Nat Hazards

DOI 10.1007/s11069-016-2712-3

ORIGINAL PAPER

Estimation of seismic hazard in Odisha by remote

sensing and GIS techniques

S. Dhar1 A. K. Rai1 P. Nayak1

Received: 18 April 2016 / Accepted: 28 November 2016

Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2016

Abstract This paper determines the risk of earthquake hazard due to amplification of seismic
waves in coastal Odisha. Seismic hazards has been estimated by analysis of geomorpho-
logical features and thickness of unconsolidated soil cover. Areas with quaternary to recent
deposits have great potential to amplify intensity of seismic waves and consequently the -
ground motion. Morphometric analysis of the DEM data has been conducted to identify areas
with high potential of accumulation of unconsolidated sediment, and other parameters that
influence deposit of loose, unconsolidated soil in the region. Weighted overlay method has
been used to create soil amplification susceptibility map for the coastal Odisha. The Mahanadi
basin shows dominant structural control on seismic activity. Lineament patterns are mostly
directed in the WNWESE, NESW and NNWSSE directions and may induce elongation of
isoseismic patterns. The analysis also shows that the western, northern and middle parts of the
study region have low to moderate susceptibility whereas the coastal Odisha have high
susceptibility for seismic amplification due to thick unconsolidated sediment accumulation.

Keywords Seismic hazard  Soil amplification  GIS  Lineament  Odisha

1 Introduction

The state of Odisha has a number of ancient historical sites and monuments, and is a major
center of economic and cultural activity in the central-eastern India. Although the region is
seismically not very active ancient faults and the Gondwana rift basins are major source of
intra-cratonic seismicity (Gupta et al. 2014). Earthquakes of low to moderate magnitude
are often reported by various agencies in the region. The risk of seismic hazard in coastal
Odisha is mainly due to intra-cratonic seismicity and earthquakes in the Bay of Bengal.

& P. Nayak
pn11@iitbbs.ac.in
1
School of Earth, Ocean and Climate Science, Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar, Khurda,
Odisha, India

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Most of the damage during an earthquake is caused by intense ground shaking and
building collapse. The intensity of ground motion depends on near-surface geology
including lithology and structural features. Unconsolidated soil causes local amplification of
ground motion. Alluvium deposits usually amplify the seismic waves more than hard rock
terrains during an earthquake (Giulio et al. 2011). Amplification of shear waves by soft soil
and sediments are explained by trapping of seismic energy between unconsolidated sediment
and hard rock. Lateral and vertical heterogeneity in composition, strength and thickness of
unconsolidated sediment can also be a major cause for trapping seismic energy that results in
resonance due to interference of shear waves in the shallow subsurface (Ehret and Hannich
2004). Saturation of groundwater in porous formation also controls ground shaking and
liquefaction potential in a region. In situ pore water pressure plays major roles in liquefaction
mechanism during an earthquake. Therefore, groundwater accumulation in unconsolidated
sediments raises the probability of liquefaction. Morphologic basins and depressions with
area less than 10 slope gradient and less than zero curvature generally contains young
unconsolidated soil and sediments (Theilen-Willige 2010). These areas can effectively
amplify seismic waves and produce liquefaction. Compact fault zones with distinct seg-
ments can cause dispersion of seismic energy, whereas intersecting fault zones may induce
constructive interference of seismic waves at the boundaries between fault zones and sur-
rounding rocks. Thus, fault segments, their bends and intersection are more prone to con-
centration of stress and amplify seismic waves. Older lineaments such as faults, fractures and
shear zones may also be reactivated by earthquakes and can cause formation of secondary
faults and topographic scarp. These features can control major local macro-seismic pattern
as well as ground failure and slope instability. Lineaments create elongation of isoseismic
patterns, whereas pervasive lineaments influence propagation direction of seismic waves on
regional scale. Most of the joint plane and micro-faults follow patterns of lineaments. Rock
full of joints and faults can have an adverse effect in terms of poor seismic responses
compare to the soft sediment seismic amplification. Shear waves generated during an
earthquake split into two components while propagating through a fractured rock. Polar-
ization of fast and slow shear waves are parallel to the strike of fractures and perpendicular to
that, respectively. The slow wave attenuates in time and energy proportional to the fracture
density (Crampin 1981). Thus, there is a tendency of elongated accumulation of seismic
energy in faults, lineaments and quaternary sediment. Further, heterogeneities present in the
crust can also cause focusing and defocusing of seismic energy in a region (Rai 2016).
Very few studies for estimation of site effects for Odisha (Gupta et al. 2014; Mohanty et al.
2009) are available. They have primarily considered soil thickness as a major parameter. In
this study, geological and structural information have also been integrated to remote sensing
and GIS method to better understand seismic amplification in the region. The main objectives
of this study are to identify potential areas of accumulation of unconsolidated sediments and
to estimate seismic amplification susceptibility, and its spatial variation in Odisha. The
method is efficient, cost-effective and covers a large area in a short duration. Use of remote
sensing and GIS adds a new dimension in seismic hazard studies.

2 Study region

The study area (Fig. 1a) lies in the eastern part of Odisha. Major geological features
(Fig. 1b) comprises of Singhbhum craton in north, Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt (EGMB) in
south, Mahanadi basin in middle and coastal region in eastern part. Singhbhum craton
contains 3.5 Ga supracrustal succession (Mukhopadhyay et al. 2008) and is intruded by

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Fig. 1 a Location of study area in the map of India (modified from BIS 1893-2002), b geology of coastal
Odisha in and around seismic zone III

3.33.1 Ga Singhbhum Granite (Tait et al. 2011; Mazumder et al. 2012). South of
Singhbhum craton lies a distinct terrain called Rengali province which has low-grade
Malaygiri and Tikra assemblages, and the amphibolites facies rocks (Mahalik 1994).
EGMB comprises of migmatitic gneisses which host the granulite facies meta-sedimentary
and meta-igneous rocks (Gupta 2012). Mahanadi basin lies EW of Odisha and is sand-
wiched between Singhbhum craton and EGMB. It is structurally a half-graben and contains
lots of normal faults and sediment of Gondwana age. Northern Odisha Boundary Fault
(NOBF), trending WNWESE, lies in between Singhbhum craton and Mahanadi basin.
NOBF is of late paleozoic and parallel to the structure of north EGMB. Thus, reactivation
of NOBF and associate faults implies tectonic origin of the basin (Mukhopadhayay et al.
1984). Talchir basin lies along NOBF and contains Kerajang fault, a part of NOBF.
Coastal Odisha has been affected by earthquakes and intraplate seismicity in the Bay of
Bengal. Seismic wave amplification in this region due to soft sediment deposits can
increase the damages (Levchenko 1989; Rai et al. 2015). In the continental part,

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particularly the Mahanadi graben area is affected by earthquakes generated due to tectonic
movement of faults (Fig. 2). BonagarhTalchir area experienced moderate-sized earth-
quakes (M *5 and 4.8) in May 1995 and June 1995 respectively, and two more earth-
quakes of magnitude 5.2 (1958 and 1962) within 50 km radius of the Rengali province.
Earthquakes of magnitude 4.4 and 4.1 were reported in January 1986, and another earth-
quake of magnitude 4.3 was reported in 1993 south of NOBF in Talchir basin. A temporary
micro-earthquake network of four stations established by Geological Survey of India
recorded a number of low-magnitude earthquakes in BonagarhTalchir area. Most of the
hypocenters of these earthquakes are north of NOBF indicating recent tectonic activity.
Odisha falls in seismic zone II and III according to seismic zonation map of India. Most
parts of Odisha are in seismic zone II, whereas narrow strip lies in seismic zone III and
include places such as Bhubaneswar, Cuttack, Angul, Talchir, Sambalpur, Dhenkanal and
parts of Balasore district. A recent study of probabilistic seismic hazard (Jaiswal and Sinha
2006) provides probabilistic peak ground acceleration (PGA) estimates in the region.

3 Data and methodology

Several types of data were used to produce susceptibility map of seismic energy ampli-
fication due to loose soil and soft sediments. Various thematic layers such as slope gra-
dient, curvature, height level and flow accumulation maps were created from ASTER DEM
(30 m resolution) and SRTM (30 m resolution) data. Lithology and fault zone maps were
extracted from DEM data and GSI-published maps. The digitized data were merged with

Fig. 2 Location of major earthquakes (yellow and green circles) in the study area reported by the
monitoring agencies (USGS, IMD)

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features published in geological maps of Geological survey of India (GSI), and other
sources (Gupta et al. 2014). Earthquake data from 1963 to 2014, PGA contours and seismic
zonation maps have also been used from USGS online catalogue and other published
sources (Jaiswal and Sinha 2006). Various image processing techniques such as surface
analysis, hydrologic analysis and filtering were applied to the data. Morphometric analysis
(Theilen-Willige 2010) has been used to study spatial sediment accumulation tendency
across seismically active zone of Odisha and surroundings. Figure 3 shows a schematic
flowchart of morphometric analysis to produce the susceptibility map.

3.1 Slope, curvature, elevation, lithology and flow accumulation

Slope gradient and curvature maps were generated from DEM data using slope and
curvature option of spatial analysis tool provided in ArcMap 10.2. Slope gradient layer
shows the variation of slope in degree, and it was reclassified into six classes with a new
class value from 1 to 6. Curvature layer shows variation in shape of topography on a scale
ranging from negative to positive. It was reclassified into six classes (2 classes of positive,
1 class of zero and 3 classes of negative curvature) with new class value from 1 to 6. DEM
data show an elevation range of -1 to 1505 m in the study region. It was reclassified into
five groups with different elevations such as -1 to 5, 510, 1020, 20100, 100500 and
5001505 m. Lithology map was prepared by digitization technique from geological map
of Odisha published by GSI, India. Mesozoic laterite deposit is also included for its
unconsolidated nature (Central Groundwater Information Booklet). The map was reclas-
sified into four classes with new class values from 1 to 4 on the basis of sediment type.
Flow accumulation raster layer was prepared from DEM data by using Hydrology tool of
spatial analysis toolbox in ArcMap. Pixels with greater than 1e?7 in single domain value
were selected for the requirements (higher-value range of flow accumulation). All the
reclassified layers were saved in GRID format raster layer.

Fig. 3 Schematic flowchart of procedure for generating susceptibility map by morphometric analysis

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3.2 Lineaments

The presence of tectonic structures such as linear features can influence seismic and
geological hazards by secondary effects such as unusual seismic amplification and cor-
responding building collapse. Lineaments are structural linear features which can be ridge,
valley, faults, fractures, fault scraps, etc. Lineament extraction was carried out by two
different methods, first by extraction of lineaments in terms of ridge and fault scarps called
as morpho-lineaments (Fig. 4a) and then by extraction of structural faults (Fig. 4b).

3.2.1 Morpho-lineaments

Fault scarps, ridgelines and topographic discontinuities are considered morpho-lineaments.

Implementation of filter operation is useful in image enhancement (Jordan et al. 2005). An
edge-enhancing filter can enhance the break in continuity, change in gradient or a structural
linear feature. Lineaments in terms of structural lines can be extracted from edge-enhanced
image. Zones of abrupt change of slope gradient in DEM data can be identified as fault
scarps and ridgelines. Top and base of the escarpment can be identified for fault scarps.
Sharp contact in topographic discontinuities is the best fit for its identification. An edge
detection filter, Sobel filter of 3 9 3 kernel matrix, was applied to enhance these zones in
slope gradient maps. Threshold put into that is 5%. Shaded relief map for illumination of
NorthSouth and EastWest was generated and filtered by a gradient filter of x-direction
and y-direction, respectively. Produced images were combined together. Visual identifi-
cation of morpho-lineaments was carried out which helped to produce the morpho-linea-
ment map. The lineaments detected during the interpretation process were digitized as
vector layer. Orientation in terms of azimuth was calculated, and a rose diagram was
generated.

Fig. 4 Schematic flowchart indicating procedure for extracting morpho-lineament and fault map

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3.2.2 Fault

ASTER DEM, Landsat, ETM 7? data and pre-published geological map (Stefouli and
Osmaston 1986; Ali and Pirasteh 2004) were used for extraction of faults. Fault lines from
geological maps were digitized and stored in vector file. The sudden shifts of drainage
courses and tectonic contact between certain geological formations were used as auxiliary
data. Steep slope ([30) can be indicator of fault scarps formed by normal faulting. Slope
gradient layer generated from ASTER data with a threshold of 30 slope was used. Gra-
dient NS, gradient EW, Sobel horizontal and Sobel vertical filters were applied to four
images which were then integrated and a visual identification process was carried out.
Band 4 (NIR) and Band 3 (Red) data from Landsat ETM7 were used to produce vegetation
map. Those data were corrected geometrically and in contrast by histogram equalizer.
NDVI (Normalized Differential Vegetation Index) was calculated by using Band 4 and
Band 3 layers.
NDVI Band 4  Band 3=Band 4 Band 3
Visual interpretation was carried out on the basis of sudden jump in index over linear
contact. A possible fault from both DEM and Landsat data analyses and geological map
has been combined to produce fault map. Orientation in terms of azimuth was recorded for
the fault lines and was used to generate a rose diagram. Morpho-lineament and possible
faults are represented by rose diagram.

3.3 Extraction of causal factors

All the thematic layers were reclassified on the basis of certain criteria. Classes from each
layer which has optimum contribution for seismic energy amplification were chosen as
causal factors such as (1) slope gradient less than 10 from slope gradient map, (2) zero
curvature from curvature map, (3) 010 m elevation from height level map, (4) quaternary
to recent sediment from lithology map and (5) flow accumulation greater than 1e?07 from
flow accumulation map. Classes with causal factors were given more priority in terms of
highest class value in reclassification.
Slope gradient controls the stability of young unconsolidated sediment. Flat areas with
less than 10 slope show greater accumulation. Curvature controls the deposition of young
unconsolidated sediment. Negative curvature (concave surface) and zero curvature (plain
surface) tend to accumulate more unconsolidated sediment (Theilen-Willige 2010). Height
level maps can find the topographic depressions covered of almost recently formed sedi-
ments. It shows the coastal areas and alluvium river sections as topographic depression
which has modal heights of 10 m. These areas are expected to have higher groundwater
tables and can turn out to be more hazardous for an earthquake (Schneider 2004).
Unconsolidated quaternary sediments are highly porous and generally contain ground-
water. The alluvium deposits of Odisha are also young and unconsolidated of recent age.
Quaternary to recent deposits are the causal factors and are extracted from the lithology
map. Flow accumulation has young unconsolidated deposits as it involves with sediment
transport and high groundwater table (single domain value greater than 1e?7 has been
selected to obtain higher-value ranges from 1e?7 to maximum).

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3.4 Data integration

3.4.1 Determination of weight percentage

Weighted overlay method is best fit for area which has pre-determined certain sitting
criteria with some limitations (Jansssen and Rietveld 1990). This study tried to find a
solution to the limitations in weighted overlay method for multiple parameters by using
experimental method. Influence percentage of four components such as slope gradient,
curvature, height level and lithology was represented by S, C, H and Q, respectively.
Change in assemblage of influence percentage of these components causes variation in
susceptibility map. Assemblage of these four parameters with certain influence percentage
can be represented as a point on ternary diagram whose vertices are SC, Q and H (Fig. 5a).
Ratio of curvature to slope is considered as one parameter (SC). The area with young
sediment cover must have lower slope gradient with variable curvature. Thus, slope gra-
dient influence will always be equal or higher than curvature influence. Therefore, SC can
range from 1 to 0. Experimental generation of susceptibility map has been conducted with
assemblage points, followed by filtering on the basis of some criteria that led to the
assemblage points of suitable class. Every point on tertiary diagram shows a different
assemblage. All possible assemblages are classified on the basis of certain criteria such as
1. Lacustrine or lagoonal sediment must be in upper class. It has maximum susceptibility
due to 0 slope, plain curvature and young unconsolidated sediment.
2. Lacustrine sediment in higher height level and lagoonal sediment in lower height level
must be in different class. They have similar slope and curvature but differ in height
level.
3. Flow-accumulated area in higher height level has low susceptibility than that of lower
height level.
On the basis of these criteria, all assemblages are classified. Assemblages which produce
five classes and have lacustrine in maximum susceptible class followed by lagoonal sed-
iment whose flow-accumulated area of east coast and that of northern part is in different
class are taken as appropriate class. Mean of assemblages of the appropriate class has been
used to produce the susceptibility map. Resultant assemblages are further filtered on the
basis of relations between parameters which are slope, curvature, height level and qua-
ternary sediment.
1. Influence of slope is greater than influence of lithology and height level. Area with
high slope cannot be covered with unconsolidated quaternary deposits and is almost
susceptible to all height levels or susceptibility triggered by static groundwater.
Weight % of slope (S) [ weight % of lithology (Q) and height level (H)
2. Influence of curvature is greater than influence of lithology and height level. The area
with only negative to zero curvature will be covered by unconsolidated sediment,
contains both quaternary and recent deposits and is almost susceptible to all height
level or static groundwater level.
Weight % of curvature (C) [ weight % of lithology (Q) and height level (H)
3. Higher slope with all possible curvature is not susceptible to unconsolidated
accumulation, but positive slope may be covered with thin veneer of unconsolidated

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Fig. 5 a Ternary plot indicating influence of slopecurvature, quaternary deposit and height in total
assemblage, b 3D ternary plot of appropriate class influence percentage. Vertical axis shows the change in
curvature-to-slope ratio (C/S) ranges from 0 to 1

sediment in the area of low slope gradient. So the slope comes first into consideration
than curvature.
Weight % of slope (S) C weight % of curvature (C).

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Experimental results in this study show that C/S ratio ranges from 0.14 to 1.
Suitable class for the generation of susceptibility map in 3D ternary diagram (Fig. 5b)
shows that the mean of Q = 10, H = 23, C = 32, S = 35 (SC = 67) and C/S = 0.9 and
standard deviation of Q = 5.24, H = 6.4, SC = 2.67 and C/S = 0.19. Susceptibility map
for soil amplification was generated with the mean.

3.4.2 Evaluation of susceptibility map

Slope gradient, curvature, height level and quaternary maps were reclassified and appro-
priate weight percentage was provided to each layer according to their estimated influence
percentage for seismic amplification. Influence percentage of slope gradient map, curvature
map, height level map and lithology map were considered as 35, 32, 23 and 10%,
respectively. All these maps were then integrated (Fig. 6) by weighted overlay technique in
ArcGIS to produce the susceptibility map (Carver 1991; Balachandar et al. 2010; Riad
et al. 2011). This resultant susceptibility map has been divided into five classes on the basis
of resultant pixel values. The map shows the spatial variation of tendency for accumulation
of unconsolidated sediments.
Lesser standard deviation of influence percentage in weighted overlay method shows
the effectiveness of the appropriate classification. Higher standard deviation in C/S ratio
indicates that a range of influence percentage for slope and curvature can produce similar
susceptibility map.

4 Results and discussions

Seismic zone map of Odisha from Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS 18932002 ) shows
that the region belongs to seismic zone II except a narrow section of zone III (Fig. 7)
trending NWSE direction across the central part which includes mostly Mahanadi rift
valley of Gondwana deposits. Probabilistic estimation on the basis of seismic activities in

Fig. 6 Schematic diagram of integrating various layers by weighted overlay technique to generate
susceptibility map

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peninsular India gives PGA corresponding to 10% exceedance probability in 50 years

(Jaiswal and Sinha 2006). This PGA contour divides the whole area into four major parts
with 06, 610, 1015 and 1520 g PGA values (Fig. 7).
The final susceptibility map obtained from this analysis has been classified into very
low, low, medium, high and very high susceptible zones (Fig. 7). The map shows that the
areas with high susceptibility of seismic amplification are mostly confined to the eastern
coastal area of the study region. Low to moderate susceptible areas lie in the central,
northern and western part of Odisha, particularly in Mahanadi basin. To make a com-
parative study between these regions, two different areas A and B were selected (Fig. 7)
from the study region. A comparative study of susceptibility for both these regions in terms
of pixel values (Fig. 8) clearly shows that the area A is highly susceptible whereas area
B is lower to middle susceptible to seismic amplification. Area A was selected from
eastern coastal part and it accommodates Cuttack, Kendrapara and Bhubaneswar regions. It
includes lesser earthquake events and only neo-tectonic faults which have lower influence
on seismic activity. It also includes zones with lower PGA values such as 06, 610 and

Fig. 7 Susceptibility map for seismic amplification due to soft sediment in and around seismic zone III of
Odisha along with seismic zone map, PGA contour map, and location of selected area A and B

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Fig. 8 Susceptibility class distribution of area A and B in terms of pixel values

Table 1 Thickness of unconsolidated sediment layer at different location in Orissa. Source Central
Groundwater Information Booklet published by Central Groundwater Board of India
Bhubaneswar 3040 m Kandhamal 410 m
Kendrapara Up to 300 m Suvarnapur (Sonepur) 612 m
Cuttack Up to 300 m Boudh 410 m
Dhenkanal Up to 38 m Sambalpur 1012 m
Talchir 19 m Bolangir 612 m

1015 g. However, susceptibility map of this study indicates that the area is highly sus-
ceptible to amplification. This proves that the lower PGA values are due to lesser structural
features, whereas the higher seismic amplification is due to thicker unconsolidated layers in
the zone. Another area B was selected from northern and central part of the study region,
and it accommodates Talchir basin, Rengali province, Sambalpur and north of EGMB. It
includes seismic zone III, higher earthquake events and larger structural faults. Periodical
reactivation of these fault zones makes the area seismically active. It also includes zones
with higher PGA values compared to area A. However, susceptibility map of this study
shows that this area is middle to lower susceptible to soil amplification. This again indi-
cates that the higher PGA values are due to more structural events, whereas lower sus-
ceptibility for soil amplification is due to lesser unconsolidated soil thickness in this zone
comparative to zone A. It is validated with the thickness of existing unconsolidated
sediment layer data from CGWB (Table 1).
As the structural features and lithology play an important role for seismic activity in
zone B, this Mahanadi basin area has been selected for further lineament analysis
(Fig. 9). Orientation trends of lineaments including faults show three major directions of
WNWESE, NWSE and NNWSSE. The WNWESE lineaments including faults are
parallel to Mahanadi rift valley which indicates a normal fault event. NWSE lineaments
and its associate joints and fractures are parallel to EGMB trend which indicates the
existence of these faults before the formation of Mahanadi graben. NNWSSE lineaments
indicate the younger post-graben rifting event over the regions. Rose diagram of morpho-
lineament shows three modal directions of WNWESE, NWSE and NNWSSE, while
rose diagram of faults shows the same with more dominancy in WNWESE (Fig. 9b).

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Fig. 9 a Geology of area B (FL stands for fault line), b morpho-lineaments and fault line over area B.
Rose diagram shows orientation of the morpho-lineaments, faults and total lineaments

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Lineaments and their intersection can induce local site effect. Places near those intersec-
tions like Kulundi, GadkholTeranga, Charmal, Dantaribola, BaunsenDhulanda and
Tensa marked as A, B, C, D, E and F, respectively (Fig. 9b), are hazardous in case of
earthquakes.
The modal direction of lineament pattern is one of the causes for the elongation of
isoseismic pattern generated by an earthquake in one of the three directions (WNWESE,
NWSE and NNWSSE).This may be an explanation for S163E elongation of PGA
contour generated by the June 12, 2001, Chattisgarh earthquake (USGS Earthquake
archive) in area B and S109E elongation of RSR contour generated for Talchir basin,
Odisha (Mohanty et al. 2009).

5 Conclusion

This study shows spatial variation of local site effect over a broad region of Odisha. Site
effects have been classified on the basis of potential of soft sediment accumulation in the
region which leads to seismic amplification. The study indicates higher degree of control of
geological and structural features on seismic response in Mahanadi basin area. Active
lineaments and their intersections appear to control isoseismic elongation by earthquakes
in one of the three directions (WNWESE, NWSE and NNWSSE) in Mahanadi basin.
The study also indicates that coastal Odisha is more susceptible to soft sediment deposits
and hence can be highly affected in case of major earthquakes in the Bay of Bengal. The
weighted overlay method used in this study can also be applied to areas which have similar
or more complex structural and geological controls. The method and analysis proposed in
this study cover a large area in a short duration and are useful for performing reconnais-
sance study before conducting detailed geophysical studies for micro-zonation, and hazard
mitigation purpose.

Acknowledgements The work is completed at Indian Institute of Technology Bhubaneswar. The faculty
and research scholars of School of Earth, Ocean and Climate Sciences, IIT Bhubaneswar, are gratefully
acknowledged for their valuable suggestions during this work. The work was partially supported by projects
GP069, and SP088 to AKR.

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