STEEL BRIDGES LECTURE ON ACTIONS

UNIVERSITA DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI
FEDERICO II
Polo delle Scienze e delle Tecnologie
Facolt di Ingegneria
Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale
Master course on
STEEL BRIDGES
LECTURE N.2
ACTIONS ON BRIDGES
Prof. Vincenzo Piluso, PhD, MSc, BSc

Department of Civil Engineering
University of Salerno - Italy
CLASSIFICATION OF ACTIONS
4) WIND LOADS
1) DEAD LOADS
5) ACTIONS DUE TO THE OVERCOME
Self weight
OBSTACLE
Superimposed dead loads
Earth pressure
2) TRAFFIC LOADS
Forces from stream current
Live loads
Forces from floating ice
Impact
6) SEISMIC LOADS
Acceleration and braking
forces
Centrifugal force
Collisions due to traffic loads
3) ACTIONS WITHOUT EXTERNAL
FORCES
Prestressing forces
Shrinkage
Creep
Temperature-induced forces
Settlements of restraints
Friction in bearing devices
Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 2/66

DEAD LOADS
SELF WEIGHT
Correct prediction of self weight Increase of useful load (SDL+LL)

In some structural typologies an accurate prediction of the self weight is relevant
for the evaluation of the permanent stress state (pre-stressed structures, cable
stayed bridges).
Simply supported beam bridges
pre-stressed concrete L=30-40 m g=10-12 kN/m2
steel-concrete composite L=30-50 m g=7-8 kN/m2
Continuous beam bridges
pre-stressed concrete box sections L=80-100 m g=20-25 kN/m2
orthotropic plate deck system L=100-200 m g=3-4 kN/m2
SUPERIMPOSED DEAD LOAD (SDL)
Wearing surface;
Sidewalks;
Parapets;
Guardrails;
Services.

BRIDGE MATERIALS
Wearing surface made of
gussasphalt or asphaltic
concrete:
Thickness: 7-10 cm
Dead load: 1.75-2.5 kN/m2
Wearing surface made of

mastic asphalt:
Thickness: 3-5 cm
Dead load: 0.66-1.10 kN/m2
Normal ballast:
Thickness: 75 cm
Dead load: 15.0 kN/m2

WEIGHT OF STRUCTURAL STEEL IN COMPOSITE
STEEL-CONCRETE BEAM BRIDGES
X (m)
X = 1.40 times the span in the case of simply supported beams
X = 1.33 times the side span if exceeding the central span (for a three span
continuous beam)
X = the main central span (for a three span continuous beam)
X = 1.40 times the main span in case of two span beams.
TRAFFIC LOADS FOR ROAD BRIDGES
Bridges are usually divided into traffic categories depending on the importance
of the road in service.
Load models are based on probabilistic analyses and, generally, do not

represent actual vehicles but are calibrated to provide the same internal actions
on bridges as the actual traffic loads.
The following properties can be recognized:

the equivalent uniform load decreases as the span increases;
the load decreases as the width of the carriageway increases;
the heaviest loads occur with reduced frequency.
Code provisions:
EN 1991-2 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges
All traffic actions on road bridges and footbridges consist of variable actions and
actions for accidental design situations.

TRAFFIC LOADS FOR ROAD BRIDGES
Load models for road bridges according to EN 1991-2 refer to loaded lengths
less than 200 m which corresponds to the maximum length considered in the
calibration of Load Model 1.
The use of Load Model 1 for loaded lengths exceeding 200 m is, generally, on
safe side.
The actual load on road bridges result from various categories of vehicles and
from pedestrians. Vehicle traffic may differ between bridges depending on its
composition (percentage of cars, lorries and special vehicles), its density
(average number of vehicles per year), weight of vehicles and their axle load.
The above differences, depending on the location of the bridge, are accounted
for by properly choosing the adjustment factors and for Load Model 1 and
Load Model 2, respectively.

DIVISIONS OF THE CARRIAGEWAY INTO NOTIONAL LANES
The width of the carriageway has to be measured between the kerbs or
between the inner limits of vehicle restraint systems.
The width of notional lanes on a carriageway and the greatest possible whole
integer number of such lanes are:
Lanes are numbered starting from the one giving the most unfavourable effect.

VERTICAL LOAD MODELS FOR ULS AND SLS
According to EN 1991-2, four vertical load models have to be considered for
ULS and SLS verifications.
Load Model 1 (LM1): concentrated and distributed loads covering traffic

effects of lorries and cars. LM1 is used both for general and local verifications.
Load Model 2 (LM2): a single axle load applied on specific tyre contact areas
covering dynamic effects of normal traffic on short structural members. LM2 is
used for local verifications.
Load Model 3 (LM3): A set of assemblies of axle loads representing special

vehicles (routes permitted for abnormal loads). LM3 is used both for general
and local verifications.
Load Model 4 (LM4): A crowd loading. LM4 is used for general verifications.
The characteristic values for LM1 and LM2 are calibrated for 1000 years return
period (probability of exceedance of 5% in 50 years).

LOAD MODEL 1
LM1 consists of two partial systems:
a) Tandem system TS: double-axle concentrated loads with axle load QQk
b) Uniformly distributed loads (UDL system): having weight per square
meter q qk
For general verifications the tandem system is assumed to travel centrally
along the axes of notional lanes.
Each axle is made of two identical wheels. The load of each wheel is 0.5QQk
The tyre contact area of each wheel is 0.40x0.40m.

LOAD MODEL 1
For local verifications, a tandem system should be applied at the most
unfavourable location. Where two tandem systems on adjacent notional lanes
are taken into account the distance between wheel axles cannot be less than
0.50 m.
The characteristic values of Qk and qk include dynamic amplification (i.e.

account for LIVE LOADS and IMPACT LOADS).
LOAD MODEL 2
LM2 consists of a single axle load QQak Qak = 400kN

Including dynamic amplification
When relevant only one wheel may be taken into account.

LOAD MODEL 3 (special vehicles) [Not present in NTC2008]
Load Model 3 (LM3): A set of assemblies of axle loads representing special
vehicles (routes permitted for abnormal loads). LM3 is used both for general
and local verifications.
Abnormal loads means vehicles not complying with National regulations
concerning limits of weights and/or dimensions.
Vehicle widths of 3.00 m for the 150 and 200 kN axle lines, and of 4.50 m for
the 240 kN axle are assumed.
LOAD MODEL 3 (special vehicles)
One or more of the models

of special vehicles may have
to be taken into account.
The models and the load
values may be defined for
the individual project.

APPLICATION OF SPECIAL VEHICLE LOAD MODELS ON THE CARRIAGEWAY
a) On one notional traffic lane for b) On two adjacent notional lanes

models composed of 150 or 200 for models composed of 240
kN axle-lines. axle-lines

SPECIAL VEHICLE SPEED
The above models for special vehicles can be assumed to move:
at low speed (not more than 5 km/h)
at normal speed (up to 70 km/h)
For low speed dynamic amplification has not to be accounted for.
For normal speed, a dynamic amplification factor has to be considered:
L
= 1.40 1.0 L is the influence length (m)
500
Low speed
For normal speed a pair of special vehicles should be used in the lanes
occupied by these vehicles.

LOAD MODEL 4 (Model 5 in NTC2008)
LM4 is the crowd loading consisting of a UDL equal to 5.00 kN/m2, including dynamic
amplifications.
LM4 should be applied on the relevant parts of the length and width of the road bridge
deck, the central reservation being included where relevant. This loading system is
intended for general verifications and should be associated only with a transient design
situation.
LOAD MODELS FOR FOOTWAYS, CYCLE TRACKS AND FOOTBRIDGES
Three models, mutually exclusive, should be taken into account, as relevant. They
consist of :
a uniformly distributed load, qfk (crowd loading)
a concentrated load Qfwk for local effects (10 kN on 0.10x0.10 m contact area)
loads representing service vehicles, Qserv, (when relevant)
Qserv consists of a two axle
load group of 80 and 40 kN, separated by a
wheel base of 3 m, with a track (wheel-centre
to wheel-centre) of 1,3 m and square contact
areas of side 0,2 m at coating level.
Service vehicle needs not be considered if
permanent provisions are made to prevent
access of all vehicles to the footbridge.

LOAD MODELS - (NTC2008)
(= EC1)
(= EC1)
( EC1)
( EC1)
(= LOAD MODEL
4 OF EC1)

CARICHI (NTC2008)

CARICHI SU PONTI FERROVIARI (NTC2008)

VERIFICHE A FATICA NTC2008

VERIFICA VITA
ILLIMITATA

VERIFICHE A
FATICA VERIFICA VITA
NTC2008 ILLIMITATA

VERIFICHE A
FATICA
NTC2008


FATIGUE LOAD MODELS
Traffic running on bridges produces a stress spectrum which may cause
fatigue. Fatigue verification according to Eurocodes is based on specific
fatigue load models. In particular, five fatigue load models of vertical forces
are defined.
a) Fatigue Load Models 1, 2 and 3 are intended to be used to determine the

maximum and minimum stresses resulting from the possible load
arrangements on the bridge of any of these models
b) Fatigue Load Models 4 and 5 are intended to be used to determine stress
range spectra resulting from the passage of lorries on the bridge.
c) Fatigue Load Models 1 and 2 are intended to be used to check whether the
fatigue life may be considered as unlimited when a constant stress amplitude
fatigue limit is given.
d) Fatigue Load Models 3, 4 and 5 are intended to be used for fatigue life
assessment by reference to fatigue strength curves defined in EN1993. They
should not be used to check whether fatigue life can be considered as
unlimited.
f) Fatigue Load Model 5 is the most general model, using actual traffic data.

TRAFFIC CATEGORIES
Fatigue verification requires the definition of the traffic category.
A traffic category on a bridge should be defined at least by:
the number of slow lanes,
the number Nobs of heavy vehicles (maximum gross vehicle weight more than
100 kN), observed or estimated, per year and per slow lane (i.e. a traffic lane
used predominantly by lorries).
statistical distribution of transverse
location
For the assessment of general action effects (e.g. in main girders) all fatigue load models
should be placed centrally on the notional lanes. The slow lanes should be identified in the
design.
For the assessment of local action effects (e.g. in slabs) the models should be centered on
notional lanes assumed to be located anywhere on the carriageway. However, where the
transverse location of the vehicles for Fatigue Load Models 3, 4 and 5 is significant for the
studied effects (e.g. for orthotropic decks), a statistical distribution of this transverse
location should be considered.

FATIGUE LOAD MODEL 1
FLM1 has the configuration of the characteristic Load Model , with the values of the axle loads
equal to 0,7Qk and the values of the uniformly distributed loads equal to 0,3qk.
The maximum and minimum stresses ( FLM,max and FLM,min ) should be determined from the
possible load arrangements of the model on the bridge.

FLM2 consists of a set of idealised lorries, called "frequent" lorries.
Each frequent lorry is defined by :
the number of axles and the axle spacing;
the frequent load of each axle;
the wheel contact areas and the transverse distance between wheels.
The maximum and minimum stresses should be determined from the most severe effects of
different lorries, separately considered, travelling alone along the appropriate lane.

FLM3 consists of four axles, each of them having two identical wheels. The weight of each
axle is equal to 120 kN, and the contact surface of each wheel is a square of side 0,40 m.
Where relevant, two vehicles in the same lane should be taken into account.
one vehicle is as defined above ;
the geometry of the second vehicle is as defined above, but the weight of each
axle is equal to 36 kN (instead of 120 kN);
the distance between the two vehicles, measured from centre to centre of vehicles, is
not less than 40 m.

FLM4 consists of sets of standard lorries which together produce effects equivalent to those of
typical traffic on European roads.
The calculations should be based on the following procedure :

the percentage of each standard lorry in the traffic flow should be selected from above
(columns 4, 5 or 6 as relevant);
the total number of vehicles per year to be considered for the whole carriageway Nobs
should be defined;
each standard lorry is considered to cross the bridge in the absence of any other vehicle.

DYNAMIC LOAD AMPLIFICATION FOR FLMs

Fatigue Load Models 1 to 4 include dynamic load amplification appropriate for
pavements of good quality. An additional amplification factor should be taken into account
near expansion joints and applied to all load:
D = the distance (m) of the cross-section under consideration from the expansion joint.

IMPACT LOADS
In the framework of bridges, the phenomenon of impact is related to the bridge-
vehicle interaction. Impact load can be defined as a load whose period of
application is shorter than the fundamental period of the structure.
Code provisions usually account for impact loads by means of impact factors or
dynamic amplification factors. However, impact loads are already included in
the main load models of Eurocode 1991-2.
The primary causes of vibrations in bridges are:
The initial bounce (or hammering effect) of the vehicle on its own springs as it
enters the span, caused by the roughness of the wearing surface;
The dynamic response due to the surface irregularities of the bridge deck itself.
The maximum dynamic deflection of a bridge deck due to vehicle impact is a
function of:
The initial amplitude of vehicle bounce;
The bridge natural frequency.

ACCELERATION AND BRAKING FORCES
The braking force is a longitudinal force acting at the surface level of the
carriageway.
The characteristic value of the braking force, limited to 900 kN for the total width
of the bridge, is given as a fraction of the total maximum vertical load
corresponding to LM1:
Qlk = 0.60Q (2Qk ) + 0.10 qq k w l L w l = lane width L = loaded length
with the limitation: 180 Q ( kN ) Qlk 900( kN )
This force has to be located along the axis of any lane and is uniformly distributed
along the loaded length.
Acceleration forces have the same magnitude as braking forces, but in the
opposite direction.
In case of footbridges the braking force associated with the service vehicle load
model is equal to 60% of the vertical load.
CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
The centrifugal force is a transverse force acting at the surface level of the
carriageway and radially to its axis.
Its value, including dynamic amplification, is:
r = horizontal radius of the carriagewa y centreline

Q v = total maximum weight of the vertical concentrat ed loads of TS

COLLISION FORCES (NTC 3.6.3)
Collision forces are referred to accidental design situations resulting from :
Collision forces from vehicles under the bridge
Collision forces on piers and other supporting members
Collision forces on decks
Actions from vehicles on the bridge
Vehicle on footways and cycle tracks on road bridges
Collision forces on kerbs
Collision forces on vehicle restraint systems
Collision forces on structural members
Actions on pedestrian parapets
Collision forces on piers and other supporting members
For stiff piers the following minimum values are recommended:
a) Impact force : 1000 kN in the direction of vehicle travel or 500 kN
perpendicular to that direction ;
b) Height above the level of adjacent ground surface: 1,25 m.
Collision forces on decks
The possibility of collision by vehicles having an abnormal or illegal height may
have to be envisaged, as well as a crane swinging up while a vehicle is
moving. Preventive or protective measures may be introduced as an
alternative to designing for collision forces.

Vehicle on footways and cycle tracks on road bridges
If a safety barrier of an appropriate containment level is provided, wheel or vehicle loading
beyond this protection need not be taken into account.
Where such protection mentioned is not provided, one accidental axle load corresponding to
the TS (second lane value) should be so placed and oriented on the unprotected parts of
the deck so as to give the most adverse effect adjacent to the safety barrier. This axle
load should not be taken into account simultaneously with any other variable load on the
deck. A single wheel alone should be taken into account if geometrical constraints make a
two-wheel arrangement impossible.
Beyond the vehicle restraint system, a concentrated load equal to 10 kN acting on a square
surface 0.10x0.10m should be applied, if relevant, separately from the accidental load.

Collision forces on kerbs
The action from vehicle collision with kerbs or pavement upstands should be taken
as a lateral force equal to 100 kN acting at a depth of 0,05 m below the top of the kerb.
This force should be considered as acting on a line 0,5 m long and is transmitted by the
kerbs to the structural members supporting them. In rigid structural members, the load
should be assumed to have an angle of dispersal of 45. When unfavourable, a vertical
traffic load acting simultaneously with the collision force equal l to 0.75 times the first lane
TS should be taken into account.

For structural design, horizontal and vertical forces transferred to the bridge deck by vehicle
restraint systems should be taken into account.
Recommended classes for the horizontal force transferred by vehicle restraint systems
The horizontal force, acting transversely, may be applied 100 mm below the top of the selected vehicle restraint
system or 1,0 m above the level of the carriageway or footway, whichever is the lower, and on a line 0,5 m long.
The values of the horizontal forces given for the classes A to D derive from measurements during collision tests on real
vehicle restraint systems used for bridges.
The recommended value of the vertical force acting simultaneously with the horizontal collision force is equal to 0.75 times
the load corresponding to the first lane TS.
The structure supporting the vehicle parapet should be designed to sustain locally an accidental load effect corresponding to
at least 1,25 times the characteristic local resistance of vehicle parapet (e.g. resistance of the connection of the parapet to
the structure) and need not be combined with any other variable load.

COLLISION FORCES
It is recommended that such collision forces may be the same as collision forces on piers.
Actions on pedestrian parapets

For structural design, forces that are transferred to the bridge deck by pedestrian
parapets should be taken into account as variable loads.
A line force of 1,0 kN/m acting, as a variable load, horizontally or vertically on the top of the
parapet is a recommended minimum value for footways or footbridges. For service side paths,
the recommended minimum value is 0,8 kN/m.

SHRINKAGE OF CONCRETE

CREEP OF CONCRETE

TEMPERATURE INDUCED FORCES
Daily and seasonal changes in shade air temperature, solar radiation, reradiation, etc., will
result in variations of the temperature distribution within individual elements of the bridge
structure.
The magnitude of the thermal effects will be dependent on local climatic conditions, together
with the orientation of the structure.
The temperature distribution within an individual structural element may be split
into the following four essential constituent components:
a) A uniform temperature component, Tu ;
b) A linearly varying temperature difference component about the z-z axis, TMY ;
c) A linearly varying temperature difference component about the y-y axis, TMZ ;
d) A non-linear temperature difference component, TE. This results in a system of self-
equilibrated stresses which produce no net load effect on the element.

The strains and, therefore, any resulting stresses are dependent on the geometry and
boundary conditions of the element being considered and on the physical properties of the
material used.
Representative values of thermal actions are suggested by EN 1991-1-5 by the uniform

temperature component and the temperature difference components.
Regarding the temperature difference component, two approaches are suggested. The first
approach is based on the use of an equivalent linear temperature difference, the second
approach is based on the adoption of a non-linear temperature difference.
The uniform temperature component depends on the minimum and maximum

temperature which a bridge will achieve. The corresponding temperature changes in an
unrestrained structure would result in a change of the element length.
The following effects should be taken into account where relevant:

Restraint of associated expansion or contraction due to the type of construction
(e.g. portal frame, arches);
Friction at roller or sliding bearings;
For railway bridges the interaction effects between the track and the bridge due
to the variation of the temperature of the deck and of the rails may induce
supplementary horizontal forces in the bearings (and supplementary forces in the
rails).

BRIDGE UNIFORM TEMPERATURE COMPONENT
uniform temperature component
Type 1: Steel deck (steel

box girder - steel truss or
plate girder)
Type 2: Composite deck
Type 3: Concrete deck

(concrete slab - concrete beam
- concrete box girder)
shade air temperature (from national isotherms maps)

For steel truss and plate girders the maximum values given for type 1 may be reduced by 3C
The initial bridge temperature To at the time that the structure is required for
calculating contraction down to the minimum uniform bridge temperature
component and expansion up to the maximum uniform bridge temperature
component.
The characteristic value of the maximum contraction range of the uniform
bridge temperature component, TN,con is:
The characteristic value of the maximum expansion range of the uniform

bridge temperature component, TN,exp is:
The overall range of the uniform bridge temperature component is:
For bearings and expansion joints, the recommended values are TN,exp =+ 20C
and TN,con =+ 20C. If the temperature at which the bearings and expansion
joints are set is specified, these value can be reduce to 10C.

TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE COMPONENT
Over a prescribed time period heating and cooling of a bridge deck's upper
surface will result in a maximum heating (top surface warmer) and a maximum
cooling (bottom surface warmer) temperature variation.
The vertical temperature difference may produce effects within a structure due to:
Restraint of free curvature due to the form of the structure (e.g. portal frame,
continuous beams etc.);
Friction at rotational bearings.
In the case of cantilever construction an initial temperature difference may

need to be taken into account at the closure of the cantilever.
Two approaches are suggested.

The first approach is based on the use of an equivalent linear temperature
difference, the second approach is based on the adoption of a non-linear
temperature difference.

First approach: equivalent linear temperature difference component

INFLUENCE OF WEARING SURFACE

Second approach: non-linear temperature difference component
TYPE 1: STEEL DECKS

TYPE 2: STEEL-CONCRETE COMPOSITE DECKS

In general, the temperature difference component need only be considered in the
vertical direction. In particular cases however (for example when the orientation or
configuration of the bridge results in one side being more highly exposed to
sunlight than the other side), a horizontal temperature difference component
should be considered (leading to a 3D temperature field).
5C may be recommended as a linear temperature difference between the outer
edges of the bridge independent of the width of the bridge.
If it is necessary to account for both the temperature difference TM,heat (or

TM,cool) and the maximum range of uniform bridge temperature component TN,exp
or TN,con assuming simultaneity (e.g. in case of frame structures) the following
expression may be used (which should be interpreted as load combinations):
the recommended values are:

NTC 2008
Variazioni Termiche
(N.B. La circolare esplicativa

non contiene alcuna informazione)

WIND LOADS
Within environmental loads, wind loads constitute a major component of lateral loads acting
on structures.
Even though it is often mistakenly believed that wind loads are important only for long span
bridges, past experience has shown that bridges with span ranging between 80 m and 900 m
have vibrated up to destruction under wind action.
Wind loads are affected by the bridge typology, the wind velocity, the angle of attack, the size
and the shape of the bridge, the terrain and the gust characteristics.
Wind effects on bridge structures derive from:
Static wind pressure;
Dynamic wind movements;
Buffeting between adjacent structures.
Static effects are used to design ordinary bridges. Conversely, in the case of flexiblestructures,
such as cable supported bridges, dynamic effects have to be accounted for leading to an
aerodynamic problem.
AERODYNAMIC INSTABILITY
Aerodynamic instability is the phenomenon occurring, in a flexible structure, under the effect of
steady wind producing a fluctuating force automatically syncrhonizing in timing and
direction with the harmonic motions of the structure leading to a progressive amplification
of vibrations leading to dangerous amplitudes.
A significant force arising from the aerodynamic phenomenon is the wind uplift (known in
aeronautics as lift).

BUFFETING
Buffeting is a randomly forced vibration of a structure due to velocity
fluctuations (unsteady loading) of acting wind. The forcing function is totally
independent of the motion of the structure. Buffeting typically occurs in case of
linelike structures such as slender bridge decks.
Lift force
Drag force
The resultant of the steady wind force does not exactly act in the wind direction
due to a component orthogonal to the wind direction. In aerodynamics this
component is called lift, while the component in the wind direction is namely
drag.

A bridge decks is essentially a slender bluff (i.e. non-streamlined object) when
compared to an airfoil.
A steady wind blowing perpendicularly across the width of such an object gives
rise to a zone of turbulent fluid flow, namely a wake, whose nature depends on
the Reynolds number. This zone is located on the leeward side or past the
trailing edge of the airfoil.

Fluid flow pattern behind a circular cylinder
Large vortices are shed from the

top and the bottom of the cylinder
with a given periodicity.
Two rows vortices are namely

von Karman vortex trail
The alternate vortex shedding

leads to a fluctuating pressure that
is time varying in nature (dynamic).

The Reynolds number increases as the wind velocity increases.
Unsymmetrical vortices
Laminar flow
Symmetrical vortices Turbulent flow

Vortex shedding phenomenon Strouhal number for a variety of shapes
n i,y Frequency of full cycles of vortex shedding
b Characteristic dimension of the body projected on a plane normal to the mean flow velocity.

Separation
In case of bridge decks the mechanism of vortex shedding is very similar to that of
an airfoil (streamlined object) or of a bluff body (non-streamlined object) depending
on the shape of the bridge deck.
The fluctuating pattern of wakes gives rise to a vertical dynamic force on the
bridge deck. If the wind velocity is such that the frequency of vortex shedding
approaches the natural frequency of the bridge deck, resonance occurs.
Resonance effect related to vortex shedding is namely galloping.
Therefore, galloping is a violent instability occurring when a critical wind velocity is
exceeded. As wind velocity increases, the frequency of vortex shedding will
exceed the bridge natural frequency reducing bridge vibrations. At higher wind
speeds, the shedding loses its periodicity.
The structural engineer has to assure that natural frequency of the bridge deck
is not too close to the vortex shedding frequency:

FLUTTER and DIVERGENCE
Flutter is an oscillating motion characterized by the combination of two or more
modes of vibration, usually flexural mode and torsional mode of vibration.
Flutter occurs when the wind velocity reaches a critical value and is characterized
by a rapid increase of vibration amplitude with little or no further increase in wind
speed. The amplitude may reach catastrophic values in few cycles.
The bridge design should be conceived in order to assure an high value of the
above critical velocity to be sure that wind speed does not reach such a critical
value.
The flutter speed decreases if the wind velocity vector is inclined with respect to the
bridge deck.
The critical velocity is related to the shape of the bridge deck and to the flexural
stiffness of the main girders.

WIND LOADS
Wind actions on bridges are dealt with by EN 1991-1-4 in Section 8 which applies to
bridges of constant depth and with the cross-sections depicted below consisting of a single
deck with one or more spans.
Wind actions for other types of bridges, such as arch bridges, bridges with suspension cables
or cable stayed, roofed bridges, moving bridges and bridges with multiple or significantly
curved decks, are not covered by EN 1991-1-4.
The forces exerted on various parts of a bridge due to wind blowing in the same direction
should be considered as simultaneous if they are unfavourable.

The forces produced in the x- and y-directions are due to wind blowing in
different directions and normally are not simultaneous. The forces produced in
the z-direction can result from the wind blowing in a wide range of directions; if
they are unfavourable and significant, they should be taken into account as
simultaneous with the forces produced in any other direction.

WIND FORCE IN X-DIRECTION
Where it has been assessed that a dynamic response procedure is not necessary,
the wind force in the x-direction may be obtained as:
= q bCA ref,x 1
q b = v 2b
2
vb is the basic wind speed;
C is the wind load factor: C = ce cf,x
where ce is the exposure factor
and cf,x is the force coefficient
Aref,x is the reference area
is the density of air (=1.25 kg/m3)
The basic wind speed is: vb = cdir cseason vb,0
where:
vb,0 is the fundamental value of the basic wind velocity (given by National
maps);
cdir is the directional factor (recommended value 1.0);
cseason is the season factor (recommended value 1.0).
The fundamental value of the basic wind velocity is the characteristic 10 minutes mean wind
velocity, irrespective of wind direction and time of year, at 10 m above ground level in open
country terrain with low vegetation such as grass and isolated obstacles with separations of at
least 20 obstacle heights.
The exposure factor accounts for:
the influence of the height on the mean wind velocity;
the influence of orography;
the influence of terrain roughness;
the fluctuating component of the wind due to turbulence.
The mean wind velocity vm(z) at a height z above the terrain depends on the
terrain roughness and orography and on the basic wind speed (vb):
vm(z) = cr (z) co(z) vb

where:
cr(z) is the roughness factor;
co(z) is the orography factor. (recommended value 1.0);
Where orography (e.g. hills, cliffs etc.) increases wind velocities by more than 5%
the effects should be taken into account using the orography factor cO.
A procedure for determining cO is suggested in Annex A.3 of EN 1991-1-4.
The effects of orography may be neglected when the average slope of the upwind
terrain is less than 3.

The roughness factor accounts for the variability of the mean wind velocity at the
site of the structure due to the height above ground level and to the ground
roughness of the terrain upwind of the structure in the wind direction considered.
A logarithmic velocity profile is suggested:
where:
z0 is the roughness length
kr is the terrain factor depending on the roughness length:
z0,II = 0,05 m (terrain category II)
zmin is the minimum height;
zmax is to be taken as 200 m.

The roughness factor to be used for a given wind direction depends on the ground
roughness in an angular sector around the wind direction. Small areas (less than
10% of the area under consideration) with deviating roughness may be ignored.
The lowest roughness length within any 30 angular wind sector should be used.
When doubt arises with two or more terrain categories in the definition of a given
area, then the area with the lowest roughness length should be used.

The fluctuating component of the wind action is accounted for by means of the
turbulence intensity Iv(z) at height z which is defined as the ratio between the
standard deviation of the turbulence and the mean wind velocity.
The turbulent component of wind velocity has a mean value of 0 and a standard
deviation v.
The standard deviation of the turbulence v may be determined as:

v = k r vb kI
kr is the terrain factor
vb is the basic wind velocity)
kI is the turbulence factor (suggested value 1.0)
Therefore, the turbulence intensity is given by:
I v (z ) =
v krk l vb krk l kl
= = = for z min z z max
v m (z ) cr (z )c 0 (z )v b z z
c 0 (z ) k r ln c 0 (z ) ln
z0 z0
I v (z ) = I v (z min ) for z < z min

The peak velocity pressure at height z, which includes effects of both mean
velocity and short-term velocity fluctuations, is given by:
q p (z ) = v m2 (z ) [1 + 7I v (z )] = (cr (z ) c o (z )) v b2 [1 + 7I v (z )]
1 1 2
2 2
1
q b = v b2 is the basic velocity pressure
2
Therefore the exposure factor is given by: c (z ) = q p (z ) = (c (z ) c (z ))2 [1 + 7I (z )]
e r o v
qb

WIND FORCE IN X-DIRECTION:
C is the wind load factor: C = ce cf,x
where ce is the exposure factor
and cf,x is the force coefficient (drag coefficient)
Aref,x is the reference area Peak velocity pressure
v b2 c e (z ) c f.x A ref.x = q p (z ) c f.x A ref.x

1
Fw =
the force coefficient is cfx=cfx,0 2
a)
b)

Reference areas Aref,x for load combinations without traffic load should be defined as:
(a) for decks with plain (web) beams, the sum of:
1) the face area of the front main girder
2) the face area of those parts of the other main girders projecting under (underlooking) this first one (if
any exists)
3) the face area of the part of one cornice or footway or ballasted track projecting over the front main
girder
4) the face area of solid restraints or noise barriers, where relevant, over the area described in 3) or, in
the absence of such equipment, 0,3 m for each open parapet or barrier.
b) for decks with trussed girders, the sum of:
1) the face area of one cornice or footway or ballasted track
2) those solid parts of all main truss girders in normal projected elevation situated above or underneath
the area as described in 1).
3) the face area of solid restraints or noise barriers, if relevant, over the area described in 1) or, in the
absence of such equipment, 0,3 m for each open parapet or barrier.
However, the total reference area should not exceed that obtained from considering an equivalent plain
(web) beam of the same overall depth, including all projecting parts.
c) for decks with several main girders during construction, prior to the placement of the carriageway slab:
the face area of two main girders.

Reference areas Aref,x for load combinations with traffic load are as previously
specified with the following modification. Instead of the areas described above,
the following should be taken into account where they are larger:
a) for road bridges, a height of 2 m from the level of the carriageway, on the most
unfavourable length, independently of the location of the vertical traffic
loads,
b) for railway bridges, a height of 4 m from the top of the rails, on the total length
of the bridge.
(The reference height, ze, may be taken as the distance from the lowest ground
level to the centre of the bridge deck structure, disregarding other parts (e.g.
parapets) of the reference areas.

WIND FORCE IN Z-DIRECTION
Force coefficients cf,z lead both to upwards and downwards actions.
1
()
In the absence of wind tunnel tests the recommended value may be
Fw = v b c e z c f.z A ref.z taken equal to 0,9. This value takes globally into account the influence
2
2 of a possible transverse slope of the deck, of the slope of terrain and of

fluctuations of the angle of the wind direction with the deck due to
turbulence.
As an alternative cf,z may be taken from the following Figure where the depth dtot may be limited to the depth
of the deck structure, disregarding the traffic and any bridge equipment for flat, horizontal terrain the angle
of the wind with the horizontal may be taken as 5 due to turbulence. This is also valid for hilly terrain when
the bridge deck is at least 30 m above ground.
the eccentricity of the force in the x-direction

may be set to e = b/4.

331 PAGINE CON ESEMPI
NUMERICI PER OGNI TIPO
DI STRUTTURA

G.11 Impalcati da ponte
Il flusso che si instaura nellintorno di un impalcato da
ponte, e la conseguente distribuzione della pressione
FORZE DEL VENTO
esercitata dal vento sulla superficie dellimpalcato,
costituiscono fenomeni molto complessi, fortemente
SUI PONTI
dipendenti dalla forma dellimpalcato e dei suoi
elementi dalla presenza e dalla distanza di un
eventuale impalcato affiancato, dalla presenza e dalla
distribuzione di veicoli o convogli in transito. La
letteratura tecnico-scientifica su questa materia
tuttora carente di dati sperimentali e di criteri di
calcolo applicabili, in termini generali
e con sufficiente confidenza, in sede di progetto e/o di
verifica.
In assenza di analisi e valutazioni specifiche pi
approfondite, i criteri forniti dal presente paragrafo
vanno quindi interpretati come pure indicazioni
preliminari, generalmente a favore di sicurezza; in
nessun caso essi rappresentano richieste vincolanti.
Sono applicabili a impalcati da ponte a sezione
costante lungo la linea dasse, limitatamente alle
tipologie riportate in Figura G.54, per ponti a luce
singola o multipla, purch di lunghezza non superiore
a 200 m.
La dimensione di
Nel caso di ponti stradali in presenza di traffico, si riferimento l pari
assume che lingombro della sagoma dei veicoli alla larghezza d
in transito abbia unaltezza pari a 3 m, lungo tutto lo dellimpalcato.
sviluppo del ponte.
Nel caso di ponti ferroviari in presenza di traffico, si
assume che lingombro della sagoma dei convogli
in transito abbia unaltezza pari a 4 m, lungo tutto lo
sviluppo del ponte.

FORZE DEL VENTO SUI PONTI
I COEFICIENTI Cfx SONO

MINORI DI QUELLI FORNITI
DALLEC1 MA AL POSTO
DELLALTEZZA
DELLIMPALCATO CE LA
LARGHEZZA. INOLTRE VIENE
FORNITO DIRETTAMENTE IL
MOMENTO TORCENTE E NON
UNA FORZA CON UNA CERTA
ECCENTRICITA

STEEL BRIDGES LECTURE ON ACTIONS

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

STEEL BRIDGES LECTURE ON ACTIONS

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

UNIVERSITA DEGLI STUDI DI NAPOLI

Prof. Vincenzo Piluso, PhD, MSc, BSc

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 2/66

Correct prediction of self weight Increase of useful load (SDL+LL)

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 3/66

Wearing surface made of

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 4/66

Load models are based on probabilistic analyses and, generally, do not

The following properties can be recognized:

EN 1991-2 Eurocode 1: Actions on structures Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 6/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 7/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 8/66

Load Model 1 (LM1): concentrated and distributed loads covering traffic

Load Model 3 (LM3): A set of assemblies of axle loads representing special

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 9/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 10/66

The characteristic values of Qk and qk include dynamic amplification (i.e.

LM2 consists of a single axle load QQak Qak = 400kN

When relevant only one wheel may be taken into account.

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 12/66

One or more of the models

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 14/66

a) On one notional traffic lane for b) On two adjacent notional lanes

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 15/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 16/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 17/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 18/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 19/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 20/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 21/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 22/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 23/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 24/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 25/66

a) Fatigue Load Models 1, 2 and 3 are intended to be used to determine the

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 26/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 27/66

FATIGUE LOAD MODEL 2

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 28/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 29/66

The calculations should be based on the following procedure :

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 30/66

DYNAMIC LOAD AMPLIFICATION FOR FLMs

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 31/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 32/66

Its value, including dynamic amplification, is:

r = horizontal radius of the carriagewa y centreline

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 34/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 35/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 36/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 37/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 38/66

Actions on pedestrian parapets

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 39/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 40/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 44/66

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 45/66

Representative values of thermal actions are suggested by EN 1991-1-5 by the uniform

The uniform temperature component depends on the minimum and maximum

The following effects should be taken into account where relevant:

Prof. V. Piluso - Steel Bridges Lecture N.2 46/66