Quantumentanglement

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Quantumentanglementisaphysicalphenomenonthatoccurswhenpairsor
groupsofparticlesaregeneratedorinteractinwayssuchthatthequantum
stateofeachparticlecannotbedescribedindependentlyoftheothers,even
whentheparticlesareseparatedbyalargedistanceinstead,aquantumstate
mustbedescribedforthesystemasawhole.

Measurementsofphysicalpropertiessuchasposition,momentum,spin,and
polarization,performedonentangledparticlesarefoundtobeappropriately
correlated.Forexample,ifapairofparticlesaregeneratedinsuchawaythat
theirtotalspinisknowntobezero,andoneparticleisfoundtohaveclockwise
spinonacertainaxis,thespinoftheotherparticle,measuredonthesameaxis,
willbefoundtobecounterclockwise,astobeexpectedduetotheir
entanglement.However,thisbehaviorgivesrisetoparadoxicaleffects:any
measurementofapropertyofaparticlecanbeseenasactingonthatparticle
(e.g.,bycollapsinganumberofsuperposedstates)andwillchangethe
Spontaneousparametricdown
originalquantumpropertybysomeunknownamountandinthecaseof
conversionprocesscansplit
entangledparticles,suchameasurementwillbeontheentangledsystemasa
photonsintotypeIIphotonpairs
whole.Itthusappearsthatoneparticleofanentangledpair"knows"what
withmutuallyperpendicular
measurementhasbeenperformedontheother,andwithwhatoutcome,even
polarization.
thoughthereisnoknownmeansforsuchinformationtobecommunicated
betweentheparticles,whichatthetimeofmeasurementmaybeseparatedby
arbitrarilylargedistances.

Suchphenomenawerethesubjectofa1935paperbyAlbertEinstein,BorisPodolsky,andNathanRosen,[1]and
severalpapersbyErwinSchrdingershortlythereafter,[2][3]describingwhatcametobeknownastheEPR
paradox.Einsteinandothersconsideredsuchbehaviortobeimpossible,asitviolatedthelocalrealistviewof
causality(Einsteinreferringtoitas"spookyactionatadistance")[4]andarguedthattheacceptedformulationof
quantummechanicsmustthereforebeincomplete.Later,however,thecounterintuitivepredictionsofquantum
mechanicswereverifiedexperimentally.[5]Experimentshavebeenperformedinvolvingmeasuringthepolarization
orspinofentangledparticlesindifferentdirections,whichbyproducingviolationsofBell'sinequality
demonstratestatisticallythatthelocalrealistviewcannotbecorrect.Thishasbeenshowntooccurevenwhenthe
measurementsareperformedmorequicklythanlightcouldtravelbetweenthesitesofmeasurement:thereisno
lightspeedorslowerinfluencethatcanpassbetweentheentangledparticles.[6]Recentexperimentshavemeasured
entangledparticleswithinlessthanonehundredthofapercentofthetraveltimeoflightbetweenthem.[7]
Accordingtotheformalismofquantumtheory,theeffectofmeasurementhappensinstantly.[8][9]Itisnotpossible,
however,tousethiseffecttotransmitclassicalinformationatfasterthanlightspeeds[10](seeFasterthanlight
Quantummechanics).

Quantumentanglementisanareaofextremelyactiveresearchbythephysicscommunity,anditseffectshavebeen
demonstratedexperimentallywithphotons,[11][12][13][14]neutrinos,[15]electrons,[16][17]moleculesthesizeof
buckyballs,[18][19]andevensmalldiamonds.[20][21]Researchisalsofocusedontheutilizationofentanglement
effectsincommunicationandcomputation.

Contents
1 History
2 Concept
2.1 Meaningofentanglement
2.2 Paradox
2.3 Hiddenvariablestheory
2.4 ViolationsofBell'sinequality
2.5 Othertypesofexperiments
2.6 Mysteryoftime
2.7 Sourceforthearrowoftime
3 Nonlocalityandentanglement
4 Quantummechanicalframework
4.1 Purestates
4.2 Ensembles
4.3 Reduceddensitymatrices
4.4 Twoapplicationsthatusethem
 4.5 Entropy
4.6 Entanglementmeasures
4.7 Quantumfieldtheory
5 Applications
5.1 Entangledstates
5.2 Methodsofcreatingentanglement
5.3 Testingasystemforentanglement
6 Naturallyentangledsystems
7 Seealso
8 References
9 Furtherreading
10 Externallinks

History
Thecounterintuitivepredictionsofquantummechanicsaboutstrongly
correlatedsystemswerefirstdiscussedbyAlbertEinsteinin1935,inajoint
paperwithBorisPodolskyandNathanRosen.[1]Inthisstudy,theyformulated
theEPRparadox(Einstein,Podolsky,Rosenparadox),athoughtexperiment
thatattemptedtoshowthatquantummechanicaltheorywasincomplete.They
wrote:"Wearethusforcedtoconcludethatthequantummechanical
descriptionofphysicalrealitygivenbywavefunctionsisnotcomplete."[1]

However,theydidnotcointhewordentanglement,nordidtheygeneralizethe
specialpropertiesofthestatetheyconsidered.FollowingtheEPRpaper,
ErwinSchrdingerwrotealetter(inGerman)toEinsteininwhichheusedthe
wordVerschrnkung(translatedbyhimselfasentanglement)"todescribethe
correlationsbetweentwoparticlesthatinteractandthenseparate,asinthe
EPRexperiment."[22]Heshortlythereafterpublishedaseminalpaperdefining May4,1935NewYorkTimes
anddiscussingthenotion,andtermingit"entanglement."Inthepaperhe articleheadlineregardingthe
recognizedtheimportanceoftheconcept,andstated:[2]"Iwouldnotcall imminentEPRpaper
[entanglement]onebutratherthecharacteristictraitofquantummechanics,
theonethatenforcesitsentiredeparturefromclassicallinesofthought."

LikeEinstein,Schrdingerwasdissatisfiedwiththeconceptofentanglement,becauseitseemedtoviolatethe
speedlimitonthetransmissionofinformationimplicitinthetheoryofrelativity.[23]Einsteinlaterfamously
deridedentanglementas"spukhafteFernwirkung"[24]or"spookyactionatadistance."

TheEPRpapergeneratedsignificantinterestamongphysicistsandinspiredmuchdiscussionaboutthefoundations
ofquantummechanics(perhapsmostfamouslyBohm'sinterpretationofquantummechanics),butproduced
relativelylittleotherpublishedwork.So,despitetheinterest,theweakpointinEPR'sargumentwasnotdiscovered
until1964,whenJohnStewartBellprovedthatoneoftheirkeyassumptions,theprincipleoflocality,which
underliesthekindofhiddenvariablesinterpretationhopedforbyEPR,wasmathematicallyinconsistentwiththe
predictionsofquantumtheory.Specifically,hedemonstratedanupperlimit,seeninBell'sinequality,regardingthe
strengthofcorrelationsthatcanbeproducedinanytheoryobeyinglocalrealism,andheshowedthatquantum
theorypredictsviolationsofthislimitforcertainentangledsystems.[25]Hisinequalityisexperimentallytestable,
andtherehavebeennumerousrelevantexperiments,startingwiththepioneeringworkofStuartFreedmanand
JohnClauserin1972[26]andAlainAspect'sexperimentsin1982,[27]allofwhichhaveshownagreementwith
quantummechanicsratherthantheprincipleoflocalrealism.Untilrecentlyeachhadleftopenatleastone
loopholebywhichitwaspossibletoquestionthevalidityoftheresults.However,in2015thefirstloopholefree
experimentwasperformed,whichruledoutalargeclassoflocalrealismtheorieswithcertainty.[28]

TheworkofBellraisedthepossibilityofusingthesesuperstrongcorrelationsasaresourceforcommunication.It
ledtothediscoveryofquantumkeydistributionprotocols,mostfamouslyBB84byCharlesH.BennettandGilles
Brassard[29]andE91byArturEkert.[30]AlthoughBB84doesnotuseentanglement,Ekert'sprotocolusesthe
violationofaBell'sinequalityasaproofofsecurity.

Concept
Meaningofentanglement
Anentangledsystemisdefinedtobeonewhosequantumstatecannotbefactoredasaproductofstatesofitslocal
constituentsthatistosay,theyarenotindividualparticlesbutareaninseparablewhole.Inentanglement,one
constituentcannotbefullydescribedwithoutconsideringtheother(s).Notethatthestateofacompositesystemis
alwaysexpressibleasasum,orsuperposition,ofproductsofstatesoflocalconstituentsitisentangledifthissum
necessarilyhasmorethanoneterm.

Quantumsystemscanbecomeentangledthroughvarioustypesofinteractions.Forsomewaysinwhich
entanglementmaybeachievedforexperimentalpurposes,seethesectionbelowonmethods.Entanglementis
brokenwhentheentangledparticlesdecoherethroughinteractionwiththeenvironmentforexample,whena
measurementismade.[31]

Asanexampleofentanglement:asubatomicparticledecaysintoanentangledpairofotherparticles.Thedecay
eventsobeythevariousconservationlaws,andasaresult,themeasurementoutcomesofonedaughterparticle
mustbehighlycorrelatedwiththemeasurementoutcomesoftheotherdaughterparticle(sothatthetotalmomenta,
angularmomenta,energy,andsoforthremainsroughlythesamebeforeandafterthisprocess).Forinstance,a
spinzeroparticlecoulddecayintoapairofspinparticles.Sincethetotalspinbeforeandafterthisdecaymust
bezero(conservationofangularmomentum),wheneverthefirstparticleismeasuredtobespinuponsomeaxis,
theother,whenmeasuredonthesameaxis,isalwaysfoundtobespindown.(Thisiscalledthespinanti
correlatedcaseandifthepriorprobabilitiesformeasuringeachspinareequal,thepairissaidtobeinthesinglet
state.)

Thespecialpropertyofentanglementcanbebetterobservedifweseparatethesaidtwoparticles.Let'sputoneof
themintheWhiteHouseinWashingtonandtheotherinUCBerkeley(thinkaboutthisasathoughtexperiment,
notanactualone).Now,ifwemeasureaparticularcharacteristicofoneoftheseparticles(say,forexample,spin),
getaresult,andthenmeasuretheotherparticleusingthesamecriterion(spinalongthesameaxis),wefindthatthe
resultofthemeasurementofthesecondparticlewillmatch(inacomplementarysense)theresultofthe
measurementofthefirstparticle,inthattheywillbeoppositeintheirvalues.

Theaboveresultmayormaynotbeperceivedassurprising.Aclassicalsystemwoulddisplaythesameproperty,
andahiddenvariabletheory(seebelow)wouldcertainlyberequiredtodoso,basedonconservationofangular
momentuminclassicalandquantummechanicsalike.Thedifferenceisthataclassicalsystemhasdefinitevalues
foralltheobservablesallalong,whilethequantumsystemdoesnot.Inasensetobediscussedbelow,thequantum
systemconsideredhereseemstoacquireaprobabilitydistributionfortheoutcomeofameasurementofthespin
alonganyaxisoftheotherparticleuponmeasurementofthefirstparticle.Thisprobabilitydistributionisin
generaldifferentfromwhatitwouldbewithoutmeasurementofthefirstparticle.Thismaycertainlybeperceived
assurprisinginthecaseofspatiallyseparatedentangledparticles.

Paradox

Theparadoxisthatameasurementmadeoneitheroftheparticlesapparentlycollapsesthestateoftheentire
entangledsystemanddoessoinstantaneously,beforeanyinformationaboutthemeasurementresultcouldhave
beencommunicatedtotheotherparticle(assumingthatinformationcannottravelfasterthanlight)andhence
assuredthe"proper"outcomeofthemeasurementoftheotherpartoftheentangledpair.Inthequantum
formalism,theresultofaspinmeasurementononeoftheparticlesisacollapseintoastateinwhicheachparticle
hasadefinitespin(eitherupordown)alongtheaxisofmeasurement.Theoutcomeistakentoberandom,with
eachpossibilityhavingaprobabilityof50%.However,ifbothspinsaremeasuredalongthesameaxis,theyare
foundtobeanticorrelated.Thismeansthattherandomoutcomeofthemeasurementmadeononeparticleseems
tohavebeentransmittedtotheother,sothatitcanmakethe"rightchoice"whenittooismeasured.[32]

Thedistanceandtimingofthemeasurementscanbechosensoastomaketheintervalbetweenthetwo
measurementsspacelike,hence,amessageconnectingtheeventswouldhavetotravelfasterthanlight.According
totheprinciplesofspecialrelativity,itisnotpossibleforanyinformationtotravelbetweentwosuchmeasuring
events.Itisnotevenpossibletounambiguouslysaywhichofthemeasurementscamefirst.Fortwospacelike
separatedeventsx1andx2thereareinertialframesinwhichx1isfirstandothersinwhichx2isfirst.Therefore,
thecorrelationbetweenthetwomeasurementscannotappropriatelybeexplainedasonemeasurementdetermining
theother.Differentobserverswoulddisagreeabouttheroleofcauseandeffect.

Inconclusion,theresultshowsthatitisquiteimpossibleforthemeasurementofoneparticle'spropertiesto
determinetheother'sproperties,eventhoughitseemsthatwayatfirst,asthespeedoflightistheuniversalspeed
limit,andnothingcantravelfasterthanthatspeed.

Hiddenvariablestheory

Apossibleresolutiontotheparadoxistoassumethatquantumtheoryisincomplete,andtheresultof
measurementsdependsonpredetermined"hiddenvariables".[33]Thestateoftheparticlesbeingmeasuredcontains
somehiddenvariables,whosevalueseffectivelydetermine,rightfromthemomentofseparation,whatthe
outcomesofthespinmeasurementsaregoingtobe.Thiswouldmeanthateachparticlecarriesalltherequired
informationwithit,andnothingneedstobetransmittedfromoneparticletotheotheratthetimeofmeasurement.
Einsteinandothers(seetheprevioussection)originallybelievedthiswastheonlywayoutoftheparadox,andthe
acceptedquantummechanicaldescription(witharandommeasurementoutcome)mustbeincomplete.(Infact
similarparadoxescanariseevenwithoutentanglement:thepositionofasingleparticleisspreadoutoverspace,
andtwowidelyseparateddetectorsattemptingtodetecttheparticleintwodifferentplacesmustinstantaneously
attainappropriatecorrelation,sothattheydonotbothdetecttheparticle.)

ViolationsofBell'sinequality

Thehiddenvariablestheoryfails,however,whenweconsidermeasurementsofthespinofentangledparticles
alongdifferentaxes(forexample,alonganyofthreeaxesthatmakeanglesof120degrees).Ifalargenumberof
pairsofsuchmeasurementsaremade(onalargenumberofpairsofentangledparticles),thenstatistically,ifthe
localrealistorhiddenvariablesviewwerecorrect,theresultswouldalwayssatisfyBell'sinequality.Anumberof
experimentshaveshowninpracticethatBell'sinequalityisnotsatisfied.However,allexperimentshaveloophole
problems.[34][35]Whenmeasurementsoftheentangledparticlesaremadeinmovingrelativisticreferenceframes,
inwhicheachmeasurement(initsownrelativistictimeframe)occursbeforetheother,themeasurementresults
remaincorrelated.[36][37]

Thefundamentalissueaboutmeasuringspinalongdifferentaxesisthatthesemeasurementscannothavedefinite
valuesatthesametimetheyareincompatibleinthesensethatthesemeasurements'maximumsimultaneous
precisionisconstrainedbytheuncertaintyprinciple.Thisiscontrarytowhatisfoundinclassicalphysics,where
anynumberofpropertiescanbemeasuredsimultaneouslywitharbitraryaccuracy.Ithasbeenproven
mathematicallythatcompatiblemeasurementscannotshowBellinequalityviolatingcorrelations,[38]andthus
entanglementisafundamentallynonclassicalphenomenon.

Othertypesofexperiments

Inexperimentsin2012and2013,polarizationcorrelationwascreatedbetweenphotonsthatnevercoexistedin
time.[39][40]Theauthorsclaimedthatthisresultwasachievedbyentanglementswappingbetweentwopairsof
entangledphotonsaftermeasuringthepolarizationofonephotonoftheearlypair,andthatitprovesthatquantum
nonlocalityappliesnotonlytospacebutalsototime.

Inthreeindependentexperimentsin2013itwasshownthatclassicallycommunicatedseparablequantumstates
canbeusedtocarryentangledstates.[41]ThefirstloopholefreeBelltestwasheldinTUDelftin2015confirming
theviolationofBellinequality.[42]

InAugust2014,BrazilianresearcherGabrielaBarretoLemosandteamwereableto"takepictures"ofobjects
usingphotonsthathavenotinteractedwiththesubjects,butwereentangledwithphotonsthatdidinteractwith
suchobjects.Lemos,fromtheUniversityofVienna,isconfidentthatthisnewquantumimagingtechniquecould
findapplicationwherelowlightimagingisimperative,infieldslikebiologicalormedicalimaging.[43]

Mysteryoftime

Therehavebeensuggestionstolookattheconceptoftimeasanemergentphenomenonthatisasideeffectof
quantumentanglement.[44][45]Inotherwords,timeisanentanglementphenomenon,whichplacesallequalclock
readings(ofcorrectlypreparedclocks,orofanyobjectsusableasclocks)intothesamehistory.Thiswasfirstfully
theorizedbyDonPageandWilliamWoottersin1983.[46]TheWheelerDeWittequationthatcombinesgeneral
relativityandquantummechanicsbyleavingouttimealtogetherwasintroducedinthe1960sanditwastaken
upagainin1983,whenthetheoristsDonPageandWilliamWoottersmadeasolutionbasedonthequantum
phenomenonofentanglement.PageandWoottersarguedthatentanglementcanbeusedtomeasuretime.[47]

In2013,attheIstitutoNazionalediRicercaMetrologica(INRIM)inTurin,Italy,researchersperformedthefirst
experimentaltestofPageandWootters'ideas.Theirresulthasbeeninterpretedtoconfirmthattimeisanemergent
phenomenonforinternalobserversbutabsentforexternalobserversoftheuniversejustastheWheelerDeWitt
equationpredicts.[47]

Sourceforthearrowoftime

PhysicistSethLloydsaysthatquantumuncertaintygivesrisetoentanglement,theputativesourceofthearrowof
time.AccordingtoLloyd"Thearrowoftimeisanarrowofincreasingcorrelations."[48]Theapproachto
entanglementwouldbefromtheperspectiveofthecausalarrowoftime,withtheassumptionthatthecauseofthe
measurementofoneparticledeterminestheeffectoftheresultoftheotherparticle'smeasurement.
Nonlocalityandentanglement
Inthemediaandpopularscience,quantumnonlocalityisoftenportrayedasbeingequivalenttoentanglement.
Whileitistruethatapurebipartitequantumstatemustbeentangledinorderforittoproducenonlocal
correlations,thereexistentangledstatesthatdonotproducesuchcorrelations,andthereexistnonentangled
(separable)quantumstatesthatpresentsomenonlocalbehaviour.Awellknownexampleofthefirstcaseisthe
Wernerstatethatisentangledforcertainvaluesof ,butcanalwaysbedescribedusinglocalhidden
variables.[49]Inshort,entanglementofatwopartystateisnecessarybutnotsufficientforthatstatetobenon
local.Moreover,itwasshownthat,forarbitrarynumberofparty,thereexiststatesthataregenuinelyentangledbut
admitsafullylocalstrategy.Itisimportanttorecognizethatentanglementismorecommonlyviewedasan
algebraicconcept,notedforbeingaprecedenttononlocalityaswellastoquantumteleportationandto
superdensecoding,whereasnonlocalityisdefinedaccordingtoexperimentalstatisticsandismuchmoreinvolved
withthefoundationsandinterpretationsofquantummechanics.

Quantummechanicalframework
Thefollowingsubsectionsareforthosewithagoodworkingknowledgeoftheformal,mathematicaldescriptionof
quantummechanics,includingfamiliaritywiththeformalismandtheoreticalframeworkdevelopedinthearticles:
braketnotationandmathematicalformulationofquantummechanics.

Purestates

ConsidertwononinteractingsystemsAandB,withrespectiveHilbertspacesHAandHB.TheHilbertspaceofthe
compositesystemisthetensorproduct

Ifthefirstsystemisinstate andthesecondinstate ,thestateofthecompositesystemis

Statesofthecompositesystemthatcanberepresentedinthisformarecalledseparablestates,orproductstates.

Notallstatesareseparablestates(andthusproductstates).Fixabasis forHAandabasis forHB.The

mostgeneralstateinHAHBisoftheform

Thisstateisseparableifthereexistvectors sothat yielding and Itis

inseparableifforanyvectors atleastforonepairofcoordinates wehave Ifastateis
inseparable,itiscalledanentangledstate.

Forexample,giventwobasisvectors ofHAandtwobasisvectors ofHB,thefollowingisan

entangledstate:

Ifthecompositesystemisinthisstate,itisimpossibletoattributetoeithersystemAorsystemBadefinitepure
state.AnotherwaytosaythisisthatwhilethevonNeumannentropyofthewholestateiszero(asitisforanypure
state),theentropyofthesubsystemsisgreaterthanzero.Inthissense,thesystemsare"entangled".Thishas
specificempiricalramificationsforinterferometry.[50]Itisworthwhiletonotethattheaboveexampleisoneof
fourBellstates,whichare(maximally)entangledpurestates(purestatesoftheHAHBspace,butwhich
cannotbeseparatedintopurestatesofeachHAandHB).

NowsupposeAliceisanobserverforsystemA,andBobisanobserverforsystemB.Ifintheentangledstate
givenaboveAlicemakesameasurementinthe eigenbasisofA,therearetwopossibleoutcomes,occurring
withequalprobability:[51]

1.Alicemeasures0,andthestateofthesystemcollapsesto .
2.Alicemeasures1,andthestateofthesystemcollapsesto .
Iftheformeroccurs,thenanysubsequentmeasurementperformedbyBob,inthesamebasis,willalwaysreturn1.
Ifthelatteroccurs,(Alicemeasures1)thenBob'smeasurementwillreturn0withcertainty.Thus,systemBhas
beenalteredbyAliceperformingalocalmeasurementonsystemA.ThisremainstrueevenifthesystemsAandB
arespatiallyseparated.ThisisthefoundationoftheEPRparadox.

TheoutcomeofAlice'smeasurementisrandom.Alicecannotdecidewhichstatetocollapsethecompositesystem
into,andthereforecannottransmitinformationtoBobbyactingonhersystem.Causalityisthuspreserved,inthis
particularscheme.Forthegeneralargument,seenocommunicationtheorem.

Ensembles

Asmentionedabove,astateofaquantumsystemisgivenbyaunitvectorinaHilbertspace.Moregenerally,if
onehasalargenumberofcopiesofthesamesystem,thenthestateofthisensembleisdescribedbyadensity
matrix,whichisapositivesemidefinitematrix,oratraceclasswhenthestatespaceisinfinitedimensional,and
hastrace1.Again,bythespectraltheorem,suchamatrixtakesthegeneralform:

wherethewiarepositivevaluedprobabilities(theysumupto1),thevectorsiareunitvectors,andintheinfinite
dimensionalcase,wewouldtaketheclosureofsuchstatesinthetracenorm.Wecaninterpretasrepresentingan
ensemblewherewiistheproportionoftheensemblewhosestatesare .Whenamixedstatehasrank1,it
thereforedescribesapureensemble.Whenthereislessthantotalinformationaboutthestateofaquantumsystem
weneeddensitymatricestorepresentthestate.

Experimentally,amixedensemblemightberealizedasfollows.Considera"blackbox"apparatusthatspits
electronstowardsanobserver.Theelectrons'Hilbertspacesareidentical.Theapparatusmightproduceelectrons
thatareallinthesamestateinthiscase,theelectronsreceivedbytheobserverarethenapureensemble.
However,theapparatuscouldproduceelectronsindifferentstates.Forexample,itcouldproducetwopopulations
ofelectrons:onewithstate withspinsalignedinthepositivezdirection,andtheotherwithstate with
spinsalignedinthenegativeydirection.Generally,thisisamixedensemble,astherecanbeanynumberof
populations,eachcorrespondingtoadifferentstate.

Followingthedefinitionabove,forabipartitecompositesystem,mixedstatesarejustdensitymatriceson
HAHB.Thatis,ithasthegeneralform

wherethewiarepositivelyvaluedprobabilities, ,andthevectorsareunitvectors.Thisisselfadjoint

andpositiveandhastrace1.

Extendingthedefinitionofseparabilityfromthepurecase,wesaythatamixedstateisseparableifitcanbe
writtenas[52]:131132

wherethewiarepositivelyvaluedprobabilitiesandthe 'sand 'sarethemselvesmixedstates(density

operators)onthesubsystemsAandBrespectively.Inotherwords,astateisseparableifitisaprobability
distributionoveruncorrelatedstates,orproductstates.Bywritingthedensitymatricesassumsofpureensembles
andexpanding,wemayassumewithoutlossofgeneralitythat and arethemselvespureensembles.Astate
isthensaidtobeentangledifitisnotseparable.

Ingeneral,findingoutwhetherornotamixedstateisentangledisconsidereddifficult.Thegeneralbipartitecase
hasbeenshowntobeNPhard.[53]Forthe22and23cases,anecessaryandsufficientcriterionfor
separabilityisgivenbythefamousPositivePartialTranspose(PPT)condition.[54]

Reduceddensitymatrices

TheideaofareduceddensitymatrixwasintroducedbyPaulDiracin1930.[55]ConsiderasabovesystemsAandB
eachwithaHilbertspaceHA,HB.Letthestateofthecompositesystembe
Asindicatedabove,ingeneralthereisnowaytoassociateapurestatetothecomponentsystemA.However,it
stillispossibletoassociateadensitymatrix.Let

whichistheprojectionoperatorontothisstate.ThestateofAisthepartialtraceofToverthebasisofsystemB:

AissometimescalledthereduceddensitymatrixofonsubsystemA.Colloquially,we"traceout"systemBto
obtainthereduceddensitymatrixonA.

Forexample,thereduceddensitymatrixofAfortheentangledstate

discussedaboveis

Thisdemonstratesthat,asexpected,thereduceddensitymatrixforanentangledpureensembleisamixed
ensemble.Alsonotsurprisingly,thedensitymatrixofAforthepureproductstate discussedaboveis

Ingeneral,abipartitepurestateisentangledifandonlyifitsreducedstatesaremixedratherthanpure.

Twoapplicationsthatusethem

Reduceddensitymatriceswereexplicitlycalculatedindifferentspinchainswithuniquegroundstate.Anexample
istheonedimensionalAKLTspinchain:[56]thegroundstatecanbedividedintoablockandanenvironment.The
reduceddensitymatrixoftheblockisproportionaltoaprojectortoadegenerategroundstateofanother
Hamiltonian.

ThereduceddensitymatrixalsowasevaluatedforXYspinchains,whereithasfullrank.Itwasprovedthatinthe
thermodynamiclimit,thespectrumofthereduceddensitymatrixofalargeblockofspinsisanexactgeometric
sequence[57]inthiscase.

Entropy

Inthissection,theentropyofamixedstateisdiscussedaswellashowitcanbeviewedasameasureofquantum
entanglement.

Definition

Inclassicalinformationtheory,theShannonentropy,Hisassociatedtoaprobabilitydistribution, ,in
thefollowingway:[58]

Sinceamixedstateisaprobabilitydistributionoveranensemble,thisleadsnaturallytothedefinitionofthevon
Neumannentropy:

Ingeneral,oneusestheBorelfunctionalcalculustocalculateanonpolynomialfunctionsuchaslog2().Ifthe
nonnegativeoperatoractsonafinitedimensionalHilbertspaceandhaseigenvalues ,log2()turns
outtobenothingmorethantheoperatorwiththesameeigenvectors,buttheeigenvalues .
TheShannonentropyisthen:

.
 .

Sinceaneventofprobability0shouldnotcontributetotheentropy,andgiven
that

theconvention0log(0)=0isadopted.Thisextendstotheinfinite
dimensionalcaseaswell:ifhasspectralresolution
TheplotofvonNeumannentropy
VsEigenvalueforabipartite2
levelpurestate.Whenthe
assumethesameconventionwhencalculating eigenvaluehasvalue.5,von
Neumannentropyisata
maximum,correspondingto
maximumentanglement.

Asinstatisticalmechanics,themoreuncertainty(numberofmicrostates)thesystemshouldpossess,thelargerthe
entropy.Forexample,theentropyofanypurestateiszero,whichisunsurprisingsincethereisnouncertainty
aboutasysteminapurestate.Theentropyofanyofthetwosubsystemsoftheentangledstatediscussedaboveis
log(2)(whichcanbeshowntobethemaximumentropyfor22mixedstates).

Asameasureofentanglement

Entropyprovidesonetoolthatcanbeusedtoquantifyentanglement,althoughotherentanglementmeasures
exist.[59]Iftheoverallsystemispure,theentropyofonesubsystemcanbeusedtomeasureitsdegreeof
entanglementwiththeothersubsystems.

Forbipartitepurestates,thevonNeumannentropyofreducedstatesistheuniquemeasureofentanglementinthe
sensethatitistheonlyfunctiononthefamilyofstatesthatsatisfiescertainaxiomsrequiredofanentanglement
measure.

ItisaclassicalresultthattheShannonentropyachievesitsmaximumat,andonlyat,theuniformprobability
distribution{1/n,...,1/n}.Therefore,abipartitepurestateHAHBissaidtobeamaximallyentangled
stateifthereducedstateofisthediagonalmatrix

Formixedstates,thereducedvonNeumannentropyisnottheonlyreasonableentanglementmeasure.

Asanaside,theinformationtheoreticdefinitioniscloselyrelatedtoentropyinthesenseofstatisticalmechanics
(comparingthetwodefinitions,wenotethat,inthepresentcontext,itiscustomarytosettheBoltzmannconstant
k=1).Forexample,bypropertiesoftheBorelfunctionalcalculus,weseethatforanyunitaryoperatorU,

Indeed,withoutthisproperty,thevonNeumannentropywouldnotbewelldefined.

Inparticular,Ucouldbethetimeevolutionoperatorofthesystem,i.e.,

whereHistheHamiltonianofthesystem.Heretheentropyisunchanged.

Thereversibilityofaprocessisassociatedwiththeresultingentropychange,i.e.,aprocessisreversibleif,and
onlyif,itleavestheentropyofthesysteminvariant.Therefore,themarchofthearrowoftimetowards
thermodynamicequilibriumissimplythegrowingspreadofquantumentanglement.[60]Thisprovidesaconnection
betweenquantuminformationtheoryandthermodynamics.

Rnyientropyalsocanbeusedasameasureofentanglement.
Entanglementmeasures

Entanglementmeasuresquantifytheamountofentanglementina(oftenviewedasabipartite)quantumstate.As
aforementioned,entanglemententropyisthestandardmeasureofentanglementforpurestates(butnolongera
measureofentanglementformixedstates).Formixedstates,therearesomeentanglementmeasuresinthe
literature[59]andnosingleoneisstandard.

Entanglementcost
Distillableentanglement
Entanglementofformation
Relativeentropyofentanglement
Squashedentanglement
Logarithmicnegativity

Most(butnotall)oftheseentanglementmeasuresreduceforpurestatestoentanglemententropy,andaredifficult
(NPhard)tocompute.[61]

Quantumfieldtheory

TheReehSchliedertheoremofquantumfieldtheoryissometimesseenasananalogueofquantumentanglement.

Applications
Entanglementhasmanyapplicationsinquantuminformationtheory.Withtheaidofentanglement,otherwise
impossibletasksmaybeachieved.

Amongthebestknownapplicationsofentanglementaresuperdensecodingandquantumteleportation.[62]

Mostresearchersbelievethatentanglementisnecessarytorealizequantumcomputing(althoughthisisdisputedby
some[63]).

Entanglementisusedinsomeprotocolsofquantumcryptography.[64][65]Thisisbecausethe"sharednoise"of
entanglementmakesforanexcellentonetimepad.Moreover,sincemeasurementofeithermemberofan
entangledpairdestroystheentanglementtheyshare,entanglementbasedquantumcryptographyallowsthesender
andreceivertomoreeasilydetectthepresenceofaninterceptor.

Ininterferometry,entanglementisnecessaryforsurpassingthestandardquantumlimitandachievingthe
Heisenberglimit.[66]

Entangledstates

Thereareseveralcanonicalentangledstatesthatappearoftenintheoryandexperiments.

Fortwoqubits,theBellstatesare

Thesefourpurestatesareallmaximallyentangled(accordingtotheentropyofentanglement)andforman
orthonormalbasis(linearalgebra)oftheHilbertspaceofthetwoqubits.TheyplayafundamentalroleinBell's
theorem.

ForM>2qubits,theGHZstateis

whichreducestotheBellstate for .ThetraditionalGHZstatewasdefinedfor .GHZstates

areoccasionallyextendedtoqudits,i.e.,systemsofdratherthan2dimensions.
AlsoforM>2qubits,therearespinsqueezedstates.[67]Spinsqueezedstatesareaclassofsqueezedcoherentstates
satisfyingcertainrestrictionsontheuncertaintyofspinmeasurements,andarenecessarilyentangled.[68]Spin
squeezedstatesaregoodcandidatesforenhancingprecisionmeasurementsusingquantumentanglement.[69]

Fortwobosonicmodes,aNOONstateis

ThisislikeaBellstate exceptthebasiskets0and1havebeenreplacedwith"theNphotonsareinone
mode"and"theNphotonsareintheothermode".

Finally,therealsoexisttwinFockstatesforbosonicmodes,whichcanbecreatedbyfeedingaFockstateintotwo
armsleadingtoabeamsplitter.TheyarethesumofmultipleofNOONstates,andcanusedtoachievethe
Heisenberglimit.[70]

Fortheappropriatelychosenmeasureofentanglement,Bell,GHZ,andNOONstatesaremaximallyentangled
whilespinsqueezedandtwinFockstatesareonlypartiallyentangled.Thepartiallyentangledstatesaregenerally
easiertoprepareexperimentally.

Methodsofcreatingentanglement

Entanglementisusuallycreatedbydirectinteractionsbetweensubatomicparticles.Theseinteractionscantake
numerousforms.Oneofthemostcommonlyusedmethodsisspontaneousparametricdownconversiontogenerate
apairofphotonsentangledinpolarisation.[71]Othermethodsincludetheuseofafibercouplertoconfineandmix
photons,theuseofquantumdotstotrapelectronsuntildecayoccurs,theuseoftheHongOuMandeleffect,etc.,
IntheearliesttestsofBell'stheorem,theentangledparticlesweregeneratedusingatomiccascades.

Itisalsopossibletocreateentanglementbetweenquantumsystemsthatneverdirectlyinteracted,throughtheuse
ofentanglementswapping.

Testingasystemforentanglement

Systemswhichcontainnoentanglementaresaidtobeseparable.For2QubitandQubitQutritsystems(22and
23respectively)thesimplePeresHorodeckicriterionprovidesbothanecessaryandasufficientcriterionfor
separability,andthusfordetectingentanglement.However,forthegeneralcase,thecriterionismerelyasufficient
oneforseparability,astheproblembecomesNPhard.[72][73]Anumericalapproachtotheproblemissuggestedby
JonMagneLeinaas,JanMyrheimandEirikOvrumintheirpaper"Geometricalaspectsofentanglement".[74]
Leinaasetal.offeranumericalapproach,iterativelyrefininganestimatedseparablestatetowardsthetargetstate
tobetested,andcheckingifthetargetstatecanindeedbereached.Animplementationofthealgorithm(including
abuiltinPeresHorodeckicriteriontesting)isbroughtinthe"StateSeparator"webapp.

Chinalaunchedtheworldsfirstquantumcommunicationssatellite:[75]"Chinahaslaunchedtheworld'sfirst
satellitededicatedtotestingthefundamentalsofquantumcommunicationinspace.The$100mQuantum
ExperimentsatSpaceScale(QUESS)missionwaslaunchedtoday[Aug16,2016]fromtheJiuquanSatellite
LaunchCenterinnorthernChinaat01:40localtime.Forthenexttwoyears,thecraftalsonamed"Micius"after
theancientChinesephilosopherwilldemonstratethefeasibilityofquantumcommunicationbetweenEarthand
space,andtestquantumentanglementoverunprecedenteddistances."

Naturallyentangledsystems
Theelectronshellofmultielectronatomsalwaysconsistsofentangledelectrons.Thecorrectionizationenergy
canbecalculatedonlybyconsiderationofelectronentanglement.[76]

Ithasbeenshownbyfemtosecondtransitionspectroscopy,thatinthephotosynthesisofplants,entangledphotons
exist.Anefficientconversionofthephotonenergyintochemicalenergyispossibleonlyduetothis
entanglement.[77][78]

Seealso
Concurrence(quantum Fasterthanlight Multipartiteentanglement
computing) communication Normallydistributedand
Entanglementdistillation GhirardiRiminiWeber uncorrelateddoesnotimply
Entanglementwitness theory independent
 Observereffect(physics) Quantumcomputing Squashedentanglement
Photonentanglement Quantumpseudotelepathy Ward'sprobabilityamplitude
Quantumcoherence Quantumteleportation WheelerFeynmanabsorber
Quantumdiscord Retrocausality theory
Quantumphasetransition Separablestate

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Furtherreading
BengtssonIyczkowskiK(2006)."GeometryofQuantumStates".AnIntroductiontoQuantumEntanglement.
Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
Cramer,JG(2015).TheQuantumHandshake:Entanglement,NonlocalityandTransactions.SpringerVerlag.ISBN978
3319246420.
Ghne,O.Tth,G.(2009)."Entanglementdetection".PhysicsReports.474:175.arXiv:0811.2803 .
Bibcode:2009PhR...474....1G.doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2009.02.004.
HorodeckiR,HorodeckiP,HorodeckiM,HorodeckiKHorodeckiHorodeckiHorodecki(2009)."Quantum
entanglement".Rev.Mod.Phys.81(2):865942.arXiv:quantph/0702225 .Bibcode:2009RvMP...81..865H.
doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.81.865.
JaegerG(2009).Entanglement,Information,andtheInterpretationofQuantumMechanics.Heildelberg:Springer.
ISBN9783540921271.
PlenioMB,VirmaniSVirmani(2007)."Anintroductiontoentanglementmeasures".Quant.Inf.Comp.1(7):151.
arXiv:quantph/0504163 .Bibcode:2005quant.ph..4163P.
ShadboltPJ,VerdeMR,PeruzzoA,PolitiA,LaingA,LobinoM,MatthewsJCF,ThompsonMG,O'BrienJLVerde
PeruzzoPolitiLaingLobinoMatthewsThompsonO'Brien(2012)."Generating,manipulatingandmeasuring
entanglementandmixturewithareconfigurablephotoniccircuit".NaturePhotonics.6:4559.arXiv:1108.3309 .
Bibcode:2012NaPho...6...45S.doi:10.1038/nphoton.2011.283.
StewardEG(2008).QuantumMechanics:ItsEarlyDevelopmentandtheRoadtoEntanglement.ImperialCollegePress.
ISBN9781860949784.

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astronomycast.com/physics/e
p140entanglement/)
Entanglement
Recordedresearchseminarsat
ImperialCollegerelatingto
quantumentanglement(http://
www.imperial.ac.uk/quantumi
nformation)
QuantumEntanglementand
Decoherence:3rd
InternationalConferenceon
QuantumInformation(ICQI)
(http://www.osa.org/meetings/
topicalmeetings/ICQI/default.
aspx)
Iontrappingquantum
informationprocessing(htt
p://www.npl.co.uk/server.ph
p?show=ConWebDoc.433)
IEEESpectrumOnline:The
traptechnique(http://www.sp
ectrum.ieee.org/aug07/5378/
1)
WasEinsteinWrong?:A
QuantumThreattoSpecial
Relativity(http://www.sciam.
com/article.cfm?id=waseinst
einwrongaboutrelativity)
Citizendium:Entanglement(h
ttp://en.citizendium.org/wiki/
Entanglement_(physics))
SpookyActionsAtA
Distance?:Oppenheimer
Lecture,Prof.DavidMermin
(CornellUniversity)Univ.
California,Berkeley,2008.
Nonmathematicalpopular
lectureonYouTube,posted
Mar2008(https://www.youtu
be.com/watch?gl=IT&hl=it&
v=ta09WXiUqcQ)
"StateSeparator"webapp(htt
p://physics.technion.ac.il/state
separator/)

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