrasted, contrasting, contrastive, contrasts contrast
contributed, contributes, contributing, contribution,
contribute contribute
contributions, contributor, contributors
controversy controversies, controversial, controversially, uncontroversial controversy
convention, convenes, convened, convening, conventional,
convene convene
conventionally, conventions, unconventional
converse conversely converse
conversion, conversions, converted, convertible, converting,
convert convert
converts
convince convinced, convinces, convincing, convincingly, unconvinced convince
cooperated, cooperates, cooperating, cooperation, cooperative,
cooperate cooperatively, co-operate, co-operated, co-operates, co- cooperate
operation, co-operative, co-operatively
coordinated, coordinates, coordinating, coordination,
coordinator, coordinators, co-ordinate, co-ordinated, co-
coordinate coordinate
ordinates, co-ordinating, co-ordination, co-ordinator, co-
ordinators
core cores, coring, cored core
corporate corporates, corporation, corporations corporate
corresponded, correspondence, corresponding,
correspond correspond
correspondingly, corresponds
couple coupled, coupling, couples couple
created, creates, creating, creation, creations, creative,
create creatively, creativity, creator, creators, recreate, recreated, create
recreates, recreating
credit credited, crediting, creditor, creditors, credits credit
criteria criterion criteria
crucial crucially crucial
culture cultural, culturally, cultured, cultures, uncultured culture
currency currencies currency
cycle cycled, cycles, cyclic, cyclical, cycling cycle
data data
debate debatable, debated, debates, debating debate
decade decades decade
decline declined, declines, declining decline
deduce deduced, deduces, deducing, deduction, deductions deduce
define definable, defined, defines, defining, definition, definitions, define
 redefine, redefined, redefines, redefining, undefined
definite definitely, definitive, indefinite, indefinitely definite
demonstrable, demonstrably, demonstrated, demonstrates,
demonstrate demonstrating, demonstration, demonstrations, demonstrative, demonstrate
demonstratively, demonstrator, demonstrators
denote denotation, denotations, denoted, denotes, denoting denote
deny deniable, denial, denials, denied, denies, denying, undeniable deny
depress depressed, depresses, depressing, depression depress
derivation, derivations, derivative, derivatives, derived, derives,
derive derive
deriving
design designed, designer, designers, designing, designs design
despite despite
detectable, detected, detecting, detection, detective, detectives,
detect detect
detector, detectors, detects
deviate deviated, deviates, deviating, deviation, deviations deviate
device devices device
devote devoted, devotedly, devotes, devoting, devotion, devotions devote
differentiate differentiated, differentiates, differentiating, differentiation differentiate
dimension dimensional, dimensions, multidimensional dimension
diminish diminished, diminishes, diminishing, diminution, undiminished diminish
discrete discretely, discretion, discretionary, indiscrete, indiscretion discrete
discriminate discriminated, discriminates, discriminating, discrimination discriminate
displace displaced, displacement, displaces, displacing displace
display displayed, displaying, displays display
dispose disposable, disposal, disposed, disposes, disposing dispose
distinction, distinctions, distinctive, distinctively, distinctly,
distinct distinct
indistinct, indistinctly
distort distorted, distorting, distortion, distortions, distorts distort
distributed, distributing, distribution, distributional,
distribute distributions, distributive, distributor, distributors, redistribute, distribute
redistributed, redistributes, redistributing, redistribution
diversely, diversification, diversified, diversifies, diversify,
diverse diverse
diversifying, diversity
document documentation, documented, documenting, documents document
domain domains domain
domestically, domesticate, domesticated, domesticating,
domestic domestic
domestics
dominance, dominant, dominated, dominates, dominating,
dominate dominate
domination
draft drafted, drafting, drafts, redraft, redrafted, redrafting, redrafts draft
dramas, dramatic, dramatically, dramatise, dramatised,
dramatising, dramatises, dramatisation, dramatisations,
drama drama
dramatist, dramatists, dramatization, dramatizations,
dramatizing
duration duration
dynamic dynamically, dynamics dynamic
economic, economical, economically, economics, economies,
economy economy
economist, economists, uneconomical
edited, editing, edition, editions, editor, editorial, editorials,
edit edit
editors, edits
element elements element
eliminate eliminated, eliminates, eliminating, elimination eliminate
emerge emerged, emergence, emergent, emerges, emerging emerge
emphasis emphasise, emphasised, emphasising, emphatic, emphatically emphasis
empirical empirically, empiricism empirical
enable enabled, enables, enabling enable
encounter encountered, encountering, encounters encounter
energy energetic, energetically, energies energy
enforce enforced, enforcement, enforces, enforcing enforce
enhance enhanced, enhancement, enhances, enhancing enhance
enormous enormity, enormously enormous
ensure ensured, ensures, ensuring ensure
entity entities entity
environmental, environmentalist, environmentalists,
environment environment
environmentally, environments
equate equated, equates, equating, equation, equations equate
equip equipment, equipped, equipping, equips equip
equivalent equivalence equivalent
erode eroded, erodes, eroding, erosion erode
error erroneous, erroneously, errors error
disestablish, disestablished, disestablishes, disestablishing,
establish disestablishment, established, establishes, establishing, establish
establishment, establishments
estate estates estate
estimated, estimates, estimating, estimation, estimations, over-
estimate, overestimate, overestimated, overestimates,
estimate estimate
overestimating, underestimate, underestimated, underestimates,
underestimating
ethic ethical, ethically, ethics, unethical ethic
ethnic ethnicity ethnic
evaluated, evaluates, evaluating, evaluation, evaluations,
evaluate evaluative, re-evaluate, re-evaluated, re-evaluates, re- evaluate
evaluating, re-evaluation
eventual eventuality, eventually eventual
evident evidenced, evidence, evidential, evidently evident
evolution, evolved, evolving, evolves, evolutionary,
evolve evolve
evolutionist, evolutionists
exceed exceeded, exceeding, exceeds exceed
excluded, excludes, excluding, exclusion, exclusionary,
exclude exclude
exclusionist, exclusions, exclusive, exclusively
exhibit exhibited, exhibiting, exhibition, exhibitions, exhibits exhibit
expanded, expanding, expands, expansion, expansionism,
expand expand
expansive
expert expertise, expertly, experts expert
explicit explicitly explicit
exploit exploitation, exploited, exploiting, exploits exploit
export exported, exporter, exporters, exporting, exports export
expose exposed, exposes, exposing, exposure, exposures expose
externalisation, externalise, externalised, externalises,
external external
externalising, externality
extract extracted, extracting, extraction, extracts extract
facilitated, facilitates, facilities, facilitating, facilitation,
facilitate facilitate
facilitator, facilitators, facility
factor factored, factoring, factors factor
feature featured, features, featuring feature
federal federation, federations federal
fee fees fee
file filed, files, filing file
final finalise, finalised, finalises, finalising, finality, finally, finals final
financed, finances, financial, financially, financier, financiers,
finance finance
financing
finite infinite, infinitely finite
flexible flexibility, inflexible, inflexibility flexible
fluctuate fluctuated, fluctuates, fluctuating, fluctuation, fluctuations fluctuate
focused, focuses, focusing, refocus, refocused, refocuses,
focus focus
refocusing
format formatted, formatting, formats format
formulae, formulas, formulate, formulated, formulating,
formula formulation, formulations, reformulate, reformulated, formula
reformulating, reformulation, reformulations
forthcoming forthcoming
found founded, founder, founders, founding, unfounded found
foundation foundations foundation
framework frameworks framework
function functional, functionally, functioned, functioning, functions function
fund funded, funder, funders, funding, funds fund
fundamental fundamentally fundamental
furthermore furthermore
gender genders gender
generate generated, generates, generating generate
generation generations generation
globe global, globally, globalisation, globalization globe
goal goals goal
grade graded, grades, grading grade
grant granted, granting, grants grant
guarantee guaranteed, guaranteeing, guarantees guarantee
guideline guidelines guideline
hence hence
hierarchy hierarchical, hierarchies hierarchy
highlight highlighted, highlighting, highlights highlight
hypotheses, hypothesise, hypothesised, hypothesises,
hypothesis hypothesis
hypothesising, hypothetical, hypothetically
identical identically identical
identifiable, identification, identified, identifies, identifying,
identify identify
identities, identity, unidentifiable
ideology ideological, ideologically, ideologies ideology
ignorant ignorance, ignore, ignored, ignores, ignoring ignorant
illustrated, illustrates, illustrating, illustration, illustrations,
illustrate illustrate
illustrative
image imagery, images image
immigrant, immigrants, immigrated, immigrates, immigrating,
immigrate immigrate
immigration
impact impacted, impacting, impacts impact
implement implementation, implemented, implementing, implements implement
implicate implicated, implicates, implicating, implication, implications implicate
implicit implicitly implicit
imply implied, implies, implying imply
impose imposed, imposes, imposing, imposition impose
incentive incentives incentive
incidence incident, incidentally, incidents incidence
incline inclination, inclinations,inclined, inclines, inclining incline
income incomes income
incorporate incorporated, incorporates, incorporating, incorporation incorporate
index indexed, indexes, indexing index
indicated, indicates, indicating, indication, indications,
indicate indicate
indicative, indicator, indicators
individualised, individuality, individualism, individualist,
individual individual
individualists, individualistic, individually, individuals
induce induced, induces, inducing, induction induce
inevitable inevitability, inevitably inevitable
infer inference, inferences, inferred, inferring, infers infer
infrastructure infrastructures infrastructure
inherent inherently inherent
inhibit inhibited, inhibiting, inhibition, inhibitions, inhibits inhibit
initial initially initial
initiated, initiates, initiating, initiation, initiations, initiative,
initiate initiate
initiatives, initiator, initiators
injure injured, injures, injuries, injuring, injury, uninjured injure
 innovation, innovated, innovates, innovating, innovations,
innovate innovate
innovative, innovator, innovators
input inputs input
insert inserted, inserting, insertion, inserts insert
insight insightful, insights insight
inspected, inspecting, inspection, inspections, inspector,
inspect inspect
inspectors, inspects
instance instances instance
instituted, institutes, instituting, institution, institutional,
institute institutionalise, institutionalised, institutionalises, institute
institutionalising, institutionally, institutions
instruction, instructed, instructing, instructions, instructive,
instruct instruct
instructor, instructors, instructs
integral integral
integrate integrated, integrates, integrating, integration integrate
integrity integrity
intelligent intelligence, intelligently, unintelligent intelligent
intensely, intenseness, intensification, intensified, intensifies,
intense intensify, intensifying, intension, intensity, intensive, intense
intensively
interacted, interacting, interaction, interactions, interactive,
interact interact
interactively, interacts
intermediate intermediate
internal internalise, internalised, internalises, internalising, internally internal
interpretation, interpretations, interpretative, interpreted,
interpreting, interpretive, interprets, misinterpret,
interpret misinterpretation, misinterpretations, misinterpreted, interpret
misinterpreting, misinterprets, reinterpret, reinterpreted,
reinterprets, reinterpreting, reinterpretation, reinterpretations
interval intervals interval
intervene intervened, intervenes, intervening, intervention, interventions intervene
intrinsic intrinsically intrinsic
invested, investing, investment, investments, investor,
invest investors, invests, reinvest, reinvested, reinvesting, invest
reinvestment, reinvests
investigated, investigates, investigating, investigation,
investigate investigate
investigations, investigative, investigator, investigators
invoke invoked, invokes, invoking invoke
involve involved, involvement, involves, involving, uninvolved involve
isolate isolated, isolates, isolating, isolation, isolationism isolate
issue issued, issues, issuing issue
item itemisation, itemise, itemised, itemises, itemising, items item
job jobs job
journal journals journal
justifiable, justifiably, justification, justifications, justified,
justify justify
justifies, justifying, unjustified
label labelled, labelling, labels label
labour laboured, labouring, labours labour
layer layered, layering, layers layer
lecture lectured, lecturer, lecturers, lectures, lecturing lecture
legal illegal, illegality, illegally, legality, legally legal
legislated, legislates, legislating, legislation, legislative,
legislate legislate
legislator, legislators, legislature
levy levies levy
liberalise, liberalism, liberalisation, liberalised, liberalises,
liberalising, liberalization, liberate, liberated, liberates,
liberal liberal
liberation, liberations, liberating, liberator, liberators, liberally,
liberals
licence licences, license, licensed, licensing, licenses, unlicensed licence
likewise likewise
link linkage, linkages, linked, linking, links link
located, locating, location, locations, relocate, relocated,
locate locate
relocates, relocating, relocation
logic illogical, illogically, logical, logically, logician, logicians logic
maintain maintained, maintaining, maintains, maintenance maintain
major majorities, majority major
manipulated, manipulates, manipulating, manipulation,
manipulate manipulate
manipulations, manipulative
manual manually, manuals manual
margin marginal, marginally, margins margin
immature, immaturity, maturation, maturational, matured,
mature mature
matures, maturing, maturity
max, maximised, maximises, maximising, maximisation,
maximise maximise
maximum
mechanism mechanisms mechanism
media media
mediate mediated, mediates, mediating, mediation mediate
medical medically medical
medium medium
mental mentality, mentally mental
methodical, methodological, methodologies, methodology,
method method
methods
migrant, migrants, migrated, migrates, migrating, migration,
migrate migrate
migrations, migratory
military military
minimalisation, minimalise, minimalises, minimalised,
minimal minimal
minimalising, minimalist, minimalists, minimalistic, minimally
minimise minimised, minimises, minimising minimise
minimum minimum
ministry ministered, ministering, ministerial, ministries ministry
minor minorities, minority, minors minor
mode modes mode
modification, modifications, modified, modifies, modifying,
modify modify
unmodified
monitor monitored, monitoring, monitors, unmonitored monitor
motivate, motivated, motivates, motivating, motivation,
motive motive
motivations, motives, unmotivated
mutual mutually mutual
negate negative, negated, negates, negating, negatively, negatives negate
network networked, networking, networks network
neutralisation, neutralise, neutralised, neutralises, neutralising,
neutral neutral
neutrality
nevertheless nevertheless
nonetheless nonetheless
norm norms norm
abnormal, abnormally, normalisation, normalise, normalised,
normal normal
normalises, normalising, normality, normally
notion notions notion
notwithstanding notwithstanding
nuclear nuclear
objective objectively, objectivity objective
obtain obtainable, obtained, obtaining, obtains, unobtainable obtain
obvious obviously obvious
occupancy, occupant, occupants, occupation,occupational,
occupy occupations, occupied, occupier, occupiers, occupies, occupy
occupying
occurred, occurrence, occurrences, occurring, occurs, reoccur,
occur occur
reoccurred, reoccurring, reoccurs
odd odds odd
offset offsets, offsetting offset
ongoing ongoing
option optional, options option
orientate, orientated, orientates, orientation, orientating,
orient orient
oriented, orienting, orients, reorient, reorientation
outcome outcomes outcome
output outputs output
overall overall
overlap overlapped, overlapping, overlaps overlap
overseas overseas
panel panelled, panelling, panels panel
paradigm paradigms paradigm
paragraph paragraphing, paragraphs paragraph
parallel paralleled, parallels, unparalleled parallel
parameter parameters parameter
participate participant, participants, participated, participates, participating, participate
 participation, participatory
partner partners, partnership, partnerships partner
passive passively, passivity passive
perceive perceived, perceives, perceiving, perception, perceptions perceive
percent percentage, percentages percent
period periodic, periodical, periodically, periodicals, periods period
persisted, persistence, persistent, persistently, persisting,
persist persist
persists
perspective perspectives perspective
phase phased, phases, phasing phase
phenomenon phenomena, phenomenal phenomenon
philosopher, philosophers, philosophical, philosophically,
philosophy philosophies, philosophise, philosophised, philosophises, philosophy
philosophising
physical physically physical
plus pluses plus
policy policies policy
portion portions portion
pose posed, poses, posing pose
positive positively positive
potential potentially potential
practitioner practitioners practitioner
preceded, precedence, precedent, precedes, preceding,
precede precede
unprecedented
precise imprecise, precisely, precision precise
predictability, predictable, predictably, predicted, predicting,
predict predict
prediction, predictions, predicts, unpredictability, unpredictable
predominance, predominantly, predominate, predominated,
predominant predominant
predominates, predominating
preliminary preliminaries preliminary
presumably, presumed, presumes, presuming, presumption,
presume presume
presumptions, presumptuous
previous previously previous
primary primarily primary
prime primacy prime
principal principally principal
principle principled, principles, unprincipled principle
prior prior
priorities, prioritisation, prioritise, prioritised, prioritises,
priority priority
prioritising
procedural, procedure, procedures, proceeded, proceeding,
proceed proceed
proceedings, proceeds
process processed, processes, processing process
professional professionally, professionals, professionalism professional
 prohibited, prohibiting, prohibition, prohibitions, prohibitive,
prohibit prohibit
prohibits
project projected, projecting, projection, projections, projects project
promoted, promoter, promoters, promotes, promoting,
promote promote
promotion, promotions
disproportion, disproportionate, disproportionately,
proportion proportional, proportionally, proportionate, proportionately, proportion
proportions
prospect prospective, prospects prospect
protocol protocols protocol
psychology psychological, psychologically, psychologist, psychologists psychology
publication publications publication
published, publisher, publishers, publishes, publishing,
publish publish
unpublished
purchase purchased, purchaser, purchasers, purchases, purchasing purchase
pursue pursued, pursues, pursuing, pursuit, pursuits pursue
qualitative qualitatively qualitative
quote quotation, quotations, quoted, quotes, quoting quote
radical radically, radicals radical
random randomly, randomness random
range ranged, ranges, ranging range
ratio ratios ratio
irrational, rationalisation, rationalisations, rationalise,
rational rationalised, rationalises, rationalising, rationalism, rationality, rational
rationally
reacted, reacts, reacting, reaction, reactionaries, reactionary,
react react
reactions, reactive, reactivate, reactivation, reactor, reactors
recover recoverable, recovered, recovering, recovers, recovery recover
refine refined, refinement, refinements, refines, refining refine
regime regimes regime
region regional, regionally, regions region
deregister, deregistered, deregistering, deregisters,
register register
deregistration, registered, registering, registers, registration
deregulated, deregulates, deregulating, deregulation, regulated,
regulate regulates, regulating, regulation,regulations, regulator, regulate
regulators, regulatory, unregulated
reinforced, reinforcement, reinforcements, reinforces,
reinforce reinforce
reinforcing
reject rejected, rejecting, rejection, rejects, rejections reject
relax relaxation, relaxed, relaxes, relaxing relax
release released, releases, releasing release
relevant irrelevance, irrelevant, relevance relevant
reluctance reluctant, reluctantly reluctance
reliability, reliable, reliably, reliance, reliant, relied, relies,
rely rely
relying, unreliable
remove removable, removal, removals, removed, removes, removing remove
require required, requirement, requirements, requires, requiring require
research researched, researcher, researchers, researches, researching research
resided, residence, resident, residential, residents, resides,
reside reside
residing
resolve resolution, resolved, resolves, resolving, unresolved resolve
resourced, resourceful, resources, resourcing, unresourceful,
resource resource
under-resourced
responded, respondent, respondents, responding, responds,
respond respond
response, responses, responsive, responsiveness, unresponsive
restore restoration, restored, restores, restoring restore
restrained, restraining, restrains, restraint, restraints,
restrain restrain
unrestrained
restricted, restricting, restriction, restrictions, restrictive,
restrict restrict
restrictively, restricts, unrestricted, unrestrictive
retained, retaining, retainer, retainers, retains, retention,
retain retain
retentive
reveal revealed, revealing, reveals, revelation, revelations reveal
revenue revenues revenue
reversal, reversed, reverses, reversible, reversing, reversals,
reverse reverse
irreversible
revise revised, revises, revising, revision, revisions revise
revolutionary, revolutionaries, revolutionise, revolutionised,
revolution revolutionises, revolutionising, revolutionist, revolutionists, revolution
revolutions
rigid rigidities, rigidity, rigidly rigid
role roles role
route routed, routes, routing route
scenario scenarios scenario
reschedule, rescheduled, reschedules, rescheduling, scheduled,
schedule schedule
schedules, scheduling, unscheduled
scheme schematic, schematically, schemed, schemes, scheming scheme
scope scope
section sectioned, sectioning, sections section
sector sectors sector
insecure, insecurities, insecurity, secured, securely, secures,
secure secure
securing, securities, security
seek seeking, seeks, sought seek
selected, selecting, selection, selections, selective, selectively,
select select
selector, selectors, selects
sequence sequenced, sequences, sequencing, sequential, sequentially sequence
series series
sex sexes, sexism, sexual, sexuality, sexually sex
shift shifted, shifting, shifts shift
significant insignificant, insignificantly, significance, significantly, significant
 signified, signifies, signify, signifying
similar dissimilar, similarities, similarity, similarly similar
simulate simulated, simulates, simulating, simulation simulate
site sites site
so-called so-called
sole solely sole
somewhat somewhat
source sourced, sources, sourcing source
specific specifically, specification, specifications, specificity, specifics specific
specify specifiable, specified, specifies, specifying, unspecified specify
sphere spheres, spherical, spherically sphere
instability, stabilisation, stabilise, stabilised, stabilises,
stable stable
stabilising, stability, unstable
statistic statistician, statisticians, statistical, statistically, statistics statistic
status status
straightforward straightforward
strategy strategic, strategies, strategically, strategist, strategists strategy
stress stressed, stresses, stressful, stressing, unstressed stress
restructure, restructured, restructures, restructuring, structural,
structure structure
structurally, structured, structures, structuring, unstructured
style styled, styles, styling, stylish, stylise, stylised, stylises, stylising style
submit submission, submissions, submits, submitted, submitting submit
subordinate subordinates, subordination subordinate
subsequent subsequently subsequent
subsidiary, subsidies, subsidise, subsidised, subsidises,
subsidy subsidy
subsidising
substitute substituted, substitutes, substituting, substitution substitute
successor succession, successions, successive, successively, successors successor
sufficient sufficiency, insufficient, insufficiently, sufficiently sufficient
sum summation, summed, summing, sums sum
summaries, summarise, summarised, summarises,
summary summary
summarising, summarisation, summarisations
supplement supplementary, supplemented, supplementing, supplements supplement
survey surveyed, surveying, surveys survey
survive survival, survived, survives, surviving, survivor, survivors survive
suspend suspended, suspending, suspends, suspension suspend
sustainable, sustainability, sustained, sustaining, sustains,
sustain sustain
sustenance, unsustainable
symbolic, symbolically, symbolise, symbolises, symbolised,
symbol symbol
symbolising, symbolism, symbols
tape taped, tapes, taping tape
target targeted, targeting, targets target
task tasks task
team teamed, teaming, teams team
technical technically technical
technique techniques technique
technology technological, technologically technology
temporary temporarily temporary
tense tension, tensely, tenser, tensest, tensions tense
terminal, terminals, terminated, terminates, terminating,
terminate terminate
termination, terminations
text texts, textual text
theme themes, thematic, thematically theme
theory theoretical, theoretically, theories, theorist, theorists theory
thereby thereby
thesis theses thesis
topic topical, topics topic
trace traceable, traced, traces, tracing trace
non-traditional, traditional, traditionalist, traditionally,
tradition tradition
traditions
transfer transferable, transference, transferred, transferring, transfers transfer
transformation, transformations, transformed, transforming,
transform transform
transforms
transited, transiting, transition, transitional, transitions,
transit transit
transitory, transits
transmit transmission, transmissions, transmitted, transmitting, transmits transmit
transportation, transported, transporter, transporters,
transport transport
transporting, transports
trend trends trend
trigger triggered, triggering, triggers trigger
ultimate ultimately ultimate
undergo undergoes, undergoing, undergone, underwent undergo
underlie underlay, underlies, underlying underlie
undertake undertaken, undertakes, undertaking, undertook undertake
uniform uniformity, uniformly uniform
unify unification, unified, unifies, unifying unify
unique uniquely, uniqueness unique
utilisation, utilised, utilises, utilising, utiliser, utilisers, utility,
utilise utilise
utilities
invalidate, invalidity, validate, validated, validating, validation,
valid valid
validity, validly
invariable, invariably, variability, variable, variables, variably,
vary variance, variant, variants, variation, variations, varied, varies, vary
varying
vehicle vehicles vehicle
version versions version
via via
violate violated, violates, violating, violation, violations violate
virtual virtually virtual
visible visibility, visibly, invisible, invisibility visible
vision visions vision
visualise, visualised, visualised, visualising, visualisation,
visual visual
visually
volume volumes, vol volume
voluntary voluntarily, volunteer, volunteering, volunteered, volunteers voluntary
welfare welfare
whereas whereas
whereby whereby
widespread widespread
Vocabulary building

Affixes and roots

Adding affixes to existing words (the base or root) to form new words is common in academic
English. Prefixes are added to the front of the base (like dislike), whereas suffixes are added to
the end of the base (active activate). Prefixes usually do not change the class of the base word,
but suffixes usually do change the class of the word.
The most common prefixes used to form new verbs in academic English are: re-, dis-, over-, un-,
mis-, out-. The most common suffixes are: -ise, -en, -ate, -(i)fy. By far the most common affix in
academic English is -ise.

Verbs
e.g. prefix + verb verb
Prefix Meaning Examples
re- again or back restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance
dis- reverses the meaning of the verb disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinue
over- too much overbook, oversleep, overwork
un- reverses the meaning of the verb unbend, uncouple, unfasten
mis- badly or wrongly mislead, misinform, misidentify
out- more or better than others outperform, outbid
be- make or cause befriend, belittle
co- together co-exist, co-operate, co-own
de- do the opposite of devalue, deselect
fore- earlier, before foreclose, foresee
inter- between interact, intermix, interface
pre- before pre-expose, prejudge, pretest
sub- under/below subcontract, subdivide
trans- across, over transform, transcribe, transplant
under- not enough underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdevelop

e.g. Suffix used to form verbs with the meaning "cause to be".
Suffix Example
-ise stabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialise
-ate differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-fy classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-en awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
Nouns
The most common prefixes used to form new nouns in academic English are: co- and sub-. The
most common suffixes are: -tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -age, -ery. By far the most
common noun affix in academic English is -tion.
e.g. prefix + noun noun
Prefix Meaning Examples
anti- against anticlimax, antidote, antithesis
auto- self autobiography, automobile
bi- two bilingualism, biculturalism, bi-metalism
co- joint co-founder, co-owner, co-descendant
counter- against counter-argument, counter-example, counter-proposal
dis- the converse of discomfort, dislike
ex- former ex-chairman, ex-hunter
hyper- extreme hyperinflation, hypersurface
in- the converse of inattention, incoherence, incompatibility
in- inside inpatient,
inter- between interaction, inter-change, interference
kilo- thousand kilobyte
mal- bad malfunction, maltreatment, malnutrition
mega- million megabyte
mis- wrong misconduct, misdeed, mismanagement
mini- small mini-publication, mini-theory
mono- one monosyllable, monograph, monogamy
neo- new neo-colonialism, neo-impressionism
out- separate outbuilding,
poly- many polysyllable
pseudo- false pseudo-expert
re- again re-organisation, re-assessment, re-examination
semi- half semicircle, semi-darkness
sub- below subset, subdivision
super- more than, above superset, superimposition, superpowers
sur- over and above surtax
tele- distant telecommunications,
tri- three tripartism
ultra- beyond ultrasound
under- below, too little underpayment, under-development, undergraduate
vice- deputy vice-president
e.g. Suffix added to a verb (V), noun (N) or adjective (A) noun
Suffix Meaning Examples
-tion alteration, demonstration
action/instance of V-ing
-sion expansion, inclusion, admission
person who V-s advertiser, driver
-er
something used for V-ing computer, silencer
-ment action/instance of V-ing development, punishment, unemployment
-ant assistant, consultant
person who V-s
-ent student
-age action/result of V breakage, wastage, package
-al denial, proposal, refusal, dismissal
action/result of V

-ence preference, dependence, interference

-ance action/result of V attendance, acceptance, endurance

action/instance of V-ing bribery, robbery, misery

-ery/-ry
place of V-ing refinery, bakery

Suffix Meaning Examples

-er person concerned with N astronomer, geographer
-ism doctrine of N Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism
-ship state of being N friendship, citizenship, leadership
-age collection of N baggage, plumage

Suffix Meaning Examples

state or quality of being
-ity ability, similarity, responsibility, curiosity
A
state or quality of being
-ness darkness, preparedness, consciousness
A
-cy state or quality of being urgency, efficiency, frequency
A

Adjectives
Many adjectives are formed from a base of a different class with a suffix (e.g. -less, -ous).
Adjectives can also be formed from other adjectives, especially by the negative prefixes (un-, in-
and non-).
The most common suffixes are -al, -ent, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less.
e.g. Suffix added to verbs or nouns adjective
Suffix Example
-al central, political, national, optional, professional
-ent different, dependent, excellent
-ive attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive
-ous continuous, dangerous, famous
-ful beautiful, peaceful, careful
-less endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless
-able drinkable, countable, avoidable,

e.g. negative + adjective adjective

Prefix Examples
un- unfortunate, uncomfortable, unjust
im-/in-/ir-/il- immature, impatient, improbable, inconvenient, irreplaceable, illegal
non- non-fiction, non-political, non-neutral
dis- disloyal, dissimilar, dishonest
Mixed
e.g. base with both prefix and suffix
Adjectives: uncomfortable, unavoidable, unimaginative, inactive, semi-circular
Nouns: disappointment, misinformation, reformulation

Word formation
Formal written English uses nouns more than verbs. For example, judgement rather than judge,
development rather than develop, admiration rather than admire.
There appeared to be evidence of differential treatment of children.
This is reflected in our admiration for people who have made something of their lives,
sometimes against great odds, and in our somewhat disappointed judgment of those who
merely drift through life.
All airfields in the country would be nationalised, and the government would continue
with the development of new aircraft as recommended by the Brabazon Committee.
Associated with nominalisation is the occurrence of prepositional phrases, introduced by of:
judgment of those
treatment of children
development of new aircraft
-tion is the most common suffix used in this way. For example: alteration, resignation.
However others are: -ity ability, similarity, complexity; -ness blindness, darkness, preparedness;
-ment development, encouragement; -ship friendship; -age mileage; -ery robbery, bribery; -al
arrival; -ance assistance, resemblance.
Selecting vocabulary: General service list of English words
The original list had about 2000 headwords and about 1500 related words, making about 3500
words altogether. In the original list, different verb forms were not given (e.g. work, works,
working), neither were plurals (book, books), nor the months, days of the week and numbers. I have
added these making about 5500 words altogether.
*Definitions linked to: Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary (Used with permission)
Headwords Related words Definition*
a a

able ability able

about about

above above

abroad abroad

absence absent absence

absolutely absolutely

accept accepts, accepted, accepting accept

accident accidents, accidental, accidentally accident

accord according to accord

account accounts, accounted, accounting account

accuse accuses, accused, accusing accuse

accustom accustom

ache aches ache

across across

acts, acted, acting, actor, actors, actress, actresses, action, actions,

act act
active, actively, activity, activities

actual actually actual

add adds, adding, added add

address addresses address

admire admires, admiring, admired, admiration admire

admit admits, admitted, admitting, admission admit

adopt adopts, adopted, adopting, adoption adopt

advance in advance, advanced advance

advantage advantages advantage

adventure adventures adventure

advertise advertises, advertised, advertising, advertisement advertise

advice advice
advise, advises, advised, advising
aeroplane airplane, aeroplanes, airplanes aeroplane

affair affairs affair

afford affords, affording, afforded afford

afraid afraid

after after

afternoon afternoons afternoon

again again

against against

age ages age

agent agents, agency agent

ago ago

agrees, agreed, agreeing, agreement, disagree, disagrees, disagreed,

agree agree
disagreeing, disagreement

agriculture agricultural agriculture

ahead ahead
aim aims, aimed, aiming, aimless aim

air air-tight air

alike alike

alive alive

all all

allow allows, allowed, allowing, allowance allow

almost almost

alone alone

along along with along

aloud aloud

already already

also also

although although

altogether altogether

always always

ambition ambitions, ambitious ambition

among among

amongst amongst

amount amount

amuse amuses, amused, amusing, amusement amuse

ancient ancient

an an

and and
anger angry anger

angle angles angle

angry angry

animal animals animal

annoy annoyed, annoys, annoying, annoyance annoy

another another

answer answers, answering, answered answer

anxiety anxious anxiety

any anybody, anyhow, anything, anywhere any

apart apart

apologise apologises, apologised, apologising, apology, apologies apologise

appears, appeared, appearing, disappear, disappears, disappeared,

appear appear
disappearing, appearance, appearances, disappearance

applaud applauds, applauding, applauded, applause applaud

apple apples apple

apply applies, applied, applying, application, applications apply

appoint appoints, appointing, appointed, appointment, appointments appoint

approves, approved, approving, disapprove, disapproves,

approve approve
disapproved, approval

april april

arch arched, archway arch

argue argues, argued, arguing, argument, arguments argue

arise arises, arose, arising arise

arm arms, armour, unarmed arm

army armies army

around around

arrange arranges, arranged, arranging, arrangement, arrangement arrange

arrest arrested, arrests, arresting arrest

arrive arrived, arrives,, arriving, arrival arrive

arrow arrows arrow

art artist, artists, artistic art

article articles article

artificial artificial

as as

ash ash

ashamed ashamed

aside aside

ask asks, asked, asking ask

asleep asleep

association associations association

astonish astonishes, astonished, astonishing, astonishment astonish

at at

attack attacks attack

attempt attempts attempt

attend attends, attended, attending, attention, attentive attend

attract attracts, attracted, attracting, attraction, attractive attract

audience audiences audience

august august

aunt aunts aunt

autumn autumn

avenue avenues avenue

average average

avoid avoids, avoided, avoiding, avoidance, unavoidable, unavoidably avoid

awake wakes, awoke, awaking awake

away away

awkward awkwardly, awkwardness awkward

axe axes axe

baby babies baby

back backbone, background, backward back

bad bad
badly, badness
bag bags bag

baggage baggage

bake bakes, baked, baking bake

balance balances, balancing, balanced balance

ball balls ball

band bands band

bank banks bank

bar bars bar

barber barbers barber

bare bare
bargain bargains bargain

barrel barrels barrel

base bases, based, basing, basic base

basin basins basin

basket baskets basket

bath baths, bathed, bathe bath

battle battles battle

bay bays bay

be been, is, are, was, were, being be

beak beaks beak

beam beams beam

bean beans bean

bear bears, bearing bear

beard beards beard

beast beasts beast

beat beats, beating beat

beauty beautiful, beautifully beauty

because because

become becomes, became, becoming become

bed beds, bedding, bedroom, bedrooms bed

before before

beg begs, begging, begged, beggar beg

begin begins, began, begun, beginning, beginnings begin

behave behaves, behaved, behaving, behaviour behave

behind behind

being well-being being

believe believes, believed, believing, belief believe

bell bells bell

belong belongs, belonged, belonging belong

below below

belt belts belt

bend bends, bending, bent bend

beneath beneath

berry berries berry

beside besides beside

best best

better better

between between

beyond beyond

bicycle bicycles bicycle

big big

bill bills bill

bind binds, bound, binding bind

bird birds bird

birth birth

bit bit
bite bites, bit bite

bitter bitterness bitter

black black

blade blades blade

blame blames, blamed, blaming blame

bless blesses, blessing, blessed, blessing bless

blind blinds, blinded, blinding blind

block blocks block

blood bleed blood

blow blows, blowing, blew blow

blue blue

board boards board

boast boasts, boasting, boasted, boastful boast

boat boats boat

body bodies, bodily, body-guard body

boil boils, boiled, boiling, boiler boil

bold boldly bold

bone bones bone

book books book

border borders border

born born

borrow borrows, borrowed, borrowing borrow

both both
bottle bottles bottle

bottom bottoms bottom

bound bounded, bounds bound

boundary boundaries boundary

bow bows, bowing, bowed bow

bowl bowls bowl

box boxes box

boy boys boy

brain brains brain

branch branches branch

brass brass

brave bravely, bravery brave

bread bread

break breaks, broke, breaking, breakage break

breakfast breakfast

breath breathe, breathing breath

bribe bribes, bribing, bribed, bribery bribe

brick bricks brick

bridge bridges bridge

bright brighten bright

bring brings, bringing, brought bring

broad broadcast, breadth broad

brother brothers brother

brown brown

brush brushes brush

bucket buckets bucket

build builds, built, building build

bunch bunches bunch

bundle bundles bundle

burn burns, burned, burnt, burning burn

burst bursts burst

bury buries, buried, burying, burial, burial-place, burial-ground bury

bus buses bus

bush bushes bush

business businesses, businesslike, unbusinesslike business

busy busily busy

but but

butter butter

button buttons, buttoned, buttoning, unbutton button

buy buys, buying, bought buy

by by

cage cages cage

cake cakes cake

calculate calculates, calculated, calculating calculate

call calls, called, calling call

calm calmly, calmness calm

camera cameras camera

camp camps, camped, camping camp

can could can

canal canals canal

cap caps cap

cape capes cape

capital capitals capital

captain captains captain

car cars car

card cards card

care cares, cared, caring, careful, careless care

carriage carriages carriage

carry carries, carrying, carried carry

cart carts cart

case cases case

castle castles castle

cat cats cat

catch catches catch

cattle cattle

cause causes, caused, causing cause

caution cautious, cautiously caution

cave caves cave

cent cents cent

centre centres centre

century centuries century

ceremony ceremonies, ceremonial, ceremonious ceremony

certain certainly, certainty, uncertainty certain

chain chains chain

chair chairs, chairman chair

chalk chalk

chance chances chance

change changes, changed, changing change

character characters character

charge charges, charged, charging charge

charm charms, charmed, charming charm

cheap cheaply cheap

cheat cheats, cheated, cheating cheat

check checks, checked, checking check

cheer cheerful, cheerfully cheer

cheese cheese

cheque cheques cheque

chest chest

chicken chickens chicken

chief chiefly chief

child children, childhood, childish, childlike, child-bearing child

chimney chimneys chimney

choose chooses, chose, chosen, choosing, choice choose

christmas christmas

church church-yard church

circle circular circle

city cities, citizen, citizens city

civilise civilisation civilise

claim claims, claimed, claiming claim

class classify, classified, classifying, classification class

clay clay

clean cleanly, cleanness clean

clear clears, cleared, clearing, clearly, clearness clear

clerk clerks clerk

clever clever

cliff cliffs cliff

climb climbed, climbs, climbing climb

clock clocks, clockwork clock

close closes, closing, closed close

cloth clothed, clothes, clothing cloth

cloud clouds, cloudy cloud

club clubs club

coal coal

coarse coarse

coast coasts, coast-line coast

coat coats, overcoat coat

coffee coffee-pot coffee

coin coins coin

cold coldly, coldness cold

collar collars collar

collect collects, collected, collecting, collection, collector collect

college colleges college

colony colonies, colonist, colonise, colonised, colonial colony

colour colours, colouring colour

comb combs comb

combine combines, combining, combined, combination combine

come comes, came, coming come

comfort comforting, discomfort, comfortable, uncomfortable comfort

command commands command

commerce commercial commerce

committee committees committee

common commonly, uncommon, commonsense common

companion companions, companionship companion

company companies company

compare compares, compared, comparing, comparison compare

compete competes, competed, competing, competition, competitor compete

complain complains, complained, complaining, complaint complain

complete complete
complicated complicated

compose composes, composed, composing, composer, composition compose

concern concerns, concerned, concerning concern

condition conditions condition

confess confesses, confessed, confessing, confession confess

confidence confident, confidential, confidentially confidence

confuse confuses, confused, confusing, confusion confuse

congratulate congratulates, congratulated, congratulating, congratulations congratulate

connect connects, connecting, connected, connection connect

conquer conquers, conquered, conquering, conqueror, conquest conquer

conscience conscience

conscious consciousness, unconscious, unconsciously, unconsciousness conscious

consider considers, considered, considering, considering consider

contain contains, contained, containing, container contain

content contented, discontent, discontented content

continue continues, continued, continuing, continuous, continuously continue

control controls, controlled, controlling control

convenience convenient, inconvenience, inconvenient convenience

conversation conversational conversation

cook cooks, cooked, cooking, cookery cook

cool coolly, coolness cool

copper copper

copy copies, copying, copied copy

cork corkscrew cork

corn corn

corner corners corner

corrects, corrected, correcting, correctly, incorrect, correction,

correct correct
corrections

cost costs cost

cottage cottages cottage

cotton cotton

cough coughs, coughed, coughing cough

council councils council

count counts, counting, counted count

country countries country

courage courageous courage

course course

court courts, courtyard court

cousin cousins, cousin

cover covers, covered, covering cover

cow cows cow

coward coward, cowardice, cowardly coward

crack cracks, cracking, cracked crack

crash crashes, crashed, crashing crash

cream cream

creature creatures creature

creep creeps creep

crime crimes, criminal crime

critic critics, critical critic

crop crops crop

cross crosses, crossing, crossing cross

crowd crowds crowd

crown crowns crown

cruel cruelly, cruelty cruel

crush crushes, crushed, crushing crush

cry cries, cried, crying cry

cultivate cultivates, cultivating, cultivated, cultivation, cultivator cultivate

cup cups cup

cupboard cupboards cupboard

cure cures, cured, curing cure

curious curiously, curiosity curious

curl curls, curling, curled, curly curl

current currents current

curse curses curse

curtain curtains curtain

curve curves, curving, curved curve

cushion cushions, cushioned cushion

custom customer custom

cut cuts, cutting cut

damage damaged damage

damp damp

dance dances, danced, dancing dance

danger dangerous danger

dare daring dare

dark darken, darkness dark

date dates date

daughter daughter daughter

day days, daily, daylight day

dead death, deathbed dead

deaf deafening deaf

deal deals, dealt, dealer, dealing, dealings deal

dear dearly dear

debt debts debt

decay decays, decaying, decayed decay

deceive deceives, deceived, deceiving, deceit, deceitful deceive

december december

decide decides, deciding, decided, decidedly, decision, decisive decide

declare declares, declared, declaring, declaration declare

decrease decreases, decreased, decreasing decrease

deed deeds deed

deep deepen, deeply, depth deep

deer deer

defeat defeats, defeated, defeating, defendant, defence defeat

defend defends, defended, defending defend

degree degrees degree

delay delays, delayed, delaying delay

delicate delicately delicate

delight delightful, delightfully delight

deliver delivers, delivering, delivered, delivery deliver

demand demands, demanded, demanding demand

department departments department

depend depends, depended, depending, dependent, dependant, dependence depend

descend descends, descended, descending, descendant, descent descend

describe described, describes, describing, description describe

desert deserts, deserted desert

deserve deserves, deserved, deserving deserve

desire desires, desiring, desired desire

desk desks desk

despair despairs, despaired, despairing despair

destroy destroys, destroyed, destroying, destruction, destructive destroy

detail details, detailed detail

determine determines, determining, determined, determination determine

develop develops, developed, developing, development develop

devil devils devil

diamond diamonds diamond

dictionary dictionaries dictionary

die die, died, dying die

difference differences, different difference

difficult difficulty difficult

dig digs, dug, digging dig

dinner dine, dining dinner

dip dips, dipped, dipping dip

direct directs, directed, directing, direction, directly, director direct

dirt dirty dirt

disappoint disappoints, disappointed, disappointing, disappointment disappoint

discipline disciplines discipline

discover discovers, discovering, discovered, discoverer, discovery discover

discuss discusses, discussed, discussing, discussion discuss

disease diseases, diseased disease

disgust disgusts, disgusted, disgusting disgust

dish dishes dish

dismiss dismisses, dismissed, dismissing, dismissal dismiss

distance distances, distant distance

distinguish distinguishes, distinguishing, distinguished distinguish

district districts district

disturb disturbs, disturbed, disturbing, disturbance disturb

ditch ditches ditch

dive dives, diving, diver dive

divide divides, divided, dividing, division divide

do does, did, done do

doctor doctors doctor

dog dogs dog

dollar dollars dollar

donkey donkeys donkey

door doors, indoor, indoors, outdoor, outdoors door

dot dots dot

double double

doubt doubts, doubted, doubting, doubtful, doubtless doubt

down down

dozen dozen

drag drags, dragged, dragging drag

draw draws draw

drawer drawers drawer

dream dreams, dreamy dream

dress dresses dress

drink drinks, drunk, drank, drinking drink

drive drives, drove, driven drive

drop drops, dropped, dropping drop

drown drowns, drowning, drowned drown

drum drums drum

dry dryly, dryness dry

duck ducks duck

due due

dull dullness dull

during during

dust duster, dusty dust

duty duty

each each

eager eagerly eager

ear ears, ear-ring ear

early earliness early

earn earns, earned, earning, earnings earn

earnest earnest

earth earthly, earthworm, earthy earth

ease eases, easing, eased ease

east eastern east

easy easily easy

eat eats, ate, eaten, eating eat

edge edge

educate educates, educating, educated, education, educational, uneducated educate

effect effects, effective, effectively, efficient, efficiency, efficiently effect

effort effort

egg eggs egg

either either

eight eighth eight

eighteen eighteenth eighteen

eighty eightieth eighty

elastic elasticity elastic

elder elder

elect elects, elected, electing, election elect

electricity electrician, electric, electrical electricity

elephant elephants elephant

eleven eleventh eleven

else elsewhere else

empire empires empire

employs, employing, employed, unemployed, employee, employer,

employ employ
employment

empty empty

enclose enclosure enclose

encourage encourages, encouraged, encouraging, encouragement encourage

end ending, endless end

enemy enemies enemy

engine engines, engineer, engineering engine

english english

enjoy enjoys, enjoyed, enjoying, enjoyable, enjoyment enjoy

enough enough

enquire enquires, enquired, enquiring enquire

enter enters, entered, entering, entrance enter

entertain entertains, entertained, entertaining, entertaining, entertainment entertain

entire entirely entire

entrance entrance

envelope envelopes envelope

envy envies, envied, envious envy

equal equally, equality equal

escape escapes, escaped, escaping escape

especial especially especial

essence essential, essentially essence

even even

evening evening

event eventful, uneventful event

ever everlasting ever

every everyday, everything, everywhere every

evil evil

exact exactly exact

examination examinations, examine, examiner examination

example examples example

excellent excellence, excellently excellent

except excepting, exception except

excess excessive, excessively excess

excite excites, excited, exciting, excitement excite

excuse excuses excuse

exercise exercises, exercised exercise

exist exists, existed, existing, existence exist

expect expects, expected, expecting, expectation expect

expense expenses, expensive expense

experience experiences, experienced experience

experiment experiments, experimental, experimentally experiment

explain explains, explained, explaining, explanation explain

explode explodes, exploded, exploding, explosion, explosive explode

explore explores, explored, exploring explore

express expression express

extends, extended, extending, extension, extensive, extensively,

extend extend
extent

extra extra

extraordinary extraordinarily extraordinary

extreme extremes, extremely extreme

eye eyes, eye-ball, eyebrow, eyelash, eyelid, eye-sight eye

face faces face

fact facts fact

factory factories factory

fade fades, faded, fading fade

fail fails, failed, failing, failure fail

faint faints, fainted, fainting, faintly, faintness faint

fair unfair, fairly, unfairly fair

faith faiths, faithful, faithfully faith

fall falls, fell, fallen, fall

false falsehood, falsely false

familiar familiar

family families family

famous famous

fan fans fan

fancy fanciful fancy

far far away, far off, far-reaching, farther, farthest far

farm farms farm

fashion fashionable fashion

fast fasten, fastener fast

fat fatness, fatten, fatty fat

fate fate

father fathers father

fatten fattens, fattened, fattening, fatten

fault faultless, faulty fault

favour favourable, favourably favour

favourite favourites favourite

fear fears, feared, fearful, fearless fear

feast feasts, feasting feast

feather feathers feather

february february

feed feeds, feed, feeding feed

feel feels, felt, feeling feel

fellow fellows, fellowship fellow

female females female

fence fences fence

fever fevers, feverish, feverishly fever

few few

field fields field

fierce fiercely fierce

fifteen fifteenth fifteen

fifty fiftieth fifty

fight fights, fighter fight

figure figures figure

fill fills, filled, filling fill

film films film

find finds, found, finding find

fine finely, fineness fine

finger fingers finger

finish finishes, finished, finishing finish

fire fires, firing fire

firm firmly, firmness firm

first first

fish fisherman fish

fit fits, fitting, fitness fit

five fifth five

fix fixes, fixed, fixing fix

flag flags flag

flame flames, flaming flame

flash flashes, flashed, flashing flash

flat flatten flat

flavour flavours flavour

flesh flesh

float floats, floating, floated float

flood floods flood

floor floors floor

flour flour

flow flows, flowing, flowed, overflow flow

flower flowers flower

fly flies, flew, flying fly

fold folds, folded, folding fold

follow follows, followed, following follow

fond fond

food food

fool fools, foolish, foolishness fool

foot feet, football, foothold, footpath, footprint, footstep, footnote foot

for for

forbid forbids, forbidden forbid

force forces, forcing, forced force

foreign foreigner foreign

forest forests forest

forget forgets, forgot, forgetting, forgotten, forgetful, forgetfulness forget

forgive forgives, forgave, forgiveness forgive

fork forks fork

form forms, formed, forming form

formal formally, formality formal

former formerly former

forty fortieth forty

four fourth four

fourteen fourteenth fourteen

fortune fortunes, fortunate, fortunately fortune

forward forwards forward

frame frames, framework frame

free freedom, freely free

freeze freezes, froze, freezing freeze

frequency frequencies frequency

frequent frequent

fresh fresh

friend friends friend

friday friday

fright fright

from from
front front

fruit fruit

fry fries, fried, frying fry

full full

fun funny fun

funeral funerals funeral

fur fur

furnish furniture furnish

further further

future future

gain gains, gained, gaining gain

gallon gallons gallon

game games game

gap gaps gap

garage garages garage

garden gardens, gardener garden

gas gases gas

gate gates, gateway gate

gather gathers, gathered, gathering gather

gay gaiety, gaily gay

general generally general

generous generosity, generously generous

gentle gentleness, gently, gentleman gentle

get gets, got get

girl girls girl

give gives, given, gift give

glad gladly glad

glass glasses, glassy glass

glory glorious, gloriously glory

go goes, gone go

goat goats goat

god gods, goddess, godfather, godmother god

gold gold-dust, goldfish, gold-leaf, gold-mine, goldsmith, golden gold

good good-bye, good day, good nature, goodness, goodnight, goodwill good

govern governs, governed, governing, government, governor govern

grace graceful grace

gradual gradually gradual

grain grains grain

grammar grammatical grammar

grand grand

grass grassy grass

grateful grateful

grave graves, gravestone grave

grease greasy grease

great greatcoat, greatly, greatness great

greed greedy, greedily greed

green green

greet greeting greet

grey grey

grind grinds, ground, grindstone grind

ground grounds, ground-floor, groundwork ground

group groups group

grow grows, growing, grown, growth, grown-up grow

guard guards guard

guess guesses, guessing, guessed guess

guest guests guest

guide guides guide

guilty guilt, guiltless guilty

gun guns, gunboat, gunner, gunpowder gun

habit habits habit

hair hair

half halve, half-hour, half-pay half

hall halls hall

hammer hammers, hammered, hammering hammer

hand hands, handful, handshake, handwriting hand

handkerchief handkerchiefs handkerchief

handle handles handle

hang hangs, hanged, hung, hanging hang

happen happens, happened, happening happen

happy happily happy

harbour harbours harbour

hard harden, hardness hard

hardly hardly

harm harmful, harmless harm

harvest harvest

haste hasten, hastily, hasty haste

hat hats hat

hate hates, hated, hateful, hatred hate

have has, had have

hay hay

he he

head heads, headed, heading, headache, head-dress head

heal heals, healed, healing heal

health health health

heap heaps heap

hear hears, hearing, heard, hearer hear

heart hearts heart

heat heating heat

heaven heavenly heaven

heavy heavily heavy

height height

hello hello
help helps, helped, helper, helpful, helpless help

here here

hesitate hesitates, hesitated, hesitation hesitate

hide hides, hid, hiding hide

high highland, highly, highroad, highway, height, heights, heighten high

hill hills, hillside, hill-top, hilly hill

hinder hinders, hindered, hindering, hindrance hinder

hire hires, hired, hiring hire

his his

history history

hit hits hit

hold holds, held, holding, holder hold

hole holes hole

holiday holidays holiday

hollow hollows hollow

holy holiness holy

home homes, home-made, homeless home

honest honestly, honesty honest

honour honourable, dishonour, dishonourable honour

hook hooks hook

hope hopes, hoped, hopeful, hopeless hope

horizon horizons, horizontal horizon

horse horses, horseback, horseman, horseshoe horse

hospital hospitals hospital

host hosts, hostess host

hot hotly hot

hotel hotels hotel

hour hours, hourly hour

houses, household, householder, house-keeper, house-keeping,

house house
housewife

how however how

human humans human

humble humbly humble

hundred hundredth hundred

hunger hungry hunger

hunt hunts, hunting, hunted, hunting, hunter hunt

hurrah hurrah

hurry hurries, hurried, hurrying hurry

hurt hurts, hurting hurt

husband husband

hut huts hut

I I

ice icy ice

idea ideas idea

ideal ideal

idle idleness, idly idle

if if
ill illness ill

imagine imaginary, imagination, imaginative imagine

imitate imitates, imitated, imitating, imitation imitate

immediate immediately immediate

immense immense

important importance important

impossible impossible

improve improves, improved, improving, improved, improvement improve

in inborn, indoor, inward in

inch inches inch

include includes, included, including, inclusive include

increase increases, increased, increasing increase

indeed indeed

independent independently, independence independent

industry industries, industrial industry

influence influences, influential influence

inform informs, informed, informing, information inform

ink inky ink

in-law in-law

inn inn

inquire inquires, inquired, inquiring, inquiry inquire

insect insects insect

inside inside
instant instantly instant

instead instead

instrument instruments, instrumental instrument

insult insults, insulted, insulting insult

insure insures, insured, insuring, insurance insure

intend intends, intended, intending, intention, intentional, intentionally intend

interest interesting interest

interfere interferes, interfered, interfering, interference interfere

international international

interrupt interrupts, interrupted, interrupting, interruption interrupt

into into

introduce introduces, introduced, introducing, introduction introduce

invent invents, invented, inventing, invention, inventor invent

invite invited, invites, inviting, invitation invite

inward inwards, inwardly inward

iron iron-age, iron-mine, iron-ore, iron-work iron

island islands island

it it

its its

january january

jaw jaws jaw

jealous jealousy jealous

jewel jewels jewel

join joins, joined, joint, jointly join

joint joints joint

joke jokes joke

journey journeys journey

joy joyful joy

judge judges, judgment judge

juice juicy juice

july july

jump jumps, jumped, jumping jump

june june

just justice, justly, unjust, unjustly just

keep keeps, kept, keeping, keeper keep

key keys key

kick kicks, kicked, kicking kick

kill kills, killed, killing kill

kind unkind, kindly, kindness kind

king kings, kingdom king

kiss kisses, kissed, kissing kiss

kitchen kitchens kitchen

knee knees knee

knife knives knife

knock knocks, knocked, knocking knock

knot knots knot

know knows, knew, knowing, knowledge know

lack lacks, lacked, lacking lack

ladder ladders ladder

lady ladies lady

lake lakes lake

lamp lamps lamp

land lands, landed, landing, landlord land

language languages language

large largely large

last last

late lately late

latter latter

laugh laughs, laughed, laughing, laughter, laughable laugh

law laws, lawful, unlawful, lawfully, unlawfully, lawless, lawyer law

lay lays, laid lay

lazy lazy

lead leads, led, leading, leader, leadership lead

leaf leaves, leafless, leafy leaf

lean leans, leaned, leant, leaning lean

learn learns, learned, learning learn

least least

leather leather

leave leaves, left, leaving leave

left left

leg legs leg

lend lends, lent lend

length length

less lessen, lessening less

lesson lessons lesson

let let

letter letters letter

level levels level

liberty liberty

library libraries, librarian library

lid lids lid

lie lies, lying, liar lie

life lives life

lift lifts lift

lights, lighter, light-house, lighten, light-hearted, lightly, lightness,

light light
light-weight

like likes, liked, liking, alike, unlike like

likely unlikely likely

limb limbs limb

limit limits, limitation limit

line lines line

lip lips, lipstick lip

liquid liquid
list lists list

listen listened, listens, listening, listener listen

literature literary literature

little little

live lives, living, life-boat, lifeless, life-like, life-long, life-size live

load load

loaf loaves loaf

loan loans loan

local locally local

lock locks, locked, locking, unlock lock

lodging lodging

log logs log

lonely loneliness lonely

long long-lived, long-sighted, long-suffering long

look looks, looked, looking, look-out look

loose loosely, loosen loose

lord lords lord

lose loses, losing, lost, loss lose

loss loss

lot lot

loud loudly loud

love loves, loved, lovable, lover, loving, lovingly love

low lower, lowland low

loyal loyalty loyal

luck luck, unlucky, unluckily luck

lump lumps lump

lunch lunches lunch

lung lungs lung

machine machines, machinery machine

mad madly, madman, madness, madden mad

mail mail

main mainly, mainland main

make makes, made, making, maker, make-up make

male males male

man men, manhood, mankind man

manage manages, managed, managing, management, manager manage

manners manners

manufacture manufactures manufacture

many many

map maps map

march marches, marching, marched march

mark marks, marked, marking mark

market markets market

marry marries, marrying, married marry

mass mass-meeting mass

masters, mastered, mastering, masterful, masterly, masterpiece,

master master
mastery
mat mats mat

match matches match

material materials material

matter matters matter

may may

meal meals meal

mean meant, meaning, means mean

meanwhile meantime meanwhile

measure measurement measure

meat meat

mechanic mechanics, mechanical, mechanically, mechanism mechanic

medicine medicines, medical, medically medicine

meet meets, met, meeting meet

melt melts, melted, melting melt

member members, membership member

memory memorial, memorise memory

mend mends, mended, mending mend

mention mentioned, mentions, mentioning mention

merchant merchants merchant

mercy merciful, merciless mercy

mere merely mere

merry merrily merry

message messages, messenger message

metal metals metal

middle-age, middle-aged, middle-class, middleman, mid-air,

middle middle
midday, midland, mid-night

might might

mild mildly, mildness mild

mile miles, mileage, milestone mile

milk milkmaid, milkman, milk-white, milky milk

mill mills, miller, mill-stone mill

mind minds, minded, minding mind

mine mines, miner, mineral mine

minister ministers minister

minute minutes minute

misadventure, misapply, miscalculate, mischance, misconduct,

misdirect, misfit, misconduct, misdirect, misfit, misfortune,
mis- mis-
misgovern, misguided, misinformed, mislead, mistrust,
misunderstand, misuse

miserable miserably, misery miserable

miss misses, missed, missing miss

mistake mistakes, unmistakably mistake

mix mixes, mixed, mixture mix

model models model

moderate moderately, moderation moderate

modern modernise modern

modest modestly, modesty modest

moment moments, momentary, momentarily moment

monday monday
money money

monkey monkeys monkey

month months, monthly month

moon moons, moonlight moon

moral immoral, immorality, morality, morally moral

more more

moreover moreover

morning morning morning

most mostly most

mother mothers, motherhood, motherly, mother-tongue mother

motion motion

motor motors motor

mountain mountains, mount, mountainous mountain

mouse mice mouse

mouth mouths, mouthful mouth

move moves, movement move

much much

mud muddy mud

multiply multiplies, multiplied, multiplication multiply

murder murder

music musical, musician music

must must
my mine, myself my

mystery mysterious mystery

nail nails nail

name names, nameless, namely name

narrow narrowly narrow

nation nations, national nation

native natives native

nature natural, naturally nature

near nearly near

neat neatly, neatness neat

necessary necessarily, necessity, unnecessary necessary

neck necks, necklace, necktie neck

need needs, needed, needing, needless, needy need

needle needles needle

neglect neglects, neglected neglect

neighbour neighbours, neighbouring, neighbourhood neighbour

neither neither

nephew nephews nephew

nest nests nest

net nets, network net

never never

new new-born, newly, news, newspaper new

next next
nice nicely nice

niece nieces niece

night nights, goodnight, tonight night

nine ninth nine

ninety ninetieth ninety

nineteen nineteenth nineteen

no nobody, nowhere, nonsense, nonsensical, nonexistent no

noble nobleman, nobleness, nobly noble

noise noises, noisy noise

none none

nonsense nonsense

noon noon

nor nor

north north-east, northern, northwards, north-west north

nose noses nose

not not

note notes, noted, notebook, notepaper note

nothing nothing

notice notices, noticed, noticing, noticeable, notice board notice

noun nouns noun

november november

now nowadays now

nowhere nowhere
nuisance nuisances nuisance

number numbers, numerous number

nurse nurses, nursery nurse

nut nuts nut

oar oars oar

obey obeyed, obeys, obeying, obedience, obedient obey

object objects, objected, objecting, objection, objectionable object

observe observes, observed, observing observe

occasion occasions, occasional, occasionally occasion

ocean oceans ocean

october october

of of

off off

offend offends, offended, offending, offence offend

offer offers, offering, offered offer

office offices, officer, official office

often often

oil oily, oilily oil

old older, oldest, old-fashioned old

omit omits, omitted, omitting, omission omit

on on

once once

one one-legged, oneness, one-sided, one way one

only only

onto onto

open opens, opened, opening, opening, open-air, openly open

operation operate, operates, operated, operating, operations operation

opinion opinions opinion

opportunity opportunities opportunity

opposite opposites, oppose opposite

or or

orange oranges orange

order orders, orderly order

ordinary ordinarily ordinary

organ organs organ

organise organises, organising, organised, organisation organise

origin original, originality, originally origin

ornament ornaments ornament

other others other

otherwise otherwise

ought ought

ounce ounces ounce

our ours our

outbreak, outburst, outcry, outdoor, outer, outflow, outgoing,

outgrowth, outlet, outline, outside, outwards, outlook, outlying,
out out
output, outspoken, outstanding, outnumber, outweigh, outline,
outside

over overbalance, overflow, overlook, oversight, overtake, overcoat, over

overgrown, overgrowth, overhanging, overcharge, overcrowd,
 overdo, overfeed, overestimate, overjoyed, overrate, overtime,
overweight

overcome overcomes, overcame, overcoming overcome

owe owes, owed, owing, owing to owe

own owns, owned, owning, owner, ownership own

pack packs, packed, packing, packing-case, package, packet pack

pad pads, padded, padding pad

page pages page

pain pains, painful, painfully pain

paint paints, painted, painter, painter paint

pair pairs pair

pale paleness pale

pan pans pan

paper paper

parcel parcels parcel

pardon pardoned, pardons, pardoning, unpardonable pardon

parent parents, parental parent

park parks park

part parts, particle, partly, partner, partial, partially part

particular in particular, particularly particular

party parties party

pass passes, passed, passing, past pass

passage passages, passenger, passengers passage

past past
paste pastes, pasted, pasting, pastry paste

path paths path

patient patient, patients, patience, patiently patient

patriotic patriotic

pattern patterns pattern

pause pauses pause

paw paws paw

pay pays, paying, paid, unpaid, payment pay

peace peaceful peace

pearl pearls pearl

peculiar peculiarly peculiar

pen pens pen

pencil pencils pencil

penny pennyworth penny

people people

per per

perfect perfection, perfectly perfect

perform performs, performed, performing, performer, performance perform

perhaps perhaps

permanent permanently permanent

permit permits, permission permit

person personal, personally person

persuade persuades, persuaded, persuading, persuasion persuade

pet pets pet

photograph photographs, photographic, photography photograph

pick picked, picks, picking, peck pick

picture pictures picture

piece pieces piece

pig pigs pig

pigeon pigeons pigeon

pile piles pile

pin pins pin

pinch pinches pinch

pink pink

pint pints pint

pipe pipes pipe

pity pity

place places, placed, placing place

plain plainly plain

plan plans, planned, planning plan

plant plants, planter plant

plaster plaster

plate plates plate

play plays, played, playing, player, playground, plaything play

please pleasant, unpleasant, pleasure, displeasure please

plenty plentiful plenty

plough plough

plural plural

pocket pockets, pocket-book pocket

poet poets, poetry, poem, poems, poetic poet

point points, pointed, pointer point

poison poisonous poison

police policeman police

polish polishes, polished, polishing polish

polite politely, politeness polite

political politically, politician, politics political

pool pools pool

poor poverty poor

popular popularly, popularity popular

population population

position positions position

possess possesses, possessed, possessing, possession, possessor possess

possible possibly, possibility, impossible, impossibility possible

post postage, postal, postman, postmaster, post-office post

postpone postpone

pot pots pot

pound pounds pound

pour pours, poured, pouring pour

poverty poverty
powder powdery powder

power powerful power

practical practically practical

practice practise, practises, practised, practising practice

praise praises, praised, praising praise

pray prays, prayed, praying, prayer pray

preach preaches, preached, preaching, preacher preach

precious precious

prefer prefers, preferred, preferring, preferable, preferably, preference prefer

prejudice prejudiced, unprejudiced prejudice

prepare prepares, prepared, preparing, preparation prepare

present presents, presented, presenting, presence present

preserve preserves, preserved, preserving, preservation preserve

president presidents president

press pressure press

pretend pretends, pretending, pretended, pretence pretend

pretty prettily, prettiness pretty

prevent prevents, preventing, preventing, prevention, preventive prevent

price prices price

pride pride

priest priests priest

print prints, printed, printing, printer print

prison prisons, prisoner, imprison prison

private private

prize prizes prize

probable probably, probability probable

problem problems problem

procession processions procession

produce produces, produced, producing, production produce

profession professions, professional profession

profit profits profit

programme programmes programme

progress progresses, progressed progress

promise promised promise

prompt promptly, promptness prompt

pronounce pronounces, pronounced, pronouncing, pronunciation pronounce

proof proofs proof

proper properly, improper, improperly proper

property property

propose proposes, proposed, proposing, proposal propose

protect protects, protected, protecting, protection protect

proud proudly, pride proud

prove proves, proved, proving, proof prove

provide provides, provided, providing provide

public publicly public

pull pulls, pulled, pulling pull

pump pumps, pumped, pumping pump

punctual punctuality, punctually punctual

punish punishes, punished, punishing, punishment punish

pupil pupils pupil

pure purely, purity, impure, impurity pure

purple purple

purpose purposes purpose

push pushed, pushing, pushes push

put puts, putting put

puzzle puzzles, puzzling puzzle

qualify qualifies, qualified, qualifying, qualification, qualifications qualify

quality qualities quality

quantity quantities quantity

quarrel quarrels, quarrelled, quarrelling, quarrelsome quarrel

quart quarts, quarterly, headquarters quart

quarter quarters quarter

queen queens queen

question questions question

quick quickly, quickness quick

quiet quieten, quietly, quietness quiet

quite quite

rabbit rabbits rabbit

race races race

radio radios radio

rail rails, railway rail

rain rains, rained, raining, rainbow, rainfall, rainwater, rainy rain

raise raises, raised, raising raise

rake rakes, raking, raked rake

rank ranks rank

rapid rapidly, rapidity rapid

rare rarely rare

rat rats rat

rate rates rate

rather rather

raw rawness raw

ray rays ray

razor razors razor

reach reaches, reached, reaching reach

read reads, reading, reader read

ready ready-made ready

real really, reality, realise, realisation real

reason reasons, reasonable, reasonableness, reasonably reason

receive receives, received, receiving, receiver, receipt receive

recent recently recent

recognise recognises, recognised, recognising, recognition recognise

recommend recommends, recommended, recommending, recommendation recommend

record records, recorded, recording record

red redden, reddish, red-hot red

reduce reduces, reduced, reducing, reduction reduce

refer referring, referred, refers, reference refer

reflect reflects, reflecting, reflected, reflection reflect

refreshing, refreshed, refreshes, refreshing, refreshment,

refresh refresh
refreshments

refuse refuses, refused, refusing, refusal refuse

regard regards, regarded, regarding, regardless, disregard regard

regret regrets, regretted, regretting regret

regular regularly, regularity, irregular, irregularly, irregularity regular

rejoice rejoices, rejoiced, rejoicing, rejoicing rejoice

relation relations, relative, relatives relation

relieve relieves, relieved, relieving, relief relieve

religion religions, religious religion

remain remains, remained, remaining, remains remain

remark remarks, remarked, remarking remark

remedy remedies remedy

remember remembers, remembered, remembering remember

remind reminds, reminding, reminded remind

rent rents, renting, rented rent

repair repairs, repaired, repairing repair

repeat repeats, repeated, repeating repeat

replace replaces, replaced, replacing, irreplaceable replace

reply replies, replied, replying reply

report reports, reported, reporting, reporter report

represent represents, represented, representing, representative represent

reproduce reproduces, reproduced, reproducing, reproduction reproduce

republic republics republic

reputation reputations reputation

request requests request

rescue rescues, rescued, rescuing rescue

reserve reserves, reserved, reserving reserve

resign resigned, resigns, resigning, resignation resign

resist resists, resisting, resisted, resistance resist

respect respectful, disrespect respect

responsible responsibility responsible

rest rests, rested, resting rest

restaurant restaurants restaurant

result results result

retire retires, retired, retiring, retirement retire

return returns, returned, returning return

revenge revenge

review reviews, reviewed, reviewing review

reward rewards, rewarded, rewarding reward

ribbon ribbons ribbon

rice rice
rich riches rich

rid rids rid

ride rides, riding, rode, riding ride

right right angle, rightly right

ring ringed ring

ripe ripen ripe

rise rises, rose, risen, rising rise

risk risks, risked, risking, risky risk

rival rivals, rivalry rival

river rivers river

road roads, roadside road

roar roars, roared, roaring roar

roast roast, roasting, roasted roast

rob robs, robbed, robbing rob

rock rocks, rocked, rocking rock

rod rods rod

roll rolls, rolled, rolling, roller roll

roof roofs roof

room rooms room

root roots root

rope ropes rope

rot rots, rotted, rotten rot

rough roughly, roughness rough

round roundabout round

row rows, rowed, rowing row

royal royalty royal

rub rubs, rubbed, rubbing rub

rubber rubber

rubbish rubbish

rude rudely, rudeness rude

rug rugs rug

ruin ruins ruin

rule ruled, rules, ruling rule

ruler rulers ruler

run runs, ran, running, runner run

rush rushes, rushed, rushing rush

rust rusty rust

sacred sacred

sacrifice sacrifices sacrifice

sad sadden, sadly, sadness sad

saddle saddles saddle

safe safety, save, saves, saved, saving safe

sail sails, sailed, sailing, sailor sail

sake sake

salary salaries, salaried salary

sale sales, salesman sale

salt salt

same same

sample samples sample

sand sandbank, sandhill, sandy sand

satisfies, satisfied, satisfying, dissatisfy, satisfaction, dissatisfaction,

satisfy satisfy
satisfactory, unsatisfactory

saturday saturday

sauce sauce

saucer saucers saucer

save saves, saving, saved save

saw saws, sawed, sawn, sawdust, sawmill saw

say says, said, saying say

scale scales scale

scarce scarcity, scarcely scarce

scatter scatters, scattered, scattering, scenery scatter

scene scenes scene

scent scent

school schools school

science sciences, scientific, scientist science

scissors scissors

scold scolds, scolded, scolding scold

scorn scornful scorn

scrape scrapes, scraped, scraping scrape

scratch scratches, scratched, scratching scratch

screen screens, screened, screening screen

screw screws, screwed, screwing screw

seas, sea-bathing, sea-coast, sea-level, seaman, seaport, sea-power,

sea sea
sea-shell, sea-voyage, sea-wall, sea-water, sea-weed

search searches, searched, searching search

season seasons season

seat seats seat

second seconds, second-hand, secondly second

secret secrets, secrecy secret

secretary secretaries secretary

see sees, seen, seeing see

seed seeds seed

seem seems, seemed, seeming seem

seize seizes, seized, seizing seize

seldom seldom

self-conscious, self-contained, self-control, self-defence, self-

self governing, self-government, self-interest, selfish, unselfish, self- self
respect, self-sacrifice

sell sells, sold, selling, seller sell

send sends, sent, sending send

senses, senseless, insensible, sensitive, sensation, senseless,

sense sense
sensible, sensibly

sentence sentences sentence

separate separately, separation separate

september september

serious seriously serious

serve serves, served, serving, servant, service serve

set sets, setting set

settle settled, settles, settling, settlement, settler settle

seven seventh seven

seventeen seventeenth seventeen

seventy seventieth seventy

several several

severe severe

sew sews, sewing, sewn sew

shade shades, shady shade

shadow shadows, shadowy shadow

shake shakes, shaken, shaking shake

shall should shall

shallow shallowness shallow

shame shames, shamed, shaming, shameful, shameless shame

shape shapes, shaped, shaping, shapeless shape

share shares, shared, sharing share

sharp sharpen, sharpens, sharpened, sharpening, sharply, sharply sharp

shave shaves, shaved, shaving, shaving shave

she she

sheep sheep

sheet sheets sheet

shelf shelves shelf

shell shells, shell-fish shell

shelter shelter

shield shields, shielded, shielding shield

shilling shillings shilling

shine shines, shone, shining, shining, sunshine shine

ship ships, shipbuilding, shipment, shipper, shipwreck ship

shirt shirts shirt

shock shocks, shocked, shocking shock

shoe shoe, shoed, shoe-maker shoe

shoot shot, shoots, shooting, shot-gun shoot

shop shops, shopkeeper, shopkeeping, shop window shop

shore shores shore

short shorten, shortness, short sight short

should should

shoulder shoulders shoulder

shout shouts, shouted, shouting shout

show shows, shown, showing, showy show

shower showers shower

shut shuts, shutting shut

sick sickness, sick-room sick

side sides, sideways side

sight sight-seeing sight

sign signs, signature sign

signal signals signal

silence silent silence

silk silkworm, silky silk

silver silvery silver

simple simplicity, simply simple

since since

sincere sincerely sincere

sing sings, sang, sung, singer, song sing

single singly single

sir sir

six sixth six

sixty sixtieth sixty

sixteen sixteenth sixteen

sister sisters, sister-in-law sister

sit sits, sat, sitting, sitting-room sit

situation situations situation

size sizes size

skill skills, skilled, skilful, skilfully skill

skin skins skin

skirt skirts skirt

sky skies sky

slave slaves, slavery slave

sleep sleeps, slept, sleeping, sleepless, sleepiness sleep

slide slides, slid, sliding slide

slight slightly slight

slip slips, slipped, slipping, slippery slip

slope slopes, sloped, sloping slope

slow slowly, slow-moving, slowness slow

small smallness small

smell smells, smelled, smelling smell

smile smiles, smiled, smiling smile

smoke smokes, smoked, smoker, smoky smoke

smooth smoothly, smoothness smooth

snake snakes snake

snow snow-shoes, snow-storm, snow-white, snowy snow

so so-called so

soap soapy soap

society social, socially, societies society

sock socks sock

soft soften, softness, softly soft

soil soil

soldier soldiers soldier

solemn solemnly solemn

solid solidly solid

solve solves, solved, solving, solution solve

some somebody, somehow, someone, something, sometimes, somewhere some

son sons son

soon as soon as, sooner soon

sore sore

sorrow sorrow

sorry sorrowful, sorrowfully sorry

sort sort

soul souls soul

sound sounds sound

soup soup

sour sour

south-east, south-eastern, southern, southward, south-west, south-

south south
western

sow sows, sown, sowing sow

space spaced, spacing, spaces space

spade spades spade

spare spare

speak speaks, speaker, speech speak

special specially special

speed speed

spell spells, spelled, spelling spell

spend spends, spent, spending spend

spill spills, spilling spill

spin spins, spinning, spun, spinning-wheel spin

spirit spirits spirit

spit spits, spat, spitting spit

spite spite

splendid splendidly splendid

split splits, splitting split

spoil spoils, spoilt, spoiling spoil

spoon spoons, spoonful spoon

sport sports, sporting, sportsman sport

spot spots, spotted, spotless spot

spread spreads, spreading spread

spring springs, sprang, sprung, spring-time spring

square square

staff staff

stage stages stage

stain stains stain

stair stairs, staircase stair

stamp stamps stamp

stand stands, standing, stood stand

standard standards, standardise standard

star stars star

start starts, started, starting start

state states, stated, stating, statement state

station stations station

stay stays, stayed, staying stay

steady steadily steady

steal steals, stole, stolen steal

steam steam-boat, steam-engine, steamer, steamship steam

steel steel

steep steep

steer steers, steered, steering steer

stem stems stem

step steps, stepping-stone step

stick sticks, sticky stick

stiff stiffen, stiffly, stiffness stiff

still stillness still

sting stings, stung sting

stir stirs, stirred, stirring stir

stock stocks stock

stocking stockings stocking

stomach stomachs stomach

stone stones stone

stop stops, stopped, stopping, stoppage, stopper stop

store stores, stored, storing, store-house, store-keeper, store-room store

storm storms, stormy storm

story stories, story-teller, story-telling story

stove stoves stove

straight straighten straight

strange strangely, strangeness, stranger strange

strap straps strap

straw straws straw

stream streams stream

street streets street

strength strength

stretch stretches, stretched, stretching stretch

strict strictly strict

strike strikes, struck, striking, stroke strike

string strings string

strip strip

stripe striped stripe

strong strongly, strength strong

struggle struggles struggle

study studies, studying, studied study

stuff stuff

stupid stupidity, stupidly stupid

subject subjects subject

substance substances substance

succeed succeeds, succeeded, succeeding, successful, successfully succeed

success successes success

such such
suck sucks, sucked, sucking suck

sudden suddenly sudden

suffer suffers, suffering, sufferer suffer

sugar sugar

suggest suggests, suggested, suggesting, suggestion suggest

suit suits, suited, suited suit

summer summer

sun suns, sunbeam, sunburnt, sunlight, sunny, sunrise, sunset, sunshine sun

sunday sunday

supper suppers supper

supply supplies, supplying, supplied supply

support supports, supporting, supported support

suppose suppose

sure surely sure

surface surfaces surface

surprise surprises, surprising, surprisingly surprise

surround surrounds, surrounded, surrounding, surroundings surround

suspect suspects, suspected, suspecting, suspicion, suspicious, suspiciously suspect

swallow swallowed, swallowing, swallows swallow

swear swears, swearing, swore, sworn swear

sweat sweat

sweep sweeps, swept, sweeping sweep

sweet sweeten, sweetly sweet

swell swells, swelled, swelling swell

swim swims, swam, swum, swimming swim

swing swings, swung, swinging swing

sword swords sword

sympathy sympathetic, sympathetically, sympathise, sympathises sympathy

system systems, systematic, systematically system

table tables table

tail tails tail

tailor tailors tailor

take takes, took, taken, taking take

talk talked, talking, talks talk

tall tall

tame tame

tap taps, tapped, tapping tap

taste tastes, tasted, tasting, tasteless taste

tax taxes, taxed, taxing tax

taxi taxis taxi

tea tea

teach teaches, taught, teaching, teachings, teacher teach

tear tears, tore, torn, tearing tear

telegraph telegraph

telephone telephones telephone

tell tells, told, telling tell

temper temper

temperature temperature

temple temples temple

tempt tempts, tempter, temptation tempt

tend tends, tended, tending, tendency tend

tender tenderly, tenderness tender

tent tents tent

ten tenth ten

term terms term

terrible terribly terrible

test testing, tests, tested test

than than

thank thanks, thankful thank

that that

the the

theatre theatres, theatrical theatre

their theirs their

then then

there there

therefore therefore

these these

they they

thick thickly, thicken, thickness thick

thief thieves thief

thin thinly, thinness thin

thing things thing

think thinks, thought, thinking, thinker think

thirst thirsty thirst

thirteen thirteenth thirteen

thirty thirtieth thirty

this these this

thorn thorns thorn

thorough thoroughly thorough

those those

though although though

thought thoughts, thoughtful, thoughtfulness, thoughtless thought

thousand thousandth thousand

thursday thursday

threads,
threads, thread
thread

threaten threatens, threatening, threatened threaten

three third three

throat throats throat

through throughout through

throw throws, thrown, threw, throwing throw

thumb thumbs thumb

thunder thunder
thus thus

ticket tickets ticket

tide tides, tidal tide

tidy tidies, tidied, tidying tidy

tie ties, tied, tying tie

tight tighten, tightens, tightened, tightening, tightly tight

till until till

time times, timely time

tin tins, tinned tin

tip tips, tipped, tipping tip

tire tires, tiring, tired tire

title titles title

to to

tobacco tobacco

today today

toe toes toe

together together

tomorrow tomorrow

ton ton

tongue tongues tongue

tonight tonight

too too

tool tools tool

tooth teeth tooth

top top

total totals, totally total

touch touches, touched, touching touch

tough tough

tour tours, tourist tour

toward towards toward

towel towels towel

tower towers tower

town towns, town-hall town

toy toys toy

track tracks, tracked, tracking track

trade trades, trading, trader, tradesman trade

train trains, trained, training train

translate translates, translated, translating, translation, translator translate

trap traps, trapped, trapping, trapper trap

travel travels, travelled, travelling travel

tray trays tray

treasure treasurer, treasurers treasure

treat treats, treated, treating treat

tree trees tree

tremble trembles tremble

trial trials trial

tribe tribes tribe

trick tricks trick

trip trips trip

trouble troubles, troubled, troublesome trouble

true truly, truth, truthful, truthfulness true

trunk trunks trunk

trust trusts, trusted, trusting, entrust, trustee trust

try tries, tried, trying, trial try

tube tubes tube

tuesday tuesday

tune tunes tune

turn turns, turning, turn-over, turning-point turn

twelve twelfth twelve

twenty twentieth twenty

twist twists, twisted, twisting twist

two second two

type types, typed, typing, typewriter, typewrite, typist type

ugly ugly

umbrella umbrellas umbrella

uncle uncles uncle

underneath, underclothing, underfeed, undergraduate, underground,

under under
underline, undersell

understand understands, understood, understanding understand

union unions, unit, unite, unity union

universe universal universe

university universities university

unless unless

until until

uphill, uppermost, upside-down, upstairs, uphold, upkeep, up[land,

up up
uplift, uproot

upon upon

upper uppermost upper

upright upright

upset upsets, upsetting upset

upward upwards upward

urge urges, urged, urging, urgent, urgently urge

use uses, used, using, useful, usefulness, useless, user use

usual usually usual

vain vainly vain

valley valleys valley

value values, valuable, valueless value

various variously various

veil veils veil

verb verbs verb

verse verses verse

very very

vessel vessels vessel

victory victories, victorious victory

view views view

village villages village

violent violence, violently violent

virtue virtuous virtue

visit visits, visiting, visitor visit

voice voices voice

vote votes, voted, voting, voter vote

vowel vowels vowel

voyage voyages voyage

wage wages wage

waist waists, waistcoat waist

wait waits, waited, waiting, waiter, waitress wait

wake wakes, woke, waking wake

walk walks, walked, walking, walking-stick walk

wall walls wall

wander wanders, wandered, wandering wander

want wants, wanted, wanting want

war wars war

warm warmly, warmth warm

warn warns, warned, warning warn

wash washes, washed, washing wash

waste wastes, wasted, wasting, wasteful, wastefulness waste

watch watches, watched, watching, watchful, watchfulness watch

 water-bottle, watercourse, waterfall, waterpipe, waterproof, water-
water water
tight, waterway, water-wheel, waterworks, watery

wave waves, waved, waving, wavy wave

wax wax

way ways, wayside, doorway, gateway way

we we

weak weaken, weakness weak

wealth wealthy wealth

weapon weapons weapon

wear wears, wore, worn, worn-out wear

weather weather

weave weaves, wove, woven weave

wednesday wednesday

weed weeds weed

week weeks, weekday, weekend, weekly week

weigh weighs, weighed, weighing, weight weigh

welcome welcomes, welcomed, welcoming welcome

well well-bred, well-built, well-done, well-meaning, well-meant well

west western, westward west

wet wet

what whatever what

wheat wheat

wheel wheels wheel

when whenever when

where wherever where

whether whether

which whichever which

while whilst, meanwhile, worth-while while

whip whips whip

whisper whispers, whispering, whispered whisper

whistle whistles, whistling whistle

white white-hot, whiten, whiteness, whitewash white

who whoever, whom who

whole wholly whole

whose whose

why why

wicked wickedly, wickedness wicked

wide wide-awake, widely, widen, wide-spread, width wide

widow widows widow

wife wives wife

wild wildly wild

will willing, willingly, unwilling will

win wins, won, winning win

wind winds, wound, winding wind

window windows window

wine wines wine

wing wings wing

winter winters, wintry winter

wipe wipes, wiped, wiping wipe

wire wireless wire

wise wisely, wisdom wise

wish wishes, wished, wishing wish

with with

within within

without without

witness witnesses witness

woman women woman

wonder wonders, wondered, wondering, wonderful, wonderfully wonder

wood woods, wooded, wooden, woodland, woodwork wood

wool woollen, woolly wool

word words word

works, worked, working, workings, workable, unworkable, worker,

work work
working-class, workman, workshop, workmanship

world world-wide, worldly, worldliness world

worm worms worm

worry worrying, worries, worried worry

worse worsen worse

worship worships, worshipped, worshipping worship

worst worst

worth worthless, worth-while worth

would would
wound wounds, wounding, wounded wound

wrap wraps, wrapped, wrapping, wrapper wrap

wreck wreck, wrecked, wrecking, wreckage, shipwreck wreck

wrist wrists wrist

write writes, wrote, writing, handwriting write

wrong wrong-doer, wrong-doing, wrongly wrong

yard yards yard

year years, yearly, year-old year

yellow yellowness yellow

yes yes

yesterday yesterday

yet yet

yield yields, yielding yield

you your, yours, yourself you

young youngster young

youth youths, youthful youth

zero zero
Mathematical and scientific symbols
Common pronunciations (in British English - Gimson,1981) of mathematical and scientific symbols
are given in the list below.
(all the pages in this section need a unicode font installed - e.g. Arial Unicode MS, Doulos SIL
Unicode, Lucida Sans Unicode - see: The International Phonetic Alphabet in Unicode).

Symbols
+ plus /'pls/
- minus /'mans/
plus or minus /'pls : 'mans/
x multiplied by /'mltplad ba/
/ over; divided by /'v/ /d'vadd/
divided /d'vadd/
= equals /':kwlz/
approximately, similar /'prksmtl/ /'sml t/
equivalent to; identical /k'wvlnt t/ /a'dentkl t/
not equal to /'nt 'ikwl t/
> greater than /'gret n/
< less than /'les n/
greater than or equal to /'gret n r 'ikwl t/
less than or equal to /'les n r' ikwl t/
not greater than /'nt 'gret n/
not less than /'nt 'les n/
much greater than /'m 'gret n/
much less than /'m 'les n/
perpendicular to /ppn'dkjl t/
parallel to /'prlel t/
not equivalent to, not identical to /'nt k'wvlnt t/ /'nt a'dentkl t/
not similar to /'nt 'sml t/
squared /'skwed/
cubed /'kju:bd/
4 to the fourth; to the power four /t 'f/ /te 'p f/
n to the n; to the nth; to the power n /t en; t d en; t pr en/
root; square root /ru:t/ /skwe ru:t/
cube root /kju:b ru:t/
fourth root /f rut/
! factorial /fk'trl/
% percent /p'sent/
infinity /n'fnt/
varies as; proportional to /'vrz/ /pr'pnl/
dot /dt/
 double dot /dbl dt/
: is to, ratio of /re/
f(x) fx f; function /ef/ /'fkn/
f'(x) f dash; derivative /d/ /d'rvtv/
f''x f double-dash; second derivative /'dbl d/ /'seknd d'rvtv/
f'''(x) f triple-dash; f treble-dash; third derivative /'trpl d/ / trebl d/ /:d d'rvtv/
f(4) f four; fourth derivative /f d'rvtv/
partial derivative, delta /pal d'rvtv/ /delt/
integral /'ntgrl/
sum /sm/
w.r.t. with respect to /w 'rspekt/
log log /lg/
logx log to the base 2 of x /lg t bes tu: v eks/
therefore /'f/
because /b'kz/
gives, leads to, approaches /gvz/ /li:dz t/ /prz/
/ per /p:/
belongs to; a member of; an element of /b'lz/ /'memb/ /'elmnt/
does not belong to; is not a member of; is not /nt b'l/ /nt 'memb/ /nt n

an element of 'elmnt/
contained in; a proper subset of /kn'tend n/ /'prp 'sbset/
contained in; subset /'sbset/
intersection /'ntsekn/
union /'junn/
for all /f r:l/
cos x cos x; cosine x /kz/
sin x sine x /san/
tan x tangent x /tan/
cosec x cosec x /'ksek/
sinh x shine x /'an/
cosh x cosh x /'k/
tanh x than x /n/
|x| mod x; modulus x /md/ /'mdjls/
degrees Centigrade /d'gri:z 'sentgred/
degrees Fahrenheit /d'gri:z 'frnhat/
K degrees Kelvin /d'gri:z 'kelvn/
0K, 273.15
absolute zero /abslu:t zi:r/
C
mm millimetre /'mlmit/
cm centimetre /'sentmit/
/'kjubk
cc, cm cubic centimetre, centimetre cubed
'sentmit/ /'sentmit 'kju:bd/
m metre /'mit/
km kilometre /k'lmt/
mg milligram /'mlgrm/
g gram /grm/
kg kilogram /'klgrm/
AC A.C. /e si:/
DC D.C. /di: si:/
^

Examples
x+1 x plus one
x -1 x minus one
x1 x plus or minus one
xy x y; x times y; x multiplied by y
(x y)(x +
x minus y, x plus y
y)
x/y x over y; x divided by y;
xy x divided by y
x=5 x equals 5; x is equal to 5
xy x is approximately equal to y
xy x is equivalent to y; x is identical with y
xy x is not equal to y
x> y x is greater than y
x< y x is less than y
xy x is greater than or equal to y
xy x is less than or equal to y
0< x < 1 zero is less than x is less than 1; x is greater than zero and less than 1
zero is less than or equal to x is less than or equal to 1; x is greater than or equal to
0x1
zero and less than or equal to 1
x x squared
x x cubed
x4 x to the fourth; x to the power four
xn x to the n; x to the nth; x to the power n
x-n x to the minus n; x to the power of minus n
root x; square root x; the square root of x
the cube root of x
the fourth root of x
the nth root of x
(x + y) x plus y all squared
(x/y) x over y all squared
n! n factorial; factorial n
x% x percent
infinity
xy x varies as y; x is (directly) proportional to y
x 1/y x varies as one over y; x is indirectly proportional to y
x dot
x double dot
f(x) fx f of x; the function of x
f'(x) f dash x; the (first) derivative of with respect to x
f''x f double-dash x; the second derivative of f with respect to x
f'''(x) f triple-dash x; f treble-dash x; the third derivative of f with respect to x
f(4) f four x; the fourth derivative of f with respect to x
v the partial derivative of v
v
delta v by delta theta, the partial derivative of v with respect to

v
delta two v by delta theta squared; the second partial derivative of v with respect to

dv the derivative of v
dv
d v by d theta, the derivative of v with respect to theta
d
dv
d 2 v by d theta squared, the second derivative of v with respect to theta,
d
integral
integral from zero to infinity
sum
the sum from i equals 1 to n
w.r.t. with respect to
logey log to the base e of y; log y to the base e; natural log (of) y
therefore
because
gives, approaches
x 0 delta x approaches zero
lim the limit as delta x approaches zero, the limit as delta x tends to zero
x0

Lt the limit as delta x approaches zero, the limit as delta x tends to zero
x0

m/sec metres per second

xA x belongs to A; x is a member of A; x is an element of A
x A x does not belong to A; x is not a member of A; x is not an element of A
A B A is contained in B; A is a proper subset of B
A B A is contained in B; A is a subset of B
AB A intersection B
AB A union B
cos x cos x; cosine x
sin x sine x
tan x tangent x, tan x
cosec x cosec x
sinh x shine x
cosh x cosh x
tanh x than x
|x| mod x; modulus x
18 eighteen degrees Centigrade
70 seventy degrees Fahrenheit

Greek alphabet
alpha /'lf/
beta /'bi:t/
gamma /'gm/
delta /'delt/
epsilon /'epsiln/
zeta /'zit/
eta /'it/
theta /'it/
iota /a't/
kappa /'kp/
lamda /'lmd/
mu /'mju/
nu /'nju/
xi /'ksa/
omicron /'mkrn/
pi /'pa/
rho /'r/
sigma /'sgm/
tau /'t/
upsilon /'jpsln/
phi /'fa/
chi /'ka/
psi /'psa/
omega /'mg/

Roman alphabet
A a /'e/
B b /'bi/
C c /'si/
D d /'di/
E e /'i/
F f /'ef/
G g /'i/
H h /'e/
I i /'a/
J j /'e/
K k /'ke/
L l /'el/
M m /'em/
N n /'en/
O o /'/
P p /'pi/
Q q /'kju/
R r /'/
S s /'es/
T t /'ti:/
U u /'ju:/
V v /'vi:/
W w /'dblju/
X x /'eks/
Y y /'wa/
Z z /'zed/

Fractions
a half / 'h:f/
a quarter / 'kwt/
three quarters /ri 'kwtz/
a third / ':d/
two thirds /tu: ':dz/
a fifth / 'ff/
two fifths /tu: 'ffs/
three fifths /ri 'ffs/
four fifths /f 'ffs/
a sixth / 'sks/
five sixths /fav 'skss/
an eighth /n 'et/
three eighths /ri 'ets/
five eighths /fav 'ets/
seven eighths /sevn 'ets/
^
Decimal Fractions
0.1 nought point one /n:t pnt wn/
0.01 nought point oh one /n:t pnt wn/
0.0001 nought point oh oh oh one /ten pnt wn/
1.1 one point one /wn pnt wn/
1.2 one point two /wn pnt tu:/
1.23 one point two three /wn pnt tu: ri:/
1.0123 one point oh one two three /wn pnt wn tu: ri:/
10.01 ten point oh one /ten pnt wn/
21.57 twenty-one point five seven /'twent wn pnt fav 'sevn/
2.6666666666.... two point six recurring /tu: pnt sks r'k:r/
two point six one two three /tu: pnt sks wn tu: ri:
2.612361236123...
recurring r'k:r/
2.5 million two point five million /tu: pnt fav 'mljn/

SI Units: Prefixes
10-24 yocto y /'jkt/
10-21 zepto z /'zept/
10-18 atto a /'at/
10-15 femto f /'femt/
10-12 pico p /'pi:k/
10-9 nano n /'nan/
10-6 micro /'makr/
10-3 milli m /'ml/
10-2 centi c /'sent/
10-1 deci d /'des/
103 kilo k /'kl/
106 mega M /'meg/
109 giga G /'gg/
1012 tera T /'ter/
1015 peta P /'pet/
1018 exa E /'eks/
1021 zetta Z /'zet/
1024 yotta Y /'jt/
1027 xona X /'zn/
1030 weka W /'wek/
1033 vunda V /'vnd/
^
Cardinal Numbers
1 one /wn/
2 two /tu:/
3 three /ri:/
4 four /f/
5 five /fav/
6 six /sks/
7 seven /'sevn/
8 eight /et/
9 nine /nan/
10 ten /ten/
11 eleven /'levn/
12 twelve /twelv/
13 thirteen /:'ti:n/
14 fourteen /f'ti:n/
15 fifteen /ff'ti:n/
16 sixteen /skst'i:n/
17 seventeen /seven'ti:n/
18 eighteen /e'ti:n/
19 nineteen /nan'ti:n/
20 twenty /'twent/
21 twenty-one /twent'wn/
22 twenty-two /twent'tu:/
23 twenty-three /twent'ri:/
24 twenty-four /twent'f/
25 twenty-five /twent'fav/
26 twenty-six /twent'sks/
27 twenty-seven /twent'sevn/
28 twenty-eight /twent'et/
29 twenty-nine /twent'nan/
30 thirty /':t/
40 forty /'ft/
50 fifty /'fft/
60 sixty /'skst/
70 seventy /'sevnt/
80 eighty /'et/
90 ninety /'nant/
100 a hundred; one hundred / 'hndrd/ /wn 'hndrd/
101 a hundred and one / 'hndrd n wn/
102 a hundred and two / 'hndrd n tu:/
110 a hundred and ten / 'hndrd n ten/
120 a hundred and twenty / 'hndrd n 'twent/
200 two hundred /tu: 'hndrd/
300 three hundred /ri: 'hndrd/
400 four hundred /f 'hndrd/
500 five hundred /fav 'hndrd/
600 six hundred /sks 'hndrd/
700 seven hundred /'sevn 'hndrd/
800 eight hundred /et 'hndrd/
900 nine hundred /nan 'hndrd/
1 000 a thousand, one thousand / 'znd/ /wn 'znd/
1 001 a thousand and one / 'znd n wn/
1 010 a thousand and ten / 'znd n ten/
1 020 a thousand and twenty / 'znd n 'twent/
1 100 one thousand, one hunded /wn 'znd wn 'hndrd/
one thousand, one hundred and /wn 'znd wn 'hndrd n
1 101
one wn/
one thousand, one hundred and /wn 'znd wn 'hndrd n
1 110
ten ten/
nine thousand, nine hundred /nan 'znd nan 'hndrd
9 999
and ninety-nine n 'nant 'nan/
10 000 ten thousand /ten 'znd/
fifteen thousand, three hundred /'ffti:n 'znd ri: 'hndrd n
15 356
and fifty six 'fft sks/
100 000 a hundred thousand / 'hndrd 'znd/
1 000 000 a million / 'mljn/
100 000 000 a hundred million / 'hndrd 'mljn/
1 000 000 000 a billion / 'bljn/
100 000 000 000 a hundred billion / 'hndrd 'bljn/
1 000 000 000 000 a trillion / 'trljn/
1 000 000 000 000 000 a quadrillion / kwdrljn/
1 000 000 000 000 000 000 a quintillian / kwn'tljn/
1 000 000 000 000 000 000
a sextillion / seks'tljn/
000
1 000 000 000 000 000 000
a septillion / sep'tljn/
000 000
1 000 000 000 000 000 000
an ocillion /n kt'tljn/
000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000 000 000
a nonillion / nn'ljn/
000 000 000 000
1 000 000 000 000 000 000
a decillion / de'sljn/
000 000 000 000 000
Ordinal Numbers
1st first /f:st/
2nd second /'seknd/
3rd third /:d/
4th fourth /f:/
5th fifth /ff/
6th sixth /sks/
7th seventh /'sevn/
8th eighth /et/
9th ninth /nan/
10th tenth /ten/
11th eleventh /'levn/
12th twelfth /'twelf/
13th thirteenth /:'ti:n/
14th fourtheenth /f'ti:n/
15th fidteenth /ff'ti:n/
16th sixteenth /sks'ti:n/
17th seventeenth /seven'ti:n/
18th eighteenth /e'ti:n/
19th nineteenth /nan'ti:n/
20th twentieth /'twent/
21st twenty-first /twent'f:st/
22nd twenty-second /twent'seknd/
23rd twenty-third /twent':d/
24th twenty-fourth /twent'f:/
25th twenty-fifth /twent'ff/
26th twenty-sixth /twent'sks/
27th twenty-seventh /twent'sevn/
28th twenty-eighth /twent'et/
29th twenty-ninth /twent'nan/
30th thirtieth /'t/
31st thirty-first /t'f:st/
40th fortieth /'f:t/
50th fiftieth /'fft/
100th hundredth /'hndrd/
1 000th thousandth /'znd/
1 000 000th miilionth /'mljn/
Vocabulary building

Affixes and roots

Adding affixes to existing words (the base or root) to form new words is common in academic
English. Prefixes are added to the front of the base (like dislike), whereas suffixes are added to
the end of the base (active activate). Prefixes usually do not change the class of the base word,
but suffixes usually do change the class of the word.
The most common prefixes used to form new verbs in academic English are: re-, dis-, over-, un-,
mis-, out-. The most common suffixes are: -ise, -en, -ate, -(i)fy. By far the most common affix in
academic English is -ise.

Verbs
e.g. prefix + verb verb
Prefix Meaning Examples
re- again or back restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance
dis- reverses the meaning of the verb disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinue
over- too much overbook, oversleep, overwork
un- reverses the meaning of the verb unbend, uncouple, unfasten
mis- badly or wrongly mislead, misinform, misidentify
out- more or better than others outperform, outbid
be- make or cause befriend, belittle
co- together co-exist, co-operate, co-own
de- do the opposite of devalue, deselect
fore- earlier, before foreclose, foresee
inter- between interact, intermix, interface
pre- before pre-expose, prejudge, pretest
sub- under/below subcontract, subdivide
trans- across, over transform, transcribe, transplant
under- not enough underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdevelop

e.g. Suffix used to form verbs with the meaning "cause to be".
Suffix Example
-ise stabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialise
-ate differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate
-fy classify, exemplify, simplify, justify
-en awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten
Nouns
The most common prefixes used to form new nouns in academic English are: co- and sub-. The
most common suffixes are: -tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -age, -ery. By far the most
common noun affix in academic English is -tion.
e.g. prefix + noun noun
Prefix Meaning Examples
anti- against anticlimax, antidote, antithesis
auto- self autobiography, automobile
bi- two bilingualism, biculturalism, bi-metalism
co- joint co-founder, co-owner, co-descendant
counter- against counter-argument, counter-example, counter-proposal
dis- the converse of discomfort, dislike
ex- former ex-chairman, ex-hunter
hyper- extreme hyperinflation, hypersurface
in- the converse of inattention, incoherence, incompatibility
in- inside inpatient,
inter- between interaction, inter-change, interference
kilo- thousand kilobyte
mal- bad malfunction, maltreatment, malnutrition
mega- million megabyte
mis- wrong misconduct, misdeed, mismanagement
mini- small mini-publication, mini-theory
mono- one monosyllable, monograph, monogamy
neo- new neo-colonialism, neo-impressionism
out- separate outbuilding,
poly- many polysyllable
pseudo- false pseudo-expert
re- again re-organisation, re-assessment, re-examination
semi- half semicircle, semi-darkness
sub- below subset, subdivision
super- more than, above superset, superimposition, superpowers
sur- over and above surtax
tele- distant telecommunications,
tri- three tripartism
ultra- beyond ultrasound
under- below, too little underpayment, under-development, undergraduate
vice- deputy vice-president

e.g. Suffix added to a verb (V), noun (N) or adjective (A) noun
 Suffix Meaning Examples
-tion alteration, demonstration
action/instance of V-ing
-sion expansion, inclusion, admission
person who V-s advertiser, driver
-er
something used for V-ing computer, silencer
-ment action/instance of V-ing development, punishment, unemployment
-ant assistant, consultant
person who V-s
-ent student
-age action/result of V breakage, wastage, package
-al denial, proposal, refusal, dismissal
action/result of V

-ence preference, dependence, interference

-ance action/result of V attendance, acceptance, endurance

action/instance of V-ing bribery, robbery, misery

-ery/-ry
place of V-ing refinery, bakery

Suffix Meaning Examples

-er person concerned with N astronomer, geographer
-ism doctrine of N Marxism, Maoism, Thatcherism
-ship state of being N friendship, citizenship, leadership
-age collection of N baggage, plumage

Suffix Meaning Examples

state or quality of being
-ity ability, similarity, responsibility, curiosity
A
state or quality of being
-ness darkness, preparedness, consciousness
A
-cy state or quality of being urgency, efficiency, frequency
A

Adjectives
Many adjectives are formed from a base of a different class with a suffix (e.g. -less, -ous).
Adjectives can also be formed from other adjectives, especially by the negative prefixes (un-, in-
and non-).
The most common suffixes are -al, -ent, -ive, -ous, -ful, -less.
e.g. Suffix added to verbs or nouns adjective
Suffix Example
-al central, political, national, optional, professional
-ent different, dependent, excellent
-ive attractive, effective, imaginative, repetitive
-ous continuous, dangerous, famous
-ful beautiful, peaceful, careful
-less endless, homeless, careless, thoughtless
-able drinkable, countable, avoidable,

e.g. negative + adjective adjective

Prefix Examples
un- unfortunate, uncomfortable, unjust
im-/in-/ir-/il- immature, impatient, improbable, inconvenient, irreplaceable, illegal
non- non-fiction, non-political, non-neutral
dis- disloyal, dissimilar, dishonest
Mixed
e.g. base with both prefix and suffix
Adjectives: uncomfortable, unavoidable, unimaginative, inactive, semi-circular
Nouns: disappointment, misinformation, reformulation

Word formation
Formal written English uses nouns more than verbs. For example, judgement rather than judge,
development rather than develop, admiration rather than admire.
There appeared to be evidence of differential treatment of children.
This is reflected in our admiration for people who have made something of their lives,
sometimes against great odds, and in our somewhat disappointed judgment of those who
merely drift through life.
All airfields in the country would be nationalised, and the government would continue
with the development of new aircraft as recommended by the Brabazon Committee.
Associated with nominalisation is the occurrence of prepositional phrases, introduced by of:
judgment of those
treatment of children
development of new aircraft
-tion is the most common suffix used in this way. For example: alteration, resignation.
However others are: -ity ability, similarity, complexity; -ness blindness, darkness, preparedness;
-ment development, encouragement; -ship friendship; -age mileage; -ery robbery, bribery; -al
arrival; -ance assistance, resemblance.
List of Verbs, Nouns Adjectives & Adverbs

S.No. Verbs Nouns Adjectives Adverbs

1 accept acceptance acceptable
2 achieve achievement achievable
3 act action active actively
4 act activity active actively
5 act activeness active actively
6 add addition additional
7 adjust adjustment adjustable
8 admire admiration admirable
9 advise advice advisable
10 amass mass massive massively
11 amazed amazement amazing
12 amuse amusement amusing
13 annoy annoyance annoying
14 approach approach approachable
15 attend attention attentive
16 attract attraction attractive
17 avoid avoidance avoidable
18 believe belief believable
19 blacken blackness black
20 bleed blood bloody
21 bore boredom boring
22 bother botheration bothering
23 breathe breath breathing
24 bury burial buried
25 care care careful carefully
26 challenge challenge challenging
27 chase chase chasing
28 cheer cheerfulness cheerful cheerfully
29 choose choice chosen
30 clear clarity clear clearly
31 collect collection collective collectively
32 comfort comfort comfortable comfortably
33 complex complexity complex
34 confuse confusion confused
35 consider consideration considerable considerably
36 console consolation consoled
37 continue continuity continuous continuously
38 craze craze crazy crazily
39 create creation creative creatively
40 credit credit creditable creditably
41 cure cure curable
42 curse curse cursed
43 damage damage damaged
44 deafen deafness deaf
45 decide decision decisive
46 decorate decoration decorative
47 delight delight delightful delightfully
48 demand demand demanding
49 derive derivation derivative
50 deserve deserve deserving
51 destroy destruction destructive destructively
52 develop development developing
53 die death dead
54 differ difference different differently
55 disturb disturbance disturbing
56 dust dust dusty
57 educate education educative
58 embarrass embarrassment embarrassing
59 empower power powerful powerfully
60 empty emptiness empty
61 encircle circle circular circularly
62 encourage courage courageous courageously
63 endanger danger dangerous dangerously
64 enthuse enthusiasm enthusiastic
65 enumerate number numerable
66 envy envy envious enviously
67 evaporate evaporation evaporating
68 expect expectation expected expectedly
69 explain explanation explainable
70 explore exploration exploring
71 fascinate fascination fascinating
72 feed food
73 firm firmness firm firmly
74 fly flight flying
75 force force forceful forcefully
76 glorify glory glorious gloriously
77 grow growth growing growingly
78 harm harm harmful harmfully
79 hate hatred hateful hatefully
80 heal health healthy healthily
81 hope hope hopeful hopefully
82 identify identification indentified
83 identify identity indentifying
84 imitate imitation imitative imitatively
85 impress impression impressive impressively
86 include inclusion inclusive inclusively
87 indicate indication indicative indicatively
88 inform information informative
89 inhabit habitat inhabitant
90 injure injury injurious injuriously
91 inquire inquiry inquiring
92 instruct instruction instructive
93 insult insult insulting insultingly
94 intent intention intentional intentionally
95 interfere interference interfering
96 introduce introduction introductory
97 invent invention inventive
98 irritate irritation irritating irritatingly
99 lead leadership leading leadingly
100 live life lively livingly
101 live life alive livingly
102 live liveliness lively livingly
103 lose loss lost
104 madden madness mad madly
105 migrate migration migrating
106 modernise modernity modern
107 moisten moisture moistures
108 monotonies monotony monotonous monotonously
109 move movement movable movingly
110 narrow narrowness narrow
111 nationalise nationality national nationwide
112 observe observation observatory
113 own ownership own
114 perform performance performing
115 permit permission permissible
116 persuade persuasion persuasive
117 please pleasure pleasant
118 popularise popularity popular
119 quicken quickness quick quickly
120 redden redness red
121 sadden sadness sad sadly
122 secure security secured securely
123 see scene scenic
124 see sight seen
125 speed speed speedy speedily
126 whiten whiteness white
127 badness bad badly