9.

00 EXAM 1 NOTES
KOSSLYN CHAPTER 2 The Biology of Mind and Behavior: The Brain in Action

Events at the level of the brain can influence many aspects of behavior, in ways not immediately
apparent.

BRAIN CIRCUITS: MAKING CONNECTIONS

The Neuron: A Powerful Computer

The physical characteristics of the brain give rise to:
Mental contents: knowledge, beliefs (including ideas, explanations, and expectations), desires
(such as hopes, goals, and needs), and feelings (such as fears, guilts, and attractions)
Mental processes sets of operations that work together to carry out a function, such as
attention, perception, or memory
All brain activity hinges on the workings of neurons cells that receive signals from sense organs or
other neurons, processes these signals, and sends the signals to muscles, organs, or other
neurons; the basic unit of the nervous system.
Neurons are like computers: They accept inputs (typically 100s of signals at the same time), operate on
them, and produce outputs (signals that are transmitted).

3 types of neurons:
Sensory neurons neurons that respond to signals from sensory organs and transmit those
signals to the brain and spinal cord
Motor neurons neurons that send signals to muscles in order to control movement (and also
to bodily organs, such as glands)
Interneurons neurons that are connected to other neurons, not to sense organs or muscles

A large number of neurons work together to accomplish any particular task. Neurons are organized
into brain circuits sets of neurons that work together to receive input, operate on it in some
way, and produce specific output.

Structure of a Neuron: The Ins and Outs

See p. 44, Figure 1 for the Major Parts of a Neuron

Cell body central part of a neuron (or other cell), which contains the nucleus; controls the cells
metabolic activities and integrates inputs
Cell membrane the skin that surrounds the cell
Axon the sending end of the neuron; the long cable-like structure extending form the cell body;
conducts the nerve impulse away from the cell body
Axons can be branched, allows neurons to send a message to more than one place at a time
Each neuron only has 1 axon
Terminal button structure at the end of the branch of an axon that can release chemicals into the
space between neurons when their neuron has been triggered
Dendrite the treelike art of a neuron that receives messages from the axons of other neurons or from
the environment

Neural Impulses: The Brain in Action

The inputs and outputs of neurons are chemicals!

Neurons are either at rest or they are sending signals outputs to other neurons.
When at rest, they maintain a negative charge within them; this negative charge is the
Resting potential arises because of how ions are distributed inside and outside the cell.
During rest, more positively charged ions (consisting mostly of sodium ions) are outside the
neuron than are inside it, and more negatively charged ions are inside the neuron than are in
the surrounding fluid.

Please pardon any spelling errors or typos!

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A neuron fires when the dendrites (and in some cases, the cell body) receive appropriate inputs
from other neurons. When this occurs, very small pores (channels) open in the membrane that covers
the axon. When these channels open, a complex exchange of ions occurs, with some ions flowing into
the cell from the surrounding fluid and some ions flowing from inside the cell to the surrounding
fluid.
1. Na+ channels open after the neuron is stimulated, and Na+ ions rush into the cell; the inside
of the cell then becomes positively charged.
2. The Na+ channels close, K+ channels briefly open, and K+ ions go outside the cell. The K+
ions are pushed out because of the addition of the positively charged Na+ ions.
3. Na+ pumps actively push Na+ ions back outside, and K+ ions are drawn inside until the
inside and outside concentrations are returned to their original levels.
4. When the ion exchanges reach the end of the axon, they cause chemicals to be released from
the terminal buttons.
Action potential the shifting change in charge that moves down the axon (i.e.: steps 1 4)
All-or-none law states that if the neuron is sufficiently stimulated, it fires, sending the action
potential all the way down the axon and releasing chemicals from the terminal buttons; either
the action potential occurs or it doesnt

Most axons are covered in myelin fatty substance that helps impulses efficiently travel down the
axon
Multiple sclerosis (MS) myelin deteriorates, so action potentials stumble as they move
down the axon

Neurotransmitters: Bridging the Gap

Synapse the place where an axon of one neuron sends signals to the membrane (on a dendrite or cell
body) of another neuron; the synapse includes the sending portions of an axon, the receiving
portions of the receiving neuron, and the space between them
Synaptic cleft gap in the synapse between the axon of one neuron and the membrane of another
across which communication occurs
1. Action potential reaches the end of the axon
2. Synaptic vesicles release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft
a. Neurotransmitter substance chemical that carries a signal from the terminal button of
1 neuron to the dendrite or cell body of another
3. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors and the action potential is transmitted

Chemical Messages: Crossing the Gap

Neurotransmitter molecules are contained in small sacs (vesicles).
See p. 47, Table 1 for Major Neurotransmitter Substances
Acetylcholine
Dopamine
Noradrenaline
Serotonin
GABA
Endogenous cannabinoids neurotransmitter substances released by the receiving neuron
that then influence the activity of the sending neuron
o Function: fine-tune activity underlying learning, memory, pain perception, attention
o Found in: marijuana

Receptors: On the Receiving End

Once they cross the synaptic cleft, neurotransmitters will affect different types of receiving neurons in
different ways.

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Each neuron has receptors specialized site on a dendrite or cell body where a neurotransmitter
molecule attaches itself, like a lock that is opened by one key, a receptor receives only one type
of neurotransmitter.

2 general types of effects of neurotransmitter binding:

1. Excitatory inputs the receiving neuron is more likely to have an action potential
2. Inhibitory inputs the receiving neuron is less likely to have an action potential
a. The excitatory and inhibitory inputs to each receiving neuron add up or cancel one
another out, and only when their sum total is large enough will an action potential be
initiated

Reuptake process by which surplus neurotransmitter in the synaptic cleft is reabsorbed back into
the sending neuron so that the neuron can effectively fire again

Unbalanced Brain: Coping with Bad Chemicals

Agonist chemical that mimics the effects of a neurotransmitter by activating a type of receptor
Other drugs can increase the amount of a neurotransmitter in the synapse, sometimes by slowing
down its reuptake.
Ex: depression is treated with selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) block the
reuptake of the neurotransmitter serotonin (Prozac, Zoloft, Paxil are SSRIs)
Antagonist chemical that blocks the effect of a neurotransmitter

Parkinsons Disease evidence of connection between neurotransmitters and behavior

Caused by death of cells that produce dopamine
When given L-dopa (drug that helps produce dopamine), symptoms decrease, but L-dopa
becomes less effective with continued use

Neurotransmitters are used widely throughout the brain, so their disruption would create more
widespread difficulties

Glial Cells: More Than the Neurons Helpmates

The average human brain contains 10x as many glial cells as neurons.
Glial cells type of cell that helps neurons to form both synapses and connections when the brain is
developing, influences the communication among neurons, and generally helps in the care
and feeding of neurons
Physically cushion neurons
Clean up the remains of dead neurons
Dispose of extra neurotransmitters and ions in the fluid surrounding neurons
Provide nutrients to neurons

Neurons and Glia: A Mutually Giving Relationship

Neurons have synapses with glial cells, stimulate glial cells to release specific chemicals
Glial cells can directly regulate how strongly one neuron affects another
Glial cells coordinate the activity of vast sets of brain circuits
Glial cells can prod neurons to form additional synapses

Glial Networks: Another Way to Think and Feel?

Glial cells do not produce action potentials. They communicate by passing chemicals directly through
their walls to adjoining glia or by releasing (into brain fluid that surrounds the cells) molecules
that affect both neurons and other glia. Chemicals released by one glial cell can induce other
glial cells to release chemicals ripple effect!
Were still not entirely sure what glial networks do, but we know that they are important for a wide
range of brain functions.
Please pardon any spelling errors or typos!
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THE NERVOUS SYSTEM: AN ORCHESTRA WITH MANY MEMBERS

The Peripheral Nervous System: A Moving Story

2 parts of the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
1. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) controls the smooth muscles in the body, some glandular
functions, and many of the bodys self-regulating activities, such as digestion and circulation
Controls activities not under conscious control
1. Sympathetic Nervous System part of the ANS that readies an animal to fight or to
flee by speeding up the heart, increasing breathing rate to deliver more oxygen,
dilating the pupils, producing sweat, decreasing salivation, inhibiting activity in the
stomach, and relaxing the bladder
2. Parasympathetic Nervous System part of the ANS that is next to the sympathetic
nervous system and that tends to counteract its effects (ex: slows down heart rate,
contracts the pupils, increases salivation, stimulated digestion, and contracts the
bladder)
Sympathetic nervous system tends to affect all the organs at the same time.
Parasympathetic nervous system tends to affect organs one at a time or in small
groups.
2. Sensory-Somatic Nervous System (SSNS) part of the PNS that consists of the neurons in the
sensory organs (such as the eyes and ears) that convey information to the brain as well as
neurons that actually trigger muscles and glands
a. Somatic Motor System consists of nerves that are attached to muscles that can be
used voluntarily (striated muscles)

The Central Nervous System

2 parts of the Central Nervous System (CNS):
1. Spinal cord flexible rope of neurons and their connections that runs inside the backbone
(spinal column)
2. Brain

The Spinal Cord: Getting Inside the Backbone

The spinal cord is organized into 2 large tracts:
1. 1 runs along the front side (facing forward) sends the brains commands to the body
2. 1 runs along the back side (facing backward) registers information about the body and
conveys that to the brain
At each of 31 places, each tract is connected to eh body by a pair of spinal nerves, one that goes to the
left side of the body, and one that goes to the right side.
The spinal cord can initiate some aspects of our behavior.
Ex: reflex automatic behavioral response to an event; allows you to respond immediately,
bypassing the brain for more efficient signal-response
o Why do we need interneurons then?
Interneurons allow the brain to send signals to prevent a reflex response

The Visible Brain: Lobes and Landmarks

Meninges three protective layered membranes that cover the brain
Cerebral hemisphere a left or right half-brain; shaped roughly like a sphere
Each hemisphere receives information from, and controls the muscles of, the opposite side of
the body
4 lobes:
1. occipital
2. temporal
3. parietal
4. frontal
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Corpus callosum large bundle of axons that connects the 2 halves of the brain
Cerebral cortex the convoluted pinkish-gray outer layer of the brain where more mental processes
arise; 2 mm thick; contains the cell bodies of neurons; aka gray matter
Sulci creases in the cerebral cortex
Gyri bulges between the sulci in the cerebral cortex
The cortex is crumpled up so that more of it can be stuffed into the skull
Subcortical structures parts of the brain located under the cerebral cortex; also contain gray matter

Spotlight on the Brain: How It Divides and Conquers

Brain system set of brain circuits that work together to accomplish a particular task

The Cerebral Cortex: The Seat of the Mind

Occipital Lobes: Looking Good

Occipital lobes brain lobes at the back of the head; concerned entirely with different aspects of
vision
Most of the signals from the eyes arrive at these lobes
Contain many separate areas that work together to characterize properties of viewed objects
(ex: shape, color, motion)
Damage here can cause partial / complete blindness
If the left occipital lobe is removed, you wont be able to see things in the right visual field

Temporal Lobes: Up to Their Ears in Work

Temporal lobes brain lobes under the temples, in front of the ears; among its many functions are
processing sound, entering new information into memory, storing visual memories, and
comprehending language

Parietal Lobes: Inner Space

Parietal lobes brain lobes at the top, rear of the brain; among their functions are attention,
arithmetic, touch, registering spatial location
Somatosensory strip gyrus immediately behind the central sulcus; registers sensations on
the body and is organized by body part
o Larger areas of this gyrus correspond to areas of the body that are more sensitive (ex:
lips, hands)

Frontal Lobes: Leaders of the Pack

Compared to the monkey brain, the human brain has much larger frontal lobes
Frontal lobes brain lobes located behind the forehead; critically involved in planning, memory
search, motor control, speech control, reasoning, emotions
Motor strip gyrus immediately in front of the central sulcus; controls fine movements and is
organized by body part; aka primary motor cortex
o Larger areas are dedicated to parts of the body that we control with precision (ex:
hands, mouth)

Phineas Gage metal bar through the front part of his head.
Previously, he had been responsible and organized; afterward, he led a disorderly life.
Couldnt stick to a decision; little self-control; profane language

The Dual Brain: Thinking with Both Barrels

Split-Brain Research: A Deep Disconnect

The most compelling evidence that the 2 half-brains perform distinct functions has come from looking
at the effects of severing the corpus callosum.
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Split-brain patient person whose corpus callosum has been severed for medical reasons, so that
neural signals no longer pas from one cerebral hemisphere to the other
Procedure often done to help patients with severe, otherwise untreatable epilepsy disease
that causes massive uncontrolled neural firing in parts of the brain, leading to bodily
convulsions

The left half of each eye sends signals to the left hemisphere; the right half of each eye sends signals to
the right hemisphere. Normally, this information quickly crosses over to the other hemisphere, so the
entire brain receives signals from both halves of each eye. However, when the corpus callosum is cut,
the signal stays in the hemisphere that initially receives the information.

Experiment: present pictures / words to only the left or right side of space
Gazzaniga & LeDoux (1978) presented a picture of a snow scene to the right hemisphere
(controlled left hand; spatial attention; processing nonverbal cues) and at the same time, a
picture of a chickens claw to the left hemisphere (controls right hand, speech, reasoning)
o The split-brain patient then had to select pictures that were related to these stimuli
Right hand (controlled by left hemisphere): selected chicken picture
Left hand (controlled by right hemisphere): selected shovel picture
Speech: said he saw the claw, picked chicken; made up a story to reason why
shovel was chosen

Hemispheric Specialization: Not Just for the Deeply Disconnected

You cant simply say that the left brain is verbal / analytical; right brain is perceptual / intuitive
Ex: left brain is actually better than the right at some aspects of interpreting sensory
information; right brain is actually better than the left at some aspects of language
When the hemispheres differ in their functions, they typically differ in their abilities to eprform very
narrow, specific tasks.

Beneath the Cortex: The Inner Brain

See p. 59, Figure 12 for Key Subcortical Brain Areas
Forebrain cortex, thalamus, limbic system, basal ganglia

Thalamus: Crossroads of the Brain

switching center messages are received, redirected to the appropriate destination
Sensory systems (ex: vision, hearing), motor systems that control muscles have connections
here, before routing to other parts of the brain
Role in controlling sleep, attention

Hypothalamus: Thermostat and More

Sits under the thalamus
Critical for maintaining bodily functions eating, drinking, body temperature, blood pressure,
heart rate; governs sexual behavior; regulates hormones

Hippocampus: Remember It
Looks like a seahorse
Plays a key role in allowing us to enter new information into the brains memory banks
H.M. bilateral removal of hippocampus to control epilepsy; could no longer learn new facts
o Memory for events that occurred a year or so before the operation seemed normal, but
he was stuck at that stage of his life.
o Was not particularly aware of deficit
Although the hippocampus itself does not permanently store memories, it triggers processes
that store new information elsewhere in the brain

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Amygdala: Inner Feelings

almond shaped
Plays a special role in strong emotions, ex: fear, anger
Affects whether a person can correctly interpret emotions in facial expression

Limbic System hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus

Basal Ganglia: More than Habit Forming

Positioned on outer sides of thalami
Involved in planning and producing movement
Play a central role in forming / learning habits (NOT learning facts!)
Relies on dopamine
o People with Parkinsons Disease often have abnormal functioning of their basal ganglia
Nucleus Accumbens part of the basal ganglia; also needs dopamine for operation
o Plays a crucial role in the brains response to reward, anticipation of reward
o Drugs like cocaine, amphetamine, alcohol affect the nucleus accumbens

Brainstem: The Brains Wake-Up Call

Medulla lowest part of the brainstem; important in automatic control of breathing,

swallowing, blood circulation

Reticular formation 2 main parts:

o Reticular activating system plays a key role in keeping you awake; making you perk
up when something interesting happens
o Other part receives input from the hypothalamus; plays a key role in producing ANS
reactions; involved in conducting impulses from muscles not under voluntary control
to those under voluntary control
Pons bridge connecting the medulla and midbrain; connects the upper parts of the brain to
the cerebellum; involved with a variety of functions, ranging form regulation of sleep to
control of facial muscles

Cerebellum: Walking Tall

Physical coordination, estimating time, paying attention
The surface area of the cerebellum is nearly the same size as that of the entire cerebral cortex

Hindbrain medulla, pons, cerebellum, parts of the reticular formation

Midbrain grouping of the remaining brainstem structures

The Neuroendocrine and Neuroimmune Systems: More Brain-Body Connections

The brain has a total of 4 mechanisms that directly affect the body:
1. Somatic motor system moving muscles voluntarily
2. Autonomic nervous system regulates involuntary muscles, heart
3. Hormones the brain produces hormones, controls production of hormones elsewhere in the
body
4. Immune responses the brain makes us more or less able to fight off the onslaught of disease,
repairs damage to the body from injury

The Neuroendocrine System: Its Hormonal!

Hormones chemicals that are produced by a gland and can act as a neurotransmitter substance;
affect organs of the body, thoughts, feelings, behaviors
Neuroendocrine system makes hormones that affect many bodily functions; provides CNS with
information
See p. 62, Figure 14 for The Major Endocrine Glands

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Important hormones:
Testosterone
Estrogen
Cortisol

Pituitary gland master gland that regulates other glands, but is itself controlled by the brain,
primarily via connections from the hypothalamus

The Neuroimmune System: How the Brain Fights Disease

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis system is activated by stress, injury, and infection and
that works to fight off infection
Produces cortisol, but too much cortisol can interfere with immune system (i.e.: being stressed
out can make you more likely to catch a cold, etc.); damage the brain / hippocampus (interfere
with storing new information in memory)

PROBING THE BRAIN

The Damaged Brain: Whats Missing?

The first evidence that different parts of the brain do different things came from accidents in which
people suffered damage to the brain
Lesion region of impaired brain tissue
Stroke - most frequent cause of brain damage; occurs when blood fails to reach part of the brain
(usually because a clot clogs up a crucial blood vessel), and thus neurosn in the affected area
die
Researchers study patients with brain damage to learn which specific abilities are disrupted.

Recording Techniques: The Music of the Cells

Electroencephalograph machine that records electrical activity in the brain
Electroencephalogram (EEG) tracing of brain waves of electrical fluctuation over time
When neurons fire together, the electric fields they produce can be detected by electrodes
placed on the scalp.

Magnetoencephalography (MEG) technique for assessing brain activity that relies on recording
magnetic waves produced by neural activity
Neural firings also produce magnetic fields that can be detected.
Good for recording very fast changes in neural firing

Neither EEG nor MEG is very sensitive to activity in subcortical brain structures

Single-cell recording technique in which tiny probes (microelectrodes) are placed in the brain and
used to record neural firing rates

Neuroimaging: Picturing the Living Brain

Visualizing Brain Structure

Computer-assisted tomography (CT or CAT) neuroimaging technique that produces a 3D image of
brain structures using X-rays
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique that uses magnetic properties of atoms to take sharp
pictures of the 3D structure of the brain

Visualizing Brain Function

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The more frequently neurons fire, the more blood, oxygen, and nutrients they require. The amounts
of these substances in a particular part of the brain indicate how vigorously neurons in that region are
firing

Positron emission tomography (PET) neuroimaging technique that uses small amounts of a
radioactive substance to track blood flow or energy consumption in the brain (radioactive
substance is taken up into different brain areas in proportion to how vigorously the neurons in
each area are firing

Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) type of MRI that detects the amount of oxygen being
brought to particular places in the brain, which indicates how active those neurons are

All neuroimaging techniques provide evidence for correlations between performing a task and
activation of a specific brain region. They do not establish that activated brain regions play a
causal role in producing the behavior. To make this connection, we need other techniques!

Stimulation: Inducing of Inhibiting Neural Activity

1. Open skull, apply mild electric current delivered directly to parts of exposed cortex, report
what person experiences while current is being applied
a. Wilder Penfield pioneered this method; people experience different images, memories,
feelings depending on the area in the brain that is stimulated
b. Results are difficult to interpret because rwe cant be sure whether actual memories are
activated, whether new experiences are being created at the time, or even whether the
person is making up stories
c. Alternatively, you can observe which activities are disrupted when current is applied
i. This is limited because stimulating particular neurons can activate other ones,
etc. etc.
d. Nevertheless, advances in microstimulation of nonhuman animals have allowed us to
stimulate a few neurons at a time and observe the direct consequences on an animals
perceptions, decisions, and actions
2. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) technique in which the brain is stimulated from
outside by putting a coil on a persons head and delivering a magnetic pulse (or series of
magnetic pulses); the magnetic fields are so strong that they make neurons under the coil fire
a. When neurons are repeatedly stimulated in this way, they become temporarily
unresponsive. By showing that temporarily disrupting a particular brain area in turn
temporarily disrupts a particular type of behavior, TMS lets us show that a brain area
plays a causal role in a particular type of mental processing

Each of these techniques have strengths and weaknesses!

See p. 69, Table 2 for Key Characteristics of Various Techniques Used to Study Brain Function

GENES, BRAIN, AND ENVIRONMENT: THE BRAIN IN THE WORLD

Genes as Blueprints: Born to Be Wild?

Mendelian inheritance the transmission of characteristics by individual elements of inheritance
(now known to be genes), each acting separately
Gene stretch of the DNA molecule that produces a specific protein
Genotype genetic code within an organism
Phenotype observable structure and behavior of an organism
Complex inheritance transmission of characteristics by the joint action of combinations of genes
working together; aka polygenetic inheritance

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Tuning Genetic Programs: The Environment Matters

Genes provide the blueprints for building cells and govern the way the brain is wired up before birth.
But they cannot program the entire brain in advance! The brain will eliminate the connections
that turn out not to be useful.
The wiring of the brain depends partly on the genes and partly on experience.
Pruning process whereby certain connections among neurons are eliminated
Connections that are used frequently are retained, while others that are not used frequently
are pruned away.
Interactions with the environment not only select among connections established by the genes but can
also cause new connections to form.
Plasticity the brains ability to change as a result of experience; pruning and adding new
connections; most evident during:
1. Infancy, childhood
2. When the body changes so that the sensory input changes (ex: amputating a limb)
3. When we learn something new or store new information
4. As compensation after brain damage
Adult brains are not as plastic as the brains of children
The adult brain loses plasticity with age because the functions of neurons and brain circuits
become set in place with experience
In some regions, though, adult brains can create new neurons

Our genes specify the range of what is possible, and the environment then operates to set up the brain
within this range.

Genes and Environment: A Single System

Interactions with the environment cause many genes to be turned on and off, and when they are

turned on, they have specific effects on your body and brain.

By regulating brain activity, genes affect behavior

Genes and the environment are different aspects of a single system.

Environment and Genes: A Two-Way Street

Passive interaction occurs when genetically shaped behavioral tendencies of parents or siblings
produce an environment that is passively received by the child
Evocative (or reactive) interaction occurs when genetically influenced characteristics (both
behavioral and physical) induce other people to behave in particular ways
Active interaction occurs when people chose, partly based on genetic tendencies, to put themselves
in specific situations and to avoid others

Behavioral Genetics the field in which researchers attempt to determine the extent to which the
differences among peoples behaviors and psychological characteristics are due to their
different genes or to differences in their environments

Heritability, Not Inheritability

Heritability the degree to which the variability of a characteristic or ability in a population is due to
genetics given a specific environment
If the environment were different, the heritability might be different as well.

Twin Studies: Only Shared Genes?

Compares identical and fraternal twins to determine the relative contribution of genes to
variability in a characteristic or ability
Identical (monozygotic) twins have virtually identical genes; fraternal (dizygotic) twins share
only as many genes as any other pair of siblings

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Twin studies have shown that the amount of gray matter in the brain is more similar in identical
twins than in fraternal twins, which suggest that the amount of gray matter, is in part, under genetic
control. (ex: frontal lobes; temporal lobe involved in language comprehension)

Adoption Studies: Separating Genes and Environment?

Characteristics of children adopted at birth are compared to those of their adoptive parents or
siblings versus their biological parents or siblings
Especially powerful for twins separated at birth, growing up in different environments
o It is always difficult to separate genetic from environmental influences

Evolution and the Brain: The Best of All Possible Brains?

Evolution gene-based changes in the characteristics or abilities of members of a species over
successive generations

Natural Selection: Reproduction of the Fittest

Natural selection occurs when individuals with inherited characteristics that contribute to survival
have more offspring, and over time those characteristics come to be widespread in a
population
Adaptation an inherited characteristic that increases an organisms ability to survive and reproduce
successfully

Evolution via natural selection tends to mold the characteristics of a group of organisms to the

requirements of their environment.

Important principles:

Environment
Variation
Random variation

Not Just Natural Selection

Always exercise caution when trying to use the idea of natural selection to explain our present-day
characteristics. Just because a characteristic exists doesnt mean that it is an adaptation to the
environment or that it is the result of natural selection.

Please pardon any spelling errors or typos!

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9.00SC Introduction to Psychology

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