Evolution of Continents

We have only the most general notion of how the first continents may have formed. The interior of the
earth got heated up sufficiently sometime during its geological past, th lighter fractions were successively
separated from the heavier ones, and distributed at the top. Weathering by rainwater, which itself was a
product of this differentiation, broke up and altered the rocks. Erosion led to the formation of sedimnets
which were metamorphosed and recycled and welded to the young continents promoting their growth.

For the sake of simplicity, the process of continental evolution is considered in three successive stages.

STAGE I: THE EARLY VOLCANIC STAGE

The beginning of crustal evolution is marked by the formation of broad swells on the basaltic ocean floor.
These represent the early stages in the development of volcanic islands. Development of these swells
leads to block faulting, extrusion of lavas, and their protrusion above the sea level to form volcanic islands
(Eg Solomon Is in SW Pacific). The islands are composed of pillow lavas ( basalts poor in olivine with
spilites and keratophyres). Pyroclastic material is absent, but products of erosion have started forming.

By this time the island is quite large ( 150 Km in length) and new swells are developing either in a linear
or arcuate arrangement with respect to the earlier swells. The older swells are undergoing extensive
erosion and much sedimentation. The sedimeents become folded, faulted and deformed due to near
vertical block faulting and gravity collapse.

STAGE II: THE GEOSYNCLINAL STAGE

The volcanic islands are by now well established and are enlarged by bodily uplift, volcanic accretion and
sedimentation. Volcanic products are becoming more felsic and pyroclastic material is becoming
prominent. Earliest plutonic rocks of granitoid texture and dioritic- granodioritic composition appear (in
pipe or stock form). These are of shallow subvolcanic nature. These may be products of magmatic
differentiation or transformation of the deeply buried pyroclastic rocks.

The oldest swells have become quite large ( Java & Sumatra) with smaller intervening swells beginning to
coalesce (Aleutian-Malaysian). Volcanic festoons isolated from continents, or extending outwards from
these are characterized by igneous sedimentation (with formation of reefs in appropriate climates). There
is a mixing of volcanic material with products of continental erosion around volcanic festoons bordering
continents. There is, therefore, a hybrid sedimentation on the continental side of the arc (the
miogeosyncline) while volcanic sedimentation progresses in the outward seaward trough (the
eugeosyncline). Vulcanism at this stage becomes more felsic.

STAGE III: SHELF AND SHIELD STAGE

The volcanic islands are by now welded to each other and also to the continental margins. Intense fault
movement, compressional folding, more felsic plutonic intrusions, waning of vulcanism and rapid erosion
are characteristic of this stage of crustal evolution. Plutonic rocks are granitic and pegmatitic in
composition.

Continuing folding, faulting and varying degrees of metamorphism leads to the formation of a "Continental
Shield". This stage is marked by outpouring of flood basalts and stabilization of the crustal segment.
Erosion and peneplanation lead to the development of broad flat areas susceptible to inundation during
sea-level rises resulting in extensive deposits of detrital sediments, reefs (carbonate), evaporites and
chemical sediments. Movement of the shoreline in response to sea-level fluctuations leads to the
interfingering of shallow water marine and fluviatile sediments, particularly in the lower reaches of braided
streams, deltas and outwash fans. Mineral deposits forming at this stage include a variety of igneous and
sedimentary ores, and deposits formed during the earlier stages undergo substantial metamorphism.

Metallogeny through Time

It is now well known that the earth's crust and mantle have passed through an evolutionary sequence of
changes throughout geological time. These changes have influenced and are reflected in petrogenesis
and the nature and extent of related mineralization. For example the association of tin mineralization with
Mesozoic and late Paleozoic granites, the restriction of Banded Iron Formations to the Precambrian and
the association of nickel deposits with Precambrian orthomagmatic ilmenite deposits. Consequently the
paucity of certain metallogenic entities during subsequent periods may be attributed to the advanced
stages of evolution of the crust and mantle, for example the lack of Phanerozoic nickel sulfide deposits
may be due to the depletion of mantle sulfur during the Archaean.

The fact that the mantle and overlying crust (as indeed the mineral deposits) underwent progressive
evolutionary changes with time, permits us to make certain generalizations regarding the disposition of
metallogenic provinces with respect to the evolution of the mantle with the advancing age of the earth.
The evolutionary changes can be conveniently discussed in terms of the Archaean, Proterozoic and
Phanerozoic intervals and the environments which prevailed during these periods:

THE ARCHAEAN:

This interval is notable for the abundance of certain metals and the absence of others. Metals and metal
associations developed in significant amounts include Au, Sb, Fe, Mn, Cr, Ni-Cu, and Cu-Zn-Fe. Notable
absentees are Pb, U, Th, Hg, Nb, Zr, REE, and diamond. Important deposits include:

Nickel in chromite and serpentinites (Great Dyke).

Ni-Cu Deposits in komatiitic and tholeiitic lavas (Kalgoorlie Belt Australia, S. Canada,
Zimbabwe-Rhodesia and the Baltic Shield).
Gold Deposits in greenstone belts (Golden Mile Dolerite of Kalgoorlie).
Cu-Zn Deposits of volcanogenic association (Albiti Orogen S. Canada).

THE PROTEROZOIC:

The beginning of the Proterozoic was marked by a great change in tectonic conditions. The first
lithospheric plates developed whose appearence permitted the formation of sedimentary basins, leading
to the deposition of platform sediments and development of continental margin geosynclines. Notable
mineral deposits of the period include:

Gold uranium conglomerates (of which the best known example is the Witwatersrand
Basin).
Sedimentary manganese deposits (S. Africa, Brazil and India).
Stratiform lead-zinc deposits in carbonates (McArthur River, Mount Isa, West Germany).
Cr-Ni-Pt-Cu Deposits (Great Dykes of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, Bushveld Complex S. Africa).
Ti-Fe Deposits (Norway and Canada).
Banded Iron Formations (India, Africa, Canada).
Sedimentary Copper Deposits (Katanga System of Zambia and Shaba, Belt Series of NW
USA).
Sedimentary Manganese Deposits (Central India and Namibia)
 Tin Deposits with alkaline and peralkaline granites and pegmatites (W Africa and Brazil).

PHANEROZOIC:

Towards the end of Proterozoic a new tectonic pattern developed which gave rise to Phanerozoic fold
belts formed by continental drift. Mineralization processes during this period tended to be concentrated
along such tectonic environments as rift valleys, aulacogens and associated domes, constructive and
destructive plate nargins and transform faults. The disposition of deposits formed in this period are
discussed under Plate Tectonics and Disposition of Metallogenic provinces below. It may therefore be
stated that one of the important factors that govern the disposition of metallogenic provinces is the
evolutionary stages through which the particular segment of the earth's crust has passed.

DISPOSITION OF METALLOGENIC PROVINCES VIS-A-VIS PLATE TECTONIC SETTINGS:

In addition to the above, the disposition of metallogenic provinces is governed to a great extent by global
tectonics. The fact that different types of deposits form in different plate tectonic settings, relates various
types of mineralization to large scale and diverse crustal structures. Thus:

1. Tin, fluoride and niobium deposits are associated with intracontinental hot spots and aulacogens.
2. Deposits associated with carbonatites, and Sullivan type Pb-Zn-Ag deposits with aulacogens.
3. Pb-Zn and evaporite deposits with intercontinental rift zones (Red Sea Type).
4. Porphyry Cu, Mo, Sn and W in compressional arc systems (Andean Type).
5. Podiform Cr and Pt deposits and Cyprus type Cu-Fe deposits in obducted ophiolites in
continental collision zones.
6. Pb-Zn-Ag deposits and U in molasse sediments in continent- continent collision zones.

Much of the material that formed at sites listed above, as indeed during the earliest stages of crustal
evolution, may be conveyed by various mechanicms, such as primary plate movement, reversal of plate
movement and continental collision to areas of entirely different tectonic settings from those in which the
deposit formed and to which it may be genetically related. Thus mineral deposits formed along the
oceanic ridges may, by various trains of circumstances, arrive at oceanic trenches at the top of a
subduction zone. This material may be largely subducted and recycled or it may be thrust into melanges.
Clearly any deposit formed in the new oceanic crust may eventually be mechanically incorporated into
island-arcs.

Additionally, continental rifts may fragment an otherwise coherent metallogenic province and the resulting
fragments may be disposed thousands of miles apart as, for instance, the tin provinces of Africa and
Bolivia which constituted a single province prior to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean.

GLOBAL METALLOGENY
in Relation to Crustal Evolution
It is neither possible nor desirable here to consider crustal evolution in detail for the purpose in question.
The continents are widely believed to have developed by accretion -- each has developed from a volcanic
nucleus or nuclei, being joined and added to by peripheral volcanic nuclei. The process is aided by the
accumulation of volcanic matter (pyroclastic material) and products of erosion. The pattern is complicated
by later fractures and relative movement, perhaps drift, of various crustal segments. This evolutionary
pattern seems to form a plausible framework for the succession of geologic environments which is
parallelled by a similar pattern of evolution of ore types.
For the sake of simplicity, the process of crustal evolution is considered in six successive stages.

STAGE I: THE EARLY VOLCANIC STAGE

The beginning of crustal evolution is marked by the formation of broad swells on the basaltic ocean floor.
These represent the early stages in the development of volcanic islands. Development of these swells
leads to block faulting, extrusion of lavas, and their protrusion above the sea level to form volcanic islands
(Eg Solomon Is in SW Pacific). The islands are composed of pillow lavas ( basalts poor in olivine with
spilites and keratophyres). Pyroclastic material is absent, but products of erosion have started forming.

MINERAL DEPOSITS:

Native copper and associated sulfides as orthomagmatic disseminations and vesicular fillings Eg
Solomon Islands.

Nickel and associated sulfides in volcanic sills Eg Kambalda, W Australia, Manitoba. iii) Precious
metals viz. tellurides Eg Fiji.

Minor chemical sedimentation viz. manganese and iron with jasper. NOTE: Manganese in the
more important at this stage and the only important iron ore deposits are of Lake Superior-
Ontario-Quebec.NOTE: Manganese in the more important at this stage and the
only important iron ore deposits are of Lake Superior - Ontario -Quebec.

STAGE II: EARLY ALPINE TYPE ULTRAMAFIC STAGE

Vulcanism continues, but changes to basaltic andesite, gradually progressing to andesites, dacites and
rhyolites. Pyroclastic activity becomes conspicuous with the onset of the andesitic stage and increases
with the increase in the felsic nature of vulcanism. By this time the island is quite large ( 150 Km in length)
and new swells are developing either in a linear or arcuate arrangement with respect to the earlier swells.
The older swells are undergoing extensive erosion and much sedimentation. The sedimeents become
folded, faulted and deformed due to near vertical block faulting and gravity collapse.

MINERAL DEPOSITS:

Alpine type chromite deposits in intrusives Eg Paleozoic to Tertiary "Serpentine Belts"

everywhere.

Nickel sulfide concentrations. NOTE: Some of the nickel sulfide deposits associated with stage I
may actually belong to this stage.

Nickel also occurs as Ni-rich olivine which may be concentrated to ore by later weathering.

STAGE III: DEVELOPING EUGEOSYNCLINAL STAGE

The volcanic islands are by now well established and are enlarged by bodily uplift, volcanic accretion and
sedimentation. Volcanic products are becoming more felsic and pyroclastic material is becoming
prominent. Earliest plutonic rocks of granitoid texture and dioritic- granodioritic composition appear (in
pipe or stock form). These are of shallow subvolcanic nature. These may be products of magmatic
differentiation or transformation of the deeply buried pyroclastic rocks.

MINERAL DEPOSITS:

Banded Iron Formations developed as volcanic chemical sediments as a result of sea-floor

exhalative activity. Deposition of these took place in troughs (eugeosynclines) in inter-island
regions of arcs.

Considerable jasper and some manganese Eg Guyana.

Modern analogues of these processes are operative in the Kuriles and the Solomon Islands.

Stratiforn Sulfide Deposits of marine and marine-volcanic affiliation. These include chemical
sedimentation, sulfide pyroclastic concentrations and some lavas. All these are essentially sea
floor volcanic accumulations. A few of these are

associated with basaltic and more mafic lavas Eg Cyprus and Japan, whereas a vast majority are
associated with andesitic and dacitic rocks. Eg Base metals of Ontario, Mount Isa and McArthur
River (Precambrian); Bathurst, New Brunswick and E. Australia (Paleozoic) and Japan (Tertiary).

Some Banded Iron Formations and minor manganese concentrations and barite are associated
with the Stratiform Sulfide Deposits.

Most of these deposits are formed near the continental margins and biological activity (2500 y
ago) is always indicated.

NOTE:Related to these are the sulfide bearing subvolcanic intrusives, breccia

plugs and related shallow igneous bodies of andesitic-rhyolitic composition --
these are the "Porphyry Coppers".

STAGE IV: ADVANCED EUGEOSYNCLINAL & MIOGEOSYNCLINAL

STAGE
The oldest swells have become quite large (Java & Sumatra) with smaller intervening swells beginning to
coalesce (Aleutian-Malaysian). Volcanic festoons isolated from continents, or extending outwards from
these are characterized by igneous sedimentation (with formation of reefs in appropriate climates). There
is a mixing of volcanic material with products of continental erosion around volcanic festoons bordering
continents. There is, therefore, a hybrid sedimentation on the continental side of the arc (the
miogeosyncline) while volcanic sedimentation progresses in the outward seaward trough (the
eugeosyncline). Vulcanism at this stage becomes more felsic.
MINERAL DEPOSITS:
Deposition continues from the Developing Eugeosynclinal Stage (III) resulting in the formation of:

Stratiform or non-stratiform marine volcanic sulfide ores.

Banded Iron Formations in the eugeosynclines (for some reason major iron formations are not
associated with basemetal sulfide deposits).

Volcanic basemetals are contributed to the reef and off-reef environments on both sides of the arc
(particularly on the miogeosynclinal side). These are eventually concentrated by sedimentary,
diagenetic and later processes to form Limestone-Lead-Zinc Deposits.

Some manganese deposits (Usinsk Type) also develop in the eugeosynclines and
miogeosynclines.

STAGE V: EARLY CONTINENTAL AND INTRUSIVE STAGE

The volcanic islands are by now welded to each other and also to the continental margins. Intense fault
movement, compressional folding, more felsic plutonic intrusions, waning of vulcanism and rapid erosion
are characteristic of this stage of crustal evolution. Plutonic rocks are granitic and pegmatitic in
composition.

MINERAL DEPOSITS:

Cassiterite deposits as disseminations in granites, contact metamorphic deposits and pegmatitic

deposits.

Quartz-cassiterite veins.

Quartz-wolframite veins.

Quartz-scheelite veins.

Quartz-gold veins.

Stibnite and stibnite-scheelite-gold veins.

Basemetal sulfide veins with arsenopyrite and increasing proportions of Pb & Zn as compared to
Cu. NOTE: Some basemetal veins may result from the remobilization (destruction) of earlier
eugeosynclinal stratiform ores (Stages III & IV).

Plutonic type anorthositic iron-titanium oxides.

 In the more mafic parts of these intrusions chromite is segregated. Eg Bushveld Complex.

Sometimes ilmenite, magnetite and minor Fe-Ti-O.

Major nickel-copper sulfides (Eg Sudbury) are also identified with this stage (?).

Chromite deposits formed in ultramafic rocks during the Alpine Type Ultramafic Stage (II) are well
serpentinized by this time and move along large fault systems (along which they formed) and take
up new lithological and structural positions in the evolving crust.

STAGE VI: SHELF AND SHIELD STAGE

Continuing folding, faulting and varying degrees of metamorphism leads to the formation of a "Continental
Shield". This stage is marked by outpouring of flood basalts and stabilization of the crustal segment.
Erosion and peneplanation lead to the development of broad flat areas susceptible to inundation during
sea-level rises resulting in extensive deposits of detrital sediments, reefs (carbonate), evaporites and
chemical sediments. Movement of the shoreline in response to sea-level fluctuations leads to the
interfingering of shallow water marine and fluviatile sediments, particularly in the lower reaches of braided
streams, deltas and outwash fans. Mineral deposits forming at this stage include a variety of igneous and
sedimentary ores, and deposits formed during the earlier stages undergo substantial metamorphism.

MINERAL DEPOSITS:

There are few mineral deposits associated with flood basalts. Exceptions are the copper bearing
lavas of the Keweenaw Peninsula, Lake Superior.

Limestone-lead-zinc deposits often associated with oil bearing strata and evaporites, Eg Pine
Point, Canada.

Non-volcanic sedimentary manganese deposits (orthoquartzite-glauconite-clay association), Eg

Nikopol, USSR, and Morocco.

Ironstones of the Clinton, Lorraine and English type associated with near-shore, estuarine or
lagoonal sedimentation.

"Sandstone Type" Cu-U-V ores formed in coarse sediments of outwash fans, near-shore braided
streams and deltas, Eg Colorado.

Gold-uranium deposits of Witwatersrand-Bhind River- Jacobina Type in coarse conglomerates

and grits of braided stream channels.

Basemetal sulfide deposits of non-volcanic association occurring with evaporites, Eg

Kupferschiefer Marl Slate of Europe and England and the Copperbelt of Zambia. viii) A very minor
 category of iron ores -- the bog or marsh iron ores such as those of the present northern
hemisphere.

METALLOGENY

in Modern Basins
Much of what we recover today from orebodies must have been concentrated in ancient basins similar to
the present day ones. An understanding of metallogeny in modern basins is therefore important in order
to decipher the geological setting and details of ore forming processes.

Deposition in Basins having Ventilated Waters: In restricted basins where the thickness of outflow is less
than the depth of the threshold, a two-way flow is established in the portal. This permits outflow of fresh
water at the surface and inflow of salt water below. In these basins light gray to greenish gray sediments
are being deposited, which are apparently devoid of any significant metallic content. Examples of such
modern basins are the fjords on the coast of British Columbia, Canada and Norway.

Deposition in Basins Having Euxinic Conditions: In these basins, the thickness of outflowing water equals
the depth of threshold so that only one-way flow is possible and no sea water can enter the basin. The
level of pycnocline (i.e. a zone in a stratified body of water in which density varies rapidly with depth) lies
deeper than the threshold. No oxygen is thus supplied and euxinic conditions are established promoting
anaerobic bacteria which generate H2S. Such conditions are conducive for the acumulation of black silt
and clays containing 25-35% organic matter (in oxidizing conditions organic matter is 1-2.5%), iron
sulphides (pyrite and hydrotroilite) and manganese oxides. Such basins are potential oilfields of the
future. Examples - Dead Sea, parts of Baltic SEa, Kaoe Bay (on the coast of Holmahera, Indonesia) and
some Norwegian fjords.

Deposition in Basins with occassional Ventilation: When the supply of fresh water to a basin having
euxinic conditions becomes less (eg during winter or drought), the outward flow becomes less than
required to cover the entire portal. Large amounts of sea water thus flow into the basin at such times. The
dense sea water flows along the bottom of the basin displacing upwards the lighter basin water from the
lower levels containing large amounts of H2S. This results in large scale mortality of organisms in
ventilated waters above the pycnocline, resulting in deposition of sediments rich in organic matter. These
constitute potential source rocks for hydrocarbons. Example -periodic influxes of aerated saltwater from
the Mediterranean into the Black Sea.

Deposition in basins losing water by evaporation: Some enclosed basins, particularly in hot and dry
climatic zones lose a lot of water by evaporation. If such a basin is connected to the sea and the depth of
its threshold is great enough, a two way flow is established (in at the surface, out at depth), leading to the
deposition of evaporites along the margins of the basin. Examples - the Mediterranean Sea and the Red
Sea.

METALLOGENY ALONG OCEANIC RIDGES AND RISES:

There is a considerable concentration of a variety of metals in brines and sediments along the oceanic
ridges, some of which are of economic potential. All examples are of great importance since they
establish a relationship between sea-floor spreading and ore genesis.

Geothermal Brines: The metalliferous brines and muds associated with spreading centres are enriched in
metallic sulphides viz., sphalerite with subordinate amounts of pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite, and marcasite;
iron minerals such as goethite, hematite and siderite; and manganese minerals like rhodochrosite. The
Salton Sea (California) brines are noted for their high metal content , in particular Cu, Ag, Au, Fe, Mn, B,
Zn and Pb, and it may be envisaged that there is a syngenetic deposition of Pb-Zn minerals in progress
along the oceanic ridges.

Sediments near Ridges: Sediments presently being deposited on the flanks of ridges, particularly the
East-Pacific Rise, contain large quantities of Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn, Ni, Cu and Ba. Other elements in which
these sediments are enriched are U, V, Ag, Sn, and Ti. The colse relationship of these sediments with the
volcanics of the rift zones indicates that the metals are being precipitated from hydrothermal exhalations
of volcanic origin.

Ridge Basalts: Dredged basalts from the oceanic ridges have been found to contain copper-bearing
sulphides as spherules in vesicles and in veins.

MAJOR ORE TYPES OF INDIA AND THEIR TECTONIC SETTING

TYPES OF ORE
TECTONIC SETTING LOCALITY GEOLOGICAL AGE
DEPOSITS
1. RELATED TO BASIC/ULTRABASIC IGNEOUS INTRUSIVES.
1.1 Stratiform deposits Cratons Kondepalle(?) Early Proterozoic
in layered Sitampundi(?) Early Proterozoin
complexes Hassan Archaean
2. MASSIVE SULFIDE DEPOSITS IN VOLCANIC ASSOCIATION
2.1 Cupreferous Rift-ridges/island Kalyadi (S. India) Archaean
deposits associated arcs/craton-margin Ingaldahl Archaean-E.
with mafic volcanics dislocations. Singhbhum Proterozoic
Early-Late Proterozoic
3. ORES IN SEDIMENTS

3.1 Sediment hosted Ensialic Rift Basins Khetri Mid-Late Proterozoic

sulfide deposits
3.2 Lead-zinc ores in Ensialic Rift Agucha Archaean
clastic sediments Basins/Epicontinental Rajpura-Dariba Mid-Late Proterozoic
Basins
3.3 Lead-zinc ores in Ensialic Rift Zawar(?) Early Proterozoic
carbonate rocks Basins/Epicontinental
(Bulk Mississippi Basins
Valley type)
3.4 Iron Ores Greenstone Bababudan- Archaean-E.
3.4. Banded Iron Belts/Epicontinental Sandur Proterozoic
1 Formations Basins Bihar Orissa(?) Late Archaean
 3.5 Manganese Ores Ensialic Bihar-Orissa Late Archaean
Basins/epicontinental Madhya Pradesh- Mid- Late Proterozoic
seas/eugeosynclines Maharashtra

4. ORE DEPOSITS ASSOCIATED WITH ACID-INTERMEDIATE PLUTONIC/HYPABYSSAL

ROCKS
4.1 Porphyry-type Orogenic belts/subduction Malanjkhand Early-Middle
copper deposits zones Proterozoic
4.2 Tin-tungsten Orogenic belts with Chhendapathar(? Late Proterozoic
deposits ensialic magmatism )
5. VEIN DEPOSITS IN METAMORPHOSED ROCKS
5.1 Gold-quartz veins Greenstone belts and Kolar Archaean
Phanerozoic orogens Hutti Archaean
5.2 Uranium veins in Regional shear zones Singhbhum Middle-Late
shear zones Proterozoic
6. LATERITIC DEPOSITS
6.1 Bauxite deposits Continental platforms Bihar-Madhya Phanerozoic
Pradesh
6.2 Lateritic Ni-deposits Non-specific Sukinda Phanerozoic

GLOBAL METALLOGENY
in Relation to Plate Tectonics
Plate tectonics, like crustal evolution, provides a basis for understanding the distribution and origin of
mineral and energy deposits. The relationship of plate tectonics and mineral deposits is significant on
three counts:

Geological processes operating due to energy released at plate boundaries control the process of
mineral deposition.

Mineral deposits form in particular tectonic settings which are governed by plate tectonics.

Reconstruction of fragmented continents can provide a useful basis for exploration of new mineral
deposits.

Several requirements must be fulfilled in any tectonic setting for the production and accumulation of
minerals. A number of tectonic settings meet these requirements:

I. DEPOSITS AT OCEANIC RIDGES (DIVERGENT PLATE MARGINS)

Hydrothermal activity at the ridges gives rise to a) Sulfide deposits and b) Metalliferous
sediments on the flanks of ridges. Important metallic deposits formed are Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, Au and
Ag. In the Red Sea metalliferous sediments containing Fe, Zn and Cu are being deposited.
 Mn oxide deposits are important at some ridges Eg the TAG Hydrothermal field on the Atlantic
Ridge.

Ultramafic rocks in ophiolites containing asbestos, chromite and nickel ores. These are generally
accessible in Phanerozoic orogenic belts to which sites they have been transported due to plate
movement.

Podiform chromite deposits associated with serpentinized ultramafic rocks.

Cyprus Type massive sulfide deposits (Cu-Fe rich) are also associated with ophiolites and
represent hydrothermal deposits formed at ocean ridges.

Several types of mineral deposits appear to show a genetic relationship to either the hot mantle plume
itself or the tracks it produces.

II. DEPOSITS AT CONVERGENT PLATE MARGINS

Metallic deposits are commonly found at both continental and arc convergent plate margins. Along the
Circum-Pacific Belt major metallic deposits occur in western North and South America, Japan,
Philippines, New Zealand and Indonesia. More than half of the world's supply of copper comes from the
Porphyry Copper Deposits of this region. Important deposits associated with present and former
convergent margins are:

Base metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Mo).

Precious metals (Pt, Au, Ag).

Other metals (Sn, W, Sb, Hg). (Red Bed uranium deposits are also associated with convergent
boundaries Eg SW United States).

Zoning of mineral deposits forming at convergent margins is apparent Eg in the Andes, going from west to
east, the various zones encountered are:
a) contact metasomatic Fe- deposits;
b) Cu-Ag and Ag veins;
c) Porphypy Cu-Mo deposits;
d) Pb-Zn-Ag veins and contact metasomatic deposits; and
e) Sn deposits.
These zones are caused due to progressive liberation of metals from the descending slab, with Sn
coming from a depth of 300 Km. The metals are derived from some combination of the descending slab
and the overlying mantle wedge. They move upwards in magmas or fluids and are concentrated in late
hydrothermal and magmatic fluids.

Petroleum occurs in the back-arc basins in arc convergent margins where organic matter is trapped and
there is a lack of free circulation so that its oxidation is prevented. Geothermal heat facilitates conversion
of organic matter to petroleum, and accompanying deformation forms traps for accumulation of
petroleum.
Potential geothermal fields also occur along convergent margins.

III. DEPOSITS AT COLLISION BOUNDARIES

A variety of local tectonic settings exist along collision plate margins. Most of the deposits that occur here
have formed in diverse tectonic settings and have been transported to the collision zones. Consequently,
a variety of metallic deposits are abundant here:

Deposits generally related with oceanic ridges (ophiolites).

Those associated with convergent plate margins.

Mineral deposits associated with cratonic assemblages.

Deposits associated with continental rifts.

Deposits genetically related to collision zones are hydrocarbons which may accumulate in
foreland basins associated with such zones, Eg the Persian Gulf SW of the Zagros Suture in Iran.

IV. DEPOSITS IN CRATONIC RIFT SYSTEMS

Regional uplift and doming usually result when a continent comes to rest over a hotspot and huge
volumes of magma rise to the surface. Extensional failure of the lithopheric crust may occur with
continued doming, triggering the development of a triple junction - a three armed continental rift system.
Typically, one arm of the rift fails remaining a fissure in the crust known as an aulacogen, while the
remaining two arms open to form an oceanic basin. The prevalence of three armed rifts is revealed by
reassembling the continents surrounding the Atlantic Ocean to their positions before Pangea split up. In
most cases two of the arms were incorporated into the Atlantic, while the third remained as a blind rift
extending into the continent.
Rifting follows crustal doming in response to hot-spot activity in the mantle.

Granites intruded at this stage have associated Sn and fluorite deposits.

Evaporites accumulate in the rifts during the more advanced stages, with Pb-Zn-Ag deposits in
limestones forming during the early and middle stages of rifting. These are followed by oceanic
metalliferous deposits.

Aulacogens are characterized by the presence of fluorite, barite, carbonatites (with Nb, P, REE,
U, Th etc) and Sn-bearing granites.

Geothermal fields occur along the rifts due to the upwelling of the asthenosphere.

Carbonatites (unusual igneous rock rich in calcite and other carbonate minerals which are considered to
be mantle derived), kimberlites, and alkaline granites within or adjacent to rifts provide a major source of
metallic and other minerals.

V. DEPOSITS IN CRATONIC BASINS

Marginal and intracontinental cratonic basins provide a favourable setting for accumulation of organic
matter. During the opening of a cratonic rift, seawater moves into the basin and evaporation exceeds
inflow, giving rise to the formation of evaporites. The environment is characterized by restricted circulation
and hence organic matter is preserved leading to the accumulation of petroleum. With continued rifting,
circulation becomes unrestricted and deposition of evaporites and organic matter ceases.

High geothermal gradients beneath the opening rift and increase in pressure due to burial by sediments
facilitates the conversion of organic matter to petroleum. In the final stages of the opening of the basin,
the salt beds may begin to rise as salt domes forming traps for oil and gas. Oil and gas may also be
trapped in structural and stratigraphic traps as they move up due to increasing temperature and pressure,
Eg the Red Sea.

This speculation is lent support by the fact that around the Atlantic there is a close geographic and
geologic relationship between hydrocarbons and salt accumulations.

FACTORS GOVERNING THE DISPOSITION OF METALLOGENIC PROVINCES

It is now well known that the earth's crust and mantle have passed through an evolutionary sequence of
changes throughout geological time. These changes have influenced and are reflected in petrogenesis
and the nature and extent of related mineralization. For example the association of tin mineralization with
Mesozoic and late Paleozoic granites, the restriction of Banded Iron Formations to the Precambrian and
the association of nickel deposits with Precambrian orthomagmatic ilmenite deposits. Consequently the
paucity of certain metallogenic entities during subsequent periods may be attributed to the advanced
stages of evolution of the crust and mantle, for example the lack of Phanerozoic nickel sulfide deposits
may be due to the depletion of mantle sulfur during the Archaean.

The fact that the mantle and overlying crust (as indeed the mineral deposits) underwent progressive
evolutionary changes with time, permits us to make certain generalizations regarding the disposition of
metallogenic provinces with respect to the evolution of the mantle with the advancing age of the earth.
The evolutionary changes can be conveniently discussed in terms of the Archaean, Proterozoic and
Phanerozoic intervals and the environments which prevailed during these periods:

THE ARCHAEAN:

This interval is notable for the abundance of certain metals and the absence of others. Metals and metal
associations developed in significant amounts include Au, Sb, Fe, Mn, Cr, Ni-Cu, and Cu-Zn-Fe. Notable
absentees are Pb, U, Th, Hg, Nb, Zr, REE, and diamond. Important deposits include:

Nickel in chromite and serpentinites (Great Dyke).

Ni-Cu Deposits in komatiitic and tholeiitic lavas (Kalgoorlie Belt Australia, S. Canada, Zimbabwe-
Rhodesia and the Baltic Shield).

Gold Deposits in greenstone belts (Golden Mile Dolerite of Kalgoorlie).

Cu-Zn Deposits of volcanogenic association (Albiti Orogen S. Canada).

THE PROTEROZOIC:

The beginning of the Proterozoic was marked by a great change in tectonic conditions. The first
lithospheric plates developed whose appearence permitted the formation of sedimentary basins, leading
to the deposition of platform sediments and development of continental margin geosynclines. Notable
mineral deposits of the period include:

Gold uranium conglomerates (of which the best known example is the Witwatersrand Basin).

Sedimentary manganese deposits (S. Africa, Brazil and India).

Stratiform lead-zinc deposits in carbonates (McArthur River, Mount Isa, West Germany).

Cr-Ni-Pt-Cu Deposits (Great Dykes of Zimbabwe Rhodesia, Bushveld Complex S. Africa).

Ti-Fe Deposits (Norway and Canada).

Banded Iron Formations (India, Africa, Canada).

Sedimentary Copper Deposits (Katanga System of Zambia and Shaba, Belt Series of NW USA).

Sedimentary Manganese Deposits (Central India and Namibia)

Tin Deposits with alkaline and peralkaline granites and pegmatites (W Africa and Brazil).

PHANEROZOIC:

Towards the end of Proterozoic a new tectonic pattern developed which gave rise to Phanerozoic fold
belts formed by continental drift. Mineralization processes during this period tended to be concentrated
along such tectonic environments as rift valleys, aulacogens and associated domes, constructive and
destructive plate nargins and transform faults. The disposition of deposits formed in this period are
discussed under Plate Tectonics and Disposition of Metallogenic provinces below. It may therefore be
stated that one of the important factors that govern the disposition of metallogenic provinces is the
evolutionary stages through which the particular segment of the earth's crust has passed.

DISPOSITION OF METALLOGENIC PROVINCES VIS-A-VIS PLATE TECTONIC SETTINGS:

In addition to the above, the disposition of metallogenic provinces is governed to a great extent by global
tectonics. The fact that different types of deposits form in different plate tectonic settings, relates various
types of mineralization to large scale and diverse crustal structures. Thus:

1. Tin, fluoride and niobium deposits are associated with intracontinental hot spots and aulacogens.

2. Deposits associated with carbonatites, and Sullivan type Pb-Zn-Ag deposits with aulacogens.

3. Pb-Zn and evaporite deposits with intercontinental rift zones (Red Sea Type).

4. Porphyry Cu, Mo, Sn and W in compressional arc systems (Andean Type).

 5. Podiform Cr and Pt deposits and Cyprus type Cu-Fe deposits in obducted ophiolites in
continental collision zones.

6. Pb-Zn-Ag deposits and U in molasse sediments in continent- continent collision zones.

Much of the material that formed at sites listed above, as indeed during the earliest stages of crustal
evolution, may be conveyed by various mechanicms, such as primary plate movement, reversal of plate
movement and continental collision to areas of entirely different tectonic settings from those in which the
deposit formed and to which it may be genetically related. Thus mineral deposits formed along the
oceanic ridges may, by various trains of circumstances, arrive at oceanic trenches at the top of a
subduction zone. This material may be largely subducted and recycled or it may be thrust into melanges.
Clearly any deposit formed in the new oceanic crust may eventually be mechanically incorporated into
island-arcs.

Additionally, continental rifts may fragment an otherwise coherent metallogenic province and the resulting
fragments may be disposed thousands of miles apart as, for instance, the tin provinces of Africa and
Bolivia which constituted a single province prior to the opening of the Atlantic Ocean.

MINERALIZATION ALONG CONVERGENT AND COLLISIONAL PLATE

BOUNDARY ENVIRONMENTS
I. Deposits at Convergent Boundaries:

In convergent plate boundary environments mineralization takes place in the principal arcs as
well as in the inner side of the principal arc.
Principal arcs are linear belts of volcanoplutonic rocks that occur above subducting lithospheric
slabs.
Mineralization, particularly of Cu, Fe, Mo, Au and Ag are closely associated with calc-alkaline
magmatism in such zones.
Along the Circum-Pacific Belt major metallic deposits occur in western North and South America,
Japan, Philippines, New Zealand and Indonesia.
More than half of the world's supply of copper comes from the Porphyry Copper Deposits of this
region.
Important deposits associated with present and former convergent margins are:
i) Base metals (Cu, Pb, Zn, Mo).
ii) Precious metals (Pt, Au, Ag).
iii) Other metals (Sn, W, Sb, Hg).

(Red Bed uranium deposits are also associated with convergent boundaries Eg SW United States).

Mineralization is also noted on the inner side of the principal arcs.

Examples of these are the contact metasomatic (skarn) deposits of Zn, Pb, Ag in eastern Peru,
and on the eastern side of the Sierra Madre ranges in Mexico.
These deposits are related to subduction in the western United States during Cretaceous to mid-
Tertiary.
 The tin-tungsten belts of Bolivia, East Indian Archipelago and South China are thought to be
located along similar tectonic settings.
Zoning of mineral deposits forming at convergent margins is apparent, Eg in the Andes.
Going from west to east, the various zones encountered are:
a) contact metasomatic Fe-deposits
b) Cu-Ag and Ag veins
c) Porphypy Cu-Mo deposits
d) Pb-Zn-Ag veins and contact metasomatic deposits; and
e) Sn deposits.
- These zones are caused due to progressive liberation of metals from the descending slab, with Sn coming
from a depth of 300 Km.
- The metals are derived from some combination of the descending slab and the overlying mantle wedge.
They move upwards in magmas or fluids and are concentrated in late hydrothermal and
magmatic fluids. Fig. 1 shows a compressional arc system and related metallogeny.

'Tensional arcs' represented by the Japanese arc-system are thought to be suitable for the
deposition of Kuroko-type deposits (skarn deposits are also common here).
Petroleum occurs in the back-arc basins in arc convergent margins where organic matter is
trapped and there is a lack of free circulation so that its oxidation is prevented.
Geothermal heat facilitates conversion of organic matter to petroleum, and accompanying
deformation forms traps for accumulation of petroleum. Fig. 2 shows an extensional arc system
and related metallogeny.
 Potential geothermal fields also occur along convergent margins.

II. Deposits at Collision Boundaries:

In the collisional settings, important tectonic zones are the hinterland margins, suture zones,
foreland thrust belts and foreland basins.
In the obducted ophiolites in the suture zone, stratiform exhalative Cu-Fe sulfide deposits occur at
Cyprus and Newfoundland, Canada (Ordovician), and podiform chronite deposite at Semail,
Oman (Cretaceous).
In the foreland thrust belts, Sn-W mineralization occurrs in the S-type granites in SW England and
probably in the Central Himalaya.
In the foreland molasse basins, uranium mineralization is reported from the Siwaliks in India and
Pakistan. Fig. 3 shows a collisional tectonic environment and related metallogeny.

Most of the deposits that occur in collisional zones may actually have formed in diverse tectonic
settings and have merely been transported to the collision zones.
Consequently, a variety of metallic deposits are abundant here:
i. Deposits generally related with oceanic ridges (ophiolites).
 ii. Those associated with convergent plate margins.
iii. Mineral deposits associated with cratonic assemblages.
iv. Deposits associated with continental rifts.
v. Deposits genetically related to collision zones are hydrocarbons which may accumulate
in foreland basins associated with such zones, Eg the Persian Gulf SW of the Zagros
Suture in Iran.

MINERALIZATION ALONG DIVERGENT PLATE BOUNDARY

ENVIRONMENTS AND TRANSFORM FAULTS
I. Mineralization along Divergent Plate Boundaries:

An example of a recent thermal plume generated rift with sedimentary mineralization is that of the Red
Sea. Although the rifting there started 50 m.y. ago, the complete rupture leading to true oceanic
accretion took place 5-6 m.y. ago. The movement still continues with the sea opening at a half rate of
1 cm/yr. Irregularities along the axial valley of the Red Sea has given rise to a number of hot brine
pools.

- Hydrothermal activity at the ridges gives rise to

a) Sulfide deposits and
b) Metalliferous sediments on the flanks of ridges.

Important metallic deposits formed are Fe, Zn, Cu, Pb, Au and Ag.

In the Red Sea metalliferous sediments containing Fe, Zn and Cu are being deposited. Such
deposits are also reported from a number of places on the East Pacific Rise (13 o N, 21o N and
20o S), Juan de Fuca Ridge and Galapagos Ridge.
The slow spreading Atlantic Ridge is characterized by the precipitation of Fe- and Mn-oxides,
eg. the TAG Hydrothermal field on the Atlantic Ridge.
Ultramafic rocks in ophiolites are hosts to asbestos, chromite and nickel ores. These are
generally accessible in Phanerozoic orogenic belts to which sites they have been transported
due to plate movement.
Podiform chromite deposits associated with serpentinized ultramafic rocks.
Cyprus Type massive sulfide deposits (Cu-Fe rich) are also associated with ophiolites and
represent hydrothermal deposits formed at ocean ridges.

Fig. 1 shows the schematic illustration of an oceanic spreading centre and associated metallogeny.

. Mineralization along Transform Faults:

True transform faults appear to have little importance in metallogenesis because, except where
"leaky" they have no magmatism associated with them.
A possible genetic relationship has been noticed between the Cenozoic Chaman transform fault
in Pakistan and stibnite vein deposits.
The Coast Range of California also host late Cenozoic mercury deposits.
The intersections of a spreading axis and transform fault appear to important in terms of localizing
metalliferous brine pools in the Red Sea.
 The McLaughlin hot-spring gold deposit in California Coast Ranges north of San Francisco is
localized along a major thrust fault that has been reactivated by the San Andreas Fault.
The Salton Sea geothermal system of the Imperial Valley, California has a significant energy
potential and sits astride short spreading segments that connect offset strands of the San Andreas
transform fault in California.

An ocean basin begins to form as rifting processes culminate in the development of a mid-oceanic ridge
(MOR), where new lithospheric crust is produced.

BLACK SMOKERS & VMS DEPOSITS

It is at these sites of extensive basaltic volcanism that modern "black smokers" occur, their dark colour
the result of suspended sulphide particles. The circulation of water throught the ridge system begins with
the downward percolation of sea water through extensive fissures on either side of the rigde axis. The
water percolates down to the base of the dyke complex which underlies the ridge where it is heated to
400-450 C, before rising to be expelled throught the hydrothermal vents of the black smokers. It is during
this high temperature circulation that the heated water alters and corrodes the surrounding basaltic rocks,
dissolving the metals it contains and precipitating them at the vent in contact with cold oceanic waters. It
is with a concentration factor of around 400 that the copper from the original basaltic rocks is
concentrated to form volcaniogenic massive sulphide (VMS) deposits. These modern sites of ore
deposition are only likely to be preserved in oceanic depressions or traps that exclude oxygenated sea
waters. Modern examples are occurring in the Lau and Manus Basins, in the Red Sea and along the
Pacific, Atlantic and Indian oceanic ridges.

HYDROTHERMAL METALLIFEROUS SEDIMENTS

Ancient examples of VMS deposits can be found in the geologic record in both Late Archean (< 2800 Ma)
rock successions and Paleozoic rock successions. Ancient VMS deposits generally occur in clusters with
one or more "giant" deposits in association with numerous smaller deposits. They occur at specific
stratigraphic horizons, commonly boundaries between contrasting lithologies within volcanic successions.
Within the Archean rock successions it is the Granitoid-greenstone belts that contain the economic
mineralisation.

VMS deposits may form as a result of mid-oceanic ridge basaltic magmatism, placing them at sites of
extensionaltectonic regimes, or as a result of oceanic arc and back-arc basin magmatism, placing them in
subduction related tectonic environments. Metal concentrations have been found to be higher at
subduction related VMS deposits (in back-arc or arc related basins) than at mid-oceanic ridges. As a
result, fossil volcanogenic deposits demonstrate that back-arc and arc environments with highly
differentiated lavas are the most favourable settings for the formation of large VMS deposits. The Kuroko
VMS deposits of Japan are the best known ancient analogues of modern Black Smokers.

MANGANESE NODULES ON THE OCEAN FLOOR

Ferromanganese nodules and encrustations occur both overlying basalt lava at mid-oceanic ridges
where they are considered to be hydrothermal deposits, and overlying sediments away from ridge crests
where they are considered hydrogenous or authegenic in origin. They are of economic interest because
of their high copper, nickel and cobalt content, these metal abundances being particularly high where
nodules are widely dispersed on the sea floor. The absence of manganese nodules from deep sea cores
indicates that they do not normally survive burial by younger sediments.

MINERAL DEPOSITS OF OPHIOLITE SEQUENCES

 Ophiolites are thought to represent slices of oceanic crust that have been thrust or obducted onto a
continental margin during collision. Ophiolites are characterised by a sequence of rock types, consisting
of deep sea sediments overlying basaltic pillow lavas, sheeted dykes, gabbros and ultramafic peridotites.
Most large ophiolite bodies are no older than Triassic and the scarcity of Proterozoic ophiolites suggests
that they are normally destroyed by erosion within a period of several hundred million years. This
presumably represents the erosion rate of high-level nappes, flanking the core of orogenic belts, in which
the larger ophiolite bodies usually occur.

STRATIFORM MASSIVE SULPHIDES

The Troodos ophiolite complex of Upper Cretaceous age in Cyprus has become the type-example of
stratiform massive sulphides associated with basaltic pillow lavas and cherts. The sequence of mafic and
ultramafic igneous rocks overlying pelagic sediments originally formed at a submarine spreading ridge
during the late Cretaceous. The massive sulphides and related stockwork mineralisation all occur within
the pillow lava sequence, with over 90 deposits known from within the Troodos Complex. The Semail
ophiolite in Oman provides another example, with all mineralisation associated with the volcanic centres
strung out along the uppermost part of the ophiolite on top of the pillow basalt unit. The Semail ophiolite
was formed at the same time as the Troodos Complex, and emplaced during the same Tethyian collision
event.

PODIFORM CHROMITE DEPOSITS IN ULTRABASIC ROCKS

Although 97 % of the world's chromite reserves occur in non-ophiolite, layered mafic and ultramafic
intrusions, over half of current world production comes from ophiolite-hosted chromite deposits. Lenticular
podiform chromite or chrome-spinel deposits are known from many Alpine-type ultrabasic bodies,
interpreted as on-land oceanic lithospere. The chromite bodies occur only within the harzburgite
lithologies (including dunite) and not within lherzolite units (both peridotite rock types). The harzburgite
unit forms the basement to the cumulate rocks, is generally tectonised, lacks recognisable cumulus
magmatic textures, and is considered to be a depleted mantle source. Upper Mesozoic and Cenozoic
examples include the ophiolite sequences in Cyprus, Oman, Greece, Turkey, Cuba and the Philippines.
Lower Paleozoic deposits are known from Newfoundland, Proterozoic deposits from the Eastern Desert of
Egypt and Saudi Arabia.

BASE METAL DEPOSITS IN THE RED SEA

Recent studies of on-shore fracture patterns and faults presumed from bathymetry within the Red Sea
area show that recent brine pools and metalliferous sediments are located at or very near to the
intersection of transform faults with the Red Sea spreading ridge. Many of the Miocene base metal
deposits in the adjacent coastal areas are also located on extensions of transform faults or presumed
transform faults.

METALLOGENY ALONG TRANSFORM FAULTS

Transform faults form plate boundaries along which plate motion is predominantly strike-slip with plates
sliding past each other with relatively minor convergence or divergence. They are not sites of
major magmatsim or orogeny. Transform faults related to subduction developed in or adjacent to
continental margins or island arc systems and on former passive continental margins during and following
continental collision show little associated mineralisation at the present erosion level. However, transform
fault extensions related to the development of ridge-ridge transform movement do have associated
mineral deposits.

CU-NI-PT-AU-TI BASIC / ULTRABASIC INTRUSIONS

 Layered basic/ultrabasic intrusions within fracture zones considered to be related to transform faulting
have been described from the South-Eastern Desert of Egypt and Sierra Leone. The Freetown layered
basic complex in Sierra Leone consists of a rhythmic sequence of basic/ultrbasic rocks including
trocotolite which host the ubiquitous sulphides which occur as late stage hydrothermal veins and
replacements. It is suggested that the 193 Ma old complex occurs at the intersection of the Guinea
Fracture Zone and the Atlantic protorift, its position being related to both early stage rifting and to the
continental extension of a transform fault.

BASE METAL DEPOSITS IN THE RED SEA

Recent studies of on-shore fracture patterns and faults presumed from bathymetry within the Red Sea
area show that recent brine pools and metalliferous sediments are located at or very near to the
intersection of transform faults with the Red Sea spreading ridge. Many of the Miocene base metal
deposits in the adjacent coastal areas are also located on extensions of transform faults or presumed
transform faults.

PEGMATITE MINERALISATION

A series of parallel tin-tourmaline pegmatites and tin-lepidolite-albite pegmatites intruded into the
Phangnga Fault in the Phuket-Phangnga area of peninsular Thailand are worked as tin ores. Tin-lepidolite
pegmatites are also associated with the Ranong Fault system to the north which has also been
interpreted as the continental expression of a transform fault.

KUROKO TYPE SULPHIDE DEPOSITS

Within the Green Tuff magmatic arc of eastern Japan a concentration of Upper Cenozoic Kuroko type
deposits have been noted at intersections of the volcanic front with transverse faults postulated to be the
extensions of oceanic transform faults on the basis of seismic evidence. Although more sporadic in their
distribution, the Miocene-Pliocene gold-silver quartz vein deposits are also located close to the transverse
faults.

Mineralization along Early and Late Stage Continental Rifting

When a continent comes to rest over a hotspot regional uplift and doming usually result as huge volumes
of magma rise to the surface. With continued updoming extensional failure of the lithopheric crust may
occur triggering the development of a triple junction, a three armed rift system. Typically, one arm of the
rift fails remaining as a fissure in the crust known as an aulacogen, while the remaining two arms open to
form an ocean basin. The prevalence of three armed rifts is revealed by reassembling the continents
surrounding the Atlantic Ocean to their positions before Pangea split up. In most cases two of the arms
were incorporated into the Atlantic, while the third remained as a blind rift extending into the continent.

A more recent example can be observed where the Arabian Peninsula is breaking away from the African
continent. The Red Sea and the Gulf of Aden both represent arms of a three-armed rift. The third arm
strikes into Ethiopia from the Afar Triangle.

Aulacogens become important sites for sediment accumulation and for ore deposition. Mineralisation
commonly consists of copper and other base metals normally deposited syngenetically as sulphides in
volcanic deposits or sediments. They are also important sites for hydrocarbon accumulation, and many
younger aulacogens have yet to be explored for their hydrocarbon potential.