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19th century sculpture is the largest

compilation ever published of the endlessly en-
joyable, often fascinating monumental sculpture
we can still see around us in parks, schools, and
town squares. Commemorating such ideals as
heroism, patriotism, bravery, and such heroes as
Wellington, Washington, and assorted emperors,
inventors, and scientists, it was long considered
old-fashioned and expendable. Now it is being
reexamined and revalued by critics and art

historians.

Maurice Rheims, also the author of The Flower-

ing ofArt Nouveau, is an acknowledged expert on
French art who has recently been elected to the
distinguished Acadmie Franaise. No one could
better inspire a fresh appreciation of these realis-
ticand detailed 19th-centur>' works from twenty-
three countries. He selects sculptures by great
artists Canova, Saint-Gaudens, Rodin and by
others who are superb in technique but some-
times hilarious in their effects. The great person-
ages of the century are portrayed, from Napoleon
to Sarah Bernhardt to Balzac. The works are

grouped thematically Historical and Military,
The World of Work, Portrpi' Caricature,
Sculpture in the Streets, Thef sh. Animal
Art, and so on and a catalogue provided
for each one. A bibliography ano empite
the volume.

683 illustrations, including 10 hand-tii

plates in full color

i ,:^.
A^ dbiH*
19 CENTURY SCULPTURE
 19
CENTURY
SCULPTURE

MAURICE RHEIMS
TRANSLATED BY ROBERT E.WOLF

HARRY N. ABRAMS, INC, PUBLISHERS, NEW YORK

i
Patricia Egan, Editor

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

Rheims, Maurice.
19th century sculpture.

Translation of La sculpture au XIX^ sicle.

Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Sculpture, Modem 19th century History.
I. Title.

NB197.3.R4513 735'. 22 75-39871

ISBN 0-8109-0375-X

Library of Congress Catalogue Card Number: 75-39871

Copyright (^ 1972 in France by Arts et Mtiers Graphiques, Paris
Picture reproduction rights where applicable reserved by S.P.A.D.E.M., and A.D.A.G.P., Paris

Published 1977 by Harry N. Abrams, Incorporated, New York

All rights reserved. No part of the contents of this book may be reproduced without the written
permission of the publishers

Gravure illustrations and colorplates printed in France

Text printed in England
Bound in England
 CONTENTS

Introduction 7

1 . Neoclassicism 15

2. Romanticism 41

3. David d'Angers 77
4. Realism or Positivist Art 85

5. Carpeaux 101

6. Symbolism 107

7. Pre-Raphaelites ; Art Nouveau 125

8. Art in Fusion: Rodin and His Disciples 137

9. The Eve of the Twentieth Century; Expressionism;

The Return to the Greeks 165

10. The World of Work 181

1 1 . Historical and Military Subjects 193

12. Sculpture in the Streets 225

13. Decorative Sculpture 237

14. Portraits 249

15. Caricature 285

16. Animal Sculpture 293

17. Sculpture and Religion 315

18. Funerary Art 329

19. Sensualism 361

20. Kitsch 377

2 1 . The Unusual The; Bizarre 389
22. Precious Materials 405
Bibliography 417
Index 419
Acknowledgments 431

Photographic Credits 433

 INTRODUCTION

Then, while busying himself with lighting the stove,

he set to bewailing his fate in a voice bursting with rage.
What a bitch of a trade, this sculpture!

The lowliest among the bricklajcrs had a better time oj it.

A statue the administration would buy for 3000 Jrancs cost him nearly 2000 Jor the model,
the clay, the marble or bronze, plus all the other expenses,

and all that just Jor it to be stuck away

in some official cellar with the excuse that there wasn't room for it.

The niches on the monuments were standing empty ;

there were pedestals just waiting Jor statues in the public parks, but never mind!
There still wasn't any room.
No chance of jobs Jor private persons, hardly more than a Jew busts,

a statue knocked out cheaply once in a while to be paid for by public subscription.
The noblest oJ the arts, the most manly among them, sure enough;
but the artjrom which you were surest to croak Jrom hunger.

M1LE ZOLA, L'Oeuvre

wealthy middle class

their assumption of power and their wish to
The rise of a

emulate their predecessors together with the growth of cities help explain why
and how sculpture won back its popularity in the course of the nineteenth century.
Public squares were pressed into service as stage settings for huge monuments, dis-
play pieces erected to the glorv of the heads of state and famous men.
France had known nine revolutions or political upheavals in less than a hundred years,
and was determined not to neglect the persons who had contributed to those mutations. It
was important that their appearance be made known and the account of their exploits en-
graved on bronze and on marble. This could best be done, it was thought, by a bust poised
on a column at whose foot nude persons symbolized Freedom, Glory, Poetry, Victory,
Electricity, Gas, Bicycle Racing, or The Four-cylinder Automobile.
Monuments to the war dead began to be erected the day after France's glorious defeat
at the Battle of Sedan in 1870. Also the faades of buildings, always a pretext for elegant dec-
orative work, were offered to the ornamentalists' chisels between 1860 and 1910 more than :

four hundred stonecarvers could be counted in Paris.

It was a splendid time for the arts, but difficult to judge in its entirety like the Renais- ;

sance, it was a transitional epoch that also contained many contradictions. But the medieval
world had disappeared in fewer than thirty years of the sixteenth century, \\ hile the decline
of academicism in the nineteenth century took a very long time. And during these years our
great-grandparents witnessed moreover the triumph of Romanticism, the maturing of Re-
alism, the birth of Impressionism. And there are other obstacles in the view of anyone wishing
to study the history of a discipline in a given period: for example, it is not easy to separate
out those works that should still be classified with the era preceding nineteenth-century
sculpture, and those that belong, as the year 1900 approaches, with twentieth-century art.
At the start of the century Bartolommeo Cavaceppi and Giuseppe Angelini in Italy,
Dannecker in Germany, Shchedrin in Russia, Jos Gins in Spain, and many others, from
Belgium to Austria, still belonged to the rear guard of classicism. Houdon, however, is more
difficult to place with relation to Canova than one might think. For the most part Houdon is
thought to be an eighteenth-century man. His name is used here only to point out the new
method of Ancien Rgime, who succeeded in scrutinizing the features and
a sculptor of the
thereby unveiling the characters of his models. Rodin said that "each of his busts is worth a
biography."
Canova needs no discussion his place is guaranteed in every manual of nineteenth-
:

century art. Yet the whole of his work gives the general impression that he, the official
sculptor of Napoleon, remained a disciple of the Ancients. If one remarks that Houdon, the
man of the Ancien Rgime, did not die until 1828, at which time Canova, the prime exemplar
of the early nineteenth-century style, had already been dead for six years, then one can ap-
preciate the reluctance of the present author to exclude one and admit the other.
The same difficulties and uncertainties recur at the end of the century. It is accepted that
Rodin, who died in 1917, was a nineteenth-century man, whereas Maillol, Bourdelle, and
Brancusi, all of whom produced work of a classical stamp before 1900, are considered
modern.
We have decided against ejecting Houdon from the nineteenth century, as the current
mode would have it, and counting Maillol and Bourdelle as twentieth-century men, as is
customary; we avoid taking sides, and we include in this book various works made by these
artists between 1800 and 1900. The classical bust of Vitellius (p. 198, 38), modeled by
Brancusi in 1898, is an excellent academic exercise by a twentieth-century man who was
nevertheless born twenty-four years before the Grande Exposition of 1900 ushered the new
century into Paris.

The classification of nineteenth-century sculpture, even more than of painting, is often a

function of our personal feelings. Unlike most of the painters who lived in thesame period,
the assigning of certain sculptors to one or another school is anything but easy. While the work
of most nineteenth-century painters conforms more or less with the style they espoused (almost
all of Delacroix's work corresponds Romanticism; likewise the canvases of
to our idea of
Monet, Pissarro, Renoir, and Sisley are Impressionist), the comparable classification of sculp-
ture generally becomes a more subtle matter, especially when deciding whether certain works
are still Neoclassical or already Romantic. For this circumstance there are material and social
reasons that we shall discuss later. In a number of cases, though each work is executed ac-
cording to academic canons, we are nevertheless permitted a glimpse of the sculptor's soul,
his sensibilities, his troubles, and his religious, social, or political aspirations.
This ambiguity persists throughout the century; it often has to do with the sculptors'
circumstances, for they, more than painters, are bound to the requirements of their materials
and thus inclined to a certain caution. David d'Angers, who was viewed by his contemporaries
as a Romantic, remained nevertheless decidedly prudent (he was scarcely what we would now
call a "committed" artist). Franois Rude, on the other hand, was reproached by the Ro-
mantics with inclining toward a disturbing realism, though often he was merely a Neoclassicist
swept by the winds of Romanticism. Carpeaux's contemporaries were divided; they admired
him, but with reservations for some critics he remained, even more than Houdon, a man of
:

the eighteenth century for others he was a realist who willingly slipped toward the licentious.
;

The taste for the historical often compounded this confusion the nostalgias for the past
:

did not agree. For the Neoclassicists Rome, with its early Christians and its gladiators, meant
more than did medieval Paris, whose bell towers and picturesque vagabonds were dear to the
hearts of the Romantics.
The end of the century appears still more complex. Some writers claim
situation at the

Rodin as the last of the Romantics, others hail him together with Medardo Rosso as the
inventor of Impressionist sculpture. The works of the German sculptors surprise us by their
romanticism (small letter) tinged with Wagnerian symbolism; likewise, we are disconcerted
 INTRODUCTION 9

by Maillol's abrupt return to Greek sources, and that of the Scandinavian sculptors in the
latter half of the nineteenth century. Thus it is useless and dangerous to insist on pigeon-
holing these artists into specific styles, because our own sensibility toward works of the
past continues to change from one generation to the next. Likewise we must be particularly
vigilant when now, a hundred years later, we find ourselves contesting not only the opinions
of connoisseurs and critics during an artist's lifetime, but also those of the artist himself con-
cerning his own works. The reader examining the works in this book will be the best judge of
the ambiguity posed by many of the illustrations.

The material requirements that accompany the sculptor's work explain in part the slow evolu-
tion of that art as compared with painting. A sculptor demands certain financial resources,
while the working budget of a painter is generally minimal. The realization of a sketch into
marble demands a sizable investment tools and materials make a sculpture an expensive object
:

destined for a substantial clientele that is therefore bourgeois, generally conservative in taste
when it comes to the arts.
Such reasons may have caused "advanced" artists finally to choose painting in preference
to sculpture, deciding that they could express themselves more easily in this way. When paint-
ers have made sculptures it has been "to keep their hand in," so to speak. Convinced that no
one would ever be interested in their experiments and unable to pay the costs of casting, such
painter-sculptors usually contented themselves with modeling in clay or plaster. It was in that
spirit that Gericault sketched a few pieces of sculpture for this reason Daumier's plasters,
;

now counted as masterworks of caricature, lay around neglected for years in a corner of his
studio. Considerably after his death certain amateurs, encouraged by the steady rise in prices
of Daumier's lithographic work, engaged Susse and Rudier to make casts of the sketches.
A result of these difficulties was that throughout the century many young sculptors con-
tinued to live as in the days of the guilds they remained for years in the service of a master,
;

acting as his assistant and filling the role of what is called in France a praticien. In this way, as-
sured of a living, they could become initiated into the secrets of making casts and of founding.
The apprenticeship was a hard one it involved long hours on scaffoldings clamped to the
;

fronts of churches and buildings. The fourteen-year-old tex was kept at work by his master
in near-freezing weather: "I made Gothic capitals along with ornament carvers, crude types
whose habits inspired me with profound repugnance."
The respect inculcated by the professors of the cole des Beaux- Arts for Great Principles
and Grand Genre also imprinted on the mind and retinas of young students a conventional view
of the exercise of the plastic arts that went beyond the academic concepts. Painters and sculp-
tors were expected to be equally proficient in both arts. For a long time Ingres insisted that the
young Etex, a brilliant Beaux-Arts student, should devote himself to painting rather than
sculpture.
Their apprenticeship completed, the young sculptors had two choices either to set :

themselves up on their own or to resign themselves, by remaining attached to their master's

fortunes, to being considered only the equal of an artisan. Newspapers, literature, and mem-
oirs of the time all tell us of the different social status of sculptors from that of painters. The
sculptors' merits were conceded, their manual skill praised as much as that of a blacksmith,
but unless they became recognized as great masters they had to submit to the caprices of fashion
and the demands of their clientele. When Fremiet's ^oan of Arc had already been installed and
inaugurated in 1874 on the Place des Pyramides in Paris, the sculptor, sensitive to the criti-
cisms of theman-in-the-street, modeled and freshly cast a new horse for his heroine surrepti- ;

tiously, in the dead of night, he replaced the humble but powerful beast of burden with a
10

high-stepping shovvhorse. Who, in 1960, would have dared suggest to Giacometti that he
fatten up the cat he was using as model ?

In the Paris of 1830 picture dealers were still few in number, and among these only two or
three consented to handle sculpture. To secure commissions the sculptor had no alternative
but to exhibit at the Salon, the onlv place he could make contact with possible purchasers. To
become "accepted" at the Salon, he had to please the members of the jurv. But those wor-
thies, anxious to hold on to their following, ruthlesslv rejected anvthing that threatened to A
"
upset the public's taste and habits.
Certain remarks bv Guizot, then Minister of Public Education, show well the bias in
favor of conventional art: "Monsieur Etex, when one does not rise in art, one descends."
Stubbornly the jurv, mostlv composed of professors at the Ecole des Beaux-Arts who were
members of the Institut de France, carried on a rear-guard combat against those who rejected
the "disciplines." In 1833 Romantic sculptors were admitted to the Salon, but the following
vear Fratin, Etex, and Prault found their entrv barred. In 1 8 37 Barve was excluded in 1846,;

the pupils of Rude.

Louis-Philippe, the "Citizen-Kin^," plaved the role of a maecenas armed with pencil
:

and notebook and exuding good will, he paced the Salon looking for works worthy of enrich-
ing the national patrimony. Unfortunately his choices remained mediocre, requiring the coun-
tersignatures of Quatremre de Quincv, one of the most execrable intendants of Arts and
Public Monuments in the history of France, and Montalivet, who was concerned with
balancing the budget.
Thiers, first the king's collaborator and then his republican successor, professed to be
the protector of the arts but feared to displease the members of the Institut: commissions and
honors depended on their good graces. After the July Revolution of 1830 the sculptor
Marochetti declared: "I don't give a damn about art, but in ten years I want to have a string
of decorations from here to there," pointing to the left side of his jacket.
Throughout Europe people of good society supported painting or sculpture. For some it
was an excellent means of displaying a noble-spirited Romantic enthusiasm while remaining,
at heart, profoundly reactionary. Charles Marochetti belonged to a patrician family; Henri
Triqueti, a baron, was also the son of the Sardinian king's ambassador to the court of Russia.
Flicie de Fauveau, daughter of a Breton gentleman farmer, enjoved the favors of everything
the international clientele valued most highly because throughout her life she championed the
cause of the duchess of Berrv and then of the count of Chambord. The count of Nieuwerkerke
practiced sculpture with success (he exhibited at the Salon of 842) before becoming an excel-
1

lent surintendant of Fine Arts. Finally, the count d'Orsav, reputedly the most elegant man of
his century, made statuettes filled with a historical lyricism.

The financial situation of the sculptors w^as generally better than that of painters, though

many hired themselves out either to architects a nineteenth-century faade without some
decorative motifs is rare
or to contractors for funeral monuments. In 1825 Etex, a youth
and still unknown, could ask 500 francs for modeling a bust; when scarcely twenty-five, he
was swamped with commissions. At a ball at the Htel de Ville in 1833 he was presented to
the young duke of Orlans, who commissioned a bust from him; that year the Treasury paid
him 70,000 francs to execute two of the large trophies on the Arc de Triomphe in the Place
de l'toile. During that period Daumier was asking one franc for a drawing, Delacroix three
hundred for a painting.
In Rome the sculpture industry was enjoying a boom. People traveled from all over the
 INTRODUCTION 11

world to visit the studios of Canova and Thorvaldsen. Commissions flowed; earnings were
considerable.
The way of of certain "masters" reveals the importance of their honorariums. G-
life

rome, not content with presiding over the world of painting, did not disdain on occasion to
demonstrate his talents as a sculptor. But at a price Asked to carve a Combat of the Gladiators,
!

he reserved a carriage, left his studioon the Boulevard de Clichy at twilight, slept on the
Paris-Naples express, sketched in the Naples Museum a few motifs which he needed to round
out his masterpiece, dined with Prince Caracciolo, and took the express back the following
evening.
But these were the exceptions. For the others, who had to be both sculptors and prati-
ciens, the work was hard and the clients demanding. Stendhal wrote to Eugne Guinot in June,

1839, about B. E. Fogelberg, whom he held in high esteem: "The king of Sweden, or rather
his minister, not much of a connoisseur, only gives 15,000 francs per statue to a man who
works every day for six years to produce two works, and this despite the fact that H. D., on
his own, offered him 50,000 francs for the two statues plus a lifetime pension of 5,000 francs.
Lord P who makes himself out as an eccentric and claims to detest his natural heir to whom
,

he wishes to leave the least possible sum, proposed to rent the Swedish sculptor's statues for
10,000 francs a year, and paid for the first four years in advance. But M. Fogelbert [sic] refused
everything out of respect for his prior engagements and love of his country."
Artistic life in Great Britain was much harsher than on the Continent. In 1848 Etex, in
London in the hope of expanding his clientele, reported that artists, among them Frenchmen
settled there for fifty years, were literally dying of hunger. Being very poor himself, he yielded
to a London merchant who promised to arrange an exhibition and turned over two of his
paintings the dealer, harassed by creditors and not endowed with scruples, pawned these for
;

his own accounts.

In contrast to their friendly cosmopolitanism in Rome, the English proved themselves
frightfully chauvinistic at home. The London press, full of good will for the young Etex, re-
ported sadly: "But he is not English." Etex claimed that the Prime Minister assured him of
commissions on condition that he would agree to be naturalized British.
Etex was hardly more satisfied by his sojourn in the United States. In thanks for having
taken the initiative of executing their likenesses, several persons of substance insisted on
his joining them for dinner; in this way they discharged their obligations. Disillusioned, the
French sculptor decided that "there is nothing to do in America for the true artist."

Most writers on the history of nineteenth-century art seem overcome with a sort of embar-
rassment when it comes to sculpture. After enumerating a dozen names and reminding their
readers that Canova, Carpeaux, and Rodin were geniuses and that David d'Angers had some
talent, they leave it at that, as if the plastic arts had somehow disgraced themselves. Likewise
these writers are only too ready to dismiss as ^^ pompier'' that word of opprobrium which
implies the conventional and pompous many works of the century because in their eyes,
last
drugged by today's abstract art, the concern to render every coat button and velvety texture
seems the sign of an outdated academicism. In reality, the true originality of nineteenth-
century sculpture lies in its public "utility"
for a public whose taste was not sophisticated
but still responded to noble actions and fine sentiments. Today we recognize that it is not so
much the sculpture itself which is old-fashioned as the sentiments it strains to express. Whence
our often excessive propensity to denounce as "silly" any moralistic subject. About 1760
there was already a similar disdain among amateurs of art with respect to the Baroque sculp-
ture produced a century earlier in Austria, Italy, the Iberian Peninsula, and the Spanish colo-
nies of South America.
12

It is actually true that some sculptures of the nineteenth century give a mournful, imper-
sonal impression, especially those thousands of busts witnessing a conservative society. The
chapter title Baudelaire selected for his review of the Salon of 1846, "Why Sculpture is Bor-
ing," makes clear his comparable reactions. And photographs of the Salon in those years show
the halls of painting "black with people," while the central hall reserved for sculpture is

three-quarters
empty the visitors are fewer than the personages frozen in stone or marble
who are assembled on the drab matting of the floors.
The discredit which generally befell sculptors rather than painters deprived them of the
support and interest of literary men. While Balzac, Flaubert, and the Concourt brothers
were concerned with the lot of painters, keeping a place for them in their descriptions of
society, no one, except for Zola, thought to describe that of a sculptor. Most critics gave
sculpture only a small part of their reviews, despite its importance. In their annual essays on
the Salons, Baudelaire and Gautier accorded it scarcely more than three or four pages. Bau-
delaire evidently despised sculpture that was too "brutal" or too "positive"; he recom-
mends that sculptors be banned from the community of the arts whenever they agree to
collaborate on the decoration of any useful monument: for him, "a singular mystery is not to
be touched with the fingers." Further, the author of Lesjieurs du mal, along with other critics,
is already concerned with the sculptor's difficulties in finding the best position for his piece.

The viewer risks being the victim of "accidents of light" a "lamp effect" may bring out
;

a beauty that differs from what the artist intended; there are "so many hazardous situations
from which painters escape."
A similar lack of interest in sculpture is found, as still today, among museum curators.
In trying to rediscover evidence concerning sculptures acquired by the French government,
we have had to conclude that a certain bust, identified in its time in a museum or ministry,
has disappeared never asked for, never returned. Such negligence can only be explained by
:

the absence of interest in these works. Not only have they disappeared, but likewise any trace
of their authors. Certain sculptors who died less than fifty years ago are more ignored today
by researchers than are comparable artisans who lived in centuries past. Only a fortunate com-
bination of circumstances permitted us to find, in a small village in Alsace, the traces of Rupert
Carabin, one of the most original and extraordinary woodcarvers in the history of sculpture.
It is also easier to recover the oeuvre of a painter than of a sculptor. In general, paintings

of some importance are "recorded" from the time the artists bring them into daylight; sales
catalogues, exhibition catalogues, and amateurs' memoirs permit us to follow them over the
years. This is rarely the case for sculptures; most of those described in the plethora of
albums published between 1880 and 1900, devoted to the Salons or retrospective exhibitions,
seem, literally, to have vanished. True, a good number of works, if only for their size and
weight, have never been shifted from the spot for which they were commissioned. But many
others, victims of changes of fashion, have found their way to the scrap metal yard, there to be
metamorphosed into shell cases or war matriel.
To undertake a valid census of nineteenth-century sculpture, there will have to be a
change in fashion dealers will then become interested in this specialty and help to raise from
;

the depths a large number of pieces. Some of these will surprise us by their beauty or orig-
inality museum directors will devote retrospective exhibitions to little-known great artists
;

and catalogue the monuments forgotten in cemeteries everywhere. Then the sculpture of that
century will be revealed in its richness and originality, as important as that in the two pre-
ceding centuries.

Despite the title of the present book, the reader will not find here an exhaustive list of all the
sculptors who worked during the nineteenth century. A simple count of Stanislas Lami's Dic-
tionnaire des sculpteurs de l'cole franais du XIX^ sicle (Paris, 1919), itself incomplete, is enough
 INTRODUCTION 13

to show that the four hundred-odd pages of this volume would not be enough for even a
short biography of each artist.
Rather than accumulate names and assign them more or less arbitrarily to categories
far too rigid, we have preferred to ignore their present or past reputations and to trust our
own sensibility and understanding in assigning their works to the first seven chapters on the
chief artistic currents
Neoclassic, Romantic, Populist, Symbolist; we continue in chapters
8 to 10, as the twentieth century approaclies, with tendencies often modernist and contradic-
torv: was Rodin a Naturalist, as he was judged in his lifetime, or a survivor of Romanticism,
or the first Impressionist sculptor? In any event, if most of the sculptures of Canova, David
d'Angers, Carpeaux, Rodin, and Medardo Rosso elude standard classifications, it is because
those great artists were more often beacons (the term Baudelaire applied to certain great
creators) than heads of schools.
In chapters 11 to 18 we shall examine the importance of sculpture in the life of cities.
Once again sculptors took up the tasks of their forebears in the Renaissance the humanizing :

of public squares the enlivening of dreary faades of buildings and making the approach of
; ;

death more bearable by lending a touch of paganism to funeral monuments.

The reader may think we have given more importance to Neoclassical and Romantic art
than to the rest, or that we have been overly insistent on funerary or decorative art. Actually
the length of any chapter reflects our concern not to b^'pass certain works that we find ex-
emplary.
Since 1880 the prodigious interest aroused by Rodin's works brought about a trans-
formation of sculptural vision. Sculptors no longer hesitated to follow the earlier example of
Michelangelo and to present works as final that had still an unfinished appearance. Ama-
teurs and critics of painting shared the same interest in sketches and preparatory drawings
which once were thought unworthy of public exhibition. The way was opened to the in-
formal art of our time.

Note : Given the diversity of photographic material that we have at hand, it seemed desirable to reproduce in this book not only known works in
public or private collections but also works which have disappeared, been destroyed, or whose whereabouts are unknown but whose photographs we have

found in the course of our research . Thus we have not been able in every case to specify the dimensions of the works reproduced ; for this we beg the
reader's pardon. Our aim has not been toward providing a complete identity cardfor each work illustrated but to give indications which would serve as
the basis for further investigations.
 f

I. ANTOINE CHAUDET (1763-1810). Peace. 1805. Silver, silver

gilt, height 68". Muse du Louvre, Paris. See p. 407, 3
 1. NEOCLASSICISM

One who follows others

never surpasses them.

GIORGIO VASARI. Life of Michelangelo

generation of nineteenth-century sculptors showed a taste, more or less pro-

Each
nounced, for classicism.
And in the eighteenth century Greece welcomed more visitors than at any pre-
vious moment of its history, although Baroque and Rococo art remained trium-
phant. To each epoch its own brand of classicism.
In 1775, when the Romantic era was opening, Neoclassicism split into two currents:
one was severe and moralist, the other pleasant, elegant, even symbolist. The former looked
rather to Rome and the latter to Athens, but both drew upon Winckelmann and his archaeo-
logical discoveries.
Today it is difficult to imagine the surprise and amazement that attended the unearthing
of Pompeii and Herculaneum. Not unlike ourselves on the eve of moon landings, when we
succumbed to vague and indescribable hopes and awaited some revelation of a world perhaps
more developed than ours, the contemporaries of Voltaire and Lessing thought that the dead
cities so unexpectedly brought to light would divulge prodigious secrets. The gazettes of the
time tell us about the strange hopes that were nourished.
While the Germans, fired with enthusiasm by Winckelmann' s works, built their new
aesthetic on archaeological foundations, the French amateurs such as Cay lus, and architects
such as Soufiflot, wished themselves rather to be descendants of Plutarch.

The idolatry of Antiquity then already three centuries old reflects a number of moti-
vations, often contradictory. Elegant society in the eighteenth century professed a taste for
the Beautiful and the Grand Style that brought with it certain advantages. The prince or gen-
eral posing for his portrait willingly dressed himself up in a toga or Roman cuirass. For fear
of revealing to the world what might be the scrawny or pudgy figures of their wealthy sitters,
the sculptors familiar to their fingertips with the canons of idealized Nature were always
ready to supply a change of body, like the costumers in a theater. Bodies, in fact, were con-
sidered by portrait sculptors to be much the same as pedestals, and the sculptor was expected
to transcend the physical traits of his models.
Moreover, the lively success enjoyed by Antique symbolism was not unrelated to the re-
strictions imposed by censorship the crowds swarming to the Salons delighted in the academ-
:

ic spectacle that is to say, the nudity. This appetite for the Beautiful and the Grand Style
was so contagious that its effects may be verified from Moscow to Philadelphia. Russian
sculpture remained for a long time, indeed until the October 1917 Revolution, under the
influence of Neoclassicism. Shubin, Kozlovski, or Shchedrin could have exhibited in the
Paris Salons without anyone being aware of anything foreign. Under the Tsars the taste for
everything that came from Paris was so well established that the Muscovites treated Russian
sculptors with disdain, even if the sculptors had studied with Lemoyne, AUegrain, or Pigalle.
When Shubin, as we read in the travel book published in 1796 by Count Alphonse Fortia
de Piles, was deprived of a studio he had to make do with scarcely more than a closet. His
clients paid him a miserly hundred rubles for a bust though the partially cut block of marble

15
16

cost him eighty, yet as a portraitist he was a match for Houdon. The only field for local sculp-
tors was funeral monuments; it was said of han Martos, an artist difficult to classify as Neo-
classical or Romantic, that he "made the marble weep," and according to Louis Rau his
funeral monuments peopled the cemeteries of the Monastery of the Virgin of the Don at
Moscow and of the Alexander Neysky Monastery in Leningrad.

Curiously, the art of Houdon and Canoya, which determines the transition from the eighteenth
century to the Romantic era, proyes to be most complex. Was Houdon, who suryiyed four
rgimes, a Neoclassicist or already a Naturalist? In the faces of his portraits we may read only

who refused to say much though

what his clients wished the world to see persons of elegance, conscious of their position,
they kept their own counsel. Canoya's genius consisted in a
successful alliance of elegance with sensualism, while feigning the appearance of a paragon
of classicism.
Canoya from Thoryaldsen and from certain of Thoryaldsen's
In reality, the gulf separating
disciples was as deep as that separating the Roman sculptors, twenty centuries earlier, from
the Greeks of the fifth century b.c. Thoryaldsen made a real effort to carye like the Ancients;

Canova a Greek of the best period reborn two and one-half millennia later worked from
nature.
Countless sculptors stroye to Canoya, but, despite their accomplishment, some did
riyal
not enough
the German Dannecker, the Frenchmen Chinard and Bosio, the Englishman

Westmacott while others did too much; Thoryaldsen yainly droye himself to demonstrate
that physical perfection, wisdom, and modesty, all allied, vyere the customary sight in an
ancient city.
In France, contrary to logic, the reyolutionaries showed themseKes as more classicistic
than the occupants of Versailles had been around 1 780. Reyolutionary literature, architecture,
painting, and the press all expressed a passion for eyerything Antique. Ancient symbol- Rome
ized the Republic and its yirtues. To the poor souls posing for posterity it was thought good
form to assume an expression in which perspicacity vied with severity. Under the Empire,
and later the Restoration, women before posing had their hairdressers curl them up la Cleo-
patra, Vestal Virgin, or Amazon. The toga was indicated for clean-shaven men or those with
full faces; for thinner men, the uniform or frock coat.
This taste for classical art persisted throughout the century. It corresponded sufficiently
with what elegant gentlemen sought as well as the man in the street: something handsome,
lofty in manner, and with a good likeness. Is that not what Thophile Gautier appreciated in
sculpture, "the most serious of the arts," when writing about the portrait of Soufflot by Jean-
Pierre Dantan in the Salon of 1845? And likewise Baudelaire, on the same occasion, wrote
that "Dantan has done some fine busts, noble in manner and evidently good likenesses."
In Germany and as far north as Scandinavia entire cities were remodeled l'antique,
perhaps because countries less favored by the sun feel a certain nostalgia at the thought of the
Mediterranean world. Let us suppose .Munich had been buried at the end of the last century
by an earthquake and unearthed two millennia later: what archaeologist would not conclude
from those proud ruins that Bavaria had been ruled by the descendants of Roman occupants,
having remained a pagan state until the twentieth century?
The illustrations to this chapter will convince us of the desire of Neoclassical sculptors
to reproduce perfect anatomical forms. It is true that too much perfection dehumanized their
subjects, draining them of all erotic or sensual suggestion. Similarly, the faces express only
the primary sentiments : meditation, fury, amazement, or physical or moral suffering. To
achieve these the sculptor had to shift the gaze of his godlike or elegant personages; their eyes
turned toward Heaven or averted to the side, they disdain to catch the viewer's glance. Per-
 NEOCLASSICISM 17

haps it is the same concern for isolation that makes the artists sometimes wrap their subject in
deep sleep.
It mav be works by sculptors generally classed among the
surprising to find in this chapter
Romantics, But faced with David d'Angers' severe Racine disguised as a Roman, or Rude s
Mercury Fastening his Winged Sandal, the reader will understand better the motives that lie

behind our choice.

If Romanticism and then of Realism better than

Neoclassical statuary resisted the assaults of
did painting, it was because sculpture's title to nobility would seem to date back further
than that of painting. We have no idea of Greek painting in the fifth and fourth centuries
B.c. except through ancient descriptions. On the other hand, our museums and collections
have sheltered thousands of masterpieces of ancient sculpture since the Renaissance. Sur-
rounded bv all these models, Neoclassical sculpture was proud of its genealogy, over two
thousand years old, and held out against the modernists. Such prestige troubled the more
enlightened men. Around 1816 the confusion increased when David, seeing in London the
marbles of the Parthenon, asked himself "if his career had not been one long misunderstand-
ing, a permanent confusion between the truth he beheld and the life he aspired to attain," as
Elie Faure put it.

seemed
Strangely enough, Baudelaire favored Neorealism in sculpture, perhaps because it

to him the fruit of "sincerity." This did not prevent the poet from being unjust toward
Rude's Woman of Gaul in his review of the Salon of 1859 instead of "a person of grand bear-
;

ing, free, powerful, with robust and untrammeled form, the strapping daughter of the
forests, the wild and warlike woman," the sculptor offered "a miserable figure whose breast,
hips, thighs, and legs, sunken in." And he claimed
everything that should create relief, are
that the sculpture evoked for him "a dissecting table for cadavers ravaged by disease and forty
years of misery." For reasons of heart more than head, Baudelaire professed a great admira-
tion for Clsinger, who was a proficient man but lacking in genius yet he nevertheless railed
;

against the sculptor's Oljmpus: "For some time now I have had all of Olympus at my heels,
and I suffer much therebv I have gods falling on my head the way other people have chimney-
;

stacks ... I can't take a step or sav a word without bumping into something pagan," And
further, with vast humor, Baudelaire questioned: "Will the god Crepitus brew us our
tisane the morning after our stupid ceremonies? Will Venus Aphrodite or Venus-For-Sale
bring relief for the maladies she will pass on to you? Will all these marble statues turn into
women to comfort vour hour of agony? Do you drink ambrosia bouillon? Eat cutlets
. . .

from Paros? How much will the government pawnbroker lend us for a lyre?"
Stendhal often evinced contradictory feelings toward Neoclassicism. Sometimes he
showered Thorvaldsen with praise, at others he inveighed against persons who unreservedly
embraced the cult of Antiquity. He, earlier than Baudelaire, took a stand in favor of moder-
nity "Nothing odder has ever existed than an assembly of twenty-eight million men all speak-
:

ing the same language and laughing at the same thing. How long, in the arts, will our character
be buried under imitation? We, the greatest number of people that has ever existed (yes, even
after 1815), we imitate the little clans of Greece which could scarcely count two or three
million inhabitants. When shall I see a people brought up on a single understanding of the
useful and the harmful, without Hebrews, without Greeks, without Romans?" When he
wrote to Alphonse Gonselin on January 17, 1828, Stendhal saw clearly that "the art of Canova
marks the apogee of sculpture. Canova's tomb is also sculpture's tomb. The execrable statues
prove that the art has died with the great man."
Nonetheless, as late as 1839 he was still very responsive to the classical. In his corre-
spondence he constantly proclaims "Fogelber"
B. E. Fogelberg, a name he spelled several
18

ways Concerning the Swedish sculptor's

to be the greatest sculptor of his generation.
Apollo and Venus he wrote, in June of 1839, to Eugne Guinot that "the drapery is entirely in
the style of the antiquity of the Greeks the flesh passages are somewhat more finished it was
; ;

enormously difficult to render Nature, the noblest of the gods, on so elevated a level with-
out having a resemblance to what the Ancients had done."
Neoclassical sculpture gives proof of the slow artistic evolution that took place between
1760 and 1840, a transitional period which finally showed itself to be quite negative. All
the effort made to shake off the Baroque and Rococo styles only ended, in fact, in hatching
a Neoclassicism which turned into a pseudo-naturalism before drowning at last in eclecti-
cism.

1. JEAN-ANTOINE HOUDON (1741-1828). Rude, the son of an artisan, learned his craft from Devosge,
Napoleon I. 1806. Terracotta, height 20". Muse des Beaux- the remarkable director of the Academy at Dijon who had been
Arts, Dijon the teacher of Prud'hon. The years that Rude was obliged to
spend turning out decorative work for Cartellier proved valu-
2. PETER ANDREEVICH STAVASSER (1816-1850).
able training, as can be seen from the bas-relief he produced in
Boy Fishing (detail). 1839. Marble, entire height 46i". Russian
1811, a year before receiving the Grand Prix for sculpture.
Museum, Leningrad

3. ALEXANDER IVANOVICH TEREBENEV (1812-1859).

10. JOHN FLAXMAN (1755-1826).
Saint Michael Slaying Satan, c. 1819-26. Marble. The National
Atlantes. 1849. Granite, over lifesize. Decorations of entrance
Trust, the Petworth Collection, Sussex
porch, Palace of the Hermitage, Leningrad
Flaxman long remained a man of the eighteenth century. For
There is nothing uniquely Russian in this very line work except
all Thomas Lawrence, president of the Royal Academy,
that Sir
the superb material in which it is carved.
said that Flaxman was a sculptor of sentiment much more than
4. PIERRE-CHARLES SLMART (1806-1857). of form, the sculptor, like most of his contemporaries and
Art Beseeching Inspiration Jrom Poetry. 1857. Plaster. Muse des compatriots, was gripped by a passion for classicism.
Beaux- Arts, Troyes
This resolutely Neoclassical artist also carved the Napoleon 11. JEAN-JACQUES Called JAMES PRADIER (1792-1852).

in the sanctuary of the crypt behind the Emperor's tomb in

Light Poetry. Marble. Muse des Beaux-Arts, Nmes
It was said that certain works by Pradier inspired guilty
the Church of the Invalides, Paris.
thoughts in the visitors to the Salon. The prudish critic Gustave
5. LEONIDAS DROSSIS (1836-1882). Planche accused the sculptor of "always lacking the sense
Penelope (detail). White marble. National Picture Gallery, of chastity."
Athens
Drossis followed the academic current so dear to the sculptors 12. JUAN ADN (1741-1816).
of his country. He carved most of the statues and ornamental Venus of the Alameda de Osuna. 1793. Marble. Camillegas, Ala-

motifs decorating the Academy of Arts and Sciences in Athens. meda de Osuna, near Madrid

6. FRANCISQUE-JOSEPH DURET (1804-1865). 13. ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822).

Orestes, c. 1833. Marble, height 25". Muse Calvet, Avignon Hebe. 1816 (original 1795-98). Marble, height 5' 9". Pina-
Duret treated his figures in the academic style following the coteca Comunale, Forli
tradition of Falconet and Pigalle. Throughout the nineteenth century, critics maintained caution
toward Canova. Henri Jouin, for one, was equivocal, first
7. SAMUEL IVANOVICH GALBERG (bom Hallberg in Sweden;
stating that the sculptor's works would be applauded by genera-
1787-1839).
tions "enamored of his name," and then crying: "Why does
The Beginning of Music: Young Faun Listening to the Murmuring
he not spread his wings like an eagle, why not rise from light
Wind in the Reeds (detail). 1830. Marble, entire height 59^".
to light, which is to say, from the beauty of forms to moral
Russian Museum, Leningrad
beauty? His flight is like that of the bird which wheels above
Sculpture like this has little originality, except for something
the abyss. The art which does not arouse a noble thought is an
in the face which reveals that the model, like that for the Faun
art abased. To please is a merit of the second rank, and often a
by Sergei (see p. 19, 24), was not of Latin origin.
danger; to elevate is the sculptor's true mission."
8. JOHANN NEPOMUK SCHALLER (1777-1842).
Bellerophon Slaying the Chimera. 1821. Marble, height 6' 11". 14. VICTOR VAN HOVE (1825-1891).
Oesterreichische Galerie, Vienna Music. 1875. Marble. Royal Palace, Soestdijk (near Utrecht),

Schaller, like Leopold Kiesling (see p. 19, 30), remained an The Netherlands
academic, a follower of Canova.
15. VACLAV PRACHNER (1784-1832).
9. FRANOIS RUDE (1784-1855). The Moldau River. 1812. Prague
Mercury Fastening his Winged Sandal. 1828 (cast 1834). Bronze, In Prague Prachner was the earliest exponent of a Czech sculp-
height 8' 2". Muse du Louvre, Paris ture in the style current elsewhere at the start of the century.
 NEOCLASSICISM 19

He carved a certain number of funeral sculptures, including 24. JOHAN TOBIAS SERGEL (17401814).
this allegorical figure, and also the monument of Bishop Lon Resting Faun. 1774. Marble, length 33". National Museum,
Thun Hohenstein (1831) for the cemetery in the Mali Strana Stockholm
district of Prague. Like most Swedish artists, Sergei did his apprenticeship in the
ateliers of Parisian masters. He subsequently lived in Rome for
16. IVAN PETROVICH MARTOS (17541835).
thirteen years.
Tomb of Princess E. I. Gagarina. 1912. Bronze, copy of plaster
25. GUSTAVE CRAUK (1827-1905).
original (1803) in the cemetery of the Alexander Nevsky
height 5' Russian Museum, Youth and Love. 1884. Marble. Formerly Muse du Luxem-
Monastery, Leningrad, 6i".
bourg, Paris
Leningrad
An emulator of Cinova, Martos seems more Neoclassical than A student of Pradier's, this French sculptor had a successful

Romantic. His contemporaries considered him a great sculp- academic career.

tor the "Russian Canova" and he dominated teaching in 26. ION GEORGESCU (1857-1899).
Russia for almost half a century. Nymph of the Spring. 1879. Bronze. Museum Simu, Bucharest

17. VICTOR SIMYAN (1826-1886). 27. ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822).

Etruscan Art Represented by a Seated Woman. 1861. Marble, Pauline Bonaparte Borghese as Venus Victorious. 18058. Marble,
height 49". Muse Calvet, Avignon length 6' 1" . Galleria Borghese, Rome
Canova exercised a decisive influence on most artists of his
18. FERDINAND LEENHOFF (1841-1914). generation. His figures, generally draped in the antique fashion,
hyblis. 1879. Bronze. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
wear, as if born to them, the togas and chlamyses brought back
Leenhoff, Manet's brother-in-law, carved Manet's tomb. into fashion by those nostalgic for the century of Pericles. But
Canova deserves to be classed among the great sculptors of the
19. ION GEORGESCU (1857-1899).
Western world especially for the perfection of his workman-
Young Man with a Lance. 1882. Bronze. Museum Simu, Bucha-
ship and his manner of carving marble.
rest

The German sculptor Karl Storck (1826-1887) was the first to 28. JOHAN NIKLAS BYSTRM (1783-1848).
teach courses in sculpture at the school of fine arts in Bucharest, ]uno and the Infant Hercules (Origin of the Milky Way), c. 1828.
founded in 1864. The instruction remained resolutely academic Marble, length 6' 7". National Museum, Stockholm
for a long time. Carrier-Belleuse, Frmiet, and Ettore Ferrari This Swedish sculptor settled in Rome in 1810.

carried off all the commissions until, under the pressure of

29. JOHN WARRINGTON WOOD (1839-1886).
public opinion alerted by younger artists, Ion Georgescu suc-
The Sisters of Bethany. Marble, height 57". City Museum and
ceeded to the post vacated by Storck. The harmonious and
Art Gallery, Birmingham, England
skillful works of the native artist continued to be very Neo-
Mary and Martha, the sisters of the resurrected Lazarus.
classical.
30. LEOPOLD KIESLING (1770-1827).
20. VASILY rVANOVICH DEMUT-MALINOVSKY (1779-1846). Mars, Venus, and Cupid. 1809-10. Marble, height 7' 2".
The Russian Mucius Scaevola. 1813 (cast 1861). Bronze, height Oesterreichische Galerie, Vienna
8' 9^". Russian Museum, Leningrad This Austrian sculptor was an early follower of Canova.

21. PETER KARLOVICH KLODT (1805-1867). 31. JOSEPH CHINARD (1756-1813).

Horse and Horse Tamer. 1839. Bronze. One of four sculptured Perseus Freeing Andromeda. Marble (unfinished), height 5' 11".
groups on the Anichkov Bridge, Leningrad Muse des Beaux-Arts, Lyons
The majority of Russian sculptors remained unshakably academ- Even Chinard's works, after 1800, like Houdon's, remain
ic and classicistic to the end of the century. The influence of imbued with the spirit of the eighteenth century.
Falconet can be found in Klodt, who was a remarkable animal
32. ANDR-FRANOIS TRUPHME (1820-1888).
sculptor. Tsar Nicholas I, who was justly proud of these two
Lesbia's Sparrow. 1874. Marble, height 47". Muse des Beaux-
pairs of horse tamers, had copies cast as a gift to his father-in-
Arts, Marseilles
law, the king of Prussia. The Berliners quickly named one
"Progress Shackled" and the other "Reaction Roused." 33. ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822).
Psyche. Marble, height 59". Kunsthalle, Bremen
22. ALEXANDER VASILYEVICH LOGANOVSKY (1810-1855).
Boy Playing Game of Nail and Ring. 1836. Plaster, height 6' 10". 34. WILLIAM RINEHART (1825-1874).
Russian Museum, Leningrad The Woman of Samaria. 1859-61. Marble. Walters Art Gallery,

This statue is based on a poem by Pushkin. Baltimore

Rinehart was born in Baltimore and worked in Italy after 1855.
23. JOHANN GOTTFRIED SCHADOW (1764-1850).
35. HEINRICH IMHOF (1798-1869).
Girl Reposing. 1826. Marble, length 37". Nationalgalerie,
Eve Before the Fall. 1865. Marble, height 6'. Kunstmuseum,
Berlin
Berne
In Germany, sculpture remained for long the handmaiden of
Throughout his career the Swiss-German Imhof remained a
architecture. Berlin, Dresden, and Munich were the art sources
convert of Thorvaldsen.
for the later empire. Italian influence vied with French taste.
The art of Schadow, the greatest German sculptor of his genera- 36. TOMS COSTA (1861-1932).
tion, seems often influenced by both the Frenchman David Eve. 1891. Marble. Museu Nacional de Arte Contempornea,
d'Angers and the Dane Thorvaldsen. Lisbon
20

Without achieving the originality of Antonio Soars dos Reis lessons he received from Pajou often left too much of amark
(see p. 45, 8), Costa was technically an excellent sculptor. on Dannecker, who was one of the best sculptors in Germany
at the start of the century.
37. CHARLES-HENRI-JOSEPH CORDIER (1827-1905).
Water Nymph. 1853. Marble. Muse de Douai 45. JEAN-JOSEPH ESPERCIEUX (1758-1840).
This is an early work; Cordier later became interested in Greek Woman Preparing to Enter Her Bath. 1835. Marble, height
making sculptures of the different types of the human race (see 53". Muse Calvet, Avignon
p. 407, 7,8; p. 408, pi. X). The work is interesting for the Hellenistic expression of the
face, and also for the "stage props" ; these suggest the histori-
38. JOS siMOES d'almida (1844-1926).
cizing taste for effective detail that is found later in certain
Puberty. 1877.Museu Nacional de Arte Contempornea, Lisbon
Orientalist and Art Nouveau sculptors, such as Thodore
Almeida, like his colleagues Elias Robert (Dom Pedro IV, Lis-
Rivire (see p. 362, IS).
bon) and Alberto Munes, was a good craftsman ungifted with
imagination. 46. LOUIS-EUGNE SI.MONIS (1810-1882).
Innocence. 1839. Marble, height 56". Muses Royaux des
39. HIRA.M POWERS (1805-1873).
Beaux-Arts, Brussels
California. 1858. Marble, height 5' 10". Metropolitan Museum
The Belgian Neoclassical school is scarcely conspicuous for its
of Art, New York
originality. This did not prevent good sculptors like Ruxthiel
Of this fine American artist, Andr Michel "he ran
said that
(d. 1837), Jan Calloigne (d. 1830), or A. j. Ven (d. 1866),
away from himself and lived and died in Florence." The judg-
men inspired fundamentally by their great predecessor Gilles-
ment is severe. Powers' works have an indisputable original-
Lambert Godecharle (see p. 255, 38), from realizing works
ity.
as elegant as they were, in general, boring.
40. ALEXANDRE SCHOENWERK (1820-1885). 47. GIOVANNI DUPR (1817-1882).
Morning. 1879. Marble, height 39". Muse de
In the Picardie,
Sappho Abandoned. 1857. Marble, height 55^". Galleria Nazio-
Amiens nale d'Arte Modema, Rome
French sculptor, very popular during the Second Empire. Giovanni Dupr, an Italian sculptor born in Siena of French

41. LOUIS-AUGUSTE DELIGAND (1815-1874). parents, had as teacher Cambi, whose art oscillated between a

The Oracle in the Fields. 1855. Marble, height 57". Muse d'Art banal classicism and a lukewarm realism. He himself strove to
et d'Histoire, Auxerre make the sculptors who worked around him renounce their
A Salon exhibitor from 1840 to 1857, Deligand later entered taste for grandiloquence. His work is free of overemphasis and

holy orders. exemplifies his talent for making his personages human, and he
steered a course between Neoclassicism and a kind of natu-
42. CHARLES-ANTOINE CALLAMARD (1776-1821). ralism.
Innocence Warming a Viper in Her Bosom. 1806. Marble, height
48. PIERRE-JEAN DAVID Called DAVID d'angers (1788-1856).
51". Muse National du Palais de Compigne
Monument to Racine. Completed 1824, inaugurated 1833. Mar-
There is another copy of this work in the Louvre, Paris
ble, height 6' 7". U Fert-Milon
43. JEAN-BAPTISTE-PAUL CABET (1815-1876). The inauguration of this statue, on the porch of the playwright's
The Awakening oj Spring. 1868. Marble, height 6' 6". Muse birthplace, is described on page 78.
des Beaux- Arts, Dijon
49. HERMAN VILHELM BISSEN (1798-1868).
A student of Rude's and his successor after his master's death.
Thorvaldsen Leaning on the Statue oJ Hope. 1839. Marble, height
44. JOHANN HEINRICH VON DANNECKER (1758-1841). 6' 6". Thorvaldsen Museum, Copenhagen
Ariadne Riding on a Panther. 1803. Terracotta (preparatory This statue demonstrates the admiration felt by the Danes for
model), height 11^". Staatsgalerie, Stuttgart their illustrious compatriot Thorvaldsen, and at the same time
The composition of the work is quite astonishing: a nude a certain casualness toward Neoclassical art. Soon Denmark
woman, to enjoy better some sight that seems to fascinate her, was to turn to more modernist ideals under the happy impulse
balances on the back of a panther whose expression is rather of the wealthy industrialist Carl Jacobsen, who founded the
that of a large grinning tomcat than of a wild animal. The sculpture museum, or Glyptotek, at Ny Carlsberg in 1888.
f

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44
47
 2. ROMANTICISM

A Romantic who has learned his art becomes classical.

Which is why Romanticism ended up in the Parnassian movement.

PAUL VALRY

Writers end in the

like Baudelaire or Gautier, who attempted to define
that the difficulty consists in fixing the limits of the irrational. Instead
Romanticism, learned

of trying to clarify the structures, they settled for re-experiencing its effects :

Romanticism for some was a devastating cyclone, for others a cleansing and be-
neficent breeze.
Thus it is simpler to seek out the presence of Romanticism in a particular work of
sculpture than to state outright that a particular sculptor was really a Romantic, "an artist
who, in bringing into being his real self," says Luc Benoist in his La Sculpture romantique^
"succeeds in conserving his original personality instead of borrowing, as an academic does, an
ancient form which imprisons him and blocks his normal development." Stendhal used
this meaning to define the Romantic artist.

not always easy for our contemporaries, who in their way are somewhat mannered
It is

Romantics, to judge the work and motivations of an artist who lived a mere fifty years ago.
True, our psychological and visual sensibility as well as our political and social conceptions
have evolved considerably since the days of July, 1830; the Romantic revolution did not cor-
respond, in the minds of its instigators, with the notion we have of a modern revolution. For
this reason we are constantly surprised at finding that the sculptors called Romantics (the
writers also one need only think of Balzac and Hugo) were, for the most part, defenders
:

of the throne and of religion. Felicie de Fauveau, who dreamed only of crushing the sons of
the revolutionaries and winning back the throne for the count of Chambord, was always
considered a Romantic sculptor. Perhaps it would be more accurate to classify certain sculp-
tors among the folkloristic or history-minded, those who were incapable of distilling from the
life around them the degree of supernatural that it conceals.
In the special case of sculpture, we exercise still greater caution in accepting certain
works Romantic, though they were considered so in their time; to our eyes, conditioned
as
by abstract art, they seem ponderous, often solemn, productions.
The gulf that separates so-called Romantic sculpture from painting is caused by the
choice of subject and, even more, by its "execution." Delacroix needed only a brush, some
paint, and a canvas to produce his Liberty Leading the People; Rude, creating his Marseillaise
from a number of blocks of stone (see p. 45, /), had to overcome innumerable technical
problems. Moreover, from the instant that a different hand, that of the assistant, intervenes
between the sculptor and his material, the artist's creative drive is in danger of being ham-
pered. If this process occurs in an academic piece the artist's standard methods will suffice.
But what about the moment of creative passion, blocked by too many obstacles?
Baudelaire, who
does not always seem at ease in judging sculpture, often revealed contra-
dictory feelings in which his visual habits appear to clash with his poetical sensibilities. Thus
after having shown enthusiasm over Bosio's Young Indian Girl at the Salon of 1845
lively

(p. 47, 42), the following year he reversed his opinion and judged such pseudo-Romantic
statuary with great lucidity: "Romanticism does not rest precisely in the choice of subjects

41
42

nor in exact veracity, but in the manner of feeling. For me Romanticism is the most recent,
the most timely expression of the Beautiful. ... To Romanticism
say is to say modem
art that is, inwardness, spirituality, color, aspiration toward the infinite expressed by all

the means that obtain to the arts."

Well before the end of the eighteenth century in France, Neoclassicism already carried the
seeds of Romanticism. The monarchy was in power, but the police chief and the censor,
deprived of real authority, were both incapable of perceiving that the immoderate enthusiasm

shown by His Majesty's subjects for ancient Rome its monuments, its svmbols of power,
and its tribunes might ultimately conceal subversive and republican ideas. If the artists
translated everything into symbolic terms up to the days of the Revolution, it was in final
deference to the King and to the court nobles and city gentlemen who continued to pay, with-
out protest, the bills of their tradesmen, painters, or sculptors.
Between 1760 and 1790 Falconet and then Houdon began to allow the personalities of
their sitters to come through: Falconet's Samuel Bernard is thoughtful, racked with care over
the exchange rate of the franc; Houdon's Voltaire smiles, quizzically and without illusions,
witness of the silliness of the society in power. But was not yet the time to discern the
it

stirrings of the soul. David d'Angers, in his profiles and busts, brought out the charming side
of his sitters. Only Daumier (a moralist, like Goya) would go beyond that, piercing the
faades of his sitters, laying bare whatever was atrocious, vile, or pitiful in men corrupted by
ambition or wealth.
The Romantic sculptors vied with the painters and engravers in reconstituting the ap-
pearance of mythical or historical heroes. When Rude, Bosio, or Triqueti decided to repre-
sent deceased monarchs, they claimed to have rediscovered the proper expressions and
appearance, thanks to descriptions in literature or legend. The artists' ambition was to pro-
duce in noble materials an image that would fulfill the current idea of these heroes. The day
after Frmiet's Joan of Arc was inaugurated, the press discussed seriously the resemblance of
the bronze face to that of the seven-centuries-dead heroine Frmiet, in fact, is still acclaimed
;

as the artist who best succeeded in recapturing her true likeness.

If certain sculptors, following the Restoration in 1814, began to show weariness in main-

taining Antiquity, neither did they enter with passionate enthusiasm into the daily spectacle
around them. Lagging behind the painters as usual, the sculptors sought instead to reproduce
the new myths needed by the new bourgeois society. Seduced by a certain taste for the
out-of-the-way and wishing to be illustrators of the fashionable novelists, they could not help
carving idealized figures. How many Romantics, or those who wished to be, failed to recog-
nize that the truly supernatural is ultimately within the grasp of anyone capable of recognizing
it in the simplest acts and images of everyday life Was it not for this reason that many sculp-
!

tors, rather than visualizing the virtues of liberty or the fate of the workers on the basis of real
life, found it more elegant, and perhaps less compromising, to continue to express them-

selves with the help of allegories? It is equally possible that some Romantics, fearful of being
relegated to the ranks of the populists or naturalists
a breed Baudelaire despised chose
deliberately to express themselves through precious and paltry artifices.
The end of Neoclassicism tolled the knell of paganism in art. Contrary to what happened
under the Ancien Rgime, when a society apparently submissive to the power of the Church
reveled in pagan imagery, the bourgeois society that grew out of the Revolution dismissed
Antique iconography as an outdated exercise. The Romantics finally revealed themselves as
more Christian than those of the previous century. The alliance of religion with the Romantic
ideal had effects on the historical taste painters and sculptors preferred Christian heroes to
:

heroes of Antiquity and austere Roman senators. The sons of the Revolution were enthusiastic
 ROMANTICISM 43

about virtuous and exemplary personages who could satisfy both moralistic as well as middle-
class ideals and David d'Angers announced that an artist's genius depended on his "virtues,
David d'Angers believed in the national mission of sculpture: "Every work of sculpture
is a witness. Whether it be witness to a living idea, to facts preserved by history, to beliefs

practiced, to customs, poetry, or dress, the work of sculpture must sum up, in some way,
the genius of a nation." At the request of the State or of the municipalities, sculptors turned
out multiple of the heroic Roland, of Franois Villon, Joan of Arc, Jacques Coeur,
effigies

and Etienne Marcel, each symbolizing liberty and liberalism, that is to say a certain "pro-
gressive" state of mind.
The sculptors made themselves the choristers of the national virtues. They took charge
of glorifying civil and military courage. They seized Marshal Ney or General Grard in the
very moment of gunfire or of receiving the fatal bullet; the cavalry charges, their mouths
open howls to give themselves courage the dying choke cheeks sunk in,
in ; eyes hollowed
in bedclothes rumpled with sweat. In connection with this come changes in the rendering of
physical suffering. Suffering, in the classical period, is noble: Laocoon and his sons agonize
in the stylized manner of Japanese Kabuki actors. With the Romantics, death takes place on
stage: gestures evoke pathos, even drama; a man reaches for his sword, a woman for poison
or the serpent's fangs.

Clothing and nudity became the subject of quarrels as virulent as those which formerly divided
the Ancients and Moderns. The evidence of statues made between 1780 and 1830 emphasizes
the evolution of costume, showing the importance of those transformations on the social
plane. Earlier, under pressure from public opinion, Clodion had modified the classical dra-
pery worn by his Montesquieu, replacing it with the magistrate's usual robe. The Romantics
repudiated the idea of reviving the traditional realism inherited from the eighteenth century
what Luc Benoist calls the "historical vein"
which was separated into two systems: in the
one even togas were removed from the statues in the other the figures were allowed breeches
;

or drawers, like those of the dragoon by Charles-Louis Corbet or, for the soldiers on the Arc
du Carrousel, heavy standard-issue cloaks and high boots it was the baron Gros transformed
:

into sculpture.
Even more than the Anglo-Saxons showed a taste for the nude. Westmacott,
Latins, the
the author of the colossal bronze statue in Hyde Park in honor of the Duke of Wellington, did
not hesitate to portray the general nude, "like Achilles," despite London's inclement skies.
The figure is eighteen feet high upon a granite pedestal twice as high it was cast from the
;

metal of twelve cannon wrested from the enemy at the battles of Salamanca, Vitoria, and
Waterloo, David d'Angers, considered the paragon of Romanticism by his contemporaries,
found it far from easy to choose between the two alternatives, and his notes reveal his dilem-
ma: "In reality the ideal would be to strip one's models of the garments that are only aids to
human infirmity; their sole purpose is to protect the body against the intemperateness of
outdoor air, and of this the human soul has no need,"
After declaring that the Ancients, who carved for eternity, represented their great
men nude, just as they came from the Creator's hand, David d'Angers modifies his remark
with a pinch of common sense "The needs of industry, which produces a continual supply of
:

new fashions, will plead the cause of the artist better than any other reason. The execution of
a statue takes two years. Fashion, during that period, will have changed several times. I
appreciate perfectly that painters render exactly the accessories of costume. They have the
right to inventory everything the resources that color puts into their hands authorize them
;

to vie with reality. But the sculptor, restricted to the monochrome material of marble which
renders so well the pallor of death, cannot pretend to the imitation of life."
44

But then the Romantic reappears in him, and he concludes: "The modeled work is an
apotheosis. What a sculptor must seek is the soul; what he must express are the luminosities
with which that soul illuminates itself, the great deeds it has done which have earned for the
person depicted the admiration of the ages."
In David d'Angers' proposition, laving down a number of rules, we realize to what extent
academicism was still present, dissimulated but readv to resume its powers. The intentions
of the sculptor thatseem ridiculous to us today had been expressed a hundred and fifty years
before by Felibien and Roger de Piles. He continues: "I should like to have certain rules set
up for the depiction of great men. Full-length standing portraits should wear the clothing of
their epoch, while men of higher genius should be nude; this, it may be said in passing, is

sometimes difficult to execute in century of ours, with gastronomy plaving so

this refined
large a role. Imperfect physiques, in consequence of a good table, do not go well with drapery
in the Grand Manner the ludicrous costume of the modern is better suited to those deform-
;

ities. The sculptor can represent men of learning, poets, artists, and orators either nude or

draped, A skillfully chosen accessory, by indicating what distinguishes the person, permits us
to designate the epoch in which he lived. In any case, that fact counts for little in the image of
genius the genius has no age, he labors for all the human race." The question of the toga or
:

redingote remained until the time of Carpeaux a point of discord among academics, Neo-
classicists, and Romantics.

Bas-relief seemed to provide Romantic art with its best means of expression. The modest space
it requires on the edificedesigned to decorate permits the sculptor to feign conformation
it is

with academic principles while using his personal expressive means to assert, in a reserved
way, his taste for the modem style. Relief was given importance on monuments such as the
Arc de Triomphe in the Etoile, the church of the Madeleine, and the Panthon, and it was
customary to entrust the larger work to an academic and decorated architect but to leave the
carving of the relief decoration to young sculptors like Rude or Barye. From this curious
alliance
the Marseillaise of Rude, an essentially Romantic work seemingly plastered onto the
fundamentally classical Arc de Triomphe
there soon arose the Eclectic style.
Henri Jouin in his Esthtique du sculpteur, written almost thirty years after the birth of
Impressionism, continued to insist that "the goal of art is the manifestation of the Beautiful,
that therein lies its essential and higher goal, that the Beautiful is in no way separable from
the Good, the two forming a unity." For Jouin, who curiously enough was the biographer of

David d'Angers which introduces even greater caution with respect to Romantic sculpture
"the sculptor is not free to invent a form. Imagine a strange hippogriff. Replace the winged
horse by the body of a reptile, the griffon's head by that of a leopard, and you will have pro-
duced a monster of no known species. Hoffmann will describe it, Callot and Gavarni will re-
cord it in drawings no sculptor will be able to model it."
:

At the end of a chapter devoted to Romantic sculpture, one has the right to ask if people were
to judge today most of the pieces carved or cast between 1820 and 1850, would these be found
not Romantic in style but Neoclassical works that had been adapted to the use of a bourgeois
public which enjoyed being accused of Romanticism. At the least, if deciding to place no limit
on Romanticism, one must admit that Carpeaux, the Symbolists, and even Rodin were the
real representatives of the movement. This would lead to the conclusion that Romantic
sculpture disappeared at the very moment when Maillol and the Parnassians, Bourdelle
and the Expressionists, appeared on the scene.
 ROMANTICISM 4S

1. FRANOIS RUDE (1784-1855). bronze cast by F. Chamod exhibited at Salon of 1867. Bronze,
The Marseillaise: The Departure of the Voluriteers in 1792. 183336. height 51". Muse du Louvre, Paris

Stone, height 42'. Arc de Triomphe, Place de l'toile, Paris This statue was hailed in 1831 by the Romantic critics as the
Luc Benoist reports that "when Rude had his wife pose for the perfect example of what the new art of sculpture should be.
vociferating figure of the Marseillaise he ordered her to scream Unfortunately its author, yielding to his own facility, turned
louder, louder still ; at the same time that he was losing his toward academic conformism.
model and the
yardstick, he was upsetting the theories, and his
8. ANTONIO SOARS DOS REIS (1847-1889).
modern temperament expressed itself freely despite the An-
The Exile. 1872-74. Marble. Museu Nacional de Soars dos
tique trophies of arms."
Reis, Oporto
Here not only the figures join in the national drama, but also
Dying prematurely at fortv-two, this Portuguese sculptor
their weapons and the cloth of their garments. Lines of force counts among the best of his century. The subject is treated
are differently drawn
one flows from the right through the
here in the freest manner, and the various physical elements
sword held by the warrior to the left elbow of the young have an admirable naturalness.
combatant, climaxing in the helmet brandished by the central
JOHAN PETER .MOLIN (1814-1873).
chieftain and seem linked together to reinforce the action of
9.

The Fighters. 1867. Bronze. Outside entrance to National

the sword wielded by the Amazon from Marseilles.
Museum, Stockholm
2. RICHARD W'ESTMACOTT (1775-1856). This superb and truly Romantic group was executed in 1859 in
The Dream of Horace. 1823. Marble. The National Trust, the Paris and later cast in Nuremberg. It represents a form of an-
Petworth Collection, Sussex cient Scandinavian duel, the adversaries belted together and
Returning from Rome in 1797, Westmacott proved to be one fighting to the death with short knives. The relief below is one
of the most exemplary products of the training of Canova. He of four, with runic inscriptions from the Edda.
received many important commissions, such as the tomb of the 10. ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822).
duke of Montpensier in Westminster Abbey, and a share in the Flercules and Lichas. 1812-16 (original 1796). Marble, height
sculptural decorations of the Marble Arch originally before 11' 6". Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Modema, Rome
Buckingham Palace, now in Hyde Park.
Here Canova dares and succeeds in the impossible so well that

at first sight the whole seems an intermingling of the pleated

3. FRANOIS RUDE (17841855).
cloth, the wrinkles, and the skin.
Winged Genius Sacrificing a Bull. 1811. Marble, 11 X 18".
Muse des Beaux-Arts, Dijon 11. ANTOINE-LOUIS BARYE (1796-1875).
This is an early work. Later, in their journal for February 17, Theseus and the .Minotaur. 184952. Bronze. Collection Alain
1865, Edmond and Jules de Concourt wrote: "Frmiet was Lesieutre, Paris

telling me that Rude amused himself by putting alongside the Delacroix held Barye to be the most eminent of Romantic
beautiful horse's head by Phidias the head of a coach horse, sculptors. In this work he represents the combat of mythical

and pointing out that they were one and the same, except that rather than actual creatures.

the coach horse's head was even more beautiful."

12. RIC.ARDO BELLVER (1845-1929).
The Fallen Archangel. 1876. Bronze fountain statue. Park of EI
4. JOHANN VALENTIN SONNENSCHEIN (1749-1828).
Retire, Madrid
Monument to Rudolf Ludwig Jenner. 1806. Terracotta, height
This altogether Romantic work is entirely worthy of Bellver,
18^". Historical Museum, Basel
one of the most original Spanish sculptors of the century.
A natural mass, imposing in proportion cind almost abstract,
serves here to accentuate the dramatic effect. 13. ANTOINE TEX (1808-1888).
Cain and His Race Cursed by God. 1832-39. Marble, height 6'
5. DAMIAN CAMPENY Y ESTRANY (1771-1855). 9". Muse des Beaux-Arts, Lyons
Dying Lucretia. Model 1803, completed 1834. Marble. Aca-
Baudelaire said of tex, who carved Resistance and Peace decorat-
demia de Bellas Artes, Casa Lonja, Barcelona
ing one face of the Arc de Triomphe, that "he was never
The veristic aspect of this Lucretia sets it apart from the other
able to bring his works to completion, and if his conception
works of Campeny who, like most Spanish sculptors of his
was very felicitous, quite considerable parts always mar the
generation, remained faithful to the principles laid down by
whole."
the Academia de San Fernando in Madrid.
14. JOS ALVAREZ CUBERO (1768-1827).
6. STEFAN IONESCO VALBUDEA (1865-1918). The Defense oj Saragassa. 1823. Marble, height 6' 7". Museo de
Michael the Madman. 1885. Bronze. Muzeul de Art, Bucharest Arte Modemo, Madrid
Valbudea studied first in the atelier of Karl Storck and, accord- Inspiration, choice of subject, everything conspires in the suc-
ing to lonel jianou's Brancusi, "he inaugurated the Romantic cess of this monument dedicated to those who fought for Span-
current within Rumanian sculpture. In his work he expressed ish independence.
the revolt, extreme tension, paroxysm, and suffering of the
15. EMILE-JOSEPH CARLIER (1849-1927).
human drama. The forms are exalted, agitated, and tormented.
Gilliat in the Coils of the Octopus. 1890. Marble. Formerly Muse
A pessimism steeped in bitterness emerges from these sculp-
du Luxembourg, Paris
tures which express the disharmony of the artist and the world
The hero of Hugo's Les Travailleurs de la mer (1866), represented
in which he had to live."
in an episode of superhuman struggle.

7. JEAN DU SEIGNEUR (1808-1866). 16. MATHIAS KESSELS (1884-1936).

Orlando Furioso. Plaster model exhibited at Salon of 1831: The Deluge. 1836. Painted plaster, height 7' 1". Muses Roy-
46

aux des Beaux- Arts, Brussels diverse works, one senses an intelligence or rather a tempera-
This good example of a statue that is Neoclassical and
is a ment always on the alert, a man who has the love of sculpture
Romantic at the same time. During his lifetime Kessels enjoyed in his guts."

a success in Belgium comparable to that of Thorvaldsen in

25. ANTOINE AUGUSTIN PRAULT (1810-1879).
Denmark. At his death the Belgian government purchased the
Ophelia. 1876. Bronze, length 6' 7". Muse des Beaux-Arts,
contents of his atelier for the Brussels museum.
Marseilles
An admirable work, pointing to the future it announces the
17. ANDR-JOSEPH ALLAR (1845-1926). ;

finest Pre-Raphaelite and Art Nouveau sculptures.

The Death of Alceste. Marble. Formerly Muse du Luxembourg,
Paris 26. PIERRE LOISON (1816-1880).
Allar's principal works date in the last quarter of the nineteenth The Young Convalescent. Salon of 1857. Marble. Museum, Mer
century. (Loir-et-Cher)
A student of David d'Angers, Loison made sculptures for
18. ADRIANO CECIONI (1838-1886). numerous churches and palaces in Paris.
Ue Suicide. 1865-67. Gesso, height 7' 1". Galleria d'Arte
Modema, Florence
27. JACQUES DE BRAEKELEER (1823-1906).
Waiting. 1906. Marble, height 44". Muses Royaux des Beaux-
Cecioni succeeded in keeping his distance from academicism
Arts, Brussels
and from the pompous realism that was rampant throughout
This Belgian sculptor studied also in Paris.
Italy after 1850. His Suicide, Mother, and Bojr with Cock are veri-
table masterpieces. 28. JOHANN JAKOB OECHSLIN (1802-1873).
The Blind Belisarius. Museum zu Allerheiligen, Schafifhausen,
19. FRANCIS CHANTREY (1781-1842).
Switzerland
Monument to Anna Marie Graves. 1819. Marble. Waterperry
A Swiss sculptor, Oechslin studied with Dannecker and Thor-
(Oxfordshire)
valdsen.
Chantrey's preciosity is only equaled by that of Pradier or
Bosio. For half a century England swooned before his statues 29. AUGUSTE-HYACINTHE DEBAY (18041865).
and funerary monuments. Certain of his works were cast in The 1845. Plaster, height 50". Muse des Beaux-
First Cradle, c.

bronze in thousands of copies. He left his immense fortune to Arts, Angers

the Royal Academy, and the income from the Chantrey Bequest Eve holding the infants Cain and Abel. Debay was a prodigy,

served to create the museum at Millbank in London, now first in painting, and after about 1823, in sculpture.

known as the Tate Gallery. 30. JOHANN GOTTFRIED SCHADOW (17641850).

The Princesses Luisa and Friederike. 1793. Marble, height S' 8".
20. ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822).
Nationalgalerie, Berlin (East)
The Repentant Magdalen. 1796, signed and dated. Marble, height
The artist, a sensualist marked by the influences of Houdon and
37". Palazzo Bianco, Genoa
Sergei, was one of the few of his generation to declare himself

21. JOHN FLAXMAN (1755-1826). against classical costume. He said about this group that he
"Come thou blessed" : Monument to Agnes Cromwell. 1800. Marble. strove "to combine resemblance and grace so as to sum up in

Cathedral, Chichester (Sussex) one aspect the infinite variety of the expressions that pass across

Of Flaxman, David d'Angers wrote: "Nature well understood, a face."

and accentuated in her sentiment, leads quite simply to the 31. LOUIS-ERNEST BARRIAS (1841-1905).
making of style. Flaxman lacked that nervous sensitivity which The First Funeral. 1883. Marble, height 7' 1". Petit Palais,
gives certain artists the intuition of life. He was a philosopher
Paris
who made art with his head, like Poussin except that Poussin
Adam and Eve bear the body of their dead son, Abel. Barrias,
stays in his sphere when he paints, while Flaxman leaves his
a transitional figure, succeeded in passing with liveliness
when he stops drawing."
from Neoclassicism to Realism, and finally, to Art Nouveau.

22. VICTOR BASTOS (1832-1894). 32. STEFAN SINDING (1846-1922).

Cholera Morbus. 1856. Marble. Castello da Pena, Cintra Barbarian Woman Carrying Her Dead Son from Battle. 188389.
This relief was Bastos' earliest exhibited work. Marble, height S' 11". Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo
Romanticism, realism, and naturalism are admirably blended
23. GIOVANNI DUPR (1817-1882).
in this work.
The Dead Abel. 1842. Bronze, length 7' 3". Galleria d'Arte
Modema, Florence 33. JEAN-PIERRE HUGUENIN (1802-1860).
This work is part of a group of two, the other being Cain. Charles VI Succored by Odette de Champdivers. Salon of 1839.
Marble. Muse de Peinture, Dole
24. JEAN-BAPTISTE Called AUGUSTE CLSINGER (18141883).
Woman Bitun by a Snake. 1847. Marble, length 31". Muse du 34. ANTOINE CHAUDET (1763-1810).
Louvre, Paris Young Oedipus Brought Back to Life by the Shepherd Phorbas.

The model the sculptor's wife writhes on her bed of pain. Plastermodel 1799, marble completed posthumously, height
The success of this work was immense, and Baudelaire's criti- 6' 5". Muse du Louvre, Paris
cism was unusually indulgent. His praises of the artist were A man of the Ancien Rgime and subsequently a Canovian
more temperate at the Salon of 1859 when he wrote "What a : academic, Chaudet had everything it took to please Napoleon
devil of a man is Monsieur Clsinger The finest thing one can ! I. In 1810, at the decennial competition, he was proclaimed
say on his account is that on seeing this facile production of such the best sculptor in treating heroic subjects.
 ROMANTICISM 47

35. PIERRE-ANTOINE LAURENT (bom 1868). 43. BERTEL THORVALDSEN (1770-1844).

Hero and Leander. Marble. Muse Municipal, Vendme Hylas Stolen bj the Njmphs. 1831. Marble, 15^ X 29f' . Thor-
valdsen Museum, Copenhagen
36. ALEXANDER MUNRO (1825-1871). Ranked among the
in his lifetime greatest of all sculptors, the
Paolo and Francesca. 1852. Marble, height 26". City Museum genius of Thorvaldsen consisted above all in satisfying the pride
and Art Gallery, Birmingham (England) of his contemporaries who, in return, were pleased to compare
A Scottish sculptor, Munro also carved the statue of James Watt him with Michelangelo. Actually, he had nothing in common
in Ratcliff Place, Birmingham. Munro was important for the with the Renaissance craftsmen but method of work most
his :

Pre-Raphaelites. times, overwhelmed with commissions, Thorvaldsen modeled

a maquette of the proposed monument and turned over to his
37. JACQUES-AUGUSTIN DIEUDONN (1795-1873). helpers the work of cutting the marble.
Paradise Lost. Salon of 1853. Marble. Muse Fabre, Mont-
pellier 44. CHARLES BELL BIRCH (1832-1893).
Wood Nymph. 1864. Marble and ceramic. Private collection,
38. JOSEF vAcLAV MYSLBEK (1848-1922). London
Ctirad and Sarka. c. 1881 . Bronze, height 30". Narodni Gallery, Birch learned sculpture in England, and studied also with Rauch
Prague in Germany.
A long and full life enabled Myslbek, the greatest Czechoslovak
45. CHRISTIAN FREUND (1821-1900).
sculptor, to reflect remarkably the evolution of sculpture in
Picking Flowers. 1848-54. Marble, height 27^". Statens Mu-
the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. An episode
seum for Kunst, Copenhagen
from the famous Bohemian legend of Sarka, the heroic queen
of ancient times. 46. BERTEL THORVALDSEN (1770-1844).
Angel Holding a Holy-Water Basin. 1839. Marble, height 50".
39. EMILE CHATROUSSE (1829-1896). Church of Our Lady, Copenhagen
Hlo'ise and Ahlard Reading Together: The Seduaion. Salon of David d'Angers wrote: "Thorvaldsen, being a pure Classicist,
1859. Marble. Muse Municipal (Abbey cloister), Vendme was extremely reserved and calm, and allowed movement in
A pupil of Rude, Chatrousse was a critic as well as a sculptor. his work to only a slight degree. He subordinated gesture
to the harmony of lines, and their arrangement concerned
40. ERASTUS DOW PALMER (1817-1904). him far more than the expression itself."
The White Captive. 1859. Marble, height 5' 6". Metropolitan
Museum of Art, New York 47. EDWARD HODGES BAILY (1788-1867).

Palmer started out as a carpenter. After learning sculpture, he Young Girl Sleeping. 1859. Marble. City Art Gallery, Bristol

carved funeral and religious monuments, and in 1865 exhibited Baily, a pupil of Flaxman, had his first success at the Salon of

his works in the hall of the Church of Divine Unity in New 1817. Specializing in decorative and monumental sculpture, he

York. He created a number of works for the statesman Hamil- took part in the execution of the faades of Buckingham Palace,

ton Fish, among them this nude and bound maiden personifying and the groups on the south side of the Marble Arch. The
a popular tale of the sufferings of white women captured by the statue of Nelson on the top of the column (1843) in Trafalgar

Indians. Square is by Baily.

48. EDWARD HODGES BAILY (1788-1867).

41. ANDR-FRANOIS TRUPHME (1820-1888).
Eve at the Fountain. 1855. Marble. City Art Gallery, Bristol
Young Girl at the Spring. 1867. Marble, height 55". Muse des
Beaux-Arts, Lyons
A decidedly mediocre work hailed in its time as a masterpiece.

49. TIENNE-HIPPOLYTE MAINDRON (1801-1884).

42. FRANOIS-JOSEPH BOSIO (1769-1845). 6' 5^".
Vellda. Plaster model 1839; marble 1869-70, height
Young Indian Girl. Salon of 1845. Marble, height 27^". Muse Muse du Louvre, Paris
Calvet, Avignon
Although Maindron's parents wished him to go into commerce,
The dates of Bosio's birth and death permit us to understand
from the fund of Maine-
in 1824 he received a scholarship arts
better the aesthetic problems that assailed an artist who was et-Loire and acquired the rudiments of his future profession.
talented but without genius. David d'Angers was severe toward
Maindron first learned wood sculpture, then stone, and then
the older master: "Bosio sculpts as he talks. People who entered the atelier of David d'Angers. Here the subject is the
stammer express themselves easily at first, then their tongue
Vellda, from Chateaubriand's Martyrs
druid princess Les
gets tangled and you hear only unconnected words. Bosio makes
(1809). A Romantic who lived on into the time of Naturalism,
a faultless torso he worries while carving the head and almost
;
Maindron was one of the first to encourage Rodin's early efforts.
always breaks off just when a degree of feeling becomes neces-
sary. This artist has the instinct for fine pieces, but he has no 50. LORENZO BARTOLINI (1777-1850).
soul ; wherefore the only things he has executed well are sub- Faith in God. 1835. Marble, height 36". Museo Poldi Pezzoli,
jects without thought." Baudelaire had this to say of the Milan
Young Indian Girl in his review of the Salon of 1845: "The A Florentine sculptor who was highly appreciated in his day,
work is certainly a very pretty piece, but it lacks somewhat in Bartolini was a disciple of Canova and Thorvaldsen. He lived
originality, and it is annoying that M. Bosio does not regularly for ten years in Paris where he collaborated on the sculptural
show us pieces as complete as the one in the Muse du Luxem- decoration of the Vendme Column. Baudelaire considered
bourg or his magnificent bust of the Queen" {Marie-Amlie, him consummate master of his craft, and in reviewing the
a
now in the Muse de l'Htel Lallemant, Bourges). Salon of 1845 he said of his Nymph with Scorpion: "Because of
48

qualities somewhat forgotten among our own sculptors, A pupil of Bosio, Fogelberg during his years in Rome enjoyed
notably taste, nobility, and grace, we consider M. Bartolini's a success equal to that of Canova. Frigid academician though
works to be the outstanding piece in the salon of sculpture." he was, his ambition was to be the singer in stone of the Nordic
myths.
51. JEAN-LOUIS VERAY (bom 1820).
Sleeping Reaper. 1855. Marble, length 5' 6". -Muse Calvet, 57. ANTOINE AUGUSTIN PRAULT (1810-1879).
Avignon Model for the Statue of Jacques Coeur, c. 1860. Plaster, height 7'
10". Muse Fabre, Montpellier
52. ODOARDO FANTACCHIOTTI (1809-1877).
Prault strikes us as one of the most authentically Romantic
Eve. Marble, height 5' 5". Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Turin
artists of his generation. Perhaps this explains why the juries
Fantacchiotti's success brought his work as tar away as Cincin-
of the Salons pursued him so vindictively. They refused his
nati, Ohio.
Pariahs in 1834, and later the Roman Emperors and the Head oj
53. ERNEST HIOLLE (1834-1886). an Armenian Jew. In his review of the Salon of 1863 the critic
Ei-e. Salon of 1883. Marble. Muse des Beaux-Arts, Troves Thophile Thor hailed him as one of the greatest sculptors,
A sculptor of individual figures and large decoration projects. and wrote about his Hecuba: "Ah! the singular contrast made,

54. HIRAM POWERS (1805-1873). among the banal and modern productions, by his Hecuba, which
dates from twenty-five years ago!"
The Greek Slave. Clay model 1843; numerous marble editions,
this one 1869; height 5' 2". The Corcoran Gallery of Art, 58. JOS PIQUER Y DUART (1806-1871).
Washington, D.C. Saint Jerome. 1840. Bronze. Museo de Arte Moderno, Madrid
The Greek war of independence (1821-32) inspired artists as
59. JEAN-PIERRE CORTOT (1787-1843).
well as writers. This charming young lady who seems to have
The Triumph of 1810 Celebrating the Peace of Vienna. Commis-
just left her hairdresser does not appear to have suffered too
sioned 1833. Stone, height 38'. Arc de Triomphe, Place de
much at the hands of the Janissary assassins.
l'toile, Paris
55. JEAN-JACQUES Called JAMES PRADIER (1792-1852). Cortot does not deserve here to rank among the "reptiles of
Nyssia. 1848. Pentelic marble, height 6' 7". Muse Fabre, the Institut de France" the term used by Prault for Pradier,
Montpellier David d'Angers, and Bosio.
Prault said rather unkindly of Pradier that he "left every
60. JOS PIQUER Y DUART (1806-1871).
morning for Athens and returned every evening to the rue
Sacrifce of the Daughter of Jephtha. 1832. Marble. Real Academia
Brda."
de Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid
56. BENGT ERLAND FOGELBERG (1786-1854). Piquer was one of the few academic artists in Spain whose
Odin. 1830. Marble, height 10' 2". National Museum, Stock- works sometimes strike us as already feeling the breath of
holm Romanticism.
Il
13 14

16
23, 24, 25
 f

30
31 32
35
40
 I

II

LI

*
46
 f

48 49
51
;l

1'

II

t
 V

VI

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1
L^

>r^

^V
57

58
 3. DAVID D'ANGERS

worthwhile to view the life and work of David d'Angers in some detail because his
is

contemporaries thought of him as the very model of the Romantic artist; furthermore,
It the great number of his notes made throughout his life tell us about the' aspirations and
motivations of a sculptor during the first half of the nineteenth century.
Pierre-Jean David was born at Angers in 1788, the fourth child of a "sculptor in
wood, marble, stone, and plaster" who was responsible for restoring the sculptures of the
Angers Cathedral. Although the boy was precocious, manifesting in adolescence a taste for
sculpture, his father was reluctant to allow him to follow the family career. In 1800 the
youngster was finally permitted to attend classes in the central school in his native town. His
father's opposition is easily explained: in those years most sculptors, and particularly "re-
storers," were treated as craftsmen and paid for piecework; having had to hunt for work all
his life, the good man did not want to see in turn "his son die of hunger." Besides, he added
superstitiously "My son, there is only one David who is a painter, and there is also only one
:

David who is a sculptor."

The young man, from finding this an argument against his vocation, chose to see in it
far
a sign of encouragement. In 1808 he found work decorating the cornices of the Arc du Car-
rousel in Paris, a triumphal monument being built on the plans of Percier and Fontaine, and
he was paid twenty sous a day
enough to buy a bit of bread. But after receiving a grant from
the city of Angers and some subsidies, he was finally admitted in 1811 to the Acadmie de
France in Rome. For five years he worked there in peace, with no worries and with the
masterpieces of Antiquity as his models. During those Roman years he was freely admitted as
a visitor to the studios of Canova and Thorvaldsen. The painter Jacques-Louis David, in giving
a letter of recommendation to his young namesake, had warned him about Canova: "Go
often to see that seductive worker in marble, but beware of copying him, because his false
and aftected manner is just what can ruin a young man. He is a master as dangerous as Michel-
angelo, though he looks very different." The partisans of David the painter, while admitting
that Canova was the most original sculptor of their century, looked on him as "a corrupt
artist," as "the Correggio of sculpture."
The end of David d'Angers' sojourn in Rome coincided with the fall of the Napoleonic
Empire. He spent the spring of 1816 in Paris and a few months later set out for London with
two aims in view: first, to admire the marbles of the Parthenon that Lord Elgin had recently
brought from Athens, a sight certain to enchant the young sculptor, and then to visit the
English sculptor Flaxman, considered the most "poetic" sculptor of the time. But despite a
letter of recommendation signed bv Canova, the eccentric and touchy Englishman barred his
door to the young Frenchman, perhaps because the name David evoked recollections of the
hated Emperor. On his return to Paris David d'Angers, under the protection of Franois
Grille, head of the Office ol Sciences and Arts, had the good fortune
when he was without a

sou to be commissioned for the monumental statue of the Grand Cond (16211686), to
decorate the bridge rededicated to Louis XVI (now Pont de la Concorde). David's clay model,
exhibited at the Salon of 1817, won him great applause; one woman, overcome with admira-
tion, was heard to exclaim, "My heavens, it's like a thunderstorm!"

77
p

78

His contributions to the Salon of 1822

a model of his statue of Racine, a St. Cecilia, and a

series of bas reliefs

attracted public attention, the execution responding to the demands of
the man in the street as well as the generation of young Romantics, He himself wrote "Art-
:

ists are the stenographs of nature, but how many of them are deaf! To render faithfully the
form of genius, one must have the sparks within oneself. Otherwise one will only depict a
skeleton." Nevertheless the eleven works he submitted to the Salon of 1824, among them a
round relief intended for the courtyard of the Louvre and representing Innocence Imploring
Justice, scarcelv seemed harbingers of Romanticism. Henri Jouin said of them: "This time the
return to Greek art is consummated. The cut of the costumes and their direct reflection of the
nature of the subjects indicate David's care to speak the language of Phidias in all its purity."
It was about that time also that the young sculptor had the idea to be the historiographer

of his epoch, executing medallions in many sizes which he turned out in quantity over the
next thirty years. Beginning in 1827, he modeled profile medallions of Marshal Jourdan, the
politician Gohier, and the painters Ingres and Granet. From year to year the list grew longer.
Paris did not suffice him: he returned to London to do relief portraits of the painters Thomas
Lawrence and John Martin and the philosopher Jeremy Bentham. He went on from success
to success. People took him for an arriviste, one who has arrived.
All France admired his statue of Racine in La Fert-Milon, the poet's birthplace, ren-
dered standing and in classical drapery, a work of imagination growing from the tradition
surrounding the great playwright: "For the coiffure I was inspired by the masses of hair of the
Tragic Muse." On September 29, 1833, the population of the departments of Aisne and
Marne invaded La Fert-Milon it was a triumph for the sculptor. When he passed a barber
:

ran out from a cabaret to say Do you remember, Monsieur, that I shaved you when you came
:
' '

here to see your 'child,' for you are the true father of Racine?" The commonfolk nudged
each other when they saw him and whispered: "Look, there goes Racine's father!"
After long travels through Germany and Italy, David settled in Paris in a house he bought
at 12, rue d'Assas, premises that made it possible for him to accept a large number of pupils.
A large court separated the building from the street; three studios adjoined, opening onto
a garden. The first was used by the assistants, the praticiens; the second was the master's ate-
lier; the third was a sort of storeroom containing plaster and bronze casts, carefully labeled,
arranged on deep shelves that reached to the ceiling.
Commissions poured in. Every city aspired to possess a work by David. In 1835 he com-
pleted the sculptures for the Porte d'Aix in Marseilles. On November 17, 1839, the entire
population of the city of Angers inaugurated the halls of the Logis Barrault as a repository for
models of every work by the artist, his gift to his native town. After the local chorus had
chanted a "Hymn to David," the city authorities, preceded by a brass band and accompanied
by the National Guard, led a parade of the enthusiastic population. And other cities honored
him: Dunkerque changed the name of the rue de Chartres to rue David-d'Angers.
Like many of his contemporaries whose youth had seen either the French Revolution,
the victories of the Empire, or the "glorious three days" of the 1830 revolution, David d'An-
gers manifested throughout his life what may be called republican sentiments. He was ob-
sessed by the image of his father who fought under the brilliant General Hoche in the cam-
paign of the Vende. The esteem he enjoyed in intellectual circles, at home as well as abroad,
spurred him to join the struggle himself. At sixty he wrote "Before being an artist one must
:

be a citizen," and that year, 1848, he was named a member of the National Assembly.
As mayor and deputy of his district, he had to face the problems posed by the unemploy-
ment of tens of thousands of workers. Defeated in 1849 in the new elections, he decided to
return to his profession, but the winds had changed on December 9, 1851, two months after
:

the inauguration of his monument to the glory of Gerbert, David was arrested at 3 o'clock in
 DAVID D'ANGERS 79

the morning at his house and taken to police headquarters. At the trial his judges, wishing to
show indulgence, offered the prisoner the choice of a sentence or exile from France. He
chose exile Belgium. After a few weeks in Brussels he decided to visit Greece, a voyage he
in
had dreamed of taking since his adolescence. For the old man it was a prodigious adventure.
Eager to visit everything, he rushed from one monument to another, but his home-loving na-
ture soon began to sufter from living far from his loved ones. Edmond About, a student at the
Acadmie de France in Athens, and Charles Garnier, the future architect of the Opra, inter-
vened with the French authorities to lift the ban on the great sculptor, and by 1853 he was
authorized to return home. He lived two years longer, vanquished by age and exhausted by
work, undermined by illness. He rests in the cemetery of Pre-Lachaise, in the
his health
company of Balzac, the generals Foy and Gobert (80, /, 4), the writer Charles Nodier, the
naturalist Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, the marshals Lefebvre, Suchet, and Gouvion-Saint-Cyr
those whom he had perpetuated in effigy.

The writings and opinions of David d'Angers are somewhat disturbing to anyone having a
definite idea of Romanticism. The man never ceased to demonstrate contradictions. He

claimed to be faithful to the classical tradition; he admired Poussin but lauds Delacroix. He
storms against the Romantics' statements about him and cannot understand the subtleties
contained in the slogan Beauty is ugliness, which circulated in certain studios around 1830,
'
' '
'

whence his contempt frequently shown for caricatures: "Ah! I am no longer astounded that
these lepers of the arts, the caricaturists, should succeed in attracting the crowd who laugh
at others, but don't see that it is themselves who are being mocked!"
A similar versatility explains his charm for the bourgeoisie as well as for the heads of
government and the world of letters. On several occasions Victor Hugo hailed him with
enthusiasm: "Go then, let our cities be filled with thy radiant colossi ." So it was that the
. .

sculptor came to supply statues to the French municipalities. But rather than impose his per-
sonality, as Gricault and Delacroix did (from the few plaster pieces left by Gricault one can
imagine that he would have been a true Romantic sculptor), David d'Angers preferred to
move with the habitus of the Salon, and so his Casimir Delavigne, his Larrey, his Grand Cond,
his General Gobert are works that could have been made by any excellent winner of the Prix
de Rome of the time.

Only in his medallions did David succeed in freeing himself with any degree of self-confidence
from Neoclassicism. The abundance of his output (he modeled more than five hundred por-
traits, some in several versions) and the fact that he habitually set himself to represent the

outstanding personalities of the Western World between 1820 and 1850 have certainly contrib-
uted to the survival of his works among the caprices of fashion. Those subjects were num-
bered in the hundreds. In this connection Henri Jouin repeats an anecdote told by Livy "The :

sculptor Lysippus of Sicyon was in the habit of putting aside a gold coin for every piece he sold.
When he died, his heirs opened his strongbox and the sum of money they found in it per-
mitted them to affirm that Lysippus had produced no fewer than 610 statues." Jouin assures
us that David d'Angers must have made twice that number.
David established a sort of hierarchy only the dead had the right to full-length statues
:
;

busts were reserved to outstanding men; medallions to the merely talented. But this did not
prevent him from reducing almost all of his sitters to the scale of the medal, regardless of their
importance. It was the profile that interested him "I have always been profoundly stirred by
:

a profile the full face looks at you, but the profile is in relation with other persons, it evades
;

you, does not even see you. It is more difficult to analyze; the profile is limited." David is one
of the few to succeed in rendering in bronze the coloration of his subjects, and this was thanks
80

to his skill in incising the material, in makingDavid speaks more

it "sing." On this subject

like a painter than a sculptor: "When a sculptor models a blonde person, he must skim over
the features, define them very slightly, without letting them darken the form. Suave though
the contours may be, they must always be perfectly conveyed, though, in truth, more
addressed to the eyes of the soul than to those of the body."

For a sculptor claiming to be a Romantic, David's idea of the position of the artist seems to us
surprising. Of the artiste maudit, the hopeless bohemian artist, he says that "the man bowed
under suffering and misery would not be able to create works of genius. In him, nature ex-
hausts itself in repairing the losses of a depressed organism." What would Baudelaire have said
of this statement?
The contempt David displayed toward his colleagues the animal sculptors is further
that
proof of his attachment to certain academic ideals "Is it not absurd that men seek with avidity
:

the exact representation of animals, and yet seek with affectation to dissimulate the noble
structure of man, the most perfect work from the hands of the Creator, and that they should
strain their ingenuity to turn him into a puppet, a laughing-stock for the generations still to
come?
His attitude toward costume was similar. Like the Ancients he thought that "the nude is

the condition of sculpture, which is otherwise almost always miserable and vulgar."
A large gulf separated this Romantic sculptor from Carpeaux and Rodin.

1. PIERRE-JEAN DAVID Called DAVID d' ANGERS (1788-1856). 6. DAVID d'.\ngers.

Monument of General Gobert (d. 1808). 1847. Marble. Cime- Thodore Gricauk (1791-1824). 1830. Bronze medallion,
tire du Pre-Lachaise, Paris (see below, 4) diameter 6". Muse du Louvre, Paris
The Napoleonic general who participated in the French expedi-
7. DAVID d'aNGERS.
tion to Santo Domingo (Haiti).
Monument of Marie-Franois-Xavier Bichat (1711-1802). 1843.
2. DAVID d'aNGERS. Bronze, height 7' 8". Place Grenette, Bourg-en-Bresse
Gutenberg, c. 1840. Bronze, height 10' 10". Place Gutenberg, Doctor Bichat, a famous anatomist and physiologist, did his

Strasbourg early studies at the hospital in Bourg.

Gutenberg is believed to have lived in Strasbourg in the
8. DAVID d'aNGERS.
1430s, and possibly to have invented his printing press there.
Monument of King Ren d'Anjou. 1844. Bronze. Cours Mirabeau,
3. DAVID d'aNGERS. Aix-en-Provence
Madame Haudebourg-Lescot. 1829. Bronze medallion, diameter King Ren (1409-80) retired to Provence, where he fostered
6". Muse du Louvre, Paris a last flowering of Provenal culture. Among other things, he
introduced the muscatel grape to the region, and holds them
4. DAVID d'aNGERS.
here.
Monument of General Gobert (detail of base; see above, /)
Here we see the heroic general at Santo Domingo in the act of 9. DAVID d'angers.
freeing French soldiers from a house mined with explosives and Mademoiselle Mars. 1825. Marble, height 22". Thtre Franais,
shooting their native jailer. Paris

DAVID d'aNGERS.
A French actress (1779-1847), famous for her performances in
5.
Molire's works.
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1749-1832). 1829. Bronze medal-
lion, diameter 9". Muse du Louvre, Paris
 4. REALISM OR POSITIVIST ART
The world is in a revolution.

it will never return to either the republic oj Antiquity or the monarchy of Louis XIV.
We shall see come into being a fine constitutional rgime.

STENDHAL, History of Painting in Italy, 1817

the Victoria and Albert Museum

London one can admire a statue executed about
in

In 1760 by Louis-Franois Roubillac George Frederick Handel, seated in a Louis-Quinze

:

armchair, is seized by inspiration and strums a few chords on a Greek lyre at his feet a ;

naked child, a cupid, writes down the music on the marble. The work is in the taste of
that day except that the musician's feet are in bedroom slippers which seem as worn as
the dressing gown that swathes him. Hence the difficulty in deciding if the statue is Neoclas-
sical the
and cupid or Realist, as the sitter's facial expression and dress suggests.
lyre
In the nineteenth century such ambiguity was at its finest. After 1850, total confusion
reigned. Realist, Naturalist, Populist, Symbolist
the difference is often difficult to establish,
and it would appear, on leafing through the illustrations in this chapter, that many works
could be classified under more than one heading. Faced with the impossibility of making clear
distinctions, we haye chosen this subtitle, Positiyist Art.
Already in the eighteenth century Diderot, little concerned vyith such subtleties, used
indifferently for Chardin, Greuze, or De Boilly the terms Populist, Materialist, or Realist.
Likewise, no one dreamed in the days of Callot, Le Nain, Teniers, or Brouwer that these art-
ists did anything but paint the scenes offered by contemporaries. The unflagging success of

their works indicates the degree of pleasure that men haye always taken in obserying their
own lives. Likewise, today vye do not tire of the spectacles offered in darkened cinemas.
It was about the time when Delacroix's work was finally winning the attention of the

public that an expiring Romanticism ceded its place to Realism. For Courbet, the Funeral at
Ornans marked the funeral of Romanticism. The public now preferred to Baudelaire the liter-
ary Champfleury, the Positiyist philosopher Auguste Comte, and the experimental physiolo-
gist Claude Bernard. An end with Art for Art's Sake! From now on. Art for Everybody's
Sake The creative artist refused to be a mere decorator, as he had been for many centuries
!
;

he was determined to play a part in society, to be at the service of all. According to the ad-
vocates of Saint-Simon and Fourier, the artist should now collaborate with men of science
and demonstrate through his images the benefits of progress, that is, the machine.
Courbet's Stone Breakers and Millet's Gleaners, those workers and peasants held up to
public admiration, disconcerted most visitors to the Salons. The artists were accused of being
agents of socialism; Glevre, of also betraying his class. Yet the man in the street reacted to
these works quite simply, like his grandparents \yhen they went to admire the Greuzes in the
Salon of 1769. Rather than join in aesthetic or political quarrels, the ordinary individual
yielded to the pleasure of identifying himself with the models.

Realist sculpture is particularly interesting in that it aspires to actuality, even to change in

fashions. The realism that flourished in the eighteenth century had almost nothing in common
with Realism arising around 1850. Unlike the personages of Houdon, who aimed above all to
be well-bred and sociable, nineteenth-century portraits generally show us persons someyyhat
unsure of themselves, their expressions often betraying a degree of effort.

85


86

The spectator began to prefer character to beauty of physique. Preoccupations, he

thought, strengthened the features and ennobled them. In Rivalta's statue of a young woman
walking slowly while reading a letter, the face breathes serenity; whether the letter is from
brother or lover does not matter, the content satisfies and thus beautifies her. The ravaged
face of the old grandmother carved by Dampt is superb, transfigured by the joy she receives
from the child nestling her arms. Chaste love now succeeds the coy loves of Neoclas-
in

sicism and the passions of the Romantics in every case the subject matter plays the fundamen-
;

tal role. While the Romantics and Baudelaire inveighed against this taste "for rubbish, for the

picturesque"
"I
understand," said the poet-critic, "the furies of the Iconoclasts and the
Muslims against images"
the Realists, aspiring to serve the people, put themselves at the
people's service.
To appreciate the work of the Romantics and Ablard, Orlando Furioso, The White
Hlose
Lady, The Italian Intrigues, Halbert
it is well to have been raised on the writings of Stendhal,

Dickens, and Walter Scott. During the Restoration, however, the population of the Western
countries numbered at least sixty or seventy per cent illiterates. It was up to the Naturalists
or Populists, who undertook to serve the whole nation, to express themselves in simpler lan-
guage. To heighten the efficacy of the mission they had assumed, the Populists exerted them-
selves to catch their models in the course of action, and one can read in their works the social
changes that took place from one decade to the next.

The Great Exposition of 1851 England enjoyed a considerable success, contributing to the
in
progress of industry without, however, succeeding, as Prince Albert had hoped, in demon-
strating to the peoples the benefits of peace. Participating nations viewed such expositions
nonetheless with utmost seriousness. Immediately following the Commune of 1871 the
Third Republic stepped up its commissions for works of art. The artist was expected to prove
that the national prosperity and the good of its masses depended on industrial progress.
The Church was uneasy, and the recently founded Assumptionist Fathers had plenty of
trouble resisting this new lay deity, the Great God Machine. The buildings of the international
expositions were baptized with such names as Palace of Industry and Palace of the Machines.
Even the peasantry was fascinated by industrial development. The steam engine first terrified,
then astonished, then filled people with admiration. The inhabitants of a village in the Niver-
nais region of France changed the name of their community to La Machine.
Sculptors had only to take their choice of what to glorify
electricity, gas, or mecha-
nized locomotion. In 1885 the bronze-founder F. Barbedienne offered for sale a bronze sculp-
ture representing a driver at the wheel of an automobile, homage to the winner of the race
from Paris to Versailles and back.
The real power was in the hands of the Schneiders, the Dubouchets, and their ilk who
controlled electricity, gas, and public transport. Mouret, owner of the Bonheur des Dames
store in Paris, ruled over the retail trade: "Flis population of women He holds them
. . .

at his mercy by his continual stockpiling of merchandise, by his cut-rate prices and his rebates,
by his gallantry and his publicity. He conquered the mothers themselves. His creation
. . .

bore a new religion the churches, more and more deserted by a wavering faith, were replaced
:

by his bazaar in the souls which had meanwhile been vacated." Art in some way realistic,
tinged with symbolist mystique and favored by a climate of seeming naivety, was patently the
best way to seduce the average man and woman. Laymen and churchmen set up the themes;
it was up to the artists to treat them.

With few exceptions, the female figure could represent anything partially unclothed, more
a ;

buxom than she had been in the preceding century, always "a perfect lady," she could
 REALISM OR POSITIVIST ART 87

equally symbolize water, gas, steam, electricity, compulsory nondenominational schooling,

victory, defeat, birth, or death. As an inspiring muse she enchanted the poet, stimulated the
painter, immortalized the immortal. Used for a thousand purposes, one finds her engaged in
supporting the marble shelves of fireplaces, in pointing to the hour on clock faces, in shaking
hands w^ith Neptune on fountains, in brandishing banners, in cushioning the fall of victims.
Contrary to her reputation, this w^oman suggests silence. Her visage grave, her gaze fixed on
the fumes of glory exhaled by pantheons, she seems apparently without listening to enjoy
hearing the trumpets of fame, the ovations of the populace, apotheoses, and hosannas.
We must, though, take care :not so ridiculous and laughable as it may seem. When
all is

time will have bestowed the allure of historical costume upon the frock coats of statesmen
we shall find charm in Miguel Blay's monument to Doctor Rubio in a Madrid park, grace in
the statues of Chopin or Gounod tucked in the flower beds of the Pare Monceau in Paris,
grandeur in the sculpture raised in Genoa to the glory of Mazzini. Monographs will then be
consecrated to Hildebrand, Dampt, Teixeira Lopes, Erastus Palmer, Adriano Cecioni, Augusto
Rivalta, and many others.
What is more, totally realistic works reveal themselves to be suddenly surprising when
they prefigure certain aspects of Surrealist vision. Before many of the monuments in the
cemetery of Genoa we find ourselves thinking irresistibly of Magritte or Delvaux. And yet,
what characterizes these different naturalistic tendencies is their disregard for modernity.
Around 1880 one finds in sculpture the same confusion that reigns in the pictorial world.
Rather than choosing between historicism, realism, and symbolism, the tendency of the day
is to compromise, and all would be perfect if one also notes here and there a few classical

touches to reassure the habitu of the parks and the visitor to the Salon.

In sculpture, even more than in painting, there was borrowing from all sides. Some, such as
the Hungarian Miklos Izso, turned to Mannerism; others
the Dutchman Stracke, the
Russian Klodt, and the Frenchmen Chapu and Gustave Dor
to a symbolical realism. In
Great Britain the Lambeth School, founded by John Sparkes, a pupil of Dalou, reflected for
a long time the French predilection for symbolic naturalism.
In the United States, where the middle classes wanted surroundings that would make
them feel at ease, Neoclassicism momentarily recalled the Old Country to the uprooted
population, and at the same time a folkloristic realism gave them the impression of discover-
ing a style worthy of their new homeland. Avid for rationalism, liberalism, and good will,
they needed to find a polemical style capable of expressing the proud assurance of an adoles-
cent nation. The American Revolution and later the Civil War, together with the permanent
conquests of immense virgin lands, established for the Realists, until then dazzled by Neo-
classicism, aspirations toward Naturalism. After the Civil War a theatrical and anecdotal
style succeeded the Romanticism and picturesqueness of the sculpture of William Rinehart or
Randolph Rogers. Yet in a curious way most of the statues, whether by Hiram Powers or
Thomas Crawford or Erastus Palmer, while strongly subservient to Neoclassic art, show
also an indefinable something that marks them as American works.
This impression becomes confirmed more specifically in the works of Augustus Saint-
Gaudens. The confusion of styles, even more apparent in America than in Europe, troubled no
one. Saint- Gaudens saw nothing untoward in placing a classical Victory alongside a perfectly
realistic statue representing General William Sherman on horseback. Some sculptors, such as
Daniel Chester French or Frederick MacMonnies, gave free rein to Neoclassicism or to a
decadent Hellenism; others reveled in Orientalism.
Rarely in the history of art has sculpture had such predominant importance everywhere as
it had between 1875 and 1900.
 88

1. HENRI-LON GRBER (18541941). Always the disciple of his teacher Pradier, Chapu surpassed him
Emmanuel Frmiet. Bronze. Formerly Muse du Luxembourg, inhumanizing the Olympian gods and symbols so dear to the
Paris artists of the Third Republic (see p. 112, 21). His portraiture
In the realm of realism, observation of detail is often more im- is also successful.

portant in a work than artistic quality. The famous animal

15. SERGEI IVANOVICH IVANOV (1830-1903).
sculptor is standing in front of a skull, portrayed by a former
Young Boy Washing. 1858. .Marble, height 57^". Tretyakov
pupil.
Gallery, .Moscow
2. AUGUSTO RIVALTA (1838-1925).
16. FYODOR FYODOROVICH KA.MENSKY (1838-1913).
The Return from the Post Office. Terracotta 1862, bronze 1935,
The Young Sculptor. 1866. Marble, height 44". Russian Mu-
height 43". Galleria d'Arte Moderna, Florence
seum, Leningrad
One of the most important Italian sculptors of the nineteenth
century. 17. ILYA YAKOVLEVICH GINZBURG (1859-1939).
Boy Testing the Water. 1886. Bronze, height 36^". Russian .Mu-
3. AIM-JULES DALOU (1838-1902).
seum, Leningrad
S'ude Woman in Armchair. Plaster. Petit Palais, Paris
A fresh and informal piece by a well-known sculptor. 18. GUSTAVE COURBET (1819-1877).
Boy Fishing for Chub. 1873-77. Bronze. Ornans (Doubs)
4. LEOPOLD BERNSTA.MM (1859-1910).
Courbet made this among a few other sculptures during his
Coquelin Cadet in the Title Role of Molire's Le .Malade Imagi-
exile at the end of his life.
naire. Bronze. Formerly Muse du Luxembourg, Paris
The famous comic actor, younger brother of Coquelin a'm. 19.' JEAN-AUGUSTE DAMPT (1853-1946).
The Grandmother's Kiss. Marble. Formerly Muse du Luxem-
5. JOSEF .MALINSKY (1752-1827).
bourg, Paris
Valet, c. 1805
Dampt, one of the best of the Art Nouveau sculptors, often
This Czech sculptor, author of numerous funerarv monuments,
tended to reach for effect at any cost (see p. 362, 10; p. 407,
was able to reconcile Neoclassicism and Realism in the same
13).
way as Houdon though in a rather provincial manner.

PAUL DUBOIS (1859-1938). 20. ANTONI PLESZOWSKI (1857-1899).

6.

Seated Woman, c. 1895. .Marble, height 5' 2". Muse Royaux Sorrow. Bronze, height 49". Muzeum Narodowe, Cracow
des Beaux-Arts, Brussels 21. FYODOR FYODOROVICH KAMENSKY (1838-1913).
A prolific Belgian sculptor. The First Step. 1872. .Marble, height 43^". Russian Museum,
7. FRDRIC-ETIENNE LEROUX (1836-1906). Leningrad

Mlle Rachel before Going on Stage. Salon of 1882. .Marble. .Muse

22. ADRIANO CECIONI (1836-1886).
des Beaux-Arts, Rouen
The .Mother. 1883. .Marble, 5' I4"x39^". Galleria Nazio-
The famous tragic actress (1810-58), whose talent aided the
nale d'Arte Moderna, Rome
revival of French classical tragedy (see p. 253, 15).
Cecioni has realized a work which is both realistic and free of
8. HERMAN VILHEL.M BISSEN (1836-1913). conventions.
A Lady. 1891. Marble, height 6'. Statens Museum for Kunst,
23. ANTONIO TEIXEIRA LOPES (1866-1942).
Copenhagen
The Widow. 1890. Marble. Museu Nacional de Arte Contem-
9. ALBERT-ERNEST CARRIER-BELLEUSE (1824-1887). pornea, Lisbon
Alexandre Dumas Pre. 1884. Terracotta (study for a bronze
24. ODOARDO TABBACCHI (1836-1905).
monument). Collection Mme .Alexandre Popoff, Paris
Ugo Foscolo after the Treaty of Campo-Formio. c. 1867. Bronze,
The novelist (1802-70) portrayed posthumously by the prolific
height 48". Galleria Nazionale d'Arte .Moderna, Rome
sculptor.
The disillusioned Venetian patriot comforted by his wife. Tab-
10. ADOLF VON HILDEBRAND (1847-1921). bacchi made numerous monuments to heroes of the risorgi-
Frau .Maria Fiedler. 1882. Terracotta, height 27". Kunsthalle, mento.
Hamburg
25. JEAN-JULES SAL.MSON (1823-1902).
11. LEOPOLD BERNSTAMM (1859-1910). .Monument to H.-B. de Saussure and Balmat Commemorating the
J.
Pushkin and His Friend Dehig. Bronze. Collection Mme Alexan- First Ascent of .Mont Blanc in 1786. 1887. Bronze. Chamonix
dre Popoff, Paris This may be sculpture to extol a modern sport; de
the first

12. EDGAR DEGAS (1834-1917). Saussure, a Swiss physicist and geologist, shows the summit to
Schoolgirl Walking in the Street, c. 1880. Bronze, height \0y. his companion. According to elderly local residents, the

Ny Carlsberg Glyptotek, Copenhagen costumes and accessories are true to life.

Degas adds to realism his genius at observation in this unusual

26. PIETRO TENERANI (1789-1869).
piece.
Pellegrino Rossi. 1869. Marble, height 5' 5". Galleria Nazionale

13. VINCENZO CEMITO (1852-1929). d'Arte .Moderna, Rome

Boy with Crab. Bronze. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris The Italian jurist and political reformer, assassinated in 1848.
Nineteenth-century Italian artists often tended to confuse the
27. ALOYS STROBL (1856-1926).
most conventional attitudes simplistic naivetv, technical
Our Dear 1894. .Marble. Hungarian National Gallery,
competence, observation with true realism (see p. 379, 6).
Budapest
.Mother.

14. HENRI-MICHEL-ANTOINE CHAPU (1833-1891). StrobI, like most Hungarian artists of his generation, learned
Young Robert D. Salon of 1877. .Marble, height 55". .Muse du his art in the studios of the old Neoclassical and academic
Louvre, Paris masters of Austria and Hungary.
i
10

11

12
 15

16 17
18
i
23
24 25
t

I
 5. CARPEAUX

One in particular had a rough-hewn head,

the uncouth and rugged head of a quarryman,
with the mustaches of a policeman and hard brilliant eyes:
" WTjen we leave school," said he, "we are skinny as an iron wire.
It's only at Rome that we get rounded out."

That one was Carpeaux, a young sculptor of great talent.

E. and J. DE CONCOURT, >urna;, March 16, 1865

was bom in Valenciennes in 1827 to a modest family of artisans. When

Carpeaux
barely eleven, he attended the school of design annexed to the local Ecole des Beaux-
Arts. he arrived in Paris he found work with Henri Lemaire, author of
As soon as

the monumental pediment sculpture on the church of the Madeleine later he was ;

accepted as a praticien by Rude. In 1844, a student at the Paris Ecole des Beaux-
Arts, he had already become a character; his fellow students insisted he resembled a starving
soldier on half-pay.
Sure of himself, and a devout Catholic, when competing for the Prix de Rome he was
seen entering the church of Saint-Sulpice with a gloomy air, coming out a few minutes
later to announce with a smile that "the blessed Virgin has promised me the prize." He was
right, she kept her promise
but not until 1854. Before then, backed by a few friends from
Valenciennes, he had produced in 1848 his first large commissioned work, a bas relief com-
memorating the Holy Alliance of 1815; in 1853 he exhibited at the Salon the Surrender of
Abdu-1-Kadir.
It was in Rome
Carpeaux revealed his true personality. As an heir of Michelangelo,
that
and still influenced by Romanticism, he produced the group statue Ugolino and His Sons,
based on the episode in Dante's Inferno of the count forced by starvation to devour his own
children. Romantic but equally Realistic, the statue met small favor in Paris. It was only in
1867, and then thanks to private subvention, that Carpeaux obtained the means to execute
the monument in marble.
The between himself and Romanticism did not lead him toward
distance he soon put
modernity, but toward a certain form of Mannerism tinged with a marvelous sense of realism.
His first busts brought him an immense success that of the Marquise de La Valette, wife of
:

the French ambassador to the Vatican, w^as soon followed by that of Princess Mathilde, daugh-
ter of Jerome Bonaparte and future friend of Marcel Proust. A great admirer of Houdon's
portraiture, Carpeaux was always passionately interested in the human countenance. A few
weeks before the French surrender at Sedan, during a dinner offered by the sculptor, a guest
called out : "The day will come when our Republic will cut off our heads as it did those of the
Girondins and Camille." Carpeaux took his injudicious guest aside and asked: "If your pre-
diction should turn out all too true, wouldn't it be wise for me to do all of your heads in
advance? People a hundred years from now might consider them fascinating."
It has been said of his personages that they were tortured not by the spirit they scarcely
seem and they smile readily but by the flesh.
to have serious worries
In 1865, at the same time that the Empress ordered from him a statue of the Prince-Im-
perial, the State commissioned him for the decoration of the south front of the Pavilion de
Flore of the Louvre. For the latter, returning to his first inspiration, his love for the architec-

101
102

ture and sculpture of the French Renaissance, he conceived a work which may seem over-
loaded but succeeds in conveying an impression of unity and grace, a work which easily rivals
the best of the French Renaissance or the eighteenth century.
His group statue of The Dance, for the exterior of the new opera house designed by Gar-
nier, permitted him to express exuberance that until then had been controlled. Despite the
perfection of execution and rhythm, the work was judged audaciously suggestive, even
its

indecent. Some scandalized person threw a bottle of ink against the stone when it was still
white The Dance was ordered by ministerial decree to be removed from the faade before the
;

Franco-Prussian War of 1870, and Gumery was commissioned to make a replacement, but
after the French defeat no action was taken. In these years Dalou, Rodin, and Carrier-Belleuse
were employed ornamental sculptors and, to earn their living, turned out stone figurines
as

to decorate new apartment buildings many of the caryatids still adorning the neighborhoods
:

created by Baron Haussmann are by these great sculptors, though the works remain anony-
mous.
After the war of 1870, Carpeaux carved The Four Quarters of the Globe for the fountain in
the Observatoire Garden in Paris. The critics were mostly merciless, Jules Claretie among
them: "One asks oneself by what aberration of the mind, eye, and hand he could compose
that group of savage, vulgar, and wrinkled dancers. A fig for correct and conventional art!
that is my firm opinion, too, but on condition that one does not substitute ugliness in the
place of grace, and does not take sickness for health." Claretie changed his mind at the Salon
of 1874, and said of the bust of Alexandre Dumas ^75: "Never has anyone handled and
gouged marble like this Indeed, it is life itself. One is tempted to cry out, like Michelangelo
!

before a portrait, 'Speak! Go ahead and speak!

At forty-seven, consumed by cancer of the stomach, Carpeaux wrote to Gounod on May
21, 1874: "I writhe on my bed of pain, crying out like a damned soul. It is hell on earth.
I am more exhausted from hour to hour I say adieu to you, and thank you for the interest you
;

have so kindly shown your miserable Carpeaux." On October 12 of the following year,
having willed his works to the city of Valenciennes, he expired after exclaiming: "How
difficult it is to die!"
The work of Carpeaux was the first successful attempt to reconcile official art with free
art. Disciple of the great French and Italian portrait sculptors, he was the true precursor of
Rodin.

1. JEAN-BAPTISTE CARPEAUX (1827-1 87S). Here Carpeaux pays homage to the most original French archi-
The Dance. 1866-69. Stone, height 10' 10". Faade of the tect of the century, the author of the Opra.
Opra, Paris
4. JEAN-BAPTISTE CARPEAUX.
The critics sharply attacked Carpeaux's work, especially The
Portrait of Madame Carpeaux as Mater Dolorosa. Original plaster.
Dance. Jacques-Emile Blanche, that society painter transformed
Collection Robert Lebel, Paris
into an art historian, persisted in accusing Carpeaux of allying
One thinks here of certain realistic portraits by Millet or Cour-
a certain materialism with the wordly idealism of the Second
bet.
Empire. He emphasized "the Baroque and Bemini-like side,
decadent and Italianizing" of the man who will remain one of 5. JEAN-BAPTTSTE CARPEAUX.
France's greatest sculptors. The City of Valenciennes Defending Her Ramparts. 1870. Bronze,
height 2Ii". Muse des Beaux-Arts, Valenciennes
2. JEAN-BAPTISTE CARPEAUX.
Carpeaux's sculptural representation of his native city de-
Madame Lefvre, ne Soubise. Plaster, height 31^". Muse du
fending her industries and products in the Napoleonic cam-
Louvre, Paris
paigns.
Carpeaux not only succeeded in reproducing facial traits with
extreme precision, like Houdon, but still more in giving the 6. JEAN-BAPTISTE CARPEAUX.
viewer his own interpretation of his sitter's character. The Four Quarters of the Globe. 1872-74. Bronze group on
fountain. Jardin de l'Observatoire, Paris (plaster sketch in the
3. JEAN-BAPTISTE CARPEAUX.
Muse du Louvre)
Charles Cornier. 1869; Salon of 1869. Bronze, height 25^".
The fountain was designed by Davioud; the bronze seahorses
Muse du Louvre, Paris (plaster model in the Muse de
and dolphins are by Frmiet.
l'Opra, Paris)
 I

V4-;
:^-
 N

^^^mm^

%.T^^
5^-^
.^^
 6. SYMBOLISM
Philosophical art is a return toward the imagery necessary

to the childhood of the human races,

and ij it were rigorously faithful to itself

it would restrict itsef to putting side by side as many successive images

as are contained in any sentence it might wish to express.

Nevertheless we have the right to doubt

that the sentence written in hieroglyphics

was clearer than the printed sentence.

CHARLES BAUDELAIRE, L'An philosophique, 18S9

some more or evident, of symbolism. The

AU artistic creation bears

ing of things into images,

k-
however
trace,

abstract these
Rodin, in conversation with Paul Gsell, spoke of that supernatural presence
less

the artist's sensibility, the greater will be his success in translating the inner
may be.
livelier
mean-

which, in taking the form of living reality, succeeds in arousing a religious emotion :

"An artistic work can be considered a masterpiece only if it has the mysterious character that
can give a sensation of vertigo to whomever looks at it." This would mean that only when
one has arrived at a summit from which one feels the attraction of the void below can the
world of symbol be glimpsed through the mists of dream.

To designate symbolism, its origins and appearances, we have a certain number of words,
often used inappropriately. In this area the explanations are hasty when it comes to marking
the differences among related terms that seem
symbol and allegory, figure and
close, such as
emblem. For Maurice Denis, painter and theorist, there is a fundamental opposition between
symbolism, which proceeds by way of subtle analogy, and allegory, which tends to express its
message through the choice of subject. One might add that the former is the product of
certain intuitions, on condition that these are common to both the artist and the individual
viewing the work; the latter must be referred to a code known only to a minority.
The French Symbolist movement was born officially around 1885, but symbolism has
always had its part in the arts. Drawings by cavemen and children alike reveal more or less
precisely the deeper motivations that impel artists to express more about their anxieties than
they are themselves aware of. In sculpture likewise. Well before the Renaissance in France,
the sculptors of Burgundy and the Touraine produced innumerable examples of the profound
concerns that agitated them as well as their models. Later such paragons of classicism or re-
alism as Puget, Pigalle, and Houdon modeled faces which were masks of reality, but whose
sensitivity filters successfullythrough the patina of bronze or shell of plaster.
Allegory, the elder daughter of classicism and academicism and always esteemed by
moralistic and authoritarian rgimes, triumphed at the start of the nineteenth century. But
in the measure that classical art declined, symbolism began to arise from the lethargy in which
it had rested since the Renaissance, summoned by the melancholy and poetic accents of the

Romantics. The novelty of the motifs seduced even the public of the Salons at last an end to
the "Gold Weigher,", his chin propped on his fist, who meditates with one eye on an hour-
glass, the other on a death's head. The new society had no taste for images which led to re-
flecting on the vanity of power or fortune, or cast doubt on its own spirit of enterprise. On
the other hand the middle class, science-minded, agnostic, and moralistic, appreciated the
allegorical style that was suited to serving its interests while giving a seemingly poetic twist
to the Positivist ideals.

107


108

Claiming to be benefactors of the working class and believing in the virtue of technical
progress
intercontinental ship canals, mechanical looms, engines for steam or gas the
middle class took pride in finding intercessors as flattering and prestigious as the Fine Arts.
The more time passed, the more stable became the confusion. In his rough project for an "art
philosophique'' Baudelaire rebelled against the equivocal in his Curiosits esthtiques: "The more
that art aspires to be philosophically clear, the more it will be degraded and approach the
infantile hieroglyph; and on the contrary, the more that
art detaches itself from instruction,

the more it will rise toward a pure and disinterested beauty." Time was to prove Baudelaire
right, and it was certainly for such reasons that he scorned the sculpture of his time. Painting
which Gustave Moreau insisted is an impassioned silence is better equipped than sculp-
ture to borrow what it needed from symbolism, while disciplining itself to discard the
cinders, the misleading but often seductive product of mannerism and of allegory.
The French Romantics, generally prudent individuals, took shelter behind the Latin
shield and were careful not to give in to the contagion of Anglo-Saxon enthusiasm. The sculp-
tors in particular imagined that to be Romantic it sufficed to appear grandiloquent. But aside
from Prault, the Romantics did not easily overcome these problems.

Forty years later Rodin, who defies classification, was to prove that in sculpture it is possible
to be a Symbolist without using allegory. The problem of Symbolism brought him both pas-
sion and anxiety; his Thinker and Ugolino demonstrate this. He believed that if a sculptor dis-
pensed with symbols, he would never have to remove himself from the spiritual, as, equally,
*'
..he will have the duty to give new reasons for loving life, new inner illuminations for
.

guiding oneself. He will be, as Dante said of Virgil, their guide, their lord, and their master."
Rodin also told Paul Gsell that "Michelangelo is great because he seems ceaselessly tortured
by melancholy. In the same way he admired the Messianic and symbolist side of Victor Hugo.
' '

Throughout his life Rodin remained wary of Symbolism and of its excesses that might
trip him up with their manneristic tendrils. On the other hand he was the enemy of a certain
type of synthetism, and lent a deaf ear to the charms of the divinities of Hellas and Parnassus.
Medardo Rosso was similarly a Symbolist; like the painter Eugne Carrire, he rendered faces
or groups of figures by using arabesque-like forms which seem to originate in a single epi-
center. If Rosso was a Symbolist Impressionist, Gauguin in carving in oak the bust of Meyer
de Haan proves that for all his declarations he too remained sensitive to Symbolism.

It was only after the Symbolists joined the political protest movements, such as in the
Groupe des XX in Brussels, that they were able to affirm their true originality. They succeeded
to the extent that they were able to avoid the pseudo-Florentine pitfalls of Pre-Raphaelism.
Most of those participating in the Symbolist movement were equally versed in painting,
drawing, etching, and sculpture. Xavier Mellery, who remains one of the most attractive
personalities in the Groupe des XX, was thought of by his contemporaries as the painter of
night and silence. The titles of his works Delicacy is the Daughter of Force, Dream at Eventide,
The Life of Things
tell us much about the phantasms that haunted him.

But Symbolism cannot be at the same time a Garden of Eden and a museum. Its disciples,
as the twentieth century drew closer, sensed the difficulty, even the impossibility, of creating

symbolic images that lacked the support of allegory that Symbolism was a trap behind which
lurked the shadow of fashion, ever ready to draw into its nets a Max Klinger or a Charles van
der Stappen.
Soon all would be over with symbolism and allegory for a long time.

I
110

1. WILLIAM RUSH (1756-1833). 8. HENRY ALFRED PEGRAM (1862-1937).

Water Njrmpb and Bittern. 1854 (wood original 1809). Bronze Ignis Fatuus. 1889. Bronze, diameter 20^". National Museum
copy, height T 1". Philadelphia Museum of Art of Wales, Cardiff
This Symbolist rendering of delusive hope tends toward Art
2. WILLIAM RUSH (1756-1833).
Nouveau.
Comedy. 1808. Wood, painted, height 8' 10". Pennsylvania
Academy of Fine Arts, Philadelphia 9. DENYS PUECH (1854-1942).
William Rush is called the first American sculptor. .More cor- Study for the Monument to the Poet Leconte de Lisle (d. 1 894), Jardin
rectly, he was the first and one of the few, before the end of du Luxembourg, Paris. 1898. Formerly Collection Pozzi
the nineteenth century, to succeed in creating sculptures which Puech was among those sculptors forever in search of an
are both realistic his faces and in some cases figures are done "effect." A sensualism is evident in this work, which is free-
from life and typically American. Rush was first a carpenter ly exaggerated but finally saved by an infinite skill and charm.
and carver of figureheads for ships, and the two works shown
here do evoke the statues adorning the prows of vessels. The 10. ANTOINE AUGUSTIN PRAULT (1810-1879).
Waur Nymph was originally a fountain figure. Massacre, intended to resemble a fragment from a large bas-
relief. Plaster model 1834; bronze cast 1859. Bronze, 43 X
3. PIETRO MAGNI (1817-1877).
55". Museum, Chartres
The Cutting of the Isthmus of Suez. 1858-63. Marble, height 6'
This is one of the most beautiful Romantic and Symbolist
3". Civico Museo Revoltella, Trieste
works of the nineteenth century. Baudelaire wrote in his com-
Mercury, god of speed and commerce, presides over the
ments on the Salon of 1859: "1 am among those who confess
joining of the Mediterranean and the Red Sea. The Suez Canal
without blushing that whatever may h the cleverness annually
was completed in 1869.
developed by our sculptors, I do not find in their works (since
4. ALFRED STEVENS (1817-1875). the disappearance of David d'Angers) the immaterial pleasure I

Valor and Cowardice, sketch model for a pedimental group on have so often had from the tumultuous dreams, even when in-
the Monument to the Duke of Wellington (d. 1852), St. Paul's, complete, of Augustin Prault." While for most of his col-
London. 1856. Bronze, height 25". Private collection, Great leagues the making of sculpture remained a profession, for
Britain Prault sculpture was the only way to illustrate fantasms and
Stevens was one of the best sculptors of his generation and passions. Quite the opposite of David d'Angers, for whom the
learned his craft in the workshop of Thorvaldsen ; on his re- natural often betrays the pose, Prault seems to seize his per-
turn to Britain, however, he became absorbed in decorative sonages as if by chance.
and monumental sculpture. Among other works he made the A case in point is Jules Claretie's story of how a young girl,

design for Wellington's tomb. He continued to maintain a overcome by a crisis of nerves while visiting Prault's studio,
Romanticism that is often weighed down with excessive con- heard the sculptor shout at her, fascinated by what he saw:
cern with historical exactitude. "Here's a hundred sous! Don't move!"

5. VACLAV LEVY (1820-1870).

11. ALFRED LENOIR (1850-1920).
Adam and Eve. 1849. Bronze. Narodni Gallery, Prague
Inspiration. Bronze, height 22". Collection Jean-Max Leclerc,
6. GUSTAV VIGELAND (1869-1943). Paris
Hell. 1897. Bronze, 5' 7i"x 12' 5^". Nasjonalgalleriet, Oslo A muse of painting inspires the artist.

Despite their academic training, the art of Vigeland and his

compatriot Sinding (see p. 46, 32) is often related to that of 12. ANTONi kursawa( 1843-1 898).
Rodin. Adam Mickiewicz. 1890. Bronze, height 50^' Muzeum Naro-
dowe, Warsaw
7. WILLIAM HAMO THORNYCROFT (1850-1925). The source of inspiration here is divine, as seen in this winged
"The Ploughman Homeward Plods His Weary Way." 1895. Bronze, personage who seems to beat his brains for the poet's benefit.
4x9^". City Museum and Art Gallery, Birmingham
The specific situation of Thomas Gray's composing his "Elegy 13. VINCENZO VELA (1820-1891).
in a Country Churchyard" in 1751 is transposed in this relief Spartacus. 1847^9. Gesso. Museo Vela, Ligometto (Lugano)
by one of nineteenth-century Britain's many Symbolist sculp- Vela, anecdotal and realist in approach, devoted himself like
tors. Constantin Meunier to illustrating the world of the working
 SYMBOLISM 111

II. JEAN-BAPTISTE CALLED AUGUSTE clsinger (18141883). Study for

an allegorical figure of The Republic. Gilded plaster, height 10". Muse
du Louvre, Paris

class. This statue of the classical slave-hero Spartacus symboliz- 16. AI.M-JULES DALOU (1838-1902).
ing social injustice brought him the plaudits of all Europe. The French Chanson. 1893-94. Marble. Htel de Ville, Paris
For Rodin, Dalou had the stuff of a great sculptor. He compared
14. GUST.WE .MOREAU (1826-1898). certain of Dalou's works with the finest group statues of the
The Apparition. 1876. Red wax, height 14^". Muse Gustave sixteenth century. But ambition destroyed him; Rodin said
Moreau, Paris
that "he aspired to become the Le Brun of our Republic, like
One of Moreau's early sculptural sketches, free and original.
the orchestral conductor of all contemporary artists. He died
without achieving it."
15. DO.MINIQUE .MAGGESI (1807-1892).
The Genius of Sculpture Roughing Out the Mask of Olympian Jupiter. 17. ERNEST CHRISTOPHE (1827-1892).
Salon of 1838. Marble. Muse des Beaux-Arts, Bordeaux Fate. Salon of 1885. Bronze, height 7' 3". Formerly Muse du
Born in Italv, Maggesi became a naturalized Frenchman and Luxembourg, Paris

worked principally in Bordeaux. Christophe \sas a pupril of Franois Rude.

112

CHARLES-REN DE SAINT-M ARCEAUX (1845-1920). Marble. Pare .Monceau, Paris

18.

The Vine. Plaster model, Salon of 1887. Bronze fountain. Htel 24. RAOUL-CHARLES VERLET (1857-1923). I
de Ville, Reims .Monument to the Writer Guy de .Maupassant (d. 1893). .Marble.
Pare Monceau, Paris
19. LOUIS-ERNEST BARRIAS (1841-1905).
Nature, Mysterious and Veiled, Unveils Herself before Science. Salon 25. JACQUES FROMENT-.MEURICE (1854-1948).
of 1893. Marble. Faculty of Medicine, University of Bordeaux Monument to the Composer Frdric Chopin (d. 1847). 1906. .Mar-
The deliberately suggestive quality one finds in many works by ble. Pare .Monceau, Paris
Barrias, this one not excepted, him to the French artists
relates Night listens to the composer. Harmony reigns above.
of the .Art Nouveau. As the century grew older, this type of
26. .MARIUS-JEAN-ANTONIN .MERCI (1845-1916).
artist, combining the real with the picturesque, easily slipped
.Monument Composer Charles Gounod (d. 1893). 1903. .Mar-
into silliness society's petty revenge on the Romantics. The
ble. Pare
to the

Monceau, Paris
predilection for the "beautiful, the droll, the pretty, the pic-
In these four monuments one sees how a half-unbelieving socie-
turesque" against which Baudelaire had spoken out twenty
ty succeeded in conveying a pleasing inwge of the felicities of
years before, now became the taste of the overwhelming
the afterlife.
majority of amateurs in Europe and the New World.
27. LOUIS-ERNEST BARRIAS (1841-1905) and JULES-FLIX cou-
i
20. LOUIS-ERNEST BARRIAS (1841-1905).
TAN (1848-1939).
Electricity. Executed for the Exposition of 1889; displayed in
.Monument to the Architect Thodore Ballu (d. 1885). Htel de
the Palais des .Machines. .Marble, height with pedestal c. 30'.
Ville, Paris
Grand Palais, Paris
The marble bust is by Barrias, the bronze Genius by Coutan, and
A curious work in which a certain sensualism is quite success-
the pedestal by Albert Ballu fils. Ballu was a Parisian architect
fully allied w ith the educational moralizing that was the fashion
primarily of churches.
in the early years of the Third Republic.
28. CORNEILLE THEUNISSEN (1863-1918).
21. HENRI-MICHEL-ANTOINE CHAPU (1833-1891).
Monument to Charles .Mathieu. 1901. Marble, with bronze por-
Steam. Executed for the Exposition of 1889; displayed in the
trait figure. Lourches (Nord)
Palais des .Machines. .Marble, height with pedestal c. 30'.
Mathieu was the founder of the Houillires (coal) companies at
Grand Palais, Paris
Lourches and Courrires in northern France. The marble
An astounding work. The sculptor has succeeded in giving an
statues of a pit boy and woman coal sorter are in front of a
appearance of truth to what could be ridiculous, thanks to the
timber structure in a coalmine.
realistic face of the female figure.
29. JEAN-JOSEPH-MARIE CARRIES (1855-1894).
22. LOUIS coNVERS (1860-1915).
Self-Portrait on the Sculptor's Tomb. .Model, Salon of 1892.
The Seasons, c. 1900. .Marble. Petit Palais, Paris
Bronze, cast by the lost-wax method. Cimetire du Pre-
Convers was a pupil of Barrias.
Lachaise, Paris

23. LEOPOLD BERNSTAMM (1859-1910). Carries is best known for his remarkable portrait busts (see p.

Monument to the Plajwrigbt Edouard Pailleron (d. 1899). 1906. 256, S2).
UJJJJJJ^JiJjJjjJJju. /.
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13 14

16

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20 21
23

25
 7. PRE-RAPHAELITES;
ART NOUVEAU

During the first half of the nineteenth century the sculptors always the poor re-
lations in the family of the arts
contradictory, usually
panted the rhythm of poetry. The often
to live to
pejorative opinions of Baudelaire or Thophile Gautier on the
subject of statuary gave sculptors the idea that the world thought them mere stone-
carvers, artisans, praticiens.
With the return of allegorv the give-and-take among the arts suddenly seemed easier, for
manv themes, despite their occasional excesses, contained something of the breath of poetry\
The man in the street delighted in these themes; he found them easv to translate, and the
female nudes who seemed to be proposing them to the mind of the public were a most agree-
able sight.
Once more we see the special influence of the powers-that-be over the art of sculpture.
To make a dignified presentation of the new secular and republican ideals, a search was made
among the outworn trappings of pagan civilizations. The diversity of motifs borrowed from
Athens, Rome, or Florence reflects the confusion which reigned in State and in Church,
Protestant as well as Catholic. Art, literature, and poetry all reveal the profound moral, social,
religious, and intellectual disarray that prevailed as the twentieth centur\' approached. The
novelists denounced middle-class morality and the state of servitude imposed on woman as the
female object. It was the same in politics, where socialism snapped at the heels of paternalism.
Sensualism, drugs, and alcohol became the chosen themes of Symbolist poets and painters.
Charcot and the School of Nancy prefigured Freud and the Viennese School.

If the Eclectic style provided the ideal image for the representatives of the upper middle class,
whether liberal or conservative, then the newer Art Nouveau, was rather to translate the
art.
uneasiness of a society which was still bourgeois but alreadv tormented by a guilty conscience.
Painters, striving toward the new and strange, discovered the disturbing effects of certain
shades such as emerald, ruby, violet, or opal. Sculptors too broke with academicism and
eclecticism bodies unfurled before one's eyes like flowers and stems that would not be out of
;

place among the roots of exotic jungle plants. Bowing to the whims of unseasonable winds,
the flower-creatures glide and melt, delicious prey to the caprices of rapacious typhoons.
Matter seems wholly subject to sensibility: gone are sharp thorns, rectilinear stalks,
broken angles; only liquified curves melted into vapor, losing themselves in the dusty light.
A
form of goldsmiths' work the volumes cut into obsidian,
real passion for sculpture in the
marble, precious materials
answered the need to struggle against mass production.
Like gnomes suddenly seizing the instruments of a symphony orchestra, sculptors, often
mediocre ones, played on the strings of realism, historicism, mannerism. An intellectual and
moribund Florence, still dreaming for a moment of the academies of Lorenzo the Magnificent,
wove her spell around precious Anglo-Saxon society. To the Middle Ages ("hideous century
of faith, of leprosy, of famine," said Leconte de Lisle) people now preferred the earlier bar-
barian epochs. For knights who formerly were girded by steel the Englishman Reynolds-
Stephens proposed cuirasses of gold, silver, and bronze. The girl-flowers of Max Klinger are

125
126

superb, their bodies cut from white marble and wearing draperies of onyx disguised as bar-
;

barian princesses, they are enthroned on benches of burnished gold or mosaics of agate, jade,
and opal. To each histheme the maidens carved by Dampt are ready to sing Pelleas et Mli-
:

sande; the Orientales of Thodore Rivire dream o Salammb; MacMonnies revels in reading
Petronius. For Leonardo Bistolfi, in his refuge in the Engadine, Death is a young girl with a
virgin's face, as seductive as she is disturbing. And the Scandinavian sculptors strive ambi-
tiously to model in the cold marble the image of icy fogs.
There were Symbolists who, like Fernand Khnopff or Rupert Carabin (see pp. 391-92 ;

/ /, 27, 28), were past masters of the art of projecting their fantasies into stone or wood;
there were the Impressionists, with Degas, Rosso, and Troubetzkoy the Expressionists, with
;

Rodin and Bourdelle different tendencies indeed, but all whipped by the still scorching
breath of Romanticism, so scorching that one even asks oneself if the last great epoch of
Romantic sculpture is not to be found in this Jin-de-sicle work. Would not Baudelaire have
preferred the works of Rodin, Minne, or Victor Rousseau to those of Rude and David
d'Angers?
No more than literature or painting could sculpture escape the climate of ambiguity
thatswept the West at the century's end.
Often very great artists Rodin, Degas, Gauguin,
Minne, or Bourdelle are sometimes wrongly considered to be adepts of Art Nouveau, be-
cause briefly they were all contemporaries about 1900. It was not through artistic affinity that
these creative artists agreed to tie their fate to that movement, but only through solidarity
with those men of generous motives in Vienna, Darmstadt, and Brussels, who campaigned
with faith as well as unselfishness for an art intended to improve education, to foster the
general good, and to respond to the aesthetic needs of the popular masses.

Gaudi, forever wandering at the boundaries of the dream, the fantastic, and the nonobjective,
occupies a place in the art of sculpture which will always remain poorly defined. The author
of the cathedral of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona, without ever throwing in his lot with Art
Nouveau, was willing to go with it a bit of the way. A creator, his only law was the limits of
his imagination. At a time when machines were threatening not only to reproduce reality with
no intervention by the hand of man but even to create "automatically," Gaudi explored
astounding universes, new modes of expression he thereby reaffirmed the value of individual
;

work. Willingly he remained a symbolical figure, as if it amused him to mask for a little longer
the entry of nonrepresentational art upon the scene.
 PRE-RAPHAELITES; ART NOUVEAU 127

1. GEORGE JAMES FRAMPTON (1860-1928). 8. HENRY LINDER (1854-1910).

Mysteriarch. 1892. Polychrome plaster, height 36". Walker Medieval Art. 1909. Bronze, height 41". Metropolitan Museum
Art Gallery, Liverpool of Art, New York
Weary of academicism, the disciples of Rossetti hoped to find Another "goldsmith," but in this case an American schooled
with the Pre-Raphaelites a way of raising British sculpture from in Munich. The mlange of Hellenism and the medieval here is

the rut into which the pupils of Bosio had steered it. Frampton most startling.

later made the statue of Peter Pan in Kensington Gardens.

9. CHARLES VAN DER STAPPEN (1843-1910).
2. JOSEPH-GERMAIN GEEFS (1808-1885).
The Sphinx. 1898. Marble, height 28". Muses Royaux des
The Angel of Evil. Marble. Muses Royaux des Beaux- Arts,
Beaux-Arts, Brussels
Brussels
Van der Stappen, a Belgian, is said to have been a disciple of
Geefs was one of four brothers, all sculptors, in Belgium. Cer-
Constantin Meunier, but in this bust one sees, instead, the in-
tain of these later nineteenth-century works seem, oddly
fluence of Victor Rousseau (see p. 168, 22).
enough, to possess the true Romantic spirit.

3. AUGUSTUS SAINT-GAUDENS (1848-1907). 10. ALPHONSE MUCHA (1860-1939).

Amor Caritas. 1887; bronze cast 1918. Bronze, height 8' 5". Bust. Bronze and silver, height 10". Private collection, Paris

Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Painter, goldsmith, sculptor, and especially poster designer,

This monument, intended initially as a funerary stele, is in a

Mucha could pass without the slightest difficulty from histori-

style more historical than American. cal realism to the most legendary symbolism.

4. WILLIAM GOSCOMBE JOHN (1860-1952). 11. RAOUL LARCHE (1860-1912).

The Glamour of the Rose. Exhibited at the Royal Academy in Statuette. Bronze, height 18". In auction catalogue of March
1896. Bronze with gold patina. National Museum of Wales, 9, 1970, Sotheby's, London
Cardiff
12. AGATHON LEONARD (pscudonym of Van Weydeveldt; bom
5. PIERRE-FLDC FIX-MASSEAU (1869-1937).
1841).
The Secret, c. 1900. Gilded bronze. Collection G. Levy, Paris
Bat Woman. Bronze. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris
Another version of this work, made of ivory and wood, height
The night creatures that inspired the Romantics also intrigued
29", is in the Muse des Beaux-Arts in Lyons.
the Pre-Raphaelites, and equally the Art Nouveau artists.

6. ALFRED GILBERT (1854-1934).

Icarus. Exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1884. Bronze, height
13. CARL MILLES (1875-1955).
Youth. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris
18^". Collection W. H. Crawford, Esq., London
A pupil of Edgar Boehm in England and a graduate of the
The work of the Swedish sculptor Milles, somewhat marked
J.
Paris cole des Beaux-Arts, Gilbert was remarkable in finer
by Art Nouveau, generally succeeded in preserving a certain
originality.
work but often attempted unfortunately to produce monu-
mental sculpture.
14. FREDERICK WILLIAM MACMONNIES (1863-1937).
7. WILLIAM REYNOLDS-STEPHENS (1862-1943). Bacchante wit/i an Infant Faun. 1893. Bronze, height 6' 11".
Guinevere and the Nestling, c. 1902. Gilded bronze. Private col- Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
lection, London The women's temperance league received this intoxicated
The Pre-Raphaelite style as time went on took on an excessive- creature with a storm of protest. When she was offered to the
ly Byzantine quality. Reynolds-Stephens, like Alfred Gilbert, Boston Public Library, the administration took fright and de-
was more a goldsmith than a sculptor. clined the gift.
 128

15. CHARLES KORSCHMANN (bom 1872). 19. .MAURICE BOUVAL (d. 1920).

Desk Accessory. Gilded metal, height 19". In auction catalogue Flower Woman. Bronze. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris

of November 11, 1969, Sotheby's, London At the close of the nineteenth century there was a great demand
for statuettes. A certain number of sculptors produced these
16. JEAN-ANTONIN CARLOS (1851-1919). for the trade, casting them in as many as 15,000 copies.
Youth. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris
20. VILLE VALLGREN (1855-1940).
The Perfume. Bronze. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris
17. JACQUES FLAMAND.
The Parisienne. Bronze. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris 21. WILLIAM REYNOLDS-STEPHENS (1862-1943).
The Lullaby of Love. Bronze and marble. Private collection,
18. FRANZ VON STUCK (1863-1928).
London
Dancer. 1897. Bronze, height 25". Kunsthalle, Bremen
The works of Franz von Stuck have a grace all their own. The 22. GIUSEPPE GRANDI (1843-1891).
elegance and abstractness of some of his figures make us think The Young Beethoven. 1873. Bronze, height 27^". Galleria

of Maillol. d'Arte Modema, Turin

III.MARTILLY. .Madame de Feme. Varicolored bronze.

Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris. Probably portrays
the wife of the Art Nouveau artist Georges de Feure

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 ART IN FUSION:
8.
RODIN AND HIS DISCIPLES

1854. For advice he

Rodin beganKlagmann and Maindron, and among
turned to
his career very early at fourteen years old, in
other places he worked at the Mu-
se d'Histoire Naturelle under the eye of Barye. So it is not surprising to find,
especially in his first works, reminiscences of Prault or Daumier, the mark of so
Romantic an education. Rodin tells us that he acquired the sense of depth from
Constant, a simple praticien who worked alongside him in a decorative sculpture workshop ;

Constant told him: "Never consider a surface except as the extremity of a volume, as the
point more or less broad that it turns toward you."
The attention of the critics and sculptors was aroused very early by their young confrre.
Indeed, perhaps the greatest merit of the very academic Carrier-Belleuse, then director of
the national manufactory at Svres, was in having the perspicacity and courage to invite
Rodin to work with him. It was also due to him that Rodin later received the commission
from Gambetta to make the Gates of Hell for the future Muse des Arts Dcoratifs the sub-
ject which permitted Rodin to demonstrate his admiration for Michelangelo and sculptors of
the Quattrocento,

Despite the criticisms often directed against him (which, except for the Balzac affair, were
mostly restrained), Rodin did not present himself as a revolutionary. Instead, confident in his
genius, he undertook to impose his views on all who
claimed to appreciate the art of sculp-
ture. He took risks but he was sure of his ultimate triumph; he knew that he would never
be an unsuccessful artiste maudit.
Like Victor Hugo, he amazed his contemporaries. His working methods were deemed
unusual : to grasp more fully the universal aspect of movement, he asked a number of nude
models of both sexes to move freely about his studio. For Rodin the "expression" of a statue
was a function of the model's face as well as of his muscular efforts. When Paul Gsell re-
marked to him that, contrary to tradition, Rodin did not fix in advance a particular pose for
his models but waited to be seized by an unforeseen gesture, the sculptor replied: "I am not
under orders from anybody except those from nature."
Rodin was more like a kind of spy than a photographer. He had no ambition to reproduce
scrupulously what he saw but rather to underscore the traits of a motif and to accentuate
these where necessary. To him the artist was a seer, one whose eye and heart "read deeply
into the bosom of nature." When it was shown him that a group of visitors, especially the
ladies, averted their eyes from the sight of the lamentable and ruined body of his Old Helmet-
maker, Rodin laughed and said: "My work must be eloquent indeed if it provokes such
intense impressions. ... I am like that Roman chanteuse who replied to the jeers of the
populace 'Equitibus canol (I sing only for the knights!),' meaning for the connoisseurs."
Like the realistic painters, Rodin demonstrates that "what one commonly calls ugliness
in nature can come to have great beauty in art." For him every natural thing has character;
the artist's task is After he had been refused by the cole des Beaux-Arts he
to discover it.

wrote "It is I who follow tradition the cole des Beaux- Arts broke with it eighty years ago.
: :

I am in the tradition of the primitives, the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Romans.
I have simply

137
138

applied myself to copying nature. ... I have not tried to arrange it, I have not applied to it
the lavv^s of composition, I have not forced myself to harmonize its movements. I have ob-
served nature and I have seized her in the fullness of her riches, of her life, of her harmony."
He laughed at the critics who complained that he was unwilling to refine, to prettify his
works. To polish the toes of his statues, to dress the hair, did not interest him. And when he
reminds us that the same reproaches were once addressed to Rembrandt, we suddenly realize
that Rodin's art has a relationship with that of the artist of the Man with the Golden Helmet.
It is of no matter that many of his statues are headless for Rodin and his disciples the
:

inception of a movement, the premonitory quiver, is often more revealing than the expres-
sion to be read in facial features. It was Rodin who at last realized a fusion of sculpture with I
poetry. All of his work is steeped in a lyrical and naturalistic universe. For this reason he was
shocked by Baudelaire's opinions: "His criticisms are not fair," he wrote to Edmond Claris,
"sculpture is not an art of Caribbean savages."

Even before Paul Valry had proclaimed in his Pices sur Van that "each instant of the sculp-
tor's work threatened by an infinity of eventualities," Rodin had written: "It is not correct
is

to say that an accident of light, the effect of a lamp, can disclose a beauty which is not what
the artist himself had dreamed. When a work is well 'done' it contains all the forms neces-
sary to render the expression and living movement that animates the subject. It is therefore
impossible, whatever the lighting may be, to find a form
was not intended."
that
Not only did Rodin remain a master of light, but he even "carved" it, using dribbles of
plaster and blobs of clay whose function is both to reflect glints of daylight and cast zones of
shadow. The physical envelope of his statues evokes those volcanic lands which at any mo-
ment are in danger of being swept away by some convulsive movement whose epicenters lie
far below. Claudel saw rightly that "Rodin had the instinct of a colorist."
|
Rodin's name always tends to be associated with the Impressionist movement, with its
principles and its forms, although he scarcely seems a disciple of a Pissarro, Renoir, or Sisley.
His nude females, painted in watercolor, have nothing that can be compared with Renoir's
abundant Gabrielles and the peasant girls of ragny. Instead of breaking up the image and
assembling patches of color alongside one another toward the formation of "values," Rodin
splashes a few drops of watercolor on paper and, seemingly evanescent, they finally become
the flesh of a woman in movement.
While the Impressionists, concerned with the effects of light, seem disinterested
solely
in problems of morals, society, or politics, Rodin and his followers strove endlessly to un-
mask the human creature and to show it in struggle with the rigors of life. One need only
compare the subjects of Impressionist canvases with those chosen by these sculptors on the :

one hand, elegant little girls at the piano, elms on a riverbank, fruit trees in blossom, fields
of poppies, cathedrals in fog; on the other hand, dying children, sick people in hospitals,
unemployed workers, interiors of autobuses, mothers with withered breasts. Rather than
Impressionist, this is a sculpture at once realist, romantic, and, above all, introspective. Of
the Balzac by Rodin, Robert de la Sizeranne wrote that "his eyes seem to be gazing deep
into a spectacle that he alone sees."
In this art world that teemed with mediocre artists wearing government decorations and
with imbecile critics who were respected, Rodin succeeded quite rapidly in obliging the
official circles to acknowledge his genius. Although the press had inveighed only a few years
before against the Impressionists and continued their disdain of Czanne, Gauguin, and
Toulouse-Lautrec, the officials remained prudent and often abashed when faced with these
fragmentary torsoes and bronzes which seemed to have melted in the casting.
Those who spoke up generally did so on the score of Impressionism, always antagonisti-
 ART IN FUSION: RODIN AND HIS DISCIPLES 139

callv. Witness the statement of Armand Dayot "To my mind, Impressionism in sculpture can
:

only be the result of impotent eff^"orts. And, all in all, even if I am disregarded as an old fogy,
I still prefer the academic form in its cold correctness to all these attempts at convulsive and

grimacing sculpture, modeled like scums of lava by thumbs as agile as they are presumptuous."

DEGAS
Rodin and Degas have little in common: the one seems to us a Romantic, the other an Im-
pressionist For Degas, sculpture was merely one more means of capturing the
Realist.
ways of movement of his models; he saw no use in exhibiting his efforts in that medium. He
consented only once to show a piece of sculpture, at the Impressionist exhibition of 1885;
this was the large ballerina, to whose bronze body he added real hair and a gauze tutu. The
seventy-four pieces he modeled were only cast in bronze by Hbrard from 1919 to 1921 when
the wax figures were found in the artist's studio after his death.
Again unlike Rodin, Degas had no interest in the metaphvsical problems of his figures
but only in their epidermis and their movements. Where dancers were concerned, it was the
equilibrium of their bodies that preoccupied him. Is this not the reason why, in most cases,
the facial features seem scratched or rubbed out, as if to underscore the artist's indifference
to the very existence of these ballerinas ?

MEDARDO ROSSO
In 1880 Canova was still considered the equal of Michelangelo, and Canova's disciples, such
as Bartolini and Giovanni Dupr, were still enjoving a deserved success. But everything
changed when Medardo Rosso of Turin undertook to shake off the servitude of the Neo-
classicists and academics.
After studying at the Accademia di Brera in Milan, Rosso first exhibited as early as 1882
works having social content, inspired by the naturalistic and progressive writers who were
then popular; his titles show The Drunkard, The Tlesh of Others, The Paralytic.
this aspect:
Fascinated by the visual approach of the Impressionist painters. Rosso concerned himself
primarily with light. Rodin was impressed by the talent of the young Italian and offered him
profitable work. The mutual esteem of the two men and the influence that the master inevi-
tably had on his disciple explain why Rosso is generally considered to owe everything to Rodin.
In reality his work, usually more pathetic in tone than that of the author of the Gates of Hell,
possesses its own originality.
The use of colored waxes enabled Rosso to obtain surprising effects ; his faces take on
unreal, often morbid aspects. By his manner of scratching on the surfaces he succeeded not
only in rendering the expression but also in strengthening the colors. Edmond Claris reports
that, during a visit to Rosso's studio, the sculptor asked him where he him-
to take the place
self had stood while executing a female portrait. Then, removing the wet cloth from around
a still moist clay head, he asked Claris to describe how the woman must have looked "I shall :

always remember the sculptor's joy when, after described the character that to me seemed
I

clearly discernable in the figure before me, I declared that this plain clay sculpture gave me
the impression of a blonde with golden hair and a white, milky complexion."
Even more abstract in his outlook than Rodin, Medardo Rosso denounced the use of
praticiens, the artisans whose job it was to execute the details of a statue in the style of the
 140

master of the studio. For Rosso, one should no more walk around a statue than around a
painting because the form, he said, has nothing to do with the impression. For him "nothing
is material in the space"; from this he came to declare that art was an indivisible entity.

"There is not painting on the one hand and sculpture on the other. What must be sought
above all, bv whatever means, is the realization of a work which, by the life and humanity
emanating from it, communicates to the viewer everything that would evoke in him the
grandiose spectacle of powerful and healthy Nature."

1. ASMUS JAKOB CARSTENS (1754-1798). 7. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917).

The Fate Atropos. 1794. Plaster, height 19". Stdelsches Kunst- Mother and Trying Daughter. 1908. Marble, height 41". Muse
institut, Frankfurt-am-Main Rodin, Paris
Carstens, a Dane, was primarily a painter, and lived mostly in In the Gazette des Beaux Arts, January, 1887, it was remarked
Italy. In this statuette he shows the Fate who inexorably cuts the concerning an exhibition at the Galerie Georges Petit which
thread of life. included works by Rodin that "sculpture has as its represen-
tative, in the rue de Sze, an artist of first rank who seldom
2. rVAN PROKOHEVICH PROKOFIEV (1758-1828).
frequents the Salon and whose glor\- has not yet spread beyond
Fighters. 1817. Terracotta, height 9". Russian Museum, Lenin-
the circle of professionab and amateurs whose curiosity is much
grad
aroused."
A leading sculptor in Russia of his era, Prokofiev studied in St.
Petersburg and Paris. 8. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917).
Tonrait of Madame F. 1898. Marble, height 23' Muse Rodin,
3. THODORE GRICAULT (1791-1824).
Paris
'Symph and Satyr, c. 1817-20. Terracotta, height 6". Albright
Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, N.Y. 9. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917).
Gericault lived in Italy 1816-17, and his classical studies date The Burghers of Calais. 1884-86; installed 1895. Bronze, 6' 11"
from that period or slightly thereafter. X 7' 10" X 4' 11". Htel de Ville, Calais
"I move ahead within the most remote Antiquity. I wish to
4. THODORE GERICAULT (1791-1824).
link again the past to the present, to spread abroad the memory
Satyr and Bacchante. Terracotta cast of stone original in the
[of it], to judge and to add to its completion. .Men are led by
Muse des Beaux-Arts, Rouen. Private collection, Paris
sjTnbols. These are something other than lies" (Rodin). The
Sculpture is exceptional in the oeuvre from Gericault's short
six hostages are led off from Calais during the English siege in
life.
1347.
5. GEORGE FREDERICK WATTS (1817-1904).
10. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917).
'Sude Figures. Varnished plaster, cast. Watts Gallery, Compton
Monument to Victor Hugo. 1889 (unfinished). Marble. .Muse
(Surrey)
Rodin, Paris
Artists' sketches were for long looked dowTi upon, yet they
Rodin said: "Usually statues are placed in a garden to beautify
often reveal more of an artist's creative genius than final ver-
it; for my part I believe that Nature, sovereign mistress and in-
sions, in which everything is perfectly realized.
finite perfection that she is, has all the power needed to beautify
6. HONOR DAUMIER (1808-1879). statues." Commissioned for the Panthon, this work was re-
The Migrants, c. 1870. Bronze, 11 X 26". Private collection, jected on the score of nudity.
Milan
11. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917).
In this prodigious sketch the whole world of migrant labor is
Orpheus. 1889-96. Bronze, height 59' .Muse Rodin, Paris
set before us. No one else, before Rodin, was capable of defin-
ing the silhouette of a worker, of suggesting the state of misery 12. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917).
in which he subsisted until the end of the century. The Sculptor's Dream. Bronze, height 26". Kunsthalle, Bremen
 ART IN FUSION: RODIN AND HIS DISCIPLES 141

13. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917). 16. CAMILLE CLAUDEL (1856-1920).

The Prodigal Son. 1885-88. Bronze, height 55". Muse Rodin, The Gossipers. Bronze, height 10". Muse Rodin, Paris

Paris A second version, in a different medium.

14. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917).

17. MEDARDO ROSSO (1858-1928).
Pygmalion and Galatea. 1889. Plaster, height 31". Muse Rodin,
Sick Person in Hospital. 1889. Wax, height 9". Museo Medardo
Paris
Rosso, Barzio (Como)
15. CAMILLE CLAUDEL (1856-1920). Rarely has an artist succeeded in illustrating the circumstances
The Gossipers. 1895. Onyx, total height 18". Muse Rodin, Paris of the ordinary person with such realism and poetry; he excels
This is among the most original and strangest works in all the equally in resolving problems of light and shadow. In this re-
history of sculpture. Claudel, sister of Paul Claudel, was spect he surpassed Troubetzkoy and even Rodin. He has been
Rodin's student.

IV. EDGAR DEGAS (1834-1917). Rearing Horse, 1870-80.

c.

Bronze (lost-wax method), height 12". Collection Maurice

Rheims, Paris

il
142

called the "Carrire of sculpture," but that painter never suc- 29. GIDE RO.MBAUX (1865-1942).
ceeded in giving to his groups the structure that one finds with The Daughters of Satan. Before 1904. Marble, 6' 9" X 57" X
Rosso. 42". Muses Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels
This group parallels certain works by Rodin or Victor Rous-
18. MEDARDO ROSSO (1858-1928).
seau.
The Golden Age. 1886. Wax over plaster, height 17". Galleria
Nazionale d'Arte Moderna, Rome 30. GEORGE GREY BARNARD (1863-1938).
Adam and Eve. 1904-6. Marble, height 23^". Taft Museum,
19. .MED.ARDO ROSSO (1858-1928).
Cincinnati
The Concierge. 1883. Wax, height 14^". Galleria Internazionale
This work is part of Barnard's sculpture for the Pennsylvania
d'Arte .Moderna, Venice
State Capitol at Harrisburg.

20. PAUL TROUBETZKOY (1866-1938).

31. GEORGE GREY BARNARD (1863-1938).
Madame Anernheima. Bronze. Collection J.-G. Rueff, Paris
The Struggle of Two Natures in Man. 1888-94. Marble, height 8'
Troubetzkoy had great skill, but his facility and his taste for
Si". Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
worldliness make him closer to the painter Boldini than to
Based on Victor Hugo's statement, "I feel two men in myself,"
Eugne Carrire.
Barnard's work was modeled in Paris.

21. PAUL TROUBETZKOY (1866-1938).

32. .MILE-ANTOINE BOURDELLE (1861-1929).
Mother and Daughter. 1911. Bronze, 32 X 20". Galleria Nazio-
The Siesta. 1894. Bronze, 8^ X 16i". Private collection,
nale d'Arte Moderna, Rome
Paris
22. PAUL TROUBETZKOY (1866-1938).
33. HENRI .MATISSE (1869-1954).
Elegant Creature. Bronze. Private collection
The Slave. 1900-1903. Bronze, height 36". Muse Henri Ma-
23. JEAN-LOUIS-ERNEST MEISSONIER (1815-1891). tisse, Le Cateau-Cambrsis (Nord)
Dancing Muse. Muse de Peinture et de Sculpture, Grenoble Based on Rodin's style, Matisse's sculpture is balanced more
This sketch by Meissonier recalls certain works by the Czech solidly.

Myslbek. Comparable similarities among seemingly different

GIUSEPPE GRAND! (1843-1891).
artists are found throughout the nineteenth century whence 34.
Marshal Michel Ney. 1880. Bronze, height 13^". Galleria d'Arte
the difficulty of assigning an artist to one or another school.
Moderna, Milan
24. JOSEF VACLAV .MYSLBEK (1848-1922). A picturesque interpretation of Napoleon's famous marshal.
Music. 1895. Bronze, height 25^" Narodni Gallery, Prague Grandi, author of the fine Monument to Commemorate the
See preceding illustration. Five-Day Insurrection of 1848 (against the Austrians; executed
in 1874), in .Milan, treated the figure of the Napoleonic marshal
25. EDGAR DEGAS (1834-1917).
in a more sober manner than had Franois Rude in 1852. His
Grande Arabesque, Third Time. 1882-95. Bronze, height 16".
technique makes him a precursor of the so-called Impressionist
Lefvre Galleries, London
sculptors.
As a sculptor Degas remains isolated, as he does as a painter.

There is no sensuality about his dancers ; they are ordinary girls 35. EMILE-ANTOINE BOURDELLE (1861-1929).
who have chosen a hard trade. Carpeaux at Work. 1909. Bronze, height 9". .Muse des Beaux-
Arts, Lyons
26. EDGAR DEGAS (1834-1917).
Carpeaux had died in 1875; Bourdelle also made a represen-
Nude Study Jot the Dressed Ballet Dancer. 1879-80. Bronze, height
tation of Rodin at Work (1910).
28^". Lefvre Galleries, London
36. EMILE-ANTOINE BOURDELLE (1861-1929).
27. EDGAR DEGAS (1834-1917).
Young Girl Picking Apples. 1895. Terracotta. Muse Antoine
Dancer Looking at the Sole of Her Right Foot. 1882-95. Bronze,
Bourdelle, Paris
height 18". Lefvre Galleries, London
"And one has before one, caught just as in
"To you. Matre Claude Monet,
life, the graceful
I think of your great moving uork that assures vou of eternity,
squirming of the movements and gestures of those little girl-

monkeys" in the human sense of the word, since everything must trans-
(E. and J. de Concourt, yournai, February 13, 1874).
form itself. 1 think of your bust, v\hich must be created, and the
28. EDGAR DEGAS (1834-1917). portrait, that sculptured Architecture which is the great battle
Spanish Dance. 1882-95. Bronze, height 17". Lefvre Galleries, of the sculptor of statues" (extract of a letter from Bourdelle to
London Monet, August 20, 1925).
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 9. THE EVE OF THE TWENTIETH
CENTURY; EXPRESSIONISM;
THE RETURN TO THE GREEKS
After
1880 sculpture like painting thirty years earlier was racked by trends as
diverse as they were contradictory. The academicists did everything they could to
impose their primacy once more. Some of these, such as Dalou, excelled equally in
naturalism and symbolism; others, among them Falguire and Antonin Mercie, both
remarkable technicians, tended toward the historical approach, most readily to a
pseudo-Florentinism. Among the approaches to the new art the anecdotal realists had a faithful
following; social awareness, with Paul Dubois, Alfred Lenoir, Thodore Rivire, and Jean
Dampt, took on a missionary tone. In those years, Rodin alone was proving himself one of the
greatest creative geniuses of all time, and later he was followed by a number of disciples.
Some of the works that illustrate this chapter were done by sculptors then young men
like Bourdelle, Brancusi, and Maillol who would later gain great fame. What they produced
before the turn of the century scarcely permits, except perhaps for Bourdelle, a prediction of
their genius.
Gauguin's sculptures, like those of Degas, are important in the sense that they offer proof
again that painters are more easily attracted to modernity than are sculptors. But as with
Gericault and Daumier, sculpture remained for these great artists a pawn on their creative
chessboard, a supplementary means of expression and relaxation. Gauguin clearly distin-
guished between the academic sculpture of his early years and what he strove to realize in
Oceania. There everything was different, as he explained in a letter to Daniel de Monfried in
1897: "Sculpture! You must admit that it's very amusing, and either very easy or very
difficult very easy when one looks at nature, very difficult when one wishes to express some-
:

thing a bit mysteriously by association. Tojind the forms what your friend, the little sculptor
from the Midi, calls to deform.**
In transposing the Polynesian style, Gauguin has a more savage accent in his sculptures
than in his paintings. But as a European he could not prevent himself from giving his works,
though barbarous and bizarre, a Western imprint. He took pains to tone down at least the
expression if not the facial features, as subsequently was done by Lehmbruck and Barlach in
Germany.

As early as 1895 certain young sculptors, pupils or disciples of Rodin, broke with the master,
convinced that it was impossible to go further in the direction he had chosen without falling
into excess and mannerism. Some, like Bourdelle, retained a Romantic quality; others,
Maillol for one, strove to rediscover the sources of a Latin and Mediterranean tradition.
Bourdelle was no revolutionary, but in drawing away from Rodin and by leading sculp-
ture toward the paths of Expressionism he was responsible, unconsciously or not, for the
prodigious revolutions soon to explode in the plastic arts. Initially the muscular efforts of his
figures remained half concealed, but soon the impression of semidivine power which emanates
from his works accentuated the grandeur and nobility of his compositions. This son of a shep-
herd, this man of the soil infinitely sensitive to the profound vibrations that agitate everything
that has form, aspired to express these effects more than anyone had done.
In 1921 Waldemar George marked Bourdelle's importance for the twentieth century:

165
166

"Initiated into the art of sculptural manufacture, he then used every effort to abolish it and,
instead of modeling, so often risky, to substitute construction bymeans of planes. The simple
play of surfaces juxtaposed to one another took the place of depth for him. On that score, and
on many others too, he is the successor of stonecarvers of the twelfth century and the pre-
decessor of those 'Cubist' sculptors named Jacques Lipchitz and Henri Laurens."

At the century's end, sculpture reflected a trend that is also found in literature. Turning away
from Romantic symbolism, a number of artists preferred the serenity of the Parnassian move-
ment.
Following the Dreyfus scandal there arose a new society that was atheistic, intellectual-
ized, and virtuous, the enemy of a dying morality. It was a society that found in the image of
the past not the sources of rapture that had produced a false medievalism, but, rather, themes
for meditation and inner calm. Maillol, like certain other painters and sculptors, by using what
seem the simplest means, succeeded in becoming a Hellenist while also refusing to yield to
academic conventions. Scorning aestheticism, he proclaimed himself a humanist. He strove
soberly to rediscover the sources which had nourished the Greek artists of the sixth century
B.c., and recreated in clay the most simplified forms he could see. Free from any combination
of pseudo-intellectual or moralizing principles, his work exudes a sense of happiness and
serenity.

During that time sculpture in most countries of the West is marked by similar contradictions.
Germany, in the wake of its victories at Sadowa and Sedan, was seized by an embarrassing
admiration for all matters historical. Reinhold Begas, a passionate admirer of the painters
Boecklin and Feuerbach, continued to be a mannerist in sculpture. Only Adolf von Hilde-
brand, along with Hans von Mares in painting, disdained patriotic and anecdotal subjects. As
sculptor and architect Hildebrand created in Munich the fountains of the Wittelsbachs and of
Saint Hubert, still among the most important sculptural works of the nineteenth century. By
the simplicity of line allied with his feeling for the monumental, Hildebrand has much in
common with certain twentieth-century sculptors. But Max Klinger, on the contrary, at-
tached himself more willingly to the Art Nouveau movement by his excesses in using and
combining precious and strange materials some of his works are among the oddest in the
;

entire history of sculpture. Klinger's striving for effects through his materials often interferes
with his dramatic sense. His Beethoven, for example, despite its exoticism, is less moving than
the portraits of Beethoven carved by Bourdelle.
Around Hildebrand there flourished a group of young talents, such as Louis Tuaillon and
the more precious Franz von Stuck. Only Wilhelm Lehmbruck, taking his inspiration first
from Rodin and then from Maillol, would orient German sculpture in a new direction.
In Belgium the verve of Jef Lambeaux served to counter the exquisite genius of Victor
Rousseau, tinged with aestheticism, and the sometimes too insistent simplicity of George
Minne. The latter artist, first a disciple of Rodin and then an admirer of Constantin Meunier,
in 1898 gathered around him at Laethem Saint-Martin, near Ghent, a small coterie of artists
whom he tried to inculcate with his own taste for pursuing the study of his materials to the
point of stylization. In his last years however, after having been one of the great precursors of
contemporary art, Minne returned again to medievalism.
In the United States, particularly in Chicago and New York, a new era had arrived in
architecture, especially that by Louis Sullivan. Sculpture, however, remained resolutely con-
ventional, and it had to wait for the maturity of Paul Manship to initiate a sculptural expres-
sion capable of raising American art from its decadent lethargy.
 THE EVE OF THE TWENTIETH CENTURY; EXPRESSIONISM; THE RETURN TO THE GREEKS 167

At the close of the nineteenth century, Bourdelle, Maillol, and Lehmbruck were opening the
way to Lipchitz, Laurens, and Zadkine. But it was especially Bourdelle, and Brancusi after
him, both born in a peasant world, who would be the gravediggers for the "cadavers," their
name for academic works.

1. EMILE-ANTOINE BOURDELLE (1861-1929). 10. ADOLF VON HILDEBRAND (1847-1921).

Large Warrior (detail). 1898. Study for the memorial to the The Lovers, c. 1909. Wax study, height 12". Kunsthalle, Bre-
Franco-Prussian War (1870-71). Bronze. Montauban men
There are many studies for this famous work. A refreshing study in contrast to Hildebrand's earlier controlled

style.
2. PAUL GAUGUIN (1848-1903).
BE IN LOVE AKD YOU WILL BE HAPPY (SOYEZ AMOUREUSES 11. YANNOULIS CHALEPAS (1854-1937).
ET VOUS SEREZ HEUREUSES). 1889. Panel designed to deco- Perseus and Pegasus. Plaster. National Picture Gallery, Athens
rate a lintel carved and painted wood, 39^" X 7'1
;
". Muse 1 Perseus, with the help of Athena, cut off Medusa's head, and
du Louvre, Paris from her head was born the winged horse Pegasus.
There is another version of this subject in the Museum of Fine
12. GEORGES CLRE (1819-1901).
Arts, Boston
Hercules Strangling the Nemean Lion. c. 1870. Black marble,
3. PAUL GAUGUIN (1848-1903). length c. 34^". Muse des Beaux-Arts, Nancy
Lechery. 1889. Bronze, height 11". Private collection, Paris
13. ALBERT BARTHOLOM (1848-1928).
4. JEAN ESCOULA(1851-1911). Little Girl Crying. 1894. Bronze. Muse d'Art Moderne, Paris
Suffering. 1897. Bronze. Muse des Beaux-Arts, Valenciennes Despite their close friendship, Bartholom and Degas con-

5. MILE-ANTOINE BOURDELLE (1861-1929). ceived art, and sculpture in particular, in a fundamentally dif-

Head of Apollo. 1900. Bronze. Private collection, New York ferent manner. Bartholom, who began as a painter but became
Rodin's disciple and was a friend of Bourdelle and Charles
6. GEORGE .MINNE (1866-1941). Despiau, became in the end an isolated figure.
Mother Weeping over Her Dead Child. 1886. Bronze, height 18".
Muses Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels 14. FRANZ VON STUCK (1863-1928).
As the nineteenth century waned, an art developed which, The Athlete. Bronze, height 25^". Kunsthalle, Bremen
rather than following the various Romantic currents, attempted Painter as well as sculptor, von Stuck formed his style on that

to stylize in the most simplified manner the deeper torments of of Boecklin and Lembach.

the psyche. 15. KARL STAUFFER (1857-1891).

Adoring Figure. 1888. Bronze, height 40". Offentliche Kunst-
7. GEORGE MINNE (1866-1941).
height 26". Muses Royaux des sammlung, Basel
Solidaritj. 1898. Bronze,
Beaux-Arts, Brussels
Painter, printmaker, and sculptor, this Swiss artist took up
The thin and unstable forms are typical of Minne's Expression-
sculpture after he moved to Italy.

ism.
16. ADOLF VON HILDEBRAND (1847-1921).
8. WILHELM LEHMBRUCK (1881-1919). Archery Lesson, left wing of a triptych. Model 1887/88, cast in

Head (study for Kneeling Woman), c. 1911. Plaster, height 17". 1954 in cement; 51 X 36". Wallraf-Richartz Museum, Co-
Museum of Art, Raleigh, N.C. logne

As with Bourdelle and Maillol, this work done shortly after the An admirable sculptor but often too intellectual, Hildebrand
end of the nineteenth century shows the modernist spirit, the like Hugo Lederer and Max Klinger aspired to be an apostle

aspirations of the new century. of the pure vision.

9. ARISTIDE MAILLOL (1861-1944). 17. AUGUSTUS SAINT-GAUDENS (1848-1907).

Washerwoman. 1896. Bronze, height 5". Collection Dina Vier- Diana. 1892. Gilded bronze, height 9' 4". Metropolitan Muse-
ny, Paris um of Art, New York
Full-size version is 47 inches high, 1917. Here Saint-Gaudens' style somewhat resembles that of Hilde-
168

brand. The Diana originally topped the tower of Madison 26. FLIX-DOUARD VALLOTTON (1865-1925).
Square Garden in New York. Motherhood. Bronze. Private collection, Switzerland
Bom in Switzerland and naturalized in France in 1900, Val-
18. HER.MANN HAHN (1868-1942).
lotton was a painter, engraver, and sculptor. His sculpture is
The Young Horseman. Bronze, height 22^". Kunsthalle, Bremen
not unlike the pieces modeled by Matisse in those years.
The German school of the end of the nineteenth century was
fundamentally the opposite of the French style of Rodin and his 27. ARISTIDE .MAILLOL (1861-1944).

disciples. Standing Bather. 1899. Wood, height 24^". Stedelijk Museum,

Amsterdam
19. LOUIS TUAILLON (1862-1919).
Like the Germans, Maillol too strove to return to the Classical
Amazon. Bronze, height 33^'- Kunsthalle, Bremen
source.
Despite his Roman training the Berlin sculptor Tuaillon turned
his back on both Naturalism and Romanticism. 28. AIM-JULES DALOU (1838-1902).
The Broken Mirror. Painted bronze, 13 X 12 X 7". Private
20. FRANZ VON STUCK (1863-1928).
collection, Paris
Amazon. 1897. Bronze, height 25". Kunsthalle, Bremen
The stylistic diversity of the works of Dalou, a greatly talented
This sculptor's classical style has great elegance.
artist, puts him outside all classification.

21. LUDWIG VON HOFER (1801-1887).

29. MAX KLINGER (1857-1920).
Horse Tamer. Bronze. Muse Cantonal des Beaux-Arts, Lausanne
Female Bather Looking at Herself in the Water. 1896-97. Bronze,
A student of Thorvaldsen, von Hofer usually has mythological
height 24^". Kunsthalle, Bremen
subject matter.
A work made before KJinger turned to his lavish Art Nouveau

22. VICTOR ROUSSEAU (1865-1954). productions.

The Secret. 1917. Marble, 19 X 12 X 8". Muses Royaux des FREDERICK LEIGHTON (1830-1896).
30.
Beaux-Arts, Brussels The Sluggard. Shown at the Royal Academy, 1886. Bronze,
Rousseau was an outstanding and prolific Belgian sculptor.
height 2O2". The Fine Art Society, London
23. JENS ADOLF JERICHAU (1816-1883). Well educated and widely traveled, Leighton was encouraged
at age 14 toward sculpture by Hiram Powers, whom he met in
Seated Mermaid, c. 1865. Terracotta, height 16^". Ny Carlsberg
Florence.
Glyptotek, Copenhagen
A dedicated classicist, Jerichau studied with Thorvaldsen and 31. EDMUND STEWARDSON (1865-1892).
then returned to Denmark. Bather. Marble, height 46". Metropolitan Museum of Art, New
York
24. ARTHUR VOLKMANN (1851-1941).
Female Figure. 1904. Tinted marble, height 5' 7". Kunsthalle, 32. ARISTIDE MAILLOL (1861-1944).
Bremen Crouching Woman. 1899. Plaster, 39 X 41". Collection Dina
ThisGerman sculptor lived and worked in Rome. Viemy, Paris

25. GEORGE MINNE (1866-1941). 33. ARISTIDE .MAILLOL (1861-1944).

The Little Relic Bearer. Marble, height 26". Muses Royaux des The Spring. 1896. Wood, height 16". Collection Dina Viemy,
Beaux-Arts, Brussels Paris
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 lO. THE WORLD OF WORK

Workers
accompanying
in their activitieswere already depicted in ancient Egypt among those
the deceased in this way the owners paid homage to men who
;

spent their Hves and talents building tombs and pyramids. In the Middle Ages
masons, carpenters, stonecutters, ironmongers, and peasants were among those
peopling the capitals, portals, and by including hum-
lintels of the cathedrals;
ble artisans the Church demonstrated that, though it could not improve their lot, it was
obliged to help them endure an existence inexorably chained to misery. To join others on the
great religious monuments, to see one's everyday acts sanctified in stone or bronze, did this
not earn a laissez-passer, a certificate of good conduct for the beyond?
About the close of the sixteenth century one finds again in certain works this wish to
"return to the people," in accordance with the spirit of the Counter-Reformation. A laud-
able project, but stamped with prudence by such as Bassano, the Carracci, or Louis Boulogne.
Some artists dared to show workers in their customary sordid surroundings and wearing their
everyday shabby clothing, but they never appear to be suffering from their lot. And the artist,
to avoid upsetting the sensibilities of art-lovers, often brought in supernatural elements, such
as Venus visiting the forge of Vulcan. Nor did the artist turn easily to portraying himself in
his daily occupation when he did, he used the pretext of the old and often-treated theme, the
;

legend of St. Luke painting the Virgin.

Dutch sculptors in the seventeenth century did, in fact, portray their clients in working
clothes, but this was at the express wish of their sitters, craftsmen grown wealthy, who put
on make-believe costumes and then struck conventional poses, as in the ensemble executed for
the tailors' guild in Hoom.
The world of work is excluded from Versailles to symbolize work in the fields or at the
;

forges it was thought more elegant to enlist the gods of Olympus. Only the surintendants of
building
Lebrun or Mansart were deemed worthy of the king's notice. The court, over-
sensitive toward labor, preferred to ignore the hundreds of men and women employed in dig-
ging the ditches of the chteau, who lived and died in drudgery. From time to time chance
workers appeared on works of but in submissive postures such figures are on the base of
art, ;

the monument Pigalle raised to the glory of Louis XV.

During the first half of the nineteenth century the few sculptures depicting the world of
work show us romanticized workers in their activities. Their gestures, costumes, and poses
often give a ballet-like quality to the scene. No one thought of denying the existence of a
profound inequality in the conditions of men, but neither did anyone know how to bring an
end to the unavoidable and shameful evil that is poverty.
When Queen Victoria came workers numbered more than a
to the English throne,
quarter of the population of her realm. Children, adults, and even the aged worked fifteen or
sixteen hours a day earning miserable wages. But the Anglo-Saxons, who spared few thoughts
for the fate of the proletarians living and dying in factories or deep in the mines, willingly
sympathized with the fate of the Negro slaves on plantations in the former colonies in Ameri-
ca. The issue of Negro emancipation and the myth of the good black

"the faithful dog"
was readily taken up by painters and sculptors. The touching subject appealed to the Ro-

181
182

mantic and early socialist leanings of certain inhabitants of the New World. In addition, the
"ideal Negro" had a noble bearing that made him worthy of representation in the eyes of the
Neoclassicists.
Ultimately the unending quest for the Beautiful took precedence over any reactions to
political or social movements. If amateurs and critics were offended by the idea of replacing
models with poor people was because misery is hideous, the rabble ugly; at
in their rags, it

best, they could be picturesque. To depict human misfortune was contrary to the Neoclassical
conception of art. Later in the nineteenth century one still finds Henri Jouin writing: "Beauty
is the expression of goodness, and art which records for the future should not represent the

errors of nature. . . Sculpture should depict only great actions; every time it shows itself
.

forgetful of its sublime task it becomes like those priests who preach about frivolous matters."
Daumier, as lie Faure put it, was conscious of that "pity which rises from the centuries to
accompany the passers-by" and was the first to engrave, paint, and carve the "tragedy of hun-
ger which roars like a storm." His Romantic temperament helped him stress the epic accents
that misery can assume.
Courbet's declarations accentuated the importance of the ideological level of his work.
During his time a genuine social conscience began to awaken among painters and sculptors.
This was especially true in Belgium, where the workers found in the ranks of the socialist
party a good number of intellectuals and artists who organized the conspiracy between art and
the political revolt. The foundation in 1885 of a Workers' Party in Brussels and its acceptance
into the government coincided with the campaigns led by Emile Verhaeren and Octave Maus
toward the emergence of a social art.
Certain ideological ideas already expressed by Charles de Groux found their echo in the
sculpture of Constantin Meunier. After what he saw during a visit to the steel mills at Seraing
in Belgium, Meunier discovered in the distress of the working class themes he would continue
to pursue for the rest of his career. The same approach is seen in Alexandre Charpentier,
Aim-Jules Dalou, and Vincenzo Vela, though in their work the social effect is less convinc-
ing. French sculptures became encumbered with too many symbols ; the monument on the
Place de la Rpublique in Paris is handsome, but it scarcely suggests action the Republic has
already triumphed. Italian sculptors used too much realism, too much virtuosity, in bringing
out the drama, which prejudices the intensity of its effect.
In the final analysis artists like Charpentier, Meunier, or Wilhelm Lehmbruck are less
important for their aesthetic quality than for their fraternal and supportive attitude toward
the mass of workers. This was scarcely the case with such as Gauguin, Van Gogh, and Ensor,
who remained firmly asocial likewise the Impressionists, most of whom came from the lower
;
'(

middle class and concerned themselves very little with social problems other than their own.
Realistic and socially oriented sculpture often takes on documentary interest when ex- >

ecuted for a particular occasion, such as a strike or mine disaster. It can reveal the conditions s

of the proletariat and of the general attitude of people at large concerning the workers. 1

Chizhov's sculpture of a muzhik and his child, slumped in despair and physically incapable of .

revolt, seems like an illustration of a character from Dostoevsky or Tolstoy. Similarly, certain i

groups of workers modeled by Vincenzo Vela evoke the climate of anarchy and poverty during
those years in Italy. Dalou's workers and Meunier's miners are proof that in Belgium the
working class, finally conscious of the power it possessed, appeared ready to challenge the I
police force that serve-d a reactionary owners' class.
Curiously, one gets a glimpse here and there of the eventual assimilation of the pro-
letariat into the bourgeoisie: in his derby hat and shaggy woolen jacket, the little Parisian
bookkeeper modeled by Carabin waltzes with his Lisette, dreaming of the felicities of the
consumer society still to come.
 THE WORLD OF WORK 183

United States the problem had already been solved. The economic situation of
In the
workers, who were much more integrated into the social system than their European counter-
parts, and the privileged position they enjoyed in a young nation in full expansion, explain the
absence of a realistic and revolutionary art in that country.

1. BARTHLMY-FRANOIS CHARDIGNY (1757-1813). 7. GIORGIOS FYTALIS (1832-1880).

Harvesting Olives. Commissioned 1802. 29^ X 39^". Muse The Shepherd. White marble. National Picture Gallery, Athens
des Beaux-Arts, Marseilles
8. GEORGES-HENRI GUITTET (1 871-1902).
The illustrations for this chapter give an idea of the social
African Water Carrier. 1897. Marble, height 5' 10". Muse de
evolution that took place in the course of the century. As far
Picardie, Amiens
along as 1820 the labors of the peasantry were treated as a kind
of ritual ballet : work was still thought of as a gift of God and 9. SERGEY TIMOFEJEVICH KONENKOV (1874-1971).
those who practiced it were assured of their reward at the gates StonecTusher 1898. Bronze, height 41". Tretyakov Gallery,
.

of Heaven. Moscow
Konenkov's Russian peasants posed in attitudes of resignation
2. OTTO EVENS (1826-1895).
and would be perfect illustrations for a Tolstoy novel.
Man Watering a Horse. 1883. Bronze, height 30". Statens Muse-
um for Kunst, Copenhagen 10. ACHILLE d'orsi (1845-1929).
Evens, a successful Danish sculptor, studied with H. V. Bissen. The Carter. Bronze, height 23^". Galleria Nazionale d'Arte
3. PAVEL MALINSKY (1790-1853). Modema, Rome
Workers Constructing a Bridge. 1823. Plaster, 34 X 29". Muze- Realistic faces of proletarians supplanted full-length figures of

um Narodowe, Warsaw "good" workers.

Thorvaldsen's student Malinsky returned to his native Poland
11. MATVEY AFANASYEVICH CHIZHOV (1838-1916).
and did sculptures and reliefs for churches and palaces in War-
Despairing Peasant. 1872. Bronze, height 43". Russian Museum,
saw.
Moscow.
4. HARALD CONRADSEN (1817-1905).
12. GIULIO MONTEVERDE (1837-1917).
Young Girl at the Well. Before 1854. Bronze, height 11".
Edward Jenner Inoculating His Injant Son with Smallpox Vaccine.
Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen
This Danish sculptor was famed especially for his portrait
1873. Height 50^". Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Modema, Rome
medallions.
This sculpture caused a sensation when exhibited in Paris in
1878.
5. MiKLOs izso (1831-1875).
Grieving Shepherd. 1862. Marble. Hungarian National Gallery, 13. FRANCOIS-RUPERT CARABIN (1862-1921).
Budapest Parisian Couple Dancing. Bronze. Collection Alain Lesieutre,
A Hungarian sculptor, Izso specialized in peasants whom he de- Paris

picted not in the field but often in the village square on Not only was Carabin the equal of the greatest sixteenth-century
Sundays, dancing the czardas. German sculptors in the art of working the hardest woods,
but he was also a prodigious sculptor of social realism. His
6. JEAN-JACQUES (called JAMES) PRADIER (1792-1852).
personages seem to step from the pages of novels of Jules
Maid Ironing, c. 1850. Painted plaster, 13 X 6". Muse d'Art
Laforgue or Emile Zola.
et d'Histoire, Geneva
Here Pradier, elegant as usual, strove to convey the romantic 14. ROGER BLOCHE (bom 1865).
reveries, while testing her iron, of a chambermaid working for The Cold. Bronze. Formerly in courtyard. Muse du Luxem-
her employer, some upper-class woman. bourg, Paris
184

15. CHARLES VAN WIJK (1875-1917). themselves the interpreters of the sufferings of laborers.
Harvesting Woman. Bronze. Royal Palace, Soestdljk (near
20. BERNARD HOETGER (1874-1949).
Utrecht)
Coalman. Bronze (lost- wax method). Collection Alain Lesieu-
16. MARI ANDRIESSEN (bom 1897). tre, Paris

Study for the monument The Docker in Amsterdam. Bronze.

21. CONSTANTIN-EMILE MEUNIER (1831-1905).
Boymans-van Beuningen Museum, Rotterdam
The Iron Puddler. 1886. Bronze, height 57^". Muses Royaux
17. AIMi-JULES DALOU (1838-1902). des Beaux-Arts, Brussels
Ditch Digger. Bronze (lost-wax method), height 6". Collection
22. CONSTANTIN-MILE MEUNIER (1831-1905).
Maurice Rheims, Paris
Firedamp. Bronze, height 5' I". Muses Royaux des Beaux-
18. AIM-JULES DALOU (1838-1902). Arts, Brussels

Potato Picker. Bronze (lost-wax method), height 4". Collection A miner lies dead after a disaster from combustible gases in a
Maurice Rheims, Paris coal mine.

19. CONSTANTIN-iMILE MEUNIER (1831-1905). 23. VINCENZO VELA (1820-1891).

Glass Blower. 1889. Bronze. Muse Constantin Meunier, Brus- The Viaims of Labor. 1882. Bronze, 7' 10" X 10' 7". Galleria

sels Nazionale d'Arte Modema, Rome

Andriessen, Dalou, Hoetger, Vela, and Meunier, often with an Monument to the laborers who died in building the St.-Gott-

intensity of emotion beyond that of Rodin or Bourdelle, made hard Tunnel in Switzerland (1872-80).

c^tv
 r

11 12
r.i^n

13
wt

21
 11. HISTORICAL AND MILITARY
SUBJECTS

men have always thrilled to military success. In Athens and Rome

Throughout time,
sculpture immortalized the features of great generals. The Christian world remem-
bers the names of certain men who seconded their princes in jousts, leaving to the
populace the obligation to kill one another for the greater glory of those princes.
Since the French Revolution the masses tend to identify themselves with the idea
of the Nation; and every schoolboy is made aware of the calling up of the citizenry to defend
its territory, even to the final sacrifice.
The writers Stendhal, Hugo, and Zola have described those prodigious and dramatic
confrontations where a people, convinced of the justness of its ideals and commanded by those
itjudges to be best, clash on the battlefield with another people equally convinced of the
merits of their cause. In principle such conflicts have the objective of guaranteeing the fron-
tiers of each and achieving a better life for each citizenry.
The Napoleonic wars caused the development throughout Europe of nationalist senti-
ments that were quickly pushed to the extreme. For the first time artists who belonged to
different nationalities refused to meet because their countries were in a state of war. In 1802
the English sculptor Flaxman, during the truce following the Treaty of Amiens, broke oft all

relations with the French painter Jacques-Louis David and refused to meet Napoleon; and
fifteen years later, as we have noted, David d'Angers, because of his friendship with his
namesake, the painter of the Coronation of Napoleon, got no response when he knocked on
Flaxman's door.
The powers-that-be became more and more interested in historical sculpture. Between
1820 and 1900 tens of thousands of statuettes in all dimensions were cast in bronze or light-
weight alloys portraying Louis XVIII, George Washington, Adolphe Thiers, Louis-Philippe
and his family, Abraham Lincoln, Queen Victoria, Prince Albert, and successive tsars. Within
twenty years of his death Napoleon became the object of a veritable idolatry; his effigy in-
vaded mantlepieces, offices, street corners. "We've got enough of Napoleon on our public
squares!" shouted Louis-Philippe, exasperated when Duchtel, his Minister of the Interior,
proposed the commission of yet another monument to the glory of the Emperor. Thiers, a
witness of the monarch's reaction, remarked to the sculptor Etex "My dear Etex, they are
:

too idiotic [a polite translation of an obscenity] to set up a Napoleon I on a public square at

this moment; you and I together will turn out that monument, but later."
Following the lead of the monarchv and then of the Second Empire, the Third Republic
coined its own myths. Bruno's Tour de France par deux enfants (Two Children's Trip Around
France) became within months a bible for French youngsters: with 500,000 copies printed,
it soon put the new generation into the psychological, political, social, and artistic frame of

mind to understand and admire the symbols of the new regime.

This was also the age of monuments to the war dead. The military sculpture produced
throughout the century reveals the evolution of public sentiment with regard to war. Until
1812 the Emperor is generally surrounded by his troops. Paintings and reliefs depicting his
battles demonstrate the standard scheme Napoleon on horseback, spyglass in hand, dictates
:

instructions to his marshals who pass them on to the regimental commanders. The results

193

1
 ,

mm

194

seem immediate, since we see already the survivors of the battle just ordered, now divided
into three groups : foreground the victors, faces transfigured, salute Napoleon at either
in the ;

side the wounded staunch with one hand the blood pouring from their wounds, while raising
the other hand in a gesture that seems to bless the organizer of this display in the background
;

amid dismantled pieces of artillery and broken gun-carriages, the dead, generally in enemy
uniform, seem to call with their open mouths for the gravediggers. After the burning of
Moscow in 1812, the Emperor is portrayed quite alone, melancholy, wrapped in his greatcoat,
and shivering. On foot, on horseback, or ensconced in his armchair, yesterday's hero seems
to ask if his defeat was "a fatal blow, or a mere episode?"
1814, Waterloo: the French, who weep for their sons, raise monuments only to their
marshals and generals, and this remains so for the later campaigns in Algeria, Mexico, and
Italy. Not until the defeat at Sedan and the siege of Paris, in the Franco-Prussian War of 1 871

a debacle that affected the entire nation, did the painters and especially the sculptors finally
render homage to the victims. Nationalistic and chauvinistic sentiment grew ever stronger.
The symbols changed military leaders were no longer dressed as heroes of ancient Greece or
:

Rome, for the generation of the Third Republic thought of themselves as steadfast Gauls. Just
as Winckelmann's archaeological discoveries had contributed to the late-eighteenth-century
taste for Hellenistic and Roman antiquity, so the discovery of the Gallic sites at Alessia and
Gergovia, the writing of Michelet, and, more particularly, the Rcits des temps mrovingiens
(Tales of Merovingian Times) by Augustin Thierry- developed among the French the myth of
their resistance to foreign oppression. The Gallic general Vercingetorix and his companions
their torsos bare, their mustaches borrowed from Maupassant's heroes, their right arms
raised to warn the enemy to advance no further
began to challenge even Joan of Arc in popu-
larity.
Across the Rhine Kaiser Wilhelm, the Rhineland industrialists, and the Berlin bankers
and their daughters all wished to be shown as descendants of the Nibelungs. Torsos snugly
sheathed, helmets plumed from sinister birds, the Teutonic knights mounted on huge and
savage steeds surveyed their frontiers.
After 1880 the annual Paris Salon was invaded by patriotic sculpture which aspired to
equal realism. Sculptors and painters gave proof of their strong consciences: according to
Jules Claretle, Meissonier searched ceaselessly to find the exact costumes his personages had
worn. To depict Napoleon at the time of the French campaign he obtained from the Army
Museum the loan of one of the Corsican's gray redingotes; lest he damage the precious relic,
Meissonier ordered a military tailor to make an exact copy of it, fold by fold, button by
button. Furthermore, when he thought it necessary he did not hesitate to make models in wax
and, for hours on end, to try to establish how the folds of a rider's greatcoat might fall over
his horse's rump.
Artists in other countries were no less punctilious. The uniforms about the chests of
German or American soldiers were reproduced in the tiniest detail only their poses differed
;

from one country to another. In Italv Romanticism continued to triumph; in Great Britain,
as in France, symbolism vied with naturalism. Certain American sculptors, notably John
Rogers, excelled in casting historical anecdotes into bronze often the rendering of the subject
;

is so simplified that it seems rather to treat some other action.

In Spain, likewise, nationalist sculpture flourished throughout the century, as witness

the monument to the glory of Christopher Columbus erected in Madrid in 1885 by Jeronimo
Sufiol, or the equestrian monument to Queen Isabella the Catholic by Manuel Oms, put up in
that city in 1883. The same story from Portugal to Romania. The birth of new countries en-
couraged patriotism. Soon after Romania became an independent state in 1859, there arose
statues of their ancient heroes Michael the Brave and Stephen the Great.
 HISTORICAL AND MILITARY SUBJECTS 19S

The success that military sculpture enjoyed almost everywhere is explained by its power
to reconstitute a scene. Painting cannot re-create the dramatic intensity that emanates from
such as the Marshal Ney of Rude or, perhaps even more, Croisy's monument in Le Mans
erected to the glory of the Second Army of the Loire (p. 200, 57). And this was to remain so
until sculpture itself became outclassed by the ultimate in colossal spectacles, the films of an
Abel Gance or a Cecil B. De Mille.

1. AUGUSTUS SAINT-GAUDENS (1848-1907). 6. CHARLES MAROCHETTI (1805-1867).

Monument to Admiral Farragut (d. 1870). 1879-80. Bronze statue, The Duke of Orlans. 1844. Bronze. Chteau of Versailles
height c. 8'; marble pedestal. Madison Square, New York An elegant sculptor, Marochetti was Romantic because it was
City. the fashion, not because he possessed passion or great imagi-
This monumental work inaugurated in 1881 is as beautiful as nation. Of this statue Gustave Planche said that it expresses
it is curious. The Admiral is superbly natural, the wind whip- "the farthest bounds of grandeur and the boredom of having
ping his old greatcoat; the pedestal looks like the work of to command."
some future adept of Art Nouveau, perhaps an adolescent
7. PETER KARLOVICH KLODT (1805-1867).
Bourdelle.
Monument to Tsar Nicholas I (r. 1825-55). 1859. Bronze. Mari-
2. FLICIE DE FAUVEAU (1799-1886). inskaya Square, Leningrad
Queen Christina of Sweden Refusing to Spare the Life of Her Equerry
Monaldeschi. Salon of 1827. Terracotta-colored plaster in gilt 8. GUSTAV BLASER (1813-1874).
wood frame, 13^ X 21". Muse Municipal, Louviers (Eure) The Painter Karl Friedrich Lessing (1808-80). 1838. Bronze,
Alive today, Mile Felicie de Fauveau would probably be called height 16". Nationalgalerie, Berlin

a dissident; in her own time she was a militant monarchist.

9. JEAN-PAUL AUB (1837-1920).
Descendant of an old Breton family, she was bom in Florence,
Portrait oj Jean-Sylvain Eailly. Bronze. Muse des Beaux- Arts,
but when her father's bank failed the family took refuge in
Nancy; Chambre des Dputs, Paris
Besanon. At the death of her royalist father, she came to Paris
The noted writer and astronomer (1736-93), who was presi-
and was much admired. In 1822 she opened a studio in rue de
dent of the National Assembly at the time of the Tennis Court
la Rochefoucauld. A passionate enthusiast for Walter Scott,
Oath (1789).
Dante, and Romantic literature, Felicie painted, modeled in
wax, and conspired against those who would usurp Charles X. 10. HORATIO GREENOUGH (1805-1852).
Imprisoned for her part in the revolution of 1830, she painted George Washington. 1832-41. Marble, height 11' 4". National
a fresco on the wall of her jail ; after her release she returned to Collection of Fine Arts, Smithsonian Institution, Washington,
Florence in 1839 and remained there for the rest of her long D.C.
life. Greenough studied under Binon, a Frenchman who had settled
in Boston and traveled frequently in Europe. This pompous but
3. JOS PIQUER Y DUART (1806-1871).
Monument attractive work, unprecedented in America for its size and
to Cervantes (detail): Don Quixote and the Lions. 1835.
grandeur, was commissioned from him in 1832 by Congress for
Madrid
The statue of Cervantes is by Antonio Soli; Piquer is the
the sum of five thousand dollars. The sculpture was done in

sculptor of the two pedestal Italy, and shipped to Washington to be unveiled in the rotunda
reliefs.
of the Capitol in 1841.
4. JOHN FLAXMAN (1755-1826).
Monument to Sir William Jones. 1798. Marble. University Col- 11. JEAN-FRANOIS ETCHETO (1853-1911).
lege, Oxford Franois Villon. Salon of 1881. Bronze. Formerly Place Monge,
A work both moralistic and well composed. The famous jurist Paris

and philologist is here collating Indian languages. "Imaginary portraits" of this sort were satisfying on condition
they corresponded to the idea held in the nineteenth century
5. LOUIS-ERNEST BARRIAS (1841-1905).
about famous personages of the past, such as this representation
Lavoisier Explaining the Role of Oxygen in Air. 1900. Bronze relief
of the fifteenth-century "vagabond poet."
formerly on the statue of Lavoisier (1743-94), Place de la

Madeleine, Paris 12. ERNST RIETSCHEL (1804-1861).

All the reliefs were removed and destroyed in 1942. Monument to Goethe and Schiller. 1852-57. Bronze, figures over
 II

196

&

V. EMMANUEL frmiet (18241910). Saint George Slaying the Dragon.

1871. Gilded bronze, height 19". Muse du Louvre, Paris

lifesize. Theaterplatz, Weimar The monument as a whole was designed by George Gilbert
The great "pair of poets of the fatherland." Scott (181 1-78). The 14-foot bronze statue of Prince Albert is

by John Henry Foley (1818-74), and the frieze of 178 marble

13. DSIR FOSSE (1862-1913).
panels around the podium includes painters, poets, composers,
Monument to J. Cugnot, Inventor of the Automobile. Bronze. Void
architects, and sculptors of all time; the reliefs are due to
(Meuse)
Henry Hugh Armstead and John Bimie Philip (182475).
The gentleman commemorated here is credited with having
invented in 1771 a horseless carriage powered by steam.
16. AUGUSTUS SAINT-GAUDENS (1848-1907).
14. The Albert Memorial (portion).
Abraham Lincoln. 1887. Bronze, height 38" (reduced replica).
Unveiled 1876. Marble. Kensington Road, London
Newark Museum, Newark, New Jersey
The marble relief frieze of The Painters by Henry Hugh Armstead
Painted or sculptured portraits of statesmen remained neces-
(1828-1905) is surmounted by a marble statue group represent-
sary until such time as color photographs could be printed in
ing Manufactures by Henry Weekes (1807-77).
vast numbers. Saint-Gaudens knew Lincoln's appearance, and
15. The Albert Memorial. the original of this portrait, in Lincoln Park, Chicago, is IIJ
1863-76. Marble, colored stones, mosaic, bronze feet high.
 HISTORICAL AND MILITARY SUBJECTS 197

17. THOMAS BALL (1819-1911). 20. AR.MAND-JULES LE VEL (1821-1905).

Lincoln the Emancipator. 1874. Bronze. Lincoln Park, Washing- Equestrian Statue of Napoleon I. 1857. Bronze. Place Napolon,
ton,D.C. Cherbourg
Modeled in work was unveiled in 1 875
Italy, this large ; John
Greenleaf Whittier wrote a poem for the occasion. 21. HENRY-.MARIUS DING (1844-1898).
Memorial to the Centenary oj the Revolt of the Estates of the Dauphin
18. ROBERT ROBERTOVICH BAKH (1859-1932).
(1788). 1890. Grenoble.
Monument to Pushkin (1799-1837). 1899. Bronze on granite
base. Pushkin (formerly Tsarskoe Selo), U.S.S.R.
22. ADOLF HUSZAR (1843-1885).
19. KARL-ALFRED LANZ (1847-1907). Monument to the Poet Sandor Petof (1822-49). 1882. Bronze.
Equestrian Statue of General Cuillaume-Henri Dujour. 187984. Petofi Square, Budapest
Bronze. Place Neuve, Geneva After working in Vienna and Munich, Huszar specialized in
General Dufour, who fought under Napoleon, defeated the academic portrayals of the notables of his native Hungary.
Sonderbund in 1847 and opened the way to the federal con- Petofi was killed in the revolution of 1848, which was partly
stitution of Switzerland. inspired by his poetry.
198

23. VINCENZO VELA (1820-1891). Monument to Alphonse Daudet (1840-97). 1900. Marble. Square

The Dying Napoleon. 1866. Marble, height 57", Gardens, de la Couronne, Nlmes
Chteau of Versailles Daudet was bom in Nlmes and locally known, as he lived nearby
The sculptor's aim was to surprise Napoleon, whose gaze is (^Lettres de mon moulin) ; Falguire was one of the great Realist

already fixed on the next world. sculptors.

24. MARK MATVEJEVICH ANTOKOLSKY (1843-1902). 35. CHARLES MAROCHETTI (1805-1867).

Ivan the Terrible (1530-84). 1875. Marble, height 59^". Monument to Claude-Louis Berthollet. 1843. Bronze. Botanical

Tretyakov Gallery, Moscow Gardens, Annecy

A great favorite with the Russian public, this work shows the A great chemist, Berthollet (1748-1822) was also a native son.

Tsar overcome with his own misdeeds. 36. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS WARD (1830-1910).
Monument to Henry Ward Beecher (1813-87). 1891. Bronze
25. ALOYS STROBL (1856-1926).
figures, height of portrait 9'. Cadman Plaza, Brooklyn, New
Franz Liszt. 1886. Marble. Hungarian National Gallery, Buda-
York
pest
Instead of following the Italo-American current deriving from
This resolutely academic work exemplifies the taste of the
Canova, Ward, an Ohio farmer's son, was a naturalist. In his
Hungarian bourgeoisie of the time.
way of presenting the men who defended national
particular
26. JOAO-JOS DE AGUIAR (1796-1841). Ward is probably the most typical
ideas or general principles,
King Joo VI (r. 1816-26). Marble. Marine Hospital, Lisbon example of a certain American Romanticism.
Defeated by Napoleon, Joo as Regent fled with the royal
37. ARTHUR STRASSER (1855-1927).
family to Brazil (1808-21) returning as king of Portugal. Aguiar
Triumph oj Mark Anthony. 1898. Bronze. In front of the Sezes-
was a pupil of Canova.
sion Building, Friedrichstrasse, Vienna
27. PIERRE MONTAGNE (1828-1879). By 1890 Vienna was being shaken by new modernist currents,
Pierre Andr, Bailli de Suffren (1729-88). 1865. Bronze. Saint- and its architects, painters, and sculptors outdid each other in
Tropez (Var) imaginative conceptions.

Portrait of the great French naval commander, who fought the 38. CONSTANTIN BRANCUSI (1876-1957).
English on the Indian Ocean. Portrait Vitellius. 1898. Plaster, height 24". Muzeul de Arta,
of
Craiova, Romania
28. GUILLAUME GEEFS (1805-1883).
The date of this work by the modernist Brancusi justifies its
King Leopold I (1790-1865). Marble. Muses Royaux des Beaux-
inclusion here, and the expressive head is already evidence of
Arts, Brussels
the young sculptor's talent.
29. JOHANNES THEODORUS STRACKE (1817-1891). Romania until 1864 was virtually a feudal state. There was
Willem Bilderdijk. Terracotta, height 35". Rijksmuseum, Am- monumental religious sculpture in Wallachia and Moldavia,
sterdam but the Orthodox Church forbade the representation of the
Popular Dutch poet (1756-1831). human face; sculptors, who were generally peasant artists, were
obliged to make only geometrical forms. With the institution
30. EMMANUEL FRMIET (1824-1910).
of a Romanian state in 1859, German artists were called in to
Mounted Torchbearer. Model, Salon of 1883. Bronze, height 9'
teach the plastic arts, and for more than thirty years Karl
4". South Escalier d'honneur. Htel de Ville, Paris
Storck taught the academic rules to generations of students in
The Htel de Ville, burned in the Commune of 1871, was re-
Bucharest. French sculptors, however, were brought in to
built in 1882.
make the public monuments : Carrier-Belleuse for that of Mi-
31. THOMAS CRAWFORD (1 81 3 ?-1857). chael the Brave, Frmiet for Stephen the Great. Only with the
The Dying Chief. 1856. Marble. New York Historical Society, maturity of Ionesco Valbudea (see p. 45, 5) and Ion Georgescu
New York City (see p. 19, 19, 26) did a true national sculpture come into
Crawford learned his art during a long sojourn in Italy, and his being, and, as we learn from Jianou's monograph on Brancusi,
talent was much appreciated in the United States. This work there was no genuine modem sculpture before Brancusi and
was made as one of the pedimental figures on the Capitol, then Dumitru Paciurea (bom 1873).
Washington, D.C.
39. JOHN ROGERS (1828-1904).
32. MIKLOS LIGETI (1871-1944). "Wounded to the Rear" One More Shot. 1865. Bronze, height

Anonymous. 1902. Bronze. City Park, Budapest 23i". Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
This monument is dedicated to the unknown scribe who, prob- Black soldiers fight alongside the whites, but the black man
ably in the twelfth century, set down the early history of rests at the feet of the white man, perhaps to attenuate the
Hungary. impression of equality.

33. PETER KARLOVICH KLODT (1805-1867). 40. GIACOMO SPALLA (1755-1834).

Monument to Ivan Andreyevich Krylov. 1855. Bronze. Leningrad
An Episode in the Napoleonic Wars. 1812. TerracotU, 23 X 37".

Krylov was famous writer of Galleria d'Arte Modema, Turin

a some original, others
fables,

adapted from Aesop and La Fontaine. The base of this monu- 41. FRANCIS CHANTREY (1781-1842).
ment, located next to the children's playground, is decorated Monument to Major General Ford Bowes, c. 1812. St. Paul's
with his fabled animals. Cathedral, London

34. JOHN-ALEXANDRE-JOSEPH FALGUIRE (1831-1900). 42. JEAN-LOUIS-ERNEST MEISSONIER (1815-1891).

 HISTORICAL AND MILITARY SUBJECTS 199

Napoleon on Horseback. Patined bronze, height 15". Private 48. HERMAN VILHELM BISSEN (1798-1868).
collection, Paris Soldiers Burjing Their Dead. 1851. Bronze. Fredericia, Denmark
Though Thorvaldsen was more Roman than even Canova, the
43. FRDRIC-AUGUSTE BARTHOLDI (1834-1904).
Danes counted him among their greatest national glories. A few
Lafayette and Washington. Model, Salon of 1892; unveiled 1895.
of his disciples, among them Bissen and Jerichau, strove to
Bronze. Place des tats-Unis, Paris
perpetuate the spirit of the master while also introducing into
The two heroes met when the Marquis first arrived in Philadel-
their art more realistic and nationalistic effects. Certain of
phia in 1777.
Bissen's works are not without analogies with those of the
44. CHARLES SU.Vl.MERS (1825-1878). American John Rogers. This relief commemorates the Danish
.Memorial to Robert O'Hara Burke and W. J. Wills. 1865. Bronze. victory over the Prussians concerning the status of Schleswig-
National Museum of Victoria, Melbourne, Australia Holstein in 1849.
Explorers of central Australia, both these men expired on the
way back from their expedition (186061). Summers, an 49. LISA BLOCH (1848-1905).
English sculptor, who died in Rome, specialized in portraiture. Monument to Colonel Rolland, Defender oj Le Bourget in 1 870. 1896.
Stone. Cemetery, Le Bourget (Seine)
45. PIUS WELONSKI (1849-1931).
The ancient Roman custom of raising monuments to the war
Gladiator Saluting. Bronze, height 5' 11". Muzeuni Narodowe,
dead was revived by both the Germans and the French after the
Cracow
Franco-Prussian War and lived on to the eve of World War II.
Welonski was thoroughly trained in Warsaw, St. Petersburg,
This stele marks the grave of a participant in the fierce and
Paris, and Rome.
ultimately unsuccessful battle waged in the environs of Paris.
46. ADRIEN-ETIENNE GAUDEZ (1845-1902).
50. JOHN HENRY FOLEY (1818-1874).
Louison the Flower-Vendor Leading the Market Women in the Revolu-
Norseman. 1863. Bronze, height 31^". The Fine Art Society,
tion of 1789. Salon of 1891. Marble. Muse des Beaux-Arts,
London
Tours
Like Bell and Gilbert, Foley was a sculptor who devoted part of
47. RAOUL LARCHE (1860-1912). his life and talent to reducing on an industrial basis and fabri-

Lafayette. Bronze. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris cating reproductions of large monuments, often those orna-

: i
200

meriting public places. Thousands of copies of this Norseman 54. JANOS FADRUSZ (18S8-1903).
were manufactured and, presumably, sold. Foley is most noted, Monument to King Matthias Corvinus. 1902. Bronze, height 43'
however, for his fourteen-foot seated statue of Prince Albert including monumental base (not shown). Cluj, Romania

on the Albert Memorial (see p. 196, IS) for which he also did This remarkable work consists of an equestrian statue of the

the sculptured group of Asia. king guarded by four warriors, the whole surmounting a castel-
lated pedestal Matthias Corvinus
. was king of Hungary ( 1 458-90)
51. ALFRED GILBERT (1854-1934).
and Bohemia (1478-90). He was famous as a crusader against
The Kiss of Victory. 1882. Marble, height 39". City Museum
the Turks, and as a patron of learning and science; his library
and Art Gallery, Birmingham, England
was especially fine. Fadrusz was one of the first to create a
Like many sculptors in the latter half of the nineteenth century,
monumental art of sculpture in his native land, Hungary. Cluj,
Gilbert is at his best in ornamental sculpture. An excellent
formerly Klausenburg, was in Hungary at that time.
craftsman, he lacks creativity and a feeling for the monumental
and should have worked in the applied arts. 55. DAVIDE CALLANDRA (1856-1915).
The Conquistador. Bronze, height 8' 7". Galleria d'Arte Mo-
52. KARL STAUFFER (1857-1891).
1".
dema, Turin
Monument to Adrian von Bubenberg. 1890. Bronze, height 6' 1

Museum, Basel; Castle, Spiez, Switzerland 56. BOHUSLAV SCHNIRCH (1845-1901).

In 1958 a second cast was made and set up on the terrace of the Tiiga. Model for a three-horse chariot on the National Theater,

castle owned by the Bubenbergs (dynasty 1338-1516) in Spiez Prague. 1873. Bronze. Narodni Gallery, Prague
in the canton of Berne. Adrian von Bubenberg was the great
57. ARISTIDE-ONSIME CROISY (1840-1899).
hero of the family dynasty, defending Spiez in 1475 against
Attack and Defense, lower portion of Monument to the Second
Louis XI of France.
Aimy oj the Loire. 1885. Bronze. Place de la Rpublique, Le
53. FRDRIC-AUGUSTE BARTHOLDI (18341904). Mans
Tomb of Sergeant HoJ (d. 1902). 1904. Cimetire du Pre- These groups by Croisy are below the statue of General Chanzy
Lachaise, Paris by Gustave Crauk ; they represent the unsuccessful battle

The monument is to a hero of the Franco-Prussian War. (1871) to relieve Paris during the Franco-Prussian War.

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 12. SCULPTURE IN THE STREETS
You pass through a great city grown old in

civilization, and your eyes are drawn upward,

sursum, ad sidera, because on the public squares,

at street crossings, motionless individuals,

far taller than those who pass by at the level of their feet,
recount to us in a silent language

the solemn legends of glory,

of war, of science, and of martyrdom.

CHARLES BAUDELAIRE, "Salon of 18S9"

monuments are as old as the cities they decorate. They are scattered among the
Public
streets of ancient cities, they animate the campi of Venice, the Florentine piazzas, the
bridges of Paris. Monuments erected to the glory of sovereigns, statesmen, national
triumphs they satisfy the eternal human need to recognize fame, pride, the will to
survive.
In the nineteenth century, acceleration of changes of regime, the new^ wealth of the com-
munities, and the expansion of urban areas contributed to popularity of monumental statuary.
Romantics judged it right for nations to exalt the virtues of their finest citizens, and for
Baudelaire the "divine role" of the sculptor consisted in recounting "in a silent language the
solemn legends of glory, of war, of science, and of martyrdom."
Similarly, the display of art in public thoroughfares corresponded well with the concerns
of the Naturalists and Positivists whose slogans were "Art is a public matter" and "The
sculptor must be at the service of the workers." For the Romantic and socialist disciples of
Saint-Simon nothing could better humanize a public place than a statue. Sculptors should dedi-
cate their works to the people. In his Esthtique du sculpteur of 1888 Henri Jouin asked:
"Where should one place statues and their granite pedestals? On the sand of the seashore, or
in the middle of freshly turned furrows? No, a statue needs a rock that will not yield it needs ;

the tested ground of the great cities, the noise of the public square and the street; the street
belongs to the people. Let us imitate the Greeks in their cult of the beautiful which they
, . .

made into a popular cult. Every day there are laudable efforts whose aim is to better the lot
of the people. Narrow sunless streets are replaced by long promenades. There is sun, there
are great shadows, there is pure air and, with it, health. Names with nothing classical about
them are used as titles for those useful creations called 'squares.' What is needed is that these
squares should be ornamented with works of art. With such works these places of repose will
enable the soul of the people to inhale the Beautiful."
Private initiative together with the spirit of enterprise of certain municipal councils ac-
counts for the flourishing of commemorative monuments. Etex tells us of a visit he received
one day from a Monsieur Balnette, "a worthy gentleman of means," who, although speaking
in his own name, described the pleasure to the inhabitants of his town of Cognac in having
a monumenterected to the glory of King Francis I, a native son. The financing had already
been worked out the municipal council would vote the project a credit of 20,000 francs the
:
;

large brandy distillers in the Charente region wereand the offering another 60,000 francs,
city 20,000 to these sums would be added the subscription of 3,000 petitioners, each pledg-
;

ing 10 francs. Unfortunately the merchants of Cognac backed out, victims of a poor vintage
year; Etex's equestrian statue was not erected until later.

22S


226

The inauguration of any monument was the excuse for a pubHc turnout. The great day
arrived, the statue would be unveiled by the government official
an occasion to spread the

good word and submitted to the judgment of the citizenry.
Following the proclamation of the Third Republic in 1871 a new republican, secular,
i on the newly macadamized streets. Essentially middle class and
patriotic style of statuary arose
f^ always reactionary, the style was burdened with heavy symbolism but claimed as the herald
of progress. Bombast competes with naivety, yet the style is not without interest; it is not im-
i
possible that in the near future the talent of Barrias or Chapu will be recognized. Certain of
their sculptures such as Electricity or Steam (p. 112, 19, 20) are remarkable for the genius

shown in realizing works whose originality symbols intermingled with technical apparatus
is handsome on the sculptural level as it is unusual in composition. The progress of science
as
so fascinated Etex that he dreamed of raising a monument to the glory of the men whose work I
had contributed to the betterment of mankind in the course of the nineteenth century. To
symbolize Genius he proposed a half-dressed woman leaning against a factory smokestack and
the front of a locomotive in her right hand she would brandish a torch ending in a star lit
;

by electricity; with her left she would point to an electric generator. To enhance the effect,
steam mingled with jets of water would spurt from the lower plinth. The ensemble was to I
rest on a pedestal adorned with profile medallions of the century's great inventors.
If ornamental sculpture was slow to reflect the changing mode throughout the century,

this was because it was intended for the man-in-the-street, a conservative by nature. Thus
monuments of the beginning of the century seem touched by the Baroque as the decades ;

passed they became Romantic, and then out-of-date

they were full of symbols when Art
Nouveau was already in the making. In 1900, when the schools of Vienna, Glasgow, and
Darmstadt were already resolutely turned toward the future, Raoul Larche, invited to design
an outdoor pool for the north wing of the Grand Palais in Paris, conceived a monument which
is certainly charming but has an archaic eighteenth-century grace scarcely reflecting the

modern Art-Nouveau style.

Throughout the Western world one finds the same phenomenon. In the parks of London
and Brussels, in the public squares of Oslo, St. Petersburg, Madrid, and Lisbon, space is given
to hundreds of works, usually decorated, like set pieces, with the help of the most disparate
decorative elements. But despite the excesses of some of these
the equestrian Vittorio Em-
manuele II by Ercole Rosa erected on the vast square before the cathedral in Milan or Johann
Schilling's thirty-four-foot Germania looming over the Rhine near Riidesheim
and even be-
cause of their exuberant singularity, these sculptured masses perhaps confer to the personages
represented a semidivine majesty that was beyond the powers of a Neoclassical work.
Through the richness of the monuments that they harbored, Milan, Rome, Turin, and
Naples became virtual conservatories of nineteenth-century sculpture. The Italian sculptors
Marochetti, Carenica, Sangiorgio, Vela, Palagi, Bogliani, Pietro Costa, Sacconi, and Zocchi
are the equivalents of the stonecutters who did so much in earlier times to beautify European
cities.
What would the eclectic architecture have been like without this prodigious efflores-
cence of sculpture? Let us imagine the Opra of Paris deprived of all those stone figures that
populate its pediments, approaches, roofs, and faades! How manv mediocre buildings owe
their life to those Rubensian divinities who, plump as balloons, buoy up the faades of min-
istries and banks, and seem to keep the buildings from sinking into their cellars, victims of
their own weight.

|
s

SCULPTURE IN THE STREETS 227

1. PAUL GUSTAVE DOR (1833-1883). 4. LUDWIG SCHWANTHALER (1802-1848).

The Readers, portion of the monument to Alexandre Dumas pre Fountain of the Nymph. After the marble original of 1840-45
(1802-70). Bronze. Place Malesherbes, Paris in Schloss Anif (Salzburg). Bronze. The Hofgarten, Munich
Originally one of a group of three monuments to Dumas
5. NOL GIRAUD (1816-1886).
grand-pre,Dumas pre, and Dumas Jils (the first monument Fountain of the Vintager. 1852. Bronze. Dijon
destroyed in World War II). Dor made sculptures only at the
end of his life. 6. FRANOIS RUDE (1784-1855).
Monument to Gaspard Monge. 1848. Bronze, Place Monge,
2. rVAN IVANOVICH TEREBENEV (1785-1815). Beaune
Resurreaion of the Russian Fleet (detail). 1811. Gypsum. The Monge (1746-1818) was a physicist and mathematician, the
Admiralty, Leningrad inventor of descriptive geometry. European cities devote often
Part of the decoration of this vast building (1806-15) by A. large sums for monuments raised to the glory of their most re-

Zakharov. nowned citizen or to the local industry that is the mainstay of

their wealth.
3. HEINRICH MEILI (1827-1882).
7. LOUIS-JOSEPH DAUMAS (1801-1887).
The Elizabeth Fountain. Basel
The Genius of Navigation. 1846. Bronze. Quai Stalingrad, Toulon
As in earlier times, nineteenth-century public monuments are
generally like splendid picture books whose pages are forever 8. PIERRE-JULES CAVELIER (18141894).
open for the delectation of the passersby. They reflect the taste The Durance River Between Corn and Wine, central group on the
of each generation for great periods of the past. Here, with St. watertower of the aqueduct. 1860. Bronze, colossal scale. Pa-

Elizabeth, we are in full medievalism. lais Longchamp, Marseilles

'^(XiO^l^'i^^ =- _--
Yc i/i . Pr KP I cl"i M .(^'^C

ill
 .

228

9. JOHN-ALEXANDRE-JOSFPH FALGUIRE (1831-1900). 16.DANIEL CHESTER FRENCH (1850-1931).

Fontaine Sainte-.Marie (the city reservoir). 1879. Rue de la R- The Republic. Gilt bronze replica, made 1916. Garfield Park,
publique, Rouen Chicago
The architectural part is by Roger-Edouard Deperthes. The The work, for the Columbian Exposition of 1893 in
original
personification of Rouen is seated in an antique boat. Chicago, was some 65 feet high and made of impermanent
material, gilded.
10. FRDRIC-AUGUSTE BARTHOLDI (18341904).
Fountain oj the Rivers Flowing into the Ocean. Created for the 17.CONSTANTIN-EMILE MEUNIER (1831-1905).
Exposition of 1889. Lead. Place des Terreaux, Lyons Monument to Emile Zola. Completed by Alexandre Meunier and
erected in 1924. Bronze figures. Formerly Avenue Emile
11. Monumental Fountain, Place Royale, Nantes. 186S. The
Zola, Paris (melted down in 1942)
granite fountain is by the architect Henri-Thodore Driollet
A completely successful monument in that it calls to mind, with
(1805-63), the white marble statue personifying Nantes by
a minimum of affectation, the work of the great novelist.
Henri-Joseph Ducommon du Locle (180484), the thirteen
bronze statues and statuettes by Louis-Guillaume Grootaers 18. RAOUL LARCHE (1860-1912).
(181682), representing the Loire (enthroned) and its principal Basin of the Grand Palais, c. 1900. Marble. Grand Palais, Paris
tributaries: Svre, Exdre, Cher, and Loir. A perfectly satisfying work; Art Nouveau knew how to borrow
12. JOHAN PETER MOLIN (18141873). from eighteenth-century sculpture its feeling for fantasy allied
with a sense of proportion.
Fountain. Bronze. Royal Garden, Stockholm
The daughters of Aegir, god of the sea, hear the River Spirit 19. ADOLF VON HILDEBRAND (1847-1921).
playing his harp an allusion to Stockholm's location. Youth on a Sea-Horse, portion of the Wittelsbach Fountain,

13. ERCOLE ROSA (1846-1893). 1890-95. Marble. Maximiliansplatz, Munich

Monument King Fmmanuele Erected 1896. Bronze An admirable monument conceived by an artist who succeeded
I to Vittorio II.

statue and frieze; marble lions. Piazza del Duomo, Milan in creating a completely original work within the tradition of

Though heavy with symbols, the monument is not lacking

in the most eminent sculptors, from Michelangelo to Canova,

dash and vigor. The frieze represents the entrance of French and from Rude to Maillol. See also below, 21

Piedmontese troops into Milan, 1859.

H
20. MIGUEL BLAY (1866-1936).
14. PIETRO COSTA (1849-1901). Monument to Doctor Rubio. Marble and bronze. Parque del Oeste,
Monument to Giuseppe Mazzini. 1882. Marble. Piazza Corvetto, Madrid
Genoa At first look the work seems decadent, but the naturalistic
Mazzini (180572) was a native of Genoa and a patriotic revolu- expression of the face recalls certain figures treated in the same
tionary and associate of Garibaldi. way by Hildebrand or Maillol.

15. KASPAR ZUMBUSCH (1830-1915). 21. ADOLF VON HILDEBRAND (1847-1921).

Monument to King Maximilian II (detail). 1875. Bronze. Maximi- Nymph Riding a Sea-Bull, portion of the Wittelsbach Fountain.
lianstrasse, Munich 189095. Marble. Maximiliansplatz, Munich
The small bronze figures represent the four Bavarian tribes ;
See also above, 19. These groups flank a central fountain, and
the large figures are Justice, Strength, Light, and Peace. represent the fertilizing and destructive aspects of water.
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 13. DECORATIVE SCULPTURE

Here then we have the art which,

in order to improve itself, turns back to its infancy.

The first sculptors did not bring out details.

The only difference is that it was

not they who evaded detail, it was detail that evaded them.

STENDHAL, Historj of Painting in Italy, 1817

power an emperor-president
person of
After
Napoleon
the plebiscite of 1853 brought to
III, and with him a thoroughly middle-class society, the academic jury of
in the

the Salon reared its head. Now, in the twilight of Romanticism, could academicism
not shed its light again .upon the arts? Napoleon III and his artistic adyisers were
aware of the battle between two modernist currents. Naturalism and the new
Impressionist school, but remained noncommittal. If they found it repugnant to reyiye Neo-
classicism, too obyiously symbolizing reaction, they were equally wary of the Naturalists
many of \Nhom boasted of being "Socialists" and of the Impressionists whom thev took to
be practical jokers. On the artistic plane the established society, which was not without am-
bitions, aspired to Hying in dcors that suitably reflected its wealth and spirit of enterprise ;

thev ur^ed their suppliers to invent new forms.

By 1860 the Paris press was already speaking of a ''style Napolon III.'' The court adroitly
let it be known that this was not a "Napoleonic" style but the artistic expression of the age.
Soon the new style, so well matched to the aspirations of its time, seemed so satisfactory that,
baptized "Napoleon III," it survived the fall of the Empire and remained in favor until the
First World War, though termed from time to time ''style jules-Grvy'' or even "style Armand-
Fallires'' in honor of current presidents of the Third Republic.
On the whole, for all that it proclaimed itself hostile to the neomedievalism which had
served for more than half a century, the new style did not succeed in shaking off the images
of the past. From "Gothic" the taste now passed to "Renaissance." The nineteenth-century
middle class, nourished on historical novels, felt satisfaction in being identified with the nota-
bles who, four centuries earlier, had ruled the rich and proud Hanseatic cities.
In addition the demolition of Paris carried out by Baron Haussmann was followed bv the
remodeling of at least a tenth of the area of Paris, which accounts for the need to discover a
new style. There was a dream of reviving the dcor of the chteaux of Fontainebleau and the
Loire, Sculptors caressed blocks of marble with their chisels in the hope of bringing forth
female figures as chaste and sensual as those carved bv Germain Pilon, Upon architects and
decorators it was incumbent to translate those outmoded visions into a new decorative design.
The product of these amalgams did lighten the massive aspect of a good many public monu-
ments and was not always as disastrous as one might imagine.

Between 1850 and 1890 Lefuel first, and then Garnier, excelled in realizations in which the
functional, the pompous, the orientalizing, and even the scientific, blended in various ways,
affecting the decoration of the Louvre, the Opra, and the Cercle de la Librairie in Paris, and
the Casino in Monte Carlo.

237
238

VI. ALBERT-ERNEST CARRIER-BELLEUSE (1824-1887). Fireplace with Caryatids. Silvered

bronze enriched with malachite, and marble. Traveller's Club, Paris. See also p.
239; p. 240, 9, 10, 11

In Great Britain it was the same ; the taste of the wealthy British cHentele also led to a
search for a composite st^le. To their amalgam of all the classical styles the Victorians added
that of the Queen Anne.
In Germany and Austria Boecklin and Feuerbach, the greatest influences in painting, af-
fected comparably the official style of sculpture. Germany found the new style wholly to its
liking; it corresponded well with the ambitions of a people whose new buildings were erected
in the wake of a series of military successes. The middle class was transported by dramatic and
Wagnerian echoes, together with the most grandiloquent (and disastrous) pastiches. The
Rundbogenstil species of round-arched architectural leprosy attacked palace faades,
railway stations, cathedrals, and town halls. Encouraged by its military victory over France,
Germany now intended to reign over the arts, or so Prince Friedrich Karl proclaimed at the
inauguration of the Museum of Decorative Arts in Berlin.
It was the same where the architects, urged on by Emperor Franz Joseph,
in Vienna,
practiced an art of synthesis which seemed to embody the aspirations of the variety of com-
munities forming the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Not until the advent of the Jugendstil, the
Austrian version of Art Nouveau, were the severe buildings in the "Bureaucratic" style finally
replaced by houses with lively and colorful faades.
The commemorative monuments erected time in Eastern Europe reveal, as in
at that
France, the philosophy, aspirations, and dogmas of the bourgeoisie. Pagan as well as Christian
divinities make way for statues of seminude females with open faces and thoughtful expressions
 DECORATIVE SCULPTURE 239

who seem young girls whom the upper classes sent to be nicely educated in
to be sisters of the
strict boarding schools. And was it for the pleasure and enlightenment of little boys rolling
their hoops in the parks and avenues that these statues of lightly clad young women were
placed at the base of monuments raised to the glory of poets once misunderstood and today
forgotten? These lovely creatures, pure of visage, who accidentally offer us a glimpse of bare
bosom (usually the left), seem assigned to their posts to recommend to the Creator the beauti-
ful soul of the deceased, designating with their forefingers his mustached and bearded head.
Other females, crowned with laurel, appear to have as their ultimate mission the consoling of
the deceased for having had to surrender his beautiful soul and his seat in the Acadmie.

It was in interior decoration that the Eclectic style really excelled. The lavish materials, their
diversity, and the addition of exotic minerals, malachite in particular, charmed a clientele
whose power and wealth seemed ever to increase. The great cocottes, the biches of the highest
level, often had unlimited means at their disposal and were among the chief promoters of the
new style. The private house of La Pava on the Champs-Elyses, for example, has remained
practically intact since its construction in 1860 (presently the Traveller's Club) and gives us
proof of the taste and means of some of these women, so richly supported. Zola's Nana, at
the height of her fortune, feels in herself the soul of a decorator: "Her townhouse was in
Renaissance style and looked something like a palace, a fantasy of interior distribution where
all modern conveniences were provided in a setting of deliberate originality. Twice she had

had her bedroom redone, the first time in mauve satin, the second in lace laid over blue
silk . the furniture was in white and blue lacquer inlaid with threads of silver
. . against . . .

the hangings of pale pink silk, a faded Turkey red brocaded in gold thread two statuettes . . .

in biscuit- ware, a woman in her chemise hunting for fleas. ..." Decorators and fine cabinet-
makers were equally enamored of the Renaissance, whether Italian or German; Beurdeley,
Roux, and Boutemy were among the sculptors' best clients. To avoid any reproach, the archi-
tect-decorator amalgamated into the same building whatever was most beautiful of the
products made between 1480 and 1560: women perched on the top of fireplaces, embraced
mantlepieces, "caryatided" at either side of doorways, held up ceilings.
And yet, despite these many showed more originality than paint-
excesses, statuary often
ing; everyday it seems clearer to us that the Paris Opra, which literally teems with remark-
able and original motifs, is one of the most unusual and perfect monuments of the capital.

1. GEORGES RECiPON (bom 1860). 4. ALBERT-ERNEST CARRIER-BELLEUSE (1824-1887).

Quadriga, c. 1900. Bronze. Grand Palais, Paris Caryatid. Before 1875. Bronze. Opra, Paris
The monumental ensemble, one of the quadrigas towering over A pupil of David d'Angers, Carrier-Belleuse was the favorite
the roofs of the Grand Palais, will some day be classed among sculptor of the court, and Napoleon him
III hailed as a second
the masterworks of sculpture. Clodion.

2. JEAN-JACQUES called JAMES PRADIER (1792-1852). 5. ALBERT-ERNEST CARRIER-BELLEUSE (1824-1887).

Dawn and Night. Bronze. Palace of the Senate, Palais
bourg, Paris
3. ALBERT-ERNEST CARRIER-BELLEUSE (1824-1887).
Summer and Spring, caryatids, c. 1865. Bronze. Casino, Vichy
du Luxem- Torchre. Before 1875. Bronze. Htel de Ville, Paris
6. GAETANO CALLANI (1736-1809).
Caryatids, c. 1778. Marble. Hall of the Caryatids, Palazzo Reale,
Milan (virtually destroyed in 1943)
240

The architect of this remodeled hall (1771-78) was Giuseppe 11. Fireplace. Bronze, malachite, enamels, and ceramic.
Piermarini. Traveller's Club, Paris
People will someday come to appreciate the sculptors who con-
7. DOMINIQUE-JEAN-BAPTTSTE HUGUES (1849-after 1931).
ceived the decoration in the small htels, the private mansions
Torchre. Before 1875. Bronze. Htel de Ville, Paris
of Paris, which are gradually disappearing. Then will be dis-
8. .MARCELLO (pseudonvm of Adle d'Affry, Duchess of Casti- covered also the nobility and originalitv of the halls in the Htel
glione-Colonna; 1836-1879). de \'ille, the city hall of Paris (see 5, 7, 14).
Pytbiar} Priestess on the Tripod, fountain in gallery of vestibule. 12. Clock crowned by a small replica of Bartholdi's Statue of
Before 1875. Opra, Paris Libert/. 1893. Gilt bronze, height 9'. Hotel Waldorf-Astoria,
The priestess of Apollo is shown in the act of delivering her New York
oracle in the subterranean sanctuar)' at Delphi. This good is a
Made by the Goldsmith Company, London, for the Chicago
example of what differentiates eclecticism from Art Nouveau. World's Fair of 1893. Purchased by the Waldorf-Astoria and
Despite the exuberant appearance, the details are still very con- first exhibited in their old hotel, 34th Street and 5th .\venue.
trolled; thus the symmetrical disposition of the massive tripod- Medallion portraits of Queen Victoria, Franklin, and six
pedestal, and the floral motifs in the vault of the niche. American presidents; scenes of sports and bridges.
9. PIERRE-ALBERT LAPLANCHE (bom 1854). 13. AI.M-JULES DALOU (1838-1902).
Fireplace with marble figures, ornaments in white and red .^fusic. Decorative bronze plaque. Traveller's Club, Paris
marble, and frames in enamels. Traveller's Club, Paris Dalou worked for a long time in Great Britain. Like Rodin,
This private club occupies the mansion decorated in the most Meunier, and Charpentier, he remained fascinated by the work-
lavish taste in 1860 for La Palva, a Polish Jewess who became ers' world. But while Rodin's vision is transcended by roman-
first a marquise and then a countess in the course of her career tic and epic poetry, the motivations of these naturalistic sculp-
as courtesan, adventuress, and spy. tors seem rather to respond to the generous aspirations of a
paternalistic societv'. Dalou was just as much inclined to the
10. AI.M-JULES DALOU (1838-1902) and henri-alfred-marie
preciosity of a work like this in which he imitates, with infinite
JACQUE.MART (1824-1896).
grace, the French sculptors at Fontainebleau and the chteaux
Fireplace. Traveller's Club, Paris
of the Loire.
Dalou is responsible for the sculptures in the upper part of the
fireplace. Jacquemart for the bronze relief plaque depicting a 14. EUGNE DELAPLANCHE (1836-1891).
stag hunt. Clock, c. 1875. Bronze. Htel de Ville, Paris
^
 14. PORTRAITS

about 1830, people of note disliked the idea of posing for a sculptor in their
Before
everyday clothing. Although in France the toga and coiffure l'antique tend to be rare
in the sculptor's studios, ancient Rome still exercised its seductions in Germany,
Great Britain, and, most of all, the United States public figures wished to emulate
;

those who had contributed to the glory of the Roman Republic. The toga went well
with the faces of American generals and law^^ers. One could swear that their busts came from
the atrium of some Roman villa each bears his special garb like an actor who willingly poses
;

in his costume. Europeans of Latin or Germanic background, ever conscious of uniforms and
medals, posed in them for posterity. The Revolutionary fur hat decorated with the tricolor
cockade, worn by Philippe-Egalit, cousin of Louis XVI, tells us much about his character;
and neither the Order of the Holy Spirit nor the royal ermine could refine the cowlike face of
Charles X.

Only when the middle had become aware of their power did they dare to be repre-
classes
sented in their ordinary apparel. Farmers-general and parvenus had already done so in the
eighteenth century, wearing rich but bourgeois garments and displaying a goodhearted and
decent appearance.
To the degree that Romanticism yielded to Realism and Naturalism, the formal pose
seems to yield to the instantaneous. Writers are caught at their desks; painters, palette in
hand, seem to say, "Don't interrupt me, I'm working!" women, more prudent, are get-
;

ting dressed often in evening gowns with pretty, lowcut necklines. Toward the end of the
century, oddly enough, men took to baring their chests to mark their nonconformity. This
practice was no longer a matter of borrowing the torso of some handsome model, as had been
the custom since Antiquit)'. The sitters for Rodin and Bourdelle display their often defec-
tive anatomy as if a certain deterioration was proof of the struggles they had to endure to bring
their ideals to success.

It was many years before the daguerreotype supplanted the painted or sculptured portrait.
Before that occurred it was the ambition of each generation to discover the artist who made
the best likeness. Every personage of national or local fame, whether in arts, letters, or poli-
tics, and every well-off bourgeois thought he had a duty to leave behind him the image of his

presence.
Soon after1820 David d'Angers, who saw the profit to be made from the portrait medal,
offered places in his Pantheon to various important people. The writer Alfred de Vigny sat
for him in 1 828 sometime later, in thanking the artist, he said "I have my medals before me
; :
;

my eyes keep passing from glory to glory and from friendship to friendship while glancing from
the face of my dear Victor to your own name." Victor Hugo, Alphonse de Lamartine, Dela-
croix, Gricault, the mathematician Monge, and the scientist Ampre were among the celeb-
rities, Chateaubriand utilized the hours of his sittings to dictate his Final Advice to the Elec-
tors; the portrait finished, he offered a reception in honor of the artist, who noted on the

following day "1 dined yesterday at the home of Chateaubriand, who had assembled an elegant
:

249
 250

and choice group for the inauguration of the bust I made in homage of him. All through the
evening the great man was distracted, ate little, his head bent toward his left shoulder, looking
at the ceiling with a contemplative air."
To each sitter David offered two bronze proofs of his portrait mounted in a panel of oak
or ebony. And not only did he accept every commission, he also solicited them. To meet
"Monsieur de Goethe," who was not alwavs approachable, David did not hesitate to present
himself unannounced at Weimar, on the chance of seeing him. "A lost cause," he said after
a few tries, "a weird, bad-tempered fellow, one doesn't know which bug has bitten him."
Finally the door was opened and the two spoke to one another. The poet, after accepting a
gift of portrait medallions of Victor Hugo and Delacroix, at last consented to pose.
All this success ended by exposing David to the attacks of fellow artists and critics. The
Romantics, Petrus Borel in particular, had it in for the artist who, in his Young Greek Girl
(p. 334, 42) and his Monument to General Fay (Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise), had betrayed the
Romantic ideal and had "copied nature and cultivated tradition."
Throughout the century the importance of a good likeness remained fundamental, and
one can scarcely imagine how Balzac would have welcomed Rodin's Balzac. But one gets a
good idea from reading through the letters he exchanged with David d'Angers when the artist
proposed in 1842 to add the profile of the illustrious novelist to his gallery of famous men.
I
At first the writer declined the offer. He loathed, he said, having his likeness taken, adding
I
that in his negative reply should be seen "neither ungraciousness nor conceit." David, ac-
customed to such replies, returned to the charge: "I know how precious every instant is to
j
you." Balzac agreed to pose, and the two medallions so delighted him that he dedicated his
novel Le Cur de Tours to the sculptor in the most gushing manner: "Will not future numis-
j

matists be perplexed by so many crowned heads in your studio w^hen, from the ashes of
Paris, they unearth those existences perpetuated by you beyond the life of nations, which they
i will assume to be entire dynasties?"
I

Rodin was often concerned over the problem of resemblance and considered it an indispen-
sable element. He was indignant when Henner thought it witty to reply to a woman who com-
plained about her portrait: "Madame, when you are dead your heirs, happy to own a fine
portrait painted by Henner, will scarcely worry any more about whether it looks like you."
For Rodin, "the facial features must be expressive, because they must never be in discord
with the soul. This is why there is no artistic activity which demands at the same time as much
manual dexterity as intelligence."
The sitter was not to be surprised at the vision the artist had of him. People generally
have an idealized conception of their own appearance, and Rodin fulminated against everyone
in his generation whose sole ambition was "to look as if they had come from the hairdresser."
What matter if they find themselves handsome or homely: "Nature is always beautiful," pro-
claimed the author of the Burghers of Calais; "every face is interesting; the most inexpressive
will conceal some spectacle that is the more odd because the spirit forces itself to hide within
the shadow."

Although the art of portraiture underwent a profound evolution during the century, it is no
less true that the classic portrait, the painstaking copy in marble or bronze of each facial trait,
continued to satisfv the clientele of the Salon. To leave nothing to chance, certain sculptors
even requested their clients to undergo the few moments' torture of making a plaster cast.
In this connection it was said that the sculptor Desseine, a deaf-mute, anxious to reproduce as
faithfully as possible the effigies of David d'Angers and his wife, did not hesitate to exhume the
wife's body so he could make a cast of what remained of her facial structure.
 PORTRAITS 2S1

VII. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917). Young Woman with Flow-

ered Hat. c. 1864. Colored plaster, height 16". Muse
Rodin, Paris

Those who so long confused resemblance for an ** expression" of truth had

a painstaking
plenty of excuses. Faithful to the Neoclassical and academic doctrines, they undertook to
reproduce exactly what they saw while applying themselves to render the face in the most
graceful manner, free to omit discreetly any natural imperfections. By acknowledging this the
artist gave proof of knowing how to operate on the artistic plane as well as on that of good
manners. Thus he earned the title of "society artist," a term still in use which indicates that
the prime ambition of the artist consists above all in satisfying a privileged clientele. In his
Curiosits esthtiques Baudelaire makes much of the middle-class attitude by which "in the arts,
it's only a matter of pleasing."

Houdon was the first, by a mixture of genius and skill, to succeed in giving a new di-
mension to the art of portraiture. On many occasions Rodin showed his admiration for that
sculptor whose busts, he said, "were worth biographies." For Rodin, Houdon was "the
personification of malice" better than a painter or a pastellist, he knew how to render the
;

"transparency of the pupil of the eye" these he perforated, pierced, incised; bringing out in
:
 252

it
'
' lively and odd macules which, by catching
by darkening, imitate to the life the scin-
light or
tillation of daylight in the pupil. Through the eyes he deciphered souls." Houdon's main
. . .

effort consisted of doing what was in his power to make the personality of each sitter break
loose from the envelope of flesh which, over the centuries, had taken on the fixed aspect of
a mask. But Houdon remained a man of the Ancien Rgime in insisting on maintaining a dis-
tance between the model and himself. Respectful of the truth, he exploited everything hidden
behind the visible mask but knowing that he was the sculptor of a protected w^orld, he under-
;

took to reveal of his sitter's character only what the model allowed to show through. Yet a
certain manner of giving life, both Neoclassical and realist, to his portraits, of letting through
a flash of joy or a wave of sadness, makes Houdon a modern man.

A similar duality is to be found in the work of David d'Angers. The

commissioned faces of his
statues remain hopelessly Neoclassical, whereas the medallions suddenlv betray his Romantic
passion and bear witness to a profound change that had occurred in the sculptor's status. It was
no longer the possession of money that infused the Romantic artist with passion, but rather
the independence that a sure source of income could bring him. Having acquired his materi-
als
and we have already shown that the price of basic materials requires the sculptor, more
than any other artist, to seek commissions
and solved these problems, the artist was free to
carve what he pleased according to his inspiration. "The best works," said Rodin, "those
that come closest to the truth, are often those which were made gratuitously. To work freely,
by suppressing a certain obligation toward the client, permits the artist to carr\' on as he thinks
best."
From the moment David d'Angers and gave himself not only the luxury
chose his sitters
of making their profiles free of charge but also of repaying them by a certain number of copies,
he reserved to himself the right to treat their likenesses as he wished. This was also to be true
i of Carpeaux, whose work seems like a last displav of fireworks set off to celebrate the obse-
quies of a delightful but outmoded French sculpture.

Daumier and, even more, Rodin were to push on to a new and difficult phase. With them, the
time and manner of posing had altogether changed. The artist, before making the face in clay,
prowled around his prey for hours, sometimes months. The model, growing tired, would let
his attention lapsethen the artist could steal behind the mask, seeking to discover the deeper
;

reasons that suddenly impress upon a face traits that reveal his confusion, his anxiety, his
dullness.

H^-
 PORTRAITS 253

!. FRANCIS CHANTREY (1781-1842). 9. CHRISTIAN RAUCH (1777-1857).

Sir Walter Scott. 1820. Marble. Mansion House, London Leontine Radziwill. 1836. Plaster, height I62". Nationalgalerie,

All fashionable society flocked to Chantrey's waiting room; Berlin

King George IV was so satisfied with his portrait bust that he Although Rauch in his lifetime was as successful as David d'An-
ordered his treasurer to add another hundred guineas to the two gers, people soon recognized the mediocrity of most of his

hundred agreed on. This head of the famous British novelist works in which anecdote plays a predominant role. This in-

was so widely appreciated that Chantrey had hundreds of copies finitely charming bust is exceptional in his oeuvre.
cast in bronze.
10. ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822).
Whatever his public acclaim, Chantrey got off less easily at
Madame Kcamier. 1813. Plaster, height 18". Gipsoteca Ca-
the hands of David d'Angers who wrote :
"1 have just examined
noviana, Possagno (Treviso)
with scrupulous attention the marble bust of James Watt done
Here a portrait is treated l'antique and the mantle is further
by Chantrey. This bust is worked out with a very great truth-
evidence of the artist's reverence for Hellenic art.
fulness : it is a sort of stereotype of nature. But if one moves a

few steps away one sees only a block of very white marble on 11. JEAN-BAPTISTE Called AUGUSTE CLSINGER (1814-1883).
which appear slight traces of a tool. Chantrey has not under- Madame ApoUonie-Agla Sabatier. 1847. Marble, height 32".
stood the object of statuary. Our art is called upon by its very Muse du Louvre, Paris
nature to make an impression from a distance, to be appreciated The past century was no different from ours when it came to
by the future." cliques and mutual-admiration societies. Baudelaire, in review-
ing the Salon of 1859, wrote that "M. Clsinger sometimes
2. JOHANN GOTTFRIED SCHADOW (17641850).
grasps the movement [but] he never attains complete ele-
Madame de Reibnitz. 1800. Marble, height 23". Kunsthalle,
gance," but most often, like Gautier, the great poet went off
Bremen
into dithyrambs over the talent and originality of this artist.
Schadow was of the same stock as Houdon and his followers.
It should be remembered that Clsinger's favorite model was
Reproducing the myriad ripples that cross an animated face,
none other than Madame Sabatier, a well-known beauty called
he makes the viewer see the sitter's ambitions, intelligence,
by some "La Prsidente" for her Sunday evening gatherings.
cuid sensual intensity.
12. HENRI-.MICHEL-ANTOINE CHAPU (1833-1891).
3. WLADYSLAW OLESZCYNSKI (1807-1866).
AlexandreDumas Pre. Marble. Thtre Franais, Paris
Henryk Levittoux. 1861. Bronze, height 21". Muzeum Naro-
The famous novelist (1803-70); compare the portrait by Car-
dowe, Warsaw
rier-Belleuse (p. 88, 9)
A friend of Schiller, Goethe, and Canova, Oleszcynski was
Several works in this chapter (nos. 12, 14, 15, 16, and 57)
court sculptor at Wurttemberg.
are in the Thtre Franais, built between 1786 and 1790 by
4. JOHANN HEINRICH VON DANNECKER (1758-1841). Victor Louis. Home of the Comdie Franaise, its vestibule
Queen Kathaiina of Westphalia. Marble, height 242". Staatliche and foyer contain numerous portraits in sculpture of French
Kunstsammlungen, Kassel writers, and of famous actors and actresses shown in out-
Of Dannecker as a portraitist, David d'Angers had this to say standing roles.
(about the sculptor's bust of Schiller): "Dannecker gave his
13. ANTOINE AUGUSTIN PRAULT (1809-1879).
model a cardboard nose, eyes drawn after those of the Apollo,
Louis Desnoyers. 1837. Bronze medallion. Cimetire du Pre-
a glum and sulky mouth. The overall expression of the face
Lachaise, Paris
is callous; yet Schiller had such tenderness of soul ! The head
Desnoyers was a French novelist. Prault, a friend of the
is not well attached to the shoulders; the symmetrical hairdress
entire generation of French Romantic poets and of Grard de
makes one think of wet string; the skull is small. In brief,
Nerval in particular, was one of those who lived up to the
that bust is a horror."
Romantic definition of art as "immaterial pleasures."
5. JAN LODEWYCK VAN GEEL (1787-1852). Baudelaire wrote of the Salon of 1859: "I am among those
Princess Anna Paulowna. 1829. Marble, height including base who confess, without blushing, that whatever the skillfulness

34i". Muses Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels deployed each year by our sculptors, 1 do not find in their
work, since the decease of David d'Angers, the immaterial
6. CHRISTIAN FRIEDRICH TIECK (1776-1851).
pleasure so often given me by the tumultuous dreams, even if
Clemens Brentano. 1803. Plaster, height 24". Nationalgalerie,
left unfinished, of Auguste Prault."
Berlin
A breath of Romanticism animates this handsome likeness of the 14. JEAN-BAPTISTE Called AUGUSTE CLSINGER (1814-1883).
German dramatist, novelist, and poet (1778-1842). George Sand. Marble. Thtre Franais, Paris
The massive figure corresponds to our idea of this woman
7. PAULUS-JOSEPH GABRIEL (1785-1833).
writer, who was, incidentally, the artist's mother-in-law.
Cornelis Apostol. 1815. Marble. Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam
In attics throughout Europe must be lurking a great number of 15. FRANCISQUE-JOSEPH DURET (18041865).
such portraits, competent but lacking in personality. Rachel in the Role of Phdre. Marble. Thtre Franais, Paris
See p. 88, 7, and p. 407, 2, for other portraits of the famous
8. JOSEPH CHINARD (1756-1813).
tragedienne.
Madame Kcamier. c. 1802. Marble. Muse des Beaux- Arts,
Lyons 16. GABRIEL-JULES THOMAS (18241905).
From the first this portrait of the famous society beauty and wit Mademoiselle Mars in the Role ofClimne. Marble. Thtre Franais,
(1777-1849), perhaps the finest work by this excellent artist Paris
from Lyons, has enjoyed considerable success. See page 80, 9 for a portrait bust of the famous comedienne.


254

17. MARCELI GUYSKI (1830-1893). Trained by his father Joseph Rush, William Rush was appren-
Andrzej Zamoyski. 1869. Bronze, height 29^". Muzeum Naro- ticed as a carver of figureheads for the vessels built in Philadel-

dowe, Warsaw phia's busy shipyards. The way he presented the physiognomy
of the great Swedish botanist is reminiscent of his training, but
18. NIKOLAI ALEXANDROVICH RAMAZANOV (1818-1867).
for the spirit he gave the face Rush fully deserves to be consid-
Nikolai Vasil^evicb Gogol (detail). 1854. Marble, entire height
ered the earliest of the genuinely American sculptors as well
18". Russian Museum, Moscow as the culmination of the American woodcarving tradition. (See
Gogol (1809-52) was the brilliant founder of the Realist school
also p. 110, /, 2.)
of Russian literature.
25. FRANOIS-JOSEPH BOSIO (1768-1845).
19. DALOU (1838-1902).
AIM-JULES King Charles X of France. 1824. Marble. Muse National de
Gustave Courbet. Marble. Muse des Beaux-Arts, Besanon Versailles
Courbet, the famous realist painter, made a few exceptional This cruel and realistic work could well illustrate certain pages
sculptures at the end of his life; see p. 88, 18; p. 255, 50. of Chateaubriand's autobiographic Mmoires d'outre-tombe (see
also p. 318, 8). Charles' attempt to restore the absolutism of
20. JOHANN GOTTFRIED SCHADOW (1764-1850).
monarchy led to his overthrow in 1830.
Goethe. 1821-22. Bronze, height 232". Kunsthalle, Bremen
Here Schadow proves himself the peer as well as the precur- 26. JOS ALVAREZ CUBERO (1768-1827).
sor of the strong portrait artists Kriiger, Menzel, and Lieber- The Marquesa de Ariza. Marble. Duke of Alva Museum, Palacio
mann. de Liria, Madrid

21. PIERRE-PAUL prud'hon (1759-1823). 27. LORENZO BARTOLINI (1777-1850).

Baroness de Joursauvault. Terracotta (unfinished). Muse des Count Trotti. Marble, height 20". Galleria Nazionale d'Arte
Beaux- Arts, Beaune Modema, Rome
An unusual sculpture by an artist otherwise known as a painter.
28. HIRAM POWERS (1805-1873).
WARNER Andrew Jackson. 1835. Marble, height 34V. Metropolitan
22. OLIN LEVI (1844-1896).
Joseph, Chief of the Nez Perc Indians. 1889. Bronze, diameter
Museum of Art, New York
This bust, which launched Powers' career, was modeled from
17^". Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York
Warner, on a two-year trip through the Northwestern Territo- life in the White House in 1835, when President Jackson was

ries, modeled number of Indian chiefs

profile likenesses of a
sixty-eight. "Make me as 1 am, Mr. Powers, and be true to

many now in the Metropolitan Museum, New York. This nature always." It was cut into marble by Powers himself in

medallion was executed from life twelve years after Chief 1838 while in Rome, where shortly afterward he did The Greek

Joseph surrendered his small band to the U.S. Cavalry and Slave, one of the most important works in American sculpture.
white man's rule after a thousand-mile, four-month-long 29. ANTONIO SOARS DOS REIS (1847-1889).
flight to escape confinement on a reservation. Count de Ferreira. 1876. Marble. Museu Nacional de Soars dos
Reis, Oporto
23. JOSEPH CHINARD (1756-1813).
Philippe Egalit. Terracotta, diameter 9^". Muse des Beaux-
The work seems a small masterpiece of lifelikeness presum-
ing the model had as much simple good nature as he appears to
Arts, Lyons
The aristocrat-revolutionary the Due d'Orlans before he
show here.

renounced his title crafty, full of good will, but prudent when 30. CHRISTIAN RAUCH (1777-1857).
he had to be, although he eventually lost his head to the guil- Goethe. Marble, height 22^". Museum der Bildenden Kiinste,
lotine. Leipzig
Compare David d'Angers' medallion, p. 80, 5.
24. WILLIAM RUSH (1756-1833).
Linnaeus (Carl von Linn j. c. 1812. Wood, height 25' The 31. PIERRE-JEAN DAVID Called DAVID d'angers (1788-1856).
Corcoran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. Niccolo Paganini. 1833. Bronze. Muse des Beaux-Arts, Angers

I
 PORTRAITS 255

32. MARKOS FYTALIS. 42. VIKTOR OSKAR TILGNER (1844-1896).

Old Woman of Tinos. 1887. Plaster. Museum, Tinos, Greece The Painter Josef von Fiihrich. c. 1875. Bronze, height 292".
Oesterreichische Galerie, Vienna
33. IVAN IVANOVICH PODOZEROV (1835-1899).
A sculptor of portrait busts, fountains, and tombs in numerous
Peter Vassilyevicb Basin (detail). 1872. Bronze, height 30".
Austrian towns.
Russian Museum, Moscow
Professor of painting at the Academy of St. Petersburg, Basin 43. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917).
died in 1877. Madame Monla-VicuBa. 1884. Marble, height 22^". Muse
Rodin, Paris
34. ANTON FERNKORN (1813-1878).
Emperor Franz Joseph I. Oesterreichische Galerie, Vienna 44. ZACHARIE ASTRUC (1835-1907).
Barbey d'Aurevilly. Salon of 1876. Bronze. Muse Barbey d'Au-
35. ADOLF VON HILDEBRAND (1847-1921).
revilly, Saint-Sauveur-le-Vicomte (Manche)
Karl Hillebrand. 1883-84. Bronze, height 15". Kunsthalle,
The writer of diabolical fantasies portrayed here looks as if he
Bremen
might be the ancestor of Salvador Dali on more counts than
Hillebrand (d. 1884) was a scholar, author, and critic, por-
one.
trayed here with psychological insight.
45. Louis-juLiEN called jules franceschi (1825-1893).
36. JOSEPH-ANTON-MARIA CHRISTEN (1769-1838).
Jules Verne. Marble, height 292". Institut Tessin, Paris
A Woman of Berne. 1816-18. Terracotta, height 16". OefFent-
liche Kunstsammlung, Basel
A pupil of Rude, Franceschi did the statue of St. Sulpice for the
Church of Saint-Sulpice, Paris.
A Swiss sculptor and painter who received his training from his
father by carving wooden saints and animals. 46. ADRIANO CECIONI (1838-1886),
The Poet Giosu Carducci. Terracotta. Galleria Nazionale d'Arte
37. CYPRIAN GODEBSKI (1835-1909).
Modema, Rome
Madame Zofia Servais-Godebska. 1865. Marble, height 28".
Muzeum Narodowe, Warsaw 47. PAUL GAUGUIN (1848-1903).
French sculptor of Polish origin, he made busts of numerous Madame Gauguin. 1877. Marble, height 13". Courtauld Insti-
celebrated personages, especially Poles. tute of Art, London
38. GILLES-LAMBERT GODECHARLE (1750-1835). The classicism of the sculpture by Gauguin, Courbet, and Mori-

The Artist's Wife. Colored plaster, height 21". Muses Royaux sot (see below, 49, SO) shows how traditional and unchanging

des Beaux-Arts, Brussels that medium tended to remain as compared to painting.

A bust that equals Houdon's finest works. 48. AUGUSTE de niederhusern called niederhusern-
39. JEAN-BAPTISTE CARPEAUX (1827-1875). RODO (1863-1913).
The Painter Jean-Lon Grme. Salon of 1872. Bronze. Petit The Poet Paul Verlaine. 1892. Bronze, height 2U". Oeffentliche

Palais, Paris Kunstsammlung, Basel

40. AUGUST LEONARD ROUNBLOM (1823-1858). 49. berthe morisot (1841-1895).

The Swedish Bell-Founder Anders Mathias Rounblom. 1850. Bronze, Head ofJulie Manet. 1875. Bronze, height IO2". North Carolina
height 18". Collection Gunnar W. Lundberg, Paris Museum of Art, Raleigh, N.C.
The girl is the artist's niece, the daughter of Edouard Manet.
41. ERCOLE ROSA (1846-1893).
Giuseppe Garibaldi. Plaster, height 47". Galleria Nazionale 50. GUSTAVE COURBET (1819-1877).
d'Arte Modema, Rome Madame Max Buchon. 1869. Bronze. Collection Mouradian-
Rosa fought with Garibaldi at Mentana, and later did the eques- Vallotton, Paris
trian statue of Vittorio Emmanuele II in front of the Milan Mme Buchon was the recent widow of Courbet's lifelong
Cathedral (see p. 228, 13). friend Max Buchon, a liberal political essayist.
 256

51.CHARLES-REN DE SAINT-MARCEAUX (1845-1915). 58. ERNESTO BAZZARO (1859-1937).

Head of a Woman. 1880. Terracotta, height 15". Formerly The Journalist Augusta Mazzucchctti . 1910. Bronze, height 26".
Collection Pozzi, Paris Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna, Rome
52. JEAN-JOSEPH-.MARIE CARRIES (1855-1894). 59. PAUL TROUBETZKOY (1866-1938).
The Poet Maurice RoIIinat. Salon of 1883. Plaster. Petit Palais, Kodin. Bronze, height 19". Collection Gunnar W. Lundberg,
Paris
Paris
The poet (1853-1903) began as a Parnassian, later turning
"Bracquemond took me to visit the sculptor Rodin. He is a
toward Symbolism. man whose features are those of the common people, with
53. AUGUSTUS SAINT-GAUDENS (1848-1907). light eyes blinking beneath unhealthily red lids, a long beard,
Jules-Bastien Lepage. Cast in 1910 from a sculpture executed in his hair close-cropped, a round head, the head that goes with a

1880. Bronze relief, Hj x IO2". Metropolitan Museum of gentle and obstinate persistency. A man such as 1 imagine the
Art, New York disciples of Jesus Christ" (Edmond and Jules de Concourt,
Saint-Gaudens was born in Dublin but was brought to America Journal, April 17, 1886).
as a young child. He learned the trade of cameo cutting in With age Rodin must have changed much, and it was no
New York, then studied uith Jouffroy (1867-70) at the Beaux- longer a disciple of Christ that Paul Morand encountered be-
Arts in Paris, and later worked in Rome. This form of portrai- tween 1903 and 1908: "Poking through his beard of yellowish
ture in lou relie! with decorative inscriptions was something white, his priapic nose seemed to me to be emerging from the
entirely new to American sculpture. pubis; I used to see his faun's ears pointing above a clump of
prickwood shrubs in our garden. .
." (Paul Morand, Venises).
54. JEAN-BARNABE AMY (1839-1907).
The Provenal Poet Frdric Mistral. 1881. Bronze medallion. 60. MEDARDO ROSSO (1858-1928).
Muse Granet, Aix-en-Provence Head oj a Child. Bronze. Private collection, Paris
Mistral \\ rote about Provenal life, and is here surrounded by See also pp. 141-42, 17, 18, 19.
local flora.
61. EMILE-ANTOINE BOURDELLE (1861-1929).
55. HONOR DAUMIER (1808-1879). Beethoven with Flowing Hair. 1889. Bronze. Muse Antoine
Self-Portrait. 1853. Original plaster, height 282". Private col- Bourdelle, Paris
lection, Milan "1 do not reallv understand music unless I can isolate myself,
In its daring and modernity this work is one of the most impor- lose myself in a corner. But the impression falls on my soul laid
tant in the history of sculpture.
bare, it shatters my head and my heart, bringing to every part

56. ALFRED GILBERT (1854-1934). of my being an infinite repercussion which destroys it. I have

The Pianist and Statesman Ignace Paderewski. c. 1900? Bronze, harvested the harmonious words ot Beethoven; it is they that

height 122". City Museum and Art Gallery, Birmingham, give life to the brow in the faces of him as I am constructing,

England they that direct their gazes, they that bring order to his hair"

Paderewski became prime minister of Poland after World (Emile-Antoine Bourdelle, January, 1903, Paris).

War I.
62. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917).
57. JOHN-ALEXANDRE-JOSEPH FALGUIERE (1831-1900). Balzac. Muse Rodin, Paris
1892-98. Plaster, height 9' 10".

Victor Hugo. Bronze. Theatre Franais, Paris Rodin went even beyond Daumier. With him the door be-
An admirable piece in which Falguire succeeds in attaining the tween the classical world and modern art was breached once
level of Rodin. and for all.
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 15. CARICATURE
Laughter is satanic; it is therefore profoundly human.
It is in wan the consequence of the idea of his own superiori^.

CHARLES BAUDELAIRE, Curiosits esthtiques

the already existed The Romans

The burlesque portrait
especially appreciated
caricature
monstrous effigies. In the seventeenth century the Venetians
were amused by the faces of the crouching figures carved in wood along the walls of
in antiquity.

the large hall in the Scuola di San Rocco. But these are a matter of exploits to make
people laugh when it came to a portrait few artists would have dared to exceed the
;

limits of realism to the point of ridicule, truly an unpardonable affront. It took the indepen-
dence of spirit and the genius of Frans Hals or Goya to succeed in imposing upon wealthy
sitters the often unbearable sight of their ovsti effigies.
Neoclassical conceptions, opposed to any representation of ugliness, did not encourage
artists to unveil the monstrous that human countenances could hide. The grotesque was per-
mitted if confined to a decorative role. It was left to the Romantics, especially to Baudelaire,
to elevate caricature into art. From the moment that Daumier took it over followed by
Forain and Steinlen caricature began to demonstrate its importance as a redoubtable weapon
and religious conflicts.
in political, social,
Under the Restoration the French police, more liberal than under Napoleon, became less
repressive, and caricature became accepted. Baudelaire made it clear that earlier notions of
caricature were tiresome and conservative he found nothing in common between the works
;

of Charlet, Carle Vernet, Trimolet, and Travis, generally lacking in originality and tainted
with too much good humor, and Daumier's, which reveal "everything a big city contains
in the way of living monstrosities."
Baudelaire was probably the first to call attention to the genius of Daumier. Concerning
Daumier's busts of the French peers he wrote in the Curiosits esthtiques: "The artist revealed
here a marvelous understanding of the portrait for all that he loads and exaggerates the origi-
;

nal traits, he remains so sincerely based on nature that these pieces can serve as models for all
portraitists. All the poverties of spirit, everything ridiculous, all the manias of the mind and
the vices of the heart can be clearly read and seen on these animalized faces." Daumier, like
Bosch, Hogarth, and Cruikshank before him, succeeded in creating believable monsters
which, despite the atrocity of their faces, remain "imbued with humanity," in Baudelaire's
words. Like those artists he uncovers in every human being what the face may reveal of the
ugly and the odd. But he alone succeeded in modeling in clay these "explosions of expres-
sion," as Baudelaire called them.
Raymond Escholier reports the admiration that Rodin expressed for Daumier when he
saw a bronze cast of Daumier's Ratapoil in Escholier's home: "His imperious eyes could not
be taken from that Ratapoil with its hooked moustache, pointed beard, hat cocked to one side,
frock coat flapping against his skinny hams," and Rodin, putting down the statuette, ex-
claimed "Ah the Daumier I knew when I started out with Carrier-Belleuse, that Daumier,
: !

what a sculptor!"

285

. di
 286

M
Curiously enough Daumier, like Poussin two centuries earlier, very often used sculpture
to help work out a judicious composition. Geoffroy de Chaume was an eyewitness: "Once
those little manikins were set up, he took his pencil or brush and set his easel in front of the
clay models working from life, he had swiftly made into a living image." He used
that,
exactly this procedure for his famous plate of the Legislative Belly. Perhaps it was to Augustin
Prault, whom he met about 1828 at the Acadmie Boudin, that Daumier owed his decision
to model some of his subjects it has also been suggested that he was amused by Dantan's little
;

caricature statuettes and got the idea to try something of that sort.
For his terracottas, of no great importance in his eyes, Daumier used the coarsest clays;
full of bits of chalk, they began to flake off as they dried, cracking and falling to bits at the

slightest shock. Thus the pieces in the Malherbe collection have disappeared, broken even
before being moved. These clay models had for Daumier no purpose other than to be useful
tools for his work. And who would have dared offer for sale these ferocious effigies that were
images of individuals in high places? Publicly exhibited, they would have been confiscated
immediately. Madame Daumier was so afraid of the police that the Ratapoil remained camou-
flaged for a long time in a straw bottle-basket hidden in a corner. Determined to rid herself
of it, she was delighted to offer it to their friend Geoffroy de Chaume.

Alongside Daumier's sculpture there flourished another form of sculpture that was realistic,
caricaturing, and popular, and had a moderately comic vein freely resembling that of the
Dutch Little Masters. Except for Dan tan, form was generally the concern of
a Parisian, this
provincial sculptors Franois Alais, who displayed his medallions at the door of his house in
:

Vire in the Calvados country Pierre- Adrien Graillon, whose studio was in his shop on the
;

Grand-Rue at Dieppe he asked under five francs to make portraits of his fellow townsmen
or the "bathers" from Paris who came to Dieppe's beaches on holidays.
David d'Angers, describing Graillon's workshop, tells us about the way of life of most of
these modest popular sculptors at that time: "Except for the shop, which is very clean, the
rest of the house is extremely primitive. The back of the shop serves as dining room, and in an
obscure little corner, near the very dark staircase leading to his workshop, there is a stove
where the meals are cooked. The studio looks like the most complete mess I've ever seen.
Some thirty pieces of sculpture, none of them completed, are there under damp rags pic- ;

tures are nailed on every wall; even the rafters have these decorations, because Graillon is
also a painter. . His public is made up of foreigners and ordinary people who stop in front
. .

of his shop windows. The local bourgeoisie reproaches him for not making statuettes like
Pradier's. A member of the town council, administrator of the welfare office (a job that makes
him a somebody in his town), said to him 'Why do you make us figures of poor people? We
:

"
get tired enough of seeing them all day long. '

Dan tan the Younger, who had as much fame

David d'Angers and more than
in his lifetime as
Daumier, made more than a thousand busts and statuettes between 1827 and 1869. People
came from all over Europe to pose in his studio. More adept at detecting his subjects' "tics"
of attitude than their characteristic expressions, his gentle caricatures "had the gift of dis-
pleasing certain of his victims." It is reported that Talleyrand murmured irritably at the sight
of his own image : "It goes too far for a portrait, not far enough for a caricature."
Eugne Guinot, Dantan's friend, takes us into the studio of this fashionable Parisian sculp-
tor. The apartment, located near the rue Saint-Lazare, consisted of a small waiting room
"furnished in an altogether artistic taste" Dantan received visitors in his working costume,
;

"a long Turkish dressing gown with Kashmir designs and on his head, in the easy-going studio
manner, a little velvet Greek bonnet." On the walls six shelves held 400 small plaster busts,
 CARICATURE 287

a gallerv of writers, scholars, poets, academicians, playwrights, lawyers, pianists, and com-
posers, almost everyone (with a few exceptions) who had made some sort of name for himself
in the preceding twenty years or so; there was an tagre for counts, duchesses, marquesses,
and baronesses another for members of the House of Lords and one for the artists and admin-
;

istrators of the Opra. When you had spent an hour or two of laughter in his caricature-room,
he would invite vou to relax in his bedroom, its walls papered from top to bottom with
Chinese paintings, pictures by old and modern masters, a head by Rubens, sheep by Brascassat,
a sleeping girl bv Vien, the portrait of Mademoiselle Joly painted by David, and many other
treasures."
Like most portrait artists, Dantan did not necessarilv work from life. If the bust of a
deceased person was desired, the family would bring in a daguerreotype, a painted portrait,
or a pencil sketch. Occasionally the situation could be somewhat more bizarre, as one can
judge bv the following anecdote (Mrime would have made a short story of it). One morning
Dantan was visited by a distinguished man whose face bore the signs of deep sorrow. After
introducing himself Viscount d'Anglade, he said: "Monsieur, I have a sister on her death-
as

bed, and I have come to ask you to do her bust. We have a portrait of her w hich may help you,
but for vour work to be as perfect as we wish, you must see her in person. But to bring vou
to her, and to ask her to pose for her bust at such a moment, would be to reveal her true con-
dition and let her know we
have no more hope of saving her." Monsieur d'Anglade and
that
the sculptor agreed on the scene to be enacted; the next dav the viscount entered the sick-
room, a smile on his lips, and said to her: "Dear sister, I wish to give vou a present for your
first ball. Here is a clerk from Fossin's who has brought vou several pieces of jewelry. You

must choose the one that becomes you most." Whereupon Dantan for it was he playing the
role of jewelry clerk
spread out half a dozen jewel boxes on the bed, and while the sick
girl examined the jewels and her pale and charming face was fleetinglv brightened by their

beauty the watching sculptor made himself fix his model in his memorv. Some time later the
girl died, leaving behind her a completed bust, a living image in marble.
The following year a noble and sorrowful old man presented himself: "I am the father of
the young man vou received last year. Monsieur, my son is on his deathbed and I have come to
ask you for a portrait of him.." Dantan required a sitting to recall to memory the dying
man's features; father and sculptor sought a plan. Thev planned that his bedroom should be
redecorated; Dantan, disguised as an upholsterer's helper, his head and face covered with wig
and false beard, looked at the dying young man, who did not recognize the workman ap-
proaching his bed and pretending to measure it. Not long after, the bust of the brother took
its place next to that of his sister.


288

1. HONOR DAUMIER (1808-1879). Wilhelm Busch Museum, Hanover

Ratapoil. 1850. Bronze, height 18". Private collection, Milan An illustration of one of Busch's comic stories.
Of this, one of the most original works of the nineteenth
6. LEONETTO CAPPIELLO (1875-1942).
century, Robert Rey wrote :
' '
Ratapoil is a monstrous, scrawny,
Yvette Guilbert.Muse Carnavalet, Paris
bearded figure who evokes the ragtag and bobtail of the mer-
Cappiello was a painter and graphic artist of Italian origin,
cenary- legions of the first Napoleon, half-starved, their pay
naturalized French. Here is the famous chanteuse (1868-1944)
forever in arrears. As an agent of the secret police, he scours
of the 1890s, in her characteristic stage costume.
the provinces. Discharged from the army for theft, he becomes
a hero in the troubled atmosphere of the times : a shady figure 7. JEAN-LOUIS FORAIN (1852-1931).
who passes for a respectable citizen, an ex-convict who pats a The Jewish Republic (Marianne as a Jewess). Bronze. Collection
judge on his fat paunch as he urges him to vote for the official
Alain Lesieutre, Paris
candidate. Never before had insolence, ignominy, hunger, and Marianne has been the familiar name of the French Republic
vice been more compactly fused than in the clay figurine since about 1854. To our knowledge this is the only piece of
Daumier fashioned, which had to be kept from public view sculpture by Forain, the famous painter and graphic artist.
for a long time."
8. HONOR DAUMIER (1808-1879).
2. JOSEPH MENDES DA COSTA (1863-1939).
Portrait of Marshal Soult, Minister of War and Foreign Affairs in
Almsgiving (GeeJ HandgiJ) . c. 1893. Gemeentemuseum, The
Louis-Philippe's Cabinet. Bronze, height 6". Formerly private
Hague
collection, Paris
3. PIERRE-ADRIEN GRAILLON (1809-1872). This series of four figurines has much in common with the
Card Players. 1849. Terracotta. Muse, Rennes works of Goya. Daumier was the inventor of expressionistic
In many provincial cities there were artisan-artists of this and caricatural sculpture. It was at the request of the journalist
type Graillon had been a shoemaker who thought of sculp- and caricaturist Charles Philipon that Daumier, in 1832,
ture as a pastime. These caricatures of ordinary people are in produced anumber of terracotta busts that were exhibited in

line with Romantic ideas of observation and the comical. If the office windows of the magazine La Caricature, in Passage
done as a lithograph, this caf scene could illustrate certain Vro-Dodat. Baudelaire called them "animalized visages."
chapters of Balzac, George Sand, or Barbey d'Aurevilly.
9. HONOR DAU.MIER (1808-1879).
4. JEAN-PIERRE DANTAN (known as Dantan the Younger; Portrait of Bailliot (L'infatu de soi), c. 1832. Bronze, height
1800-1869). 7". Formerly private collection, Paris
Hector Berlioz. 1833. Terracotta. Muse Carnavalet, Paris
Dantan was a clever caricaturist. His small terracottas, which 10. HONOR DAU.MIER (1808-1879).

enchanted his contemporaries, interest us more as folklore Portrait of the Financier Ganneron. Bronze, height 7i". Formerly

than as art. Gautier said of Dantan that '

'he knew how to make private collection, Paris

sculpture laugh."
11. HONOR DAU.MIER (1808-1879).
5. WILHELM BUSCH (1832-1908). Portrait of Persil. Bronze, height 7i". Formerly private collec-
The Cellarer and the Devil. 1870. Terracotta, height 9". tion, Paris
I

I
E^r HAl'O 3
1/
10
 16. ANIMAL SCULPTURE

undergone various fortunes since the most remote antiquity, and most
Animal art has
civihzations offer innumerable proofs of man's genius at reproducing the fauna
around him. But for centuries in the Occident, however perfect the execution might
be, those who professed classical art were partisans of the Grand Style and disdained
animal sculpture. In the hierarchy of types it had the lowest rank, beneath historical
sculpture, portraiture, and of course below what was called Grand Statuary: no one could
experience emotion before even the finest masterwork of animal sculpture because it repre-
sented a soulless creature. The author of such a work was considered a hackworker. Often, it
is true, the artist scarcely deserv^ed more, as witnessed by that immense zoo of stone, marble,

and bronze created since the late seventeenth century to decorate the palaces and avenues of
European cities. In 1866, in the pages of L'Illustration, Thophile Gautier justly lampooned
"those academic lions, .those tiresome tigers,
, . . those carved poodles wearing marble
. .

wigs la Louis XIV, of the sort called 'folio-sized.' Their dbonnaire faces, with almost
. . .

human features, look like the masks of noble fathers in the old comedies; their bodies
flabby, rounded, without bones or nerves, as if stuffed with meal
have neither suppleness
nor vigor; and one raised paw rests on a globe in a gesture which, one must admit, is scarcely
leonine."
This is sculpture characterized by the fundamental inexpressiveness of the models and by
a static and conventional manner of noting movement. The horse, a "noble beast," was made
to prance in a sort of broken goose step, or else to rear up to its highest as if that were its most
normal attitude. This makes it easier to understand the reasons for the discredit suffered by
this genre in the early nineteenth century. In 1830 certain persons acknowledged Barye's
skill, but he remained a "maker of animals, a species deprived of human nobility." Such was

the judgment of the critics, promptly launched when it was proposed to entrust Barye with
the decoration of the Place de la Concorde. Rather than submit to such complaints, the prefect.
Monsieur de Rambuteau, aligned himself with the arguments of "those who would not con-
sent to the Place de la Concorde becoming a branch of the zoo in the Jardin des Plantes."
In 1837 tex, indignant that the jury for the Exposition had rejected Delacroix's paint-
ings and Barye's animal sculptures, addressed an open letter to the members of the Cercle des
Arts, denouncing the judges as "blind enough to prefer so many paintings of any sort to a
canvas by Delacroix, and the insignificant figures we see in the sculpture halls" to the ani-
mals by Bar^^e.
Released at last from their task of being "parade horses" for symbolic persons, Gri-
cault's battle steeds, Delacroix's Arab chargers, and Barye's wild beasts suddenly acquired
individual personalities. Thophile Gautier describes the effect produced by the bronze
Lion with Serpent, one of Barye's masterpieces: "At the sight of that terrible and superb

animal his tangled mane bristling and his muzzle drawn up with a calm that is full of dis-
gust keeping beneath his bronze claws the hideous reptile which rears up in a convulsion of
impotent rage, all the poor marble lions pulled their tails between their legs and accidentally
let slip the globe that held them up."

293
294

There was not an evolution in the art of depicting animals during the nineteenth century,
but rather the emergence ot various tendencies, dominated in almost every case by the Neo-
classicism which still held favor with the Salon public. A great number of animal sculptors
showed talent, but Barye alone had genius.

Barye, the son of a Paris goldsmith, enrolled in Bosio's studio when hardly twenty years
old, right after the Napoleonic wars. Later he entered that of Gros. Impassioned, like most of

VIII.ANTOINE-Louis BARYE (1796-1875). The Bull. Terracotta, height

5". Muse du Louvre, Paris. Collection Edmond de Rothschild

the Romantic artists, by exotic fauna, he worked from life in the zoo of the jardin des Plantes
in Paris. In 1831 he exhibited at the Salon his Tiger Devouring a Crocodile and Lion nith Serpent,
two works which provoked simultaneously the liveliest criticism from the academics and the
greatest enthusiasm of the Romantics.
In time Barye escaped from his self-imposed servitude, the study of animal anatomy, and
his models, especially the lions, became treated with more simplified means, proving in this
the artist's independence from tradition. To earn his living Barve made drawings for great
numbers of small bronze statuettes and had them cast, though his knowledge of foundry
methods soon led him to process his favorite subjects himself. It was these pieces, to which
the artist's touch gave a surprising density, that shocked the critics accustomed to a "proper"
sculpture; for a long time they were dismissed as "paperweights," these works that belong
among the masterpieces of sculpture.
Barye remained the uncontested master of animal sculpture throughout the century.
After 1830, when he exhibited for the first time at the Salon, until his death in 1875 at an
advanced age he never ceased to demonstrate that a certain form of Romanticism was suited
to this special art. But the style died with him; most of his confreres continued to treat the
subject as it was done in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts.
 ANIMAL SCULPTURE 295

Pierre-Jules Mne, who today regaining part of the appreciation he had in his lifetime,
is

succeeded in eluding the grip of Neoclassicism without turning to a Romanticism for which he
was not made. Realistic yet tempered with elegance, he excelled in all subjects relating to
horse racing and the hunt.
Emmanuel Frmiet Watts, and Stark in England and Davide
in France, like Landseer,
Calandra in Italy, confined his art within rather narrow limits. A conscientious artist beloved
by the public, his originality and talent are shown by his manner of presenting the drama of
men and animals in their mutual dependence or antagonism. His horses, like those of Meis-
sonier and so many European sculptors, seem to come from stud-farms specializing in sup-
plying superb animals for use in parades. This was also true of Charles Cordier, Christophe
Fratin,Edouard Delabrieu, Emile Gouget, Auguste Cain, and Henri-Marie Jacquemart, all
knowledgeable in anatomy and observant of animals in motion but in most cases not endowed
with genius.
Painters too, such as Rosa Bonheur, espoused this genre; others, such as Fratin and
Charles Jacques, preferred like certain Dutch painters two centuries before to specialize
in cattle and farmyard animals, often attaining a skill close to perfection.
Fashion also had much to do with the prodigious output
numbering tens of thousands
of animal sculptures in all sizes. Along with the Romantic taste for wild nature, the idea of
depicting animals with utmost lifelikeness, especially horses and dogs, was closely tied to the
growing vogue for the hunt and also to the upsurge of interest in natural science. The British
enthusiasm for country life and their passion for horse racing and hunting explain the mass
production of artistic bronzes thousands of bronze birds and quadrupeds crossed the Channel
:

to be placed on British tables and shelves.

Great Britain produced a number of excellent specialists, among them Sir Edwin Land-
seer, whose sculptured lionsproudly mount guard at the foot of the Nelson Column in Trafalgar
Square. But except for G. F. Watts, who succeeded in catching animals in surprising
poses (as witness his Physical Energy), most English artists remained faithful to the Neoclas-
sical formulas.
In the United States, the Civil War provided the source for innumerable scenes mingling
history and anecdote. The horse, with its military role and its long-lived importance as the
best means of transport, especially excited the American imagination.
One finds in Germany an Adolf Hildebrand and Max
art of rare elegance in the circle of
Klinger, at once Neoclassical and modern. The strange Amazon by Franz von Stuck evokes a
quality of Maillol. In Russia the figurines of Troubetzkoy and Antokolsky show the ascendancy
of Rodin's influence on Slavic sculptors.

At the close of the century the sounds of class struggle finally reached the stables the horses :

of Constantin Meunier are unmistakably workers, and their fate seems even more miserable
than that of the workers of the time.
In Georges Gardet, who strove to return to the Romantic tradition of Barye, Art
Nouveau found its finest representative in this genre, but like many of his contemporaries he
was readily inclined to anecdote or superficial symbolism. With Franois Pompon there at
last appeared a modem animal sculptor who conformed to twentieth-century taste.
296

1. ANTOINE-LOUIS BARYE (1796-1875). Barye was justly hailed by Delacroix as the greatest of the
Tiger Devouring a Crocodile. 1831-32. Bronze, 16 X 40^". Romantic sculptors. In escaping the leaden grip of Naturalism
Muse du Louvre, Paris or Realism something Barye, like David d'Angers and even
Barye aimed at a perfect portrayal of wild beasts at liberty. Rude, did not always manage to do this group statue is beyond
He observed with unflagging patience every movement of the question the quintessence of Romanticism.
animals in the zoo, and when they died he turned up promptly
8. EM.MANUEL FRMIET (1824-1910).
to measure their muscles and bones with the most minute preci-
Draft Horse Led to Slaughter. Bronze. Veterinary School, Tou-
sion as an aid in gauging more accurately the amplitude of their
louse
movements.
Here Frmiet for once
got away from convention.
2. WILLIAM MORRIS HUNT (1824-1879).
9. CHRISTOPHE FRATIN (1800-1864).
The Horses of Anahita or The Flight of Night. 1846. Painted
The Bull. 1864. Bronze relief, 10 x 7".
plaster, I82 X 28^". Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York Fratin learned his painting and sculpture in the studio of Gri-
After fire destroyed the contents of Hunt's studio in Boston,
cault and rose to great success. His contemporaries admired
he made new sketches to help in the preparation of a work
in particular his way of dramatizing animal life.
destined for the new state Capitol in Albany. Here we have a
fragment in plaster whose subject is drawn from a Persian 10. CONSTANTIN-.V1ILE .MEUNIER (1831-1905).

poem. The Old Mine Horse. 1890. Bronze, 14^ X 19 X 6". Muses
Royaux des Beaux- Arts, Brussels
3. THODORE GRICAULT (1791-1824). II
Equestrian Statue from the Antique. Wax bas-relief. Private collec- 11. JEAN-LOUIS-ERNEST MEISSONIER (1815-1891).
tion, Paris Wounded Horse, after the wax study for his painting The Siege

Gricault tried his hand at sculpture, as Carpeaux tried his at of Paris. 1884. Muse de Peinture et de Sculpture, Grenoble

painting. The few works to survive destruction prove the pro- This study, not destined for the public, tells us much about the

digious genius, as a sculptor, of this artist who remains, along immense talent of Meissonier, who achieved a worldwide
with Prault but with infinitely more freedom, the true repre- reputation during his life.

Romantic art, for

sentative of all that he was romantic in the 12. LOUIS TUAILLON (1862-1919).
manner of Rodin, realistic in that of Degas. Horse. Bronze, height 26". Kunsthalle, Bremen
4. ANTONIN-MARIE MOINE (1796-1849). This disciple of Hildebrand and Max Klinger, who spent many
Falling Florseman. Cast from the original exhibited at the Salon years in Rome, is notable for works marked by a great refine-

of 1831. High relief in burnished plaster; I62 X 20". Muse ment.

des Beaux-Arts, Tours 13. ANTOINE-LOUIS BARYE (1796-1875).
Dealt with harshly by his contemporaries, Moine has been un- Basset Hound. Private collection, Paris
justly forgotten by posterity. He is the prime example of the
14. JOSEF vAcLAV MYSLBEK (1848-1922).
artist forced by the necessities of life to abandon pure art. Son
Horse. Bronze. Narodni Gallery, Prague
of an artisan, like the sculptors of the Renaissance, he began by
fabricating fake antiques. His success at the Salons of 1831 and 15. EMMANUEL FRMIET (1824 1910).
1833 encouraged him to seek commissions. Soon enough, Sick Dog. Bronze. Private collection, Paris
however, the officials showed their disdain for the ''diable-
16. JOHN GIBSON (1791-1866).
ries" reliefs of witches' sabbaths and hobgoblins which were Head of a Horse. Marble, height 25". City Museum and Art
his specialty, and after having scoured Great Britain and
Gallery, Birmingham, England
Belgium in search of work, he returned to Paris. In March of
Settled in Rome, Gibson was to inherit the clientele of his
1849, desperate at his unrelenting failure, he shot himself to
teacher, Canova. He did the statue of Queen Victoria for the
death.
Houses of Parliament and that of Sir Robert Peel for West-
5. JULIEN DILLENS (1849-1904). minster Abbey.
Perseus. Bronze, height 36". Muses Royaux des Beaux-Arts,
17. GEORGE GARRARD (1760-1826).
Brussels
The Wild Horses of Duncan. 1797. Overdoor panel. Southill
Dillens learned much in Italy, a little too much perhaps, and
(Bedfordshire)
the mlange of a certain Latin mannerism with his native
1
Flemish liveliness ended up in poorly equilibrated works. 18. HENRI-ALFRED-MARIE JACQUEMART (1824-1896).
Nevertheless, his works decorate most of the great public Stag Hunt. Bronze relief plaque above fireplace. Traveller's

monuments of Belgium. Club, Paris (see p. 238, VI).

6. CHRISTIAN RAUCH (1777-1857). 19. PIERRE-JULES MNE (1810-1879).

The Young Girl oj Tanger miinde. 183132. Bronze, height 17". Fox Hunt in Scotland. 1861. Patined bronze, 21 X 29 X 14".
Nationalgalerie, Berlin Private collection, Paris
Though in his lifetime Rauch, a pupil of Schadow, was con- Alongside Barye there were a few naturalistic artists among
sidered the equal of the greatest artists of his generation, today whom Mne, Jacquemart, and Auguste Cain in particular
his work is considered to have little more than anecdotal proved themselves remarkable observers of the animal king-
value. dom.

7. ANTOINE-LOUIS BARYE (1796-1875). 20. lEVGENY ALEXANDROVICH LANCERAY (1848-1886).

Angelica and Roger Fleeing on the HippogriJ[. 1846. Bronze, Muzhik on Horseback. Bronze. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris
19 X 27^". Muse du Louvre, Paris Russian sculpture remained fundamentally Neoclassical and, so
 ANIMAL SCULPTURE 297

?V: '?) CVi Vj^'-^-^

to speak, Latin until the group calling themselves Mir Iskusstva drawings he sent back to Harper's he showed his penchant for
(The World of Art) attempted to revive the luster of the old preserving authentic detail, which ultimately led him into
Slavic folkloristic and peasant art. From the very academic sculpture late in his life. Numerous copies of his statues were
Klodt to the impressionistic Troubetzkoy, Russian animal cast, and these survive as documents of the dress and habit of a

sculptors enjoyed great success, no doubt because the Russians, vanished era in American history.
like the Americans, appreciated a good likeness of their famil-
iar animals. 25. EMMANUEL FRMIET (1824-1910).
The Basset Hounds Ravaget and Ravageole. 1853. Bronze. Guard
21. THOMAS THORNYCROFT (1815-1885).
Room, Chteau of Compigne
Queen Victoria on Horseback. 1853. Bronze, height 21^"; reduc-
tion of the large original shown at the 1851 Exhibition. Private 26. FRANOIS POMPON (1855-1933).
collection, London Stag Beetle. 1874. Terracotta sketch, 2 X ^h"- Muse des
Beaux-.^rts, Dijon
22. GUSTAV blXser (1813-1874).
Empress Alexandra Feodorovna, ne Princess of Prussia, on Horseback.
Pompon studied with Rouillard and Falguire and later worked
\9^". in Rodin's studio for twenty years.
1835. Bronze, height Staatliche Kunstsammlungen,
Dresden
27. PIERRE-JULES MNE (1810-1879).
23. HENRl-ALFRED-MARTE JACQUEMART (1824-1896). Hares. Bronze. Private collection, Paris
Camel Driver oj Asia .Minor (Souvenir oj Upper Egypt). 1869.
Bronze, height 5' I2". Muse des Beaux-Arts, Nantes 28. AUGUSTE-NICOLAS CAIN (1822-1894).
Hunting Dogs. 1880. Bronze. Park of the Chteau of Chantilly
24. FREDERICK REMINGTON (1861-1909). A student of Franois Rude, Cain was regarded as one of the
The Mountain Man. c. 1903. Bronze, height 28". Metropolitan best animal sculptors of the nineteenth century.
Museum of Art, New York
Remington traveled the West in the 1880s and 1890s fully 29. ROSA BONHEUR (1822-1899).
aware that he was recording a vanishing scene. In the numerous Bull. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris
298

30. THEODOR PHILIPSEN (1840-1920). the United States as late as 1920. The sons of the pioneers who
Bull. 1892. Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen inhabit that immense continent continued for long to be moved
by the sight of art works recalling life on the prairie. Likewise
31. ISIDORE-JULES BONHEUR (1827-1901).
they appreciate the work of their animal sculptors, among
Sheep. Bronze. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris
whom Proctor is rated one of the best.
A brother of Rosa, Bonheur did the stone lions on the stair-
Proctor grew up in frontier Colorado and developed a deep
way of the Palais de Justice, Paris
love for the wilderness. His first real opportunity to express
32. JULES .MOiGNEz (1835-1894). this came with the Columbian Exposition in 1890, where he
Snipe. Patined bronze, 3 X 2". In sales catalogue of Novem- did thirty-five models of animals of the American wilderness.
ber 20, 1969, Htel Drouot, Paris His Stalking Panther brought him national prominence, and later
was chosen as a farewell gift to Teddy Roosevelt by his cabinet.
33. LOUIS-GUILLAUME GROOTAERS (1816-1882).
Greyhound with Wounded Leopard Underfoot. 1858. Cast metal. 38. ANTON FERNKORN (1813-1878).
Saint-Cast (Ctes-du-Nord) The Lion oj Aspern f Memorial for the Aspern-Essling Battle, 1809 J.
1858. Sandstone, height without pedestal 6', length 15^".
34. ISIDORE-JULES BONHEUR (1827-1901).
Aspern (east of Vienna)
Stag. Muse du Prigord, Prigueux (Dordogne)
Monument to Austrian troops fallen in the battle of Aspern-
35. HARRY BATES (1850-1899). Essling against Napoleon.
Hunting Dogs on the Leash, c. 1889. Bronze, height 15". Private
collection, London 39. AUGUSTE-NICOLAS CAIN (1822-1894).
This is a small copy of the lifesize original commissioned by Tiger Family. Bronze. Gardens of the Tuileries, Paris

Lord Wemyss for Gosford House, and there is a version in

40. CARL MILLES (1875-1955).
plaster in the Tate Gallery, London Elephants. 1904. Stone, height 16". National Museum, Stock-
36. ARTEM LAURENTEVICH OBER (1843-1917). holm
Polar Bear. 1898. Plaster, painted; height 16i". Russian Muse-
41. EDGAR DEGAS (1834-1917).
um, Leningrad
Horse Walbng. c. 1870-80. Bronze, height 9". Lefvre Gallery,
37. ALEXANDER PHIMISTER PROCTOR (1862-1950). London
Stalking Panther. 1892. Bronze, height 6i". The Corcoran Degas' first sculptural studies were of horses, perhaps as studies

Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C. for his early racecourse paintings. Renoir insisted that Degas
The influence of Frmiet and Antonin Merci was still felt in was the greatest sculptor of the nineteenth century.

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 17. SCULPTURE AND RELIGION

How otherwise can one explain the fact

that in a century which counted so many great artists,

a Rude, a Carpeaux, a Rodin, a Bourdelle, a Maillol, a Despiau,

it was never to them that the ecclesiastical authorities turned but,

instead, to the marble-masons of cemeteries and washbowls,

suppliers oj spineless simulacra ?

PAUL CLAUDEL, Positions et propositions, le got du fade

the nineteenth century the question of religious art was being debated.
Throughout
Should it return to the images of the past? Should it modern trends ?
give in to the
The medievalists insisted that Gothic churches, not Greco-Roman edifices,
conform more faithfully to the spiritual needs of ordinary men's Chateau- souls.
briand w^rote in his Mmoires d'outre-tombe that "there is nothing marvelous about
a temple one has w^atched being built and whose echoes and domes have taken shape before one's
eyes" to the medievalists, it was wrong to claim that a wagon driver, for example, would
;

always feel at home when entering any house of God, no matter what its form or decoration.
The churches built by Soufflot and Chalgrin in Paris during the second half of the eigh-
teenth century were still reflections of ancient Roman temples. The Revolution was no threat
to Neoclassicism, and Napoleon built no churches. The church of the Madeleine, built in
Paris as a temple dedicated to Napoleonic fame and then destined to lodge the stock exchange,
was completed only in 1842 under the July Monarchy. With the reconstitution of the empire
the Church, backed by the monarchy, took steps to win back the power Napoleon had seized.
Despite its reactionary ideas and taste, the Church abandoned academicism and sought to ally
itself with the tastes of the day.
Between 1820 and 1830 new churches opened in Paris: St-Pierre-du-Gros-Caillou,
Notre-Dame-de-Lorette, St-Vincent-de-Paul, and Notre-Dame-de-Bonne-Nouvelle. King
Louis-Philippe gave his personal attention to the building of St-Ferdinand-des-Termes (rebuilt
in 1937) and corrected the plans for Ste-Clotilde. The appearance of these churches is gener-
ally cold and harmoniously arranged, with a measured richness which has a degree of charm.
The commission in charge of these works expressed the hope for "the good of art"
and "the advantage of the artists"
that harmony and clear order would reign in the decora-
tion of churches, and that the paintings and the statues would be made expressly for use in the
places they would occupy it declared itself opposed to the principle of crowding together,
;

as in public exhibitions, works that were not designed to enrich the edifice. These wise coun-
sels generally proved to be dead letters.

Following the Nazarenes in Germany, Ingres, Chassriau, and Prault demonstrated that they
found no incompatibility in being at once Christian and Romantic. Baudelaire, in L'Art
romantique, aisserted that "an artist can produce a good religious picture provided his imagina-
tion be capable of raising itself up to death" it was important to know how to recognize the
;

presence of God wherever found, and to reject the Romantic fakers. In all events, anything

315
316

would be better than to ask the faithful to kneel before those "fatuous platitudes"
and
"monkey tricks" of Ary Scheffer, and those "Descents from the Cross" and "Penitent
Magdalens" by many other artists in which Baudelaire and Gautier denounced the ambiguity,
silliness, and danger of the resurgence of this type of religious art.
The Neomedieval current was able to triumph so much the more easily because lovers of
art had been rediscovering since 1760 the importance of Gothic architecture, and the
faithful were discerning an authentically religious atmosphere in the cathedrals and chapels
built centuries before. For some time the word "medieval" had evoked the idea of a sincere
and naive faith.
The most determined adepts of this new religious art were the fashionable sculptors Ma-
rochetti, Triqueti, Felicie de Fauveau, and Count de Nieuwerkerke (the future Director of
Fine Arts under Napoleon III). Within a few years everything turned Gothic, as thirty vears
later they would turn Neo-Renaissance. Entire districts of Paris, such as the new Plaine
Monceau and the fringes of what would soon be the XVIth Arrondissement (centered on the
Trocadro), became studded with town houses that looked more like small fortresses built in
the Touraine countryside than functional houses designed for a great city.
The interiors of these new old houses corresponded to the exteriors. In his town house
in the new rue Tronchet, Count Pourtals set up a Neo-Renaissance chapel to house the
monument to Dante by Felicie de Fauveau. The Rothschilds also had a medieval oratory built
in the fashionable style.

At the outset some versions of the new style contrived to preserve an indisputable originality.
It was not a matter of pastiches but rather a moving or slightly humorous way of poetizing the

art of the past. These, however, were exceptions, of which more examples are found in Italian
cemeteries, especially Naples, than in the choirs of churches.
Generally speaking architecture and, even more, sculpture were unable to hold their
own against this style. The architects responsible for some two hundred churches built
between 1 840 and 1 860 in Europe settled for constructing dreary, soulless buildings decorated
w^ith paintings and statues which not only lack any trace of feeling but make the visitors feel
ill at ease..
Incapable of changing their ways, the architects could change their epochs: down with
the thirteenth century, up with the sixteenth. Decorators, sculptors, and painters seemed
scarcely able to imagine any alternative. At a time when poets hailed the beauty of modem
life, Baudelaire said in L'Art romantique of the Salon of 1859 : "One would say that politeness,
and the flat calm of fatuity have taken the place of ardor, nobility, and
puerility, incuriosity,
turbulent ambition." No one seemed capable of defining the forms of a contemporary and
original art.
Despite Baudelaire's critical remarks about eclecticism
"a weak man is a man without
love" no no sculptor, seemed able even to propose a truly modern and untradi-
architect,
tional building. In 1845 eighty-nine churches went up in ogival style; in 1852, some two
hundred churches or chapels in Romanesque-Gothic or Byzantine-Medieval. We know from
Madeleine Ochse's book, Un Art sacr pour notre temps, that it cost 121,181 francs 47 centimes
to build a handsome country church.

After having too long neglected addressing the masses, the Church in France, which had de-
prived itself of help from its following, was reduced throughout the nineteenth century to
allowing be dragged in the wake of reaction. For these reasons religious art remained
itself to
conformist for a long time. Only the new order of Assumptionists succeeded in galvanizing
the mass of the population and in bringing together quite considerable sums. To them and in
 SCULPTURE AND RELIGION 317

particular to their priest Amry Picard we owe those innumerable mission churches, as ugly
as they are soulless.
The then of the Symbolists, scarcely improved
arrival in force first of the Orientalists,
matters. The cathedral of Marseilles, built in 18S2, already prefigured the basilica of Sacr-
Coeur in Paris. Nostalgia for the Middle Ages was succeeded by that for the Byzantine and
Carolingian epochs
for Ravenna and Constantinople, but wholly redesigned.
was the same in the West. Saint Stephen's Church in Philadelphia and Trinity Church
It

in New York, both in Neomedieval style, or Trinity Church in Boston, built between 1872
and 1 880 in the eclectic style, suffice to give us a discouraging idea of the creative imagination
of American architects. So much pomp, barely concealed beneath false humility, makes these
houses of prayer look more like headquarters of religion.
To replace the medievalizing decoration fostered by the Nazarenes and the bas-reliefs
like those on the faade of St-Sulpice attempted to link their build-
in Paris, certain architects
ings with nature by avoiding the arbitrary application of motifs based on stone to architectural
surfaces. Their ideal w^as to provide for the faithful the image of a church like a greenhouse:
foliage, boughs, and flowers were cut directly into the pillars and walls or set into the stained-
glass windows, seeming to lighten the edifice without, for all that, making it pagan.
Under the influence of Art Nouveau theorists, themes and symbols which had now lost
their meaning were abandoned in favor of floral motifs. But one must seek elsewhere than the
basilicas and chapels of France, with few exceptions, for a translation of the spiritual message
into artistic terms. In England W. Reynolds-Stephens, in decorating the interior of the small
church in Great Warley, Essex, covered the vault in aluminum and surrounded the choir with
a screen composed of metal tree trunks that support a horizontal band of flowers. The natural-
istic motifs (rosebushes and foliated scrolls) were treated with a graceful reserve there ended ;

the imitation of Gothic or Byzantine. In Vienna members of the Secession movement such
as Otto Wagner and Koloman Moser were even bolder. The extreme sobriety and the rigor of
lines and volumes they provided for the church of Sankt Leopold in the Steinhof hospital give
the building a profoundly religious character.
Gaudi achieved the same result in his church of the Sagrada Familia in Barcelona, but in a
fundamentally different style in which medieval reminiscences intermingle with a Cubist play
of volumes. What the English and Austrians contrived to suggest by rigorous force and dis-
cipline the Catalan expressed spontaneously in an architectural and decorative language of
inexhaustible variety. In his Troisime Belvedere Andr Pieyre de Mandiargues calls Gaudi "a
sculptor as much as or more than an architect or decorator, and his conception of the relation-
ships of volumes with space, which was revolutionary at the time, has not ceased to be exem-
plary. What is more, one will find that of his real sculptures the most original, the most
. . .

elaborated, the most admirable are those which simply clothe the tips of shafts, the chimneys,
the ventilation openings."
 318

1. FRANOIS BAILLIARG (1759-1830). 6. ADOLPHE-VICTOR GEOFFROY DE CHAUME (1816-1892).

Angel with a Book. Wood, diameter 31". National Gallery of Funeral Monument of .Monseigneur Louis de Quelen, Archbishop of
Canada, Ottawa Paris. 1892. Marble. Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris
For a long time Canadian sculpture was of interest only for the The archbishop had died long before, in 1839.
naivety of its themes and the rustic simplicity of its execution.
7. AUGUSTE-HYACINTHE DEBAY (18041865).
To be acceptable to the religious authorities it had to remain
Funeral Monument of Monseigneur Denis-.Auguste Affre, .Archbishop of
prudish, to express a limited symbolism, and to arouse no pas-
Paris. 1865. Marble. Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris
sion that did not keep alive the faith of the descendants of the
Throughout the century religious sculpture in France remained
colonists from Brittany and Normandy.
resolutely Neoclassical and academic, as in this tomb of a prel-
2. URBAIN BRIEN Called DESROCHES (1780-1860). ate killed on the barricades of Paris in the insurrection of June,
Saint Luke and His Symbol. Wood relief, height 172". National 1848.
Gallery of Canada, Ottawa
8. FRANOIS-JOSEPH BOSIO (1768-1845).
3. JOS GINS (1768-1823). The Apotheosis oj Louis XVI. 1825. Marble. Chapelle Expiatoire,
The Massacre of the Innocents. Wood, painted. Real Academia de Paris

Bellas Artes de San Fernando, Madrid In his review of the Salon of 1845 Baudelaire said that Bosio "is
Spanish religious art in the nineteenth century rediscovered the much like Bartolini in the high qualities uhich distinguish great
emphatically dramatic accents of earlier times. Jos Gins and taste from the taste for the excessively true-to-life" but then
Jos Piquer y Duart had the merit of returning to the old added that his Young Indian Girl (p. 47, 42) "is a little lacking

medium of polychrome sculpture, and the work seen here in originality." In this statue, made for the chapel built between
recalls the prodigious pasos, so much a feature of Spanish 1815 and 1826 by Louis XVIII to expiate the guilt of the Rev-
church processions. olution, the angel (who resembles the Abb Edgeworth, the
king's last confessor) exhorts the executed king: "Son of Saint
4. VACLAV LEVY (1820-1870).
Louis, mount to Heaven Below one can read the royal last
!
' '

Christ with Mary and Martha. 1858. Marble. Narodni Gallery,

will and testament.
Prague
In Czechoslovakia before Myslbek's work, as in Poland which 9. After eugene viollet-le-duc (1814-1879).
was in the grip of Tsarist censorship, sculpture was generally Funer-al Monument of Monseigneur Le Clerc de Juign, Archbishop of
restricted to the most faded academicisms. Paris (d. 1809). 1865. Marble. Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris

5. JAKOB TARTARKIEWICZ (1798-1854). 10. JEAN-PIERRE CORTOT (1787-1843).

Christ Healing the Blind. 1828. Marble, height 24z". Muzeum Queen .Marie-.Antoinette Succored by Religion. 1827. .Marble. Cha-
Narodowe, Cracow pelle Expiatoire, Paris

ifc
 SCULPTURE AND RELIGION 319

Religion bears the features of the king's sister who went to the sack Yermak to Ivan the Terrible, while part of his activity was

guillotine in 1794, and inscribed on the base of the monument devoted also to glorifying the greatest martyrs of the West.
is the queen's last letter to her sister-in-law.
16. FRANOIS-MICHEL PASCAL Called MICHEL-PASCAL (1810-
The churches and chapels of Paris constitute a virtual muse-
1882).
um of nineteenth-century religious sculpture which, though
Descent from the Cross, Entombment, and the Three Women at the
usually without originality, at least has the merit of being per-
Tomb. Bronze bas-relief executed by Corbon. Cathedral of
fectly adapted to the edifice housing it, something not always so
Notre-Dame, Paris
in our times.
17. PRINCESS MARIE-CHRISTINE d'oRLANS (1813-1839).
11. CHARLES MAROCHETTI (1805-1867).
Resignation, statue on her own tomb. Marble. Chapelle Expi-
Saint Mary Magdalen Transported to Heaven. 1841 . Marble, height
atoire, Dreux
14' 9". High altar. Church of La Madeleine, Paris

Marochetti, a pupil of Bosio, belonged to that generation of 18. WILLIAM GOSCOMBE JOHN (1860-1952).
international and cosmopolitan sculptors equally at home and Saint John the Baptist. Shown at the Royal Academy in 1894.
equally famed in Rome, London, and Paris. .Although Luc Bronze. National Museum of Wales, Cardiff
Benoist is not wrong in criticizing him as "a frigid academic"
19. HENRI-JOSEPH-FRANOIS TRIQUETI (1807-1874).
and "a demi-Romantic," Marochetti deserves those epithets
good sculptors of the Door of the Ten Commandments (detail). 1838-41. Bronze, each
neither more nor less than do most of the
age.
relief48 X 462". Church of La Madeleine, Paris

12. FRANOIS RUDE (1784 1855). 20. GIOVANNI STRAZZA (1818-1875).

The Baptism of Christ. Marble. Church of La Madeleine, Paris Aaron. Much over lifesize. Court of the Archbishop's Palace,
Milan
13. JEAN-JACQUES called JAMES PRADIER (1792-1852).
The Marriage of the Virgin. 1842. Marble. Church of La Made- 21. After eugene viollet-le-duc (1814-1879).
leine, Paris Baptismal Font. Cast by mile-Just Bachelet (1892-?). Bronze

Pradier must have given a thousand proofs of his convention- and gilded bronze. Cathedral of Notre-Dame, Paris
ality to have earned from critics like Gautier, Baudelaire, and
22. CONSTANTIN-EMILE MEUNIER (1831-1905).
David d'Angers such damning judgments as "a retarded
Ecce Homo. 1890. Bronze, height 21 2". Muse Constantin
pagan. . . . His marble looks like carved lump sugar," or "he
Meunier, Brussels
is responsible for the pitiful state of sculpture," or again, "his
Here at last convention is left behind. The Christ, at the limit
is a cold and academic talent .... He has often prostituted his
of His strength, sits slumped like one of the proletarians who
chisel on subjects that ought to be ruled out of the domain of
were Meunier's favorite subject.
sculpture."
23. EMILE-ANTOINE BOURDELLE (1861-1929).
14. FRANOIS RUDE (HS^l 855). 28".
Saint Sebastian. 1883. Bronze, height Muse Antoine
Christ on the Cross (detail). Marble. Muse du Louvre, Paris
Bourdelle, Paris
15. MARK MATVEJEVICH ANTOKOLSKY (1843-1902).
24. AGAPiTO VALLMITJANA (died 1905).
Christ Before the People. 1874. Bronze, height 6' 4^". Russian
Saint John of God (detail). Polychrome wood. Asilo de San Juan
Museum, Leningrad
de Dios, Barcelona
The pose of this bound Christ is both beautiful and original.
Louis Rau has called attention to the singular career of this 25. ANTOINE-AUGUSTIN PRAULT ( 1 8 10-1 879).
sculptor. Son of a humble innkeeper in Vilna, despite his Jewish Christ on the Cross. 1840. Wood, height 8' 6^". Church of Saint-
origins and the tragic fate to which his people were exposed, Gervais-et-Saint-Protais, Paris
he threw in his lot with Muscovite nationalism and produced This remarkable wooden crucifix is installed in the Grande
statues of the greatest figures in Russian history, from the Cos- Sacristie.
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 18. FUNERARY ART

the great necropolises much is revealed about the customs and concerns of past genera-

In tions. To be convinced one need only through the old sections of the cemeteries in
stroll
Paris, Until the end of the eighteenth century the tombs were simple, as modest as must
have been the way of life for that part of the citizenry. For town and country cemeteries
held the remains of the common man; church dignitaries, princes, marshals, and parish
benefactors were usually laid in the crypt or choir of a cathedral ; aristocratic society reserved
to itself the privilege of being interred within the boundaries of their domains. own
The French Revolution, meticulous in establishing principles of equality, decided that
everyone, apart from certain exceptions, must be buried in a public cemetery. The law, how-
ever, did not carry the obligation to measure each reserved space moreover, it was possible
;

to acquire a concession for a shorter or longer time. Decorations and inscriptions were the
concern of each family as long as decency was observed. The ancestor cult that was already in
use under the Directoire recalls that practiced in Antiquity. It enabled families to record
their respectability, their fortune, and eventually their taste in the arts but contrary to earlier
;

times the aristocratic families practiced more discretion, for reasons of economy and also
perhaps for a reverse instinct for simplicity, whereas middle-class families spent more and
more to display their wealth. The tomb ceased to be the material receptacle for the deceased
and became an extension of the family dwelling. He and his descendants presented themselves
to posterity decorated with all forms of excellence, if not with all the possible virtues. The
general's high deeds were told; the politician's civic and republican virtues were praised; the
manufacturer's mausoleum rendered homage to the excellence of his products.

With the inception of the Third Empire the French enjoyed a veritable renaissance of funer-
ary art. To satisfy a demanding clientele the funeral directors rounded up everyone who
could cut marble and wield a chisel. As in the great necropolises of Antiquity, tombs followed
the currently fashionable style.
The dispute between the Neoclassic and Neogothic which began in the second half
styles,
of the eighteenth century, resulted in exquisite funerary arrangements which strove to adorn
death in the prettiest fashion this accounts for what remains of the beautiful small mauso-
;

leums built in the Pre-Lachaise Cemetery in Paris between 1760 and 1790. Now weathered,
they look like the false ruins built thirty years earlier in the parks of princes and great land-
holders.
Because the theme of death excited the Romantic imagination, the cemeteries are where
one can find the most authentic evidence of that style. There the sculptors were no longer
prisoners of some nor was the client in a state to refuse the work. For this reason
official jury,
David d'Angers, Prault, or Rude could here, more readily than elsewhere, give free rein to
his genius. At this time Rude's Napoleon in the park at Fixin, outside of Dijon, was much
criticized for its bizarre conception the dead Emperor throws back the shroud as he awakes
:

to immortality. Actually, if the work is strange, it is essentially Romantic. David d'Angers

was reproved in his turn for what Luc Benoist called misinterpretation in showing General
Gobert in the midst of action while, mortally wounded, he already hovers on the edge of
eternity
but never was David d'Angers closer to Gricault (see p. 80, 7, 4).

329


330

Christian Romanticism soon ceased to be the taste of the new middle-class society which
tended more and more to confuse good manners with morality. Naturalistic art, concerned
with detail and basically agnostic, tended to substitute symbolism lor diyinity and was well
designed to please and reassure the public. A neatly buttoned jacket was now preferred to a
floating toga. A certain taste lor precision, which began to appear about 1860 in the work of
Russian, German, and Scandina\ ian artists as well as certain southern sculptors, recalls the art
of the German and Flemish sculptors of the late fifteenth century.
A faith that remained strong fayored the great production of many Italian \\ orks in which
one finds both realism and naivety. The reat cemetery of Genoa, the Camposanto di Stagli-
eno, offers a prodigious vision of a new, specifically Latin funerary art. The works of Giovanni
Battista Cevasco, Antonio Besesti, Santo Saccomanno, Luigi Orengo, and Pietro Costa are vir-
tual documents of the tastes, beliefs, and anxieties of the Italian middle class. At every turning
one sees in what manner the inhabitants of the cemetery strove to make death less mysterious,
to render it familiar. Whether a notary, a grocer, or sea captain, all those petty kings, proud
of their wealth and former power, hoped in the long run to gain the attention of the Al-
mighty by presenting themselves dressed in their Sunday clothes. Numerous monuments
notably those bv Moreno, who is doubtless one of the few sculptors in the world to reproduce
even eyelashes rival in originality and in quality of workmanship those works carved a cen-
tury earlier in Naples by Antonio Corradini and Francesco Queirolo.
The national taste of the English for funeral monuments no doubt reflects that passion for
the Beautiful manifested by an elegant society that delighted in ceremonies and parties. In
addition, are not the superb funeral structures that they built the final proof of human
vanity, good pretexts for demonstrating against the rigors of Protestantism? Eager to leave a
prestigious image behind them, these refined Englishmen had an embarrassment of choice
among portrait artists: dressed in their uniforms, or with a bit of armor half-hidden beneath
a prettily draped toga, they posed for the sculptor, confident of carrying ofi a last success at
the Dance of Death.
In the eighteenth century the English had summoned from France Louis-Franois Roubil-
lac, and from Flanders Laurent Delvaux and John Michael Rvsbrack. In the early nineteenth
century, following the Napoleonic wars, hundreds of public and private monuments were
erected in Great Britain to the glory of a deed at arms or in memory of some individual. The
influence of the French sculptors and the tastes of their pupils, and of the English-trained
artists like John Bacon, Richard Westmacott, or Francis Chantrev, scarcely followed the
course of an evolution. Not until the Pre-Raphaelite revolution did the English taste, so long
marked by Neoclassicism tempered with Romanticism, begin to wane. Pre-Raphaelite
sculpture is neither Christian nor outright pagan. It is, rather, a symbolist and spiritualized
manifestation, free of all constraint and dogma, which seemed to arrive in time to aid an ever
more unbelieving mankind surmount some of its anxieties.

Funerary art enjoyed one of its most flourishing periods at the close of the century. The

modern style Art Nouveau, Jugendstil, or Floreale because it could express the excessive,
the strange, and even the morbid, responded more than any other to a certain idealization of
death that was dear to the Symbolists and Parnassians. On the other hand, the tombs designed
by Louis Sullivan, Giuseppe Sommaruga, and certain Bohemian artists are more architectonic,
more somber, and already modern, announcing Cubism and the modern art of the twentieth
century. Anguish and grief are expressed with reserve, in a manner which has become our
own.

Walking along the paths of certain cemeteries, one can appreciate the artistic riches they con-
 FUNERARY ART 331

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tain. In Parisabout 1900, Pre-Lachaise still held 626 mausoleums, of which 470 came from
the chisels of experienced sculptors; that of Montmartre counted 131 signed monuments;
that of Montparnasse almost 300 sculptured groups : there were nine works apiece by
Barrias, Chapu, and Prault, thirty-five by David d'Angers, fifteen by Etex, two by Rodin.
The Montmartre and Pre-Lachaise cemeteries are veritable conservatories of small
architectures. Section by section, the people of the dead lie beneath monuments that were
fashionable in their time, and they seem to invite us to stop a moment. Of Neoclassical art
there remain exquisite small temples, perfectly proportioned; of the Romantic era there are
evidences by the hundred, from a simple slab adorned by a stone garland to vast Neogothic
332

chapels as prideful as they are naive.The outer sections are entirely in the so-called Plaine-
Monceau style, small replicas of buildings whose originals could still be seen thirty years ago
in the XVIIth Arrondissement, The final residences of the wealthy bourgeoisie, now mostly
deserted by the living and inhabited by legions of cats, shelter the remains of personages who
could be found in the pages of Balzac, Feydeau, or Zola.
Today's tourists, even when they are lovers of the past, seem to feel some distaste about
those places v/here they too must finally rest, and they tend to postpone their visits. Rather
than call upon Balzac, Baudelaire, Delacroix, the Imperial generals, Sarah Bernhardt, Rossini,
Victor Noir, or Oscar Wilde, who repose in these solitary parks, they are drawn to the
ancient dead and betake themselves to the Keramaikos Cemetery in Athens or haunt the con-
demned streets of Herculaneum and Pompeii. And yet, on certain fine wintry days, the path-
ways of Pre-Lachaise, of the Cimitero Monumentale in Milan, or of the vast cemeteries of
Genoa or Naples offer the stroller unusual sights, worthy of the brush of De Chirico, Magritte,
or Delvaux.

By the end of the nineteenth century sightseers and connoisseurs were already worried about
the future of these funerary monuments. In 1875 Charles Guellette expressed concern over
the abandoned state of the tomb of the painter Prud'hon; twenty years later Henri Jouin
warned that the monuments of the composers Grtry and Bellini and of the actress Madame
Dugazon were approaching ruin. f
In 1895 the improbably named Osiris requested from the prefecture of the Seine "the
authorization to carry out at his own expense various jobs of reconstruction or repair for vari- I

ous tombs of famous men who lie in the Parisian cemeteries and whose sepulchers are un- ^

worthy of their glory, either because of their abandoned state or because nothing marks them
for the attention of posterity." His solicitude was shared by the critic and art historian Henri '

Havard, who was calling in the same period for the State to classify as historical monuments
the neglected graves of famous citizens and thereby guarantee their upkeep. 1|

very well
Despite the care taken by different conservation commissions to maintain generally
the necropolises of Paris, it seems that a certain number of sculptures, among
them medallions by Prault, have disappeared since Henri Jouin succeeded in making the first
inventory of the artistic treasures contained in the cemeteries of Montmartre, Montparnasse,
and Pre-Lachaise. V
But in the long run the Historic Monuments commissions can do nothing against the too-
brief time limitations for burial plots, the indifference of families, and often the poor quality
of the materials used. Government funds should be made available to preserve those mausole-
ums. In many cases their beauty and their historical importance will make them, if preserved
from ravages of weather, the object of admiration for visitors from near and far.
 FUNERARY ART 333

1. THOMAS BANKS (1735-1805). 12. JEAN-BAPTISTE-LOUIS PLANTAR (1790-1879).

Monument to Captain Richard Rundle Burges. 1802. Marble. St. Tomb of Marshal Prignon. Stone. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise,
Paul's Cathedral, London Paris
The motifs decorating the stele are admirably disposed, and the
2. ANTONIO CANOVA (1757-1822). whole recalls certain attributes carved by Molitor twenty years
Tomb of the Archduchess Maria Christina. 1798-1805. Marble,
earlier. Marshal Prignon fought against Spain in the Revolu-
height 19'. Augustinerkirche, Vienna
tionary wars.

3. JOSEPHUS JOHN PINNIX KENDRICK (1791-1832). 13. PAUL DUBOIS (1829-1905).

Monument to Colonel Sir William Myers. 1817. St. Paul's Cathe- Meditation, detail from the tomb of General Lamoricire. 1879.
dral, London Cathedral, Nantes
This is one of four statues decorating the tomb of this general
4. FRANCIS CHANTREY (1781-1842).
and politician of Nantes (1754-1818). The ensemble is admi-
Monument to David Pike Watts. 1817-26. Marble. Parish church.
rable and shows the extent to w hich sculptors remained attached
Ham (Staffordshire)
to the Florentine Quattrocento tradition.
Chantrey imbued his funeral monuments with a sentimentality

pushed to the limits of affectation. His great reputation among 14. PIERRE CARTELLIER (1757-1831).
contemporaries came from his portrait busts. Tomb of Dominique- Vivant Denon. 1826. Bronze. Cimetire du
Pre-Lachaise, Paris
5. JOHN CHARLES ROSSI (1762-1839).
It took a certain courage in the early nineteenth century to
Monument to Captains .Mosse and Riou (portion). 1802. .Marble.
present in such simple attire and everyday pose a man of such
St. Paul's London
Cathedral,
importance; Vivant Denon (1747-1825) was Napoleon's ad-
Rossi and Tumerelii were honorable representatives of that
visor in artistic affairs, and was rewarded by becoming
constellation of Italian artists to be found in all the capitals of
Director-General of the museums of France.
Europe.
15. THO.MAS CRAWFORD (1811 or 1813-1857).
6. RICHARD WEST.MACOTT (1775-1856). The Babes in the Wood. 1851. Marble, length 482". Metropolitan
Monument to Generals Pakenham and Gibbs. 1823. Marble. St. Museum of Art, New York
Paul's Cathedral, London Based on a nursery rhyme.
Finical faces, affectedly simple movements, no inspiration.
16. PIERRE-FRANOIS-GRGOIRE GIRAUD (1783-1836).
7. RICHARD WESTMACOTT (1775-1856). Project for the Giraud Family Tomb. 1827. Wax, length 5' 7^".
Monument to Grace Bagge. 1834. Marble. Stradsett (Norfolk) Muse du Louvre, Paris
Here Westmacott made a few efforts to give his work a touch
17. ANONYMOUS.
of Romanticism. Unfortunately, the scrolled pediment above
Mother and Child on a Tomb. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise, Paris
the inscription makes a weighty ensemble.
In the nineteenth century death still came too often for the "in-

8. JOHN BACON (1740-1799). nocents," young mothers and infants.

Monument to Samuel Whitbread. 1798. Marble. Cardington (Berk-

18. IVAN PETROVICH MARTOS (1753-1835).
shire)
Funerary Monument to Mme M. . Sobakina, ne Princess Mesberska.
The motifs of monument seem conceived in a
this funerarv
1782. .Marble, width c. 45". A. W. Shtushussev Scientific
ballet-like manner. Bacon won the first gold medal awarded for Museum of Architecture (formerly Donskoy Abbey), Moscow
sculpture by the Royal Academy.
19. .MARIUS-JEAN-ANTONIN MERCI (1845-1916).
9. JOHN FLAX.MAN (1755-1826). Memory. Formerly Muse du Luxembourg, Paris
Monument to Lady Fitzharris. Marble. Priory Church, Christ-
church (Hampshire)
20. ANONYMOUS.
Tomb of Louis-Sbastien Gourlot. 1816. Cimetire du Pre-La-
10. VICTOR BALTARD (1805-1874) and jean-marie-bienai.m chaise, Paris
BONNASSIEUX (1810-1892). For the new middle-class society, funerary art was the occasion
Tomb oflngres. Marble. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise, Paris to display its titles and virtues. No one would think of casting
Baltard designed the marble monument to Ingres (d. 1867), doubt on the qualities attributed to the deceased his sensibil-
Bonnassieux the portrait bust. Here harmony contends with ity, his generosity nor of depriving the \%idow and children
classical simplicity ; a few plant motifs introduce a note of of the sad privilege of being confounded with grief. Incised in
fantasy. granite were such noble Classical and Romantic dicta as VAE
11. ANTOINE iTEX (1808-1888).
VICTIS and AUX .MANES (the latter translatable as GONE TO
Tomb of Thodore Gricauh. 1841. Stone and bronze. Cimetire
HIS ANCESTORS, the former as WOE TO THE VAN-
QUISHED).
du Pre-Lachaise, Paris
Baudelaire had no love for the work of tex: "We might under- 21. JOSEF VACLAV .MYSLBEK (1848-1922).
stand a musician wishing to ape Delacroix, but a sculptor, Sarcophagus of Vaclav Svagrovsky. 1877-79. Marble. Narodni
never! O great cutter of stone ! Why do you want to plav the Gallery, Prague
violin?" (Salon de 184S). Nevertheless, here tex realized a Slavic artists too found in funerarv art the occasion to exploit
work as simple as it is charming; the bronze relief reproduces the Romantic themes and, especially, the symbols found every-
Gricault's Raft of the Medusa (1819). where in the cemeteries of the West.
334

22. STEPAN STEPANOVICH PIMENOV (17841833). 33. FLICIE DE FAUVEAU (1799-1886).

Model for the Tomb of Michael Ivanovich Kozlovski. 1802. Plaster. Monument to Miss Louise Favreau. 1858. Marble. Medici Chapel,
Russian Museum, Moscow Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence
Kozlovski (1753-1802) was a Neoclassical sculptor who had The sculptress, a French royalist exiled in Florence, made this
studied in Paris. burial monument to a young American girl ; the pompous ar-
rangement is happily mitigated by the graceful soaring of the
23. EUGENIO PELLINI (18641934).
figure.
Monument of the Baj Macario Family, c. 18981902. Marble and
bronze. Cimitero Monumentale, Milan 34. ARTURO MELIDA Y ALINARI (1848-1902).
Italian funerary art in the later nineteenth century was divided Monument to Christopher Columbus. 1892. Base of white stone,
between the realism particularly appreciated by the lower mid- height c. 5'; over-lifesize figures of polychromed repouss
dle classes and the symbolism so dear to those above. bronze. South transept, Cathedral, Seville (brought in 1899
from the cathedral, Havana)
24. EDM-ANTONY-PAUL NOL Called TONY-NOL (1845-1909).
Melida was a painter, architect, sculptor, and restorer of his-
The Reber Tomb. 1883. Marble. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise,
torical buildings. On the very simple base of this astounding
Paris
monument stand four huge heralds wearing surplices and dal-

25. ALBERT PASCHE (bom 1873) matics embroidered with floral motifs and the arms of the

Tomb. Marble. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise, Paris Spanish states; they bear aloft a coffin of most peculiar shape.
The entire group is polychromed and has a somewhat Japanese
26. JULIEN DILLENS (1849-1904). air about it.

Tomb Figure. Marble, height 382". Muses Royaux des Beaux-

35. GIACOMO MORENO.
Arts, Brussels
Father and Son, portion of Tomb of the PicoUo Family. 1891 . Cam-
27. VINCENZO VELA (1820-1891). posanto di Staglieno, Genoa
Tomb of the Countess d' Adda. 1849. Marble. Museo Vela, Ligor- One does not know which to admire more here, the naivety
netto (Lugano) of the composition or the sophistication of the trompe-V oeil
The Italian-Swiss Vincenzo Vela, disciple of Bartolini and of which makes us notice the texture of Genoese velvet carved in
Dupre, was able to check that tendency toward mannerism granite.
typical of many of his compatriots. He was a verist who, in
36. DiMiTRios FiLiPOTis (bom 1839).
some respects, especially late in life, prefigured the realism of fl
Funeral Stele of Eustathis (detail). Marble. Cemetery, Athens
Constantin Meunier. This tomb, executed when he was twenty-
The naturalness of this figure is entirely within the tradition of
nine, is both realistic and moving.
Greek funerary sculpture.
28. LORENZO BARTOLINI (1777-1850). 37. TIENNE-HIPPOLYTE MAINDRON (1801-1884).
Monument to Countess Sofia Zamoyska Czartoryski. 18374-4. Mar- Tomb cf Admiral Bruat. 1857. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise, Paris
ble. Basilica of Santa Croce, Florence Admiral Bruat (1796-1855) commanded the French fleet in its
This remains one of the masterworks of historicizing and Ro- Crimean expedition, 1854-55.
mantic funerary art. Baudelaire made much of the "taste," the
"nobleness," the "grace" of the works by this Italian sculp-
38. LOUIS-ERNEST BARRIAS (1841-1905).

tor, a pupil of David d'Angers. Tomb of Anatole de La Forge, Defender of Saint-C^uentin on the Somme
^r
in 1871. 1893. Bronze. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise, Paris
29. CHARLES-REN DE SAINT-MARCEAUX (1845-1915). De La Forge (1820-92) was a publicist and politician who be-
Tomb of Flix Faure. Bronze. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise, Paris came famous in the resistance movement.
Faure was president of the French republic from 1895 to 1899.
39. ANONYMOUS.
30. AIM-JULES DALOU (1838-1902). Tomb of the Dolgorouki Family. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise, Paris
Tomb of Victor Noir. 1890. Bronze. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise, An illustrious Russian family, particularly Pierre Vladimirovich
Paris (1807-68), the historian.
This is one of the most astounding recumbent tomb figures in
40. GIOVANNI SCANZI (1840-1915).
the history of sculpture.
The realistic details worn clothing,
The Pilot of Life, portion of Tomb of the Carpaneto Family. Marble.
boots, the top hat fallen on the ground
convey a feeling of
Camposanto di Staglieno, Genoa
drama and ternbilit to the monument to this journalist, shot to
The struggle of life is symbolized here by a ship facing a storm,
death by Prince Pierre Bonaparte.
its sail furled by an angel.

31. ANTONIO TEIXEIRA LOPES (1866-1942). 41. JEAN vrrsARis (1844-1892).

History, detail of thetomb of Oliveira Martins. 1900. Bronze. Funeral Stele of Sophia Helmi. White and gray marble. Cemetery,
Cemiterio dos Prazeres, Lisbon Athens
Medievalism, because it evokes drama and glory, is particularly
42. JEAN-PIERRE DAVID Called DAVID d'angers (1788-1856).
suitable for mortuary sculpture.
Young Greek Girl on Tomb of Marco Botzaris, Fighter for Greek Inde-
32. GIOVANNI SCANZI (1840-1915). pendence. Salon of 1827. Marble original destroyed; plaster

Lady in Waiting, Monument to Ester Piaggio. 1885. Marble. Cam- model, height 31". Muse des Beaux- Arts, Angers
posanto di Staglieno, Genoa It was about this statue that Marceline Desbordes- Valmore
A typical Genoese funerary monument with its mlange of wrote her famous verses (free translation) "The graceful child
: !

realism, medievalism, and mannerism. That naked innocence/ Caught up in dreaming on the marble of
 FUNERARY ART 33S

a tomb !/ How I love her kneeling, thoughtful, artless,/ Spelling Tomb of F. Barbedienne. Bronze sculpture. Cimetire du Pre-
out a page so profound and beautiful !/ She awakens death be- Lachaise, Paris
neath her fresh prayer:/ Her juvenile grief knows neither cries Boucher did the lifesize bronze statues, Chapu the bronze bust,
nor tears./ Young angel The future will water your blossoms,/
! for this elegant and well-balanced monument to one of the
For the name of David is imprinted on your stone. (The name ' '
most celebrated metal founders of the century (see p. 86).

she traces is actually, of course, Botzaris.)

49. SANTO VARNI (1807-1885).
43. DANIEL CHESTER FRENCH (1850-1931). Monument of the Lazzaro Patrone Family. 1876. Camposanto di
The Angel of Death and the Sculptor (Milmoie Mmorial) . 1891-92. Staglieno, Genoa
Marble, copy (1926) of original bronze; height 7' 8". Metro-
50. NOL-ETIENNE FESSARD (1765-1839).
politan Museum of Art, New York
The Dias-Santos Tomb. 1832. Marble. Cimetire du Pre-
This stele, by one of America's most highly regarded sculptors
Lachaise, Paris
of the late nineteenth century, is a replica of the bronze monu-
ment in Forest Hills Cemetery, near Boston, raised to the
51. AUGUSTUS SAINT-GAUDENS (1848-1907).
memory of Martin Milmore, who died at thirty-seven. He was The Adams Memorial. 188691 . Bronze and marble. Rock Creek
the author of Boston's monument to the Civil War dead, and
Cemetery, Washington, D.C.
French took the sphinx on the relief from one of Milmore 's Not a public monument to a national hero but Henry Adams'
pieces in Mt. Auburn Cemetery. memorial to his late wife, this enigmatic figure is considered
44. LORENZO BARTOLINI (1777-1850). the most abstract major image of nineteenth-century American

Modelfor the Monument to Count Anatolius Demidoff. Salon of 1840. sculpture. Adams gave Saint-Gaudens no instruction about the

Carrara marble, height 42". Galleria d'Arte Modema, Flor- memorial except that it symbolize "the acceptance, intellectu-
ence ally, of the inevitable."

This model was conceived as a memorial to be erected in the

52. JACQUES DE LALAING (1858-1917).
gardens of the Demidoff villa. Count Demidoff was a Russian-
Tomb Figure. Bronze. Private collection, Brussels
Florentine philanthropist. It was not completely realized in full
Not even the northern countries escaped the Symbolist con-
scale, with changes, until twenty years after the sculptor's
ventions.
death, and then as a public monument to be set up on the bank
of the Amo. 53. JOSEF MAUDER (1854-1920).
Funerary Monument. 1893. Bronze. National Cemetery of the
45. Monument to the Painter Henri Regnault and to Pupils of the
Vysehrad, Prague
cole des Beaux- Arts Killed in 1870-71.
Mauder followed the usual development of Central European
Monument after designs by Ernest-Georges Coquart (1831
from Neoclassicism to Symbolism to Art Nouveau.
sculptors,
1902), bronze bust of Regnault by Dgorge, marble figure of
Youth Offering an Olive Branch by Henri-Michel-Antoine Chapu 54. ERNESTO BAZZARO (1859-1937).
(1833-1891). Cour du Mrier, cole des Beaux-Arts, Paris
Tomb with Playing Children, c. 1898-1902. Bronze. Cimitero

46. ALEXIS-HIPPOLYTE FROMANGER (1805-1892). Monumentale, Milan

The Schoelcher Tomb. 1840. Bronze. Cimetire du Pre-Lachaise, Italian funerary monuments of the late nineteenth century seem
Paris designed to accustom the living to the idea of death. Life is

The bronze medallion, 1894, after the death of Victor Schoel- shown as a game, death as a peaceful haven.
cher, French politician and ardent opponent of slavery, by
55. ERNESTO BAZZARO (1859-1937).
Emmanuel Hannaux (1855-1934).
Monument oj the Pasquale Crespi Family, c. 1898-1902. Marble.
47. JEAN-ANTONIN CARLES (1851-1919). Cimitero Monumentale, Milan
Tomb of Henri Cernuschi. 1897. Bronze. Cimetire du Pre- The base of this handsome monument recalls those of the build-

Lachaise, Paris ings erected in the same years in Milan and Turin by the
This droll little monument to the benefactor (1821-96) who architect Raimondo D'Aronco, who worked in the style of the
willed his house and collection of Asiatic antiquities to Paris Viennese Secession.
irresistibly recalls the display kiosks (the "colonnes Morris")
56. LEONARDO BISTOLFI (1859-1933).
which were put up all over the city at this time.
Holocaust. Private collection, Milan
48. ALFRED BOUCHER (1850-1934) and henri-michel- At the close of the century certain sculptors turned toward the
ANTOINE CHAPU (1833-1891). most excessive eccentricities of Art Nouveau.
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 19. SENSUALISM

Salons under the Ancien Rgime paid tribute to the return of the child-
The last

woman. Weded her swing, she sails into her conquest ol a rich landowner. The
in
milkmaid's daughter marries the farmer's son
who dies at Wagram, lea\ing her a
pregnant widow with a decent pension for life.
Romantic society in the time of Balzac was even less interested in sculpture
than in painting, and remained prudish. Yet verv strange thrills ran over the epidermis ol its
sculptured females. The Swiss sculptor Pradier imprudently exposed his poor Chloris to
Zephyr's burning breath; German Romantics explored the labyrinths ol sleep; as lor France,
is it the eflect of suffering that contorts Clesing'er's nudes? Morality was powerless against the
fantasies that peopled the dreams'of a disquieting; universe.
The Realist sculptors, in illustrating the social condition of women, show us more or
less unwittingly the evolution of sexuality and sensualism.
If the Romantics, Flaubert in particular, contributed to opening women's eves to their
own moral taboos that were even more inflexible than in the preceding century
status, the
forced women to dream of their other life. It is psvchodramas of this sort that sculptors set
free in their blocks of stone women who had not detached themselves from their servile con-
:

dition could Hnd comfort in the sight of those sculptured slaves, white or black, their wrists
in chains, who await the delicious instant when the master will deli\er them over whipped,
even crucified
to the executioner's whims.
Eve w^as invited to join the g^ame Delaplanche shows her stultified w ith boredom, before
:

the Fall; Dagonet lets us see her afterward, hiding her face behind her arm and weeping
though who knows? it may be from joy. From the Romantics to Huysmans, the Devil that
evil intercessor
is always present. He meditates; he takes his time. To make himself less

frightening he turns himself into a faun, and when the long-awaited sin is at last consummated
nothing remains for his victim but the ultimate jov of spreading; the news, just as the powers
of the Church vacillated, so the demon ends bv grow ing old
and Madame Bovarv has no wav
to excite him. The Devil's claws are succeeded bv the paws of wild beasts, another wav for a
woman to yield to pleasure beneath constraint. Morality can always be rescued.
Under the Third Republic woman continues to dream, but this time it is of revenge.
With a protecting gesture she now caresses the neck of the swan the warrior throws himself
;

at her feet; the jungle feline, tamed, begs a kindly pat. ... As the years pass, muscular force
yields to grace and the women who w^atch at the palace gates drop their guard once caryatids,
:

now androgynes.
The moralists vainly launch rearguard actions: Barrias's Nature, Mysterious and Veiled,
Unveils Herself Before Science starts a scandal. The family press castigates "suggestive" sculpture.
But young people devour the pages of the weekly La Vie Parisienne.
Man, in his turn, urges the Devil to force him to fulfill his most secret instincts; the
women take tickets for Lesbos. Homosexuality, the prerogative of a hitherto clandestine
minority, tries its powers on the arts, letters, and fashion. The ''Pelle astres''
so Jean Lorrain
dubbed those who swooned at Debussy's Pelleas and Mlisande drop their masks and an-

361
 362

nounce themselves, thinking rightly that society would end by admitting them. As in the
Renaissance, men's practice adorning themselves with jewels, exhibiting surprising
ol
cigarette cases, strolling the avenues with exquisitely carved walking stick in hand, encouraged
painters such as WoUers, Gilbert, Koloman Moser, and Augustus Stewart to become sculp-
tors, then chasers of precious metals.

1. E.MILIO FRANCESCHI 0839-1890). 1 1 . EUGNE DELAPLANCHE (1836-1891).

Eulalia, the Christian Martyr. 1880. White marble, height Eve Before the Fall. Marble. Formerly Muse du Luxembourg,
7' 42". Galleria d'Arte .Moderna, Turin Paris

Saint Eulalia of Merida was martyred at the age of twelve.

12. ERNEST DAGONET (1856-1926).
2. JEAN-JACQUES Called JA.MES PRADIER (1792-1852). Eve After the Fall. Salon of 1891. Marble. Formerly Muse du
Chloris Caressed by Zephyr. Salon of 1849. Marble. Muse des Luxembourg, Paris

Augustins, Toulouse
13. PAUL DE VIGNE (1843-1901).
3. FRANOIS JOUFFROY (1806-1882). Poverella (Poor Young Thing J. Marble, height 50". Muses
Young Girl Confiding Her First Secret to Venus. Salon of 1839. Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels
Marble, height 5' 3z". Muse du Louvre, Paris
14. SRAPHIN DENCHEAU (1831-1912).

4. CYPRIAN GODEBSKI (1835-1909). Woman Caressing a Chimera. 1866. Bronze. Muse des Beaux-
Arts, Angers
Persuasion. Bronze. Muse des Beaux-.Arts, Lille

15. THODORE-LOUIS-AUGUSTE RIVIRE (1857-1912).

5. .MARK .M.ATVEJEVICH ANTOKOLSKY (1843-1902).
.Math at the Feet of Salammb. Model. .Muse des Beaux-Arts,
Mephistopheles. 1883. Marble, height 5' 8". Russian Museum,
Dijon (the definitive work was in the Muse du Luxembourg,
Leningrad
Paris)
The work embodies the idea of evil spreading through the
Morality is safe: Flaubert's Salammb has been reduced to
world.
slavery. . . .

6. JULES-ANTOINE DROZ (18041872).

16. KARL PETER HASSELBERG (1850-1894).
Evil Genius. 1838. Marble. Park of the Chteau of Compigne
The Frog. 1890. Marble, 32^". Konstmuseum, Goteborg
7. ERNEST CHRISTOPHE (1827-1892).
17. GIACOMO GINOTTI (1837-1897).
The Supreme Kiss. Marble. Formerly Muse du Luxembourg,
Slave. .Marble, height 5' 1". Galleria d'.\rte Moderna,
Paris
Turin
This work illustrates a poem by Leconte de Lisle, of the
Parnassian school. 18. .MAX KLINGER (1857-1920).
Amphitrite. 1894-95. Polychrome marble, height 6' 10".
8. PAUL-EUGNE BRETON (1868-1933).
Nationalgalerie, Berlin
Confidence. Whereabouts unknown.
It is often difficult to distinguish the erotic from the simply 19. BENJA.MIN PAUL AKERS (1825-1861).

silly. Dead Pearl Diver, c. 1857. .Marble. S\Neat Art .Museum, Port-
land, Maine
9. ALBERT-ERNEST CARRIER-BELLEUSE (1824-1887). Aftersome success in Washington as a portrait sculptor, Akers
Satyr and Bacchante. Terracotta. Formerly Muse du Luxem- worked in Rome mostly on ideal subjects. This piece was a
bourg, Paris. great popular success in a period sentimentally preoccupied

10. JEAN-AUCUSTE DAMPT (1853-1946).

with death, and was Akers' last major work he died at age
thirty-six.
A Kiss for the Knight. Silver and ivory. Collection Comte de
Ganav, Paris 20. EMMANUEL FRMIET (1824-1910).
Contrasting materials add to the violence and suggestiveness of Gorilla and Woman. Salon of 1887. Bronze. .Musum d'Histoire
this group. Naturelle, Paris
 SENSUALISM 363

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"I have positively and patiently discovered that work by M. 23. AUGUSTE RODIN (1840-1917).
Frmiet represents human intelligence carrying with it the idea The Hand of God. c. 1895. Marble, height 25". Muse Rodin,
of prudence and folly" (Baudelaire, on the Salon of 1859, Paris

writing on an earlier work by Frmiet). Frmiet, in addition to

24. CAMILLE CLAUDEL (1856-1920).
his many large-scale sculptures, taught drawing in the Musum
Flute Player. Bronze. Collection Flavian, Paris
d'Histoire Naturelle.
Resolved to remain Rodin's helper, Camille Claudel con-
demned herself to live in the master's shadow to the detriment
21.JOHN-ALEXANDRE-JOSEPH FALGUIRE (1831-1900).
Woman with Peacock. Salon of 1890. Marble. Muse des Beaux- of her own career. At last her mind, never very stable, gave
way completely. Her brother, the renowned Catholic play-
Arts, Toulouse
wright Paul Claudel, who adored her, describes for us the out-
Falguire often gave proof of his talent, never of his genius. A
work come: "Around 1913 she used to be seen going out furtively
graceful and sensitive sculptor, his is by and large gay and
in the morning, gathering a few scraps of miserable nourish-
unpompous.
ment. One fine day the hospital employees found their way into
22. .MILE-ANTOINE BOURDELLE (1861-1929). the back room and laid hands on its terrified inhabitant, who
At the River. 1890. Plaster, height 6". Private collection, Paris had long been waiting for them amid plaster casts and dried-out
Bourdelle belongs to the modem world. His few works in this clay. The disorder and filth were, as the saying goes, indescrib-

book were made before 1900, but they already exhibit the able. Outside, the ambulance was waiting." In the preface he
originality of the sculptor whose teacher, Rodin, encouraged devotes to his sister on the occasion of the retrospective exhi-
him to liberate himself from all secondhand ideas including bition of her work, Claudel scarcely tells us more about what
those inculcated by the author of the Gates of Hell. he calls "the Parisian legend" than this lamentable story.
h

IX. DSIR-MAURICE FERRARY (1852-1904). The Queen of Sheba.

Figure, three different marbles; throne, gilded bronze; gold jewelry;
panther, black marble. Galleria II Levante, Milan
r^i^
il
10
13
14

M
y^i:^
I
18
19
20
21
w
 20. KITSCH - ^^^ v\

nineteenth-century artist who aspired both to mirror the society around him and
The to satisfy the morahstic ideals of his cHents had to bow to a certain conventionaHty.
But the sculptor was more exposed to criticism than the painter because a realistic
sculpture is so much easier to "read," while the audacities of a painting often
succeed in being lost in the masses of color, the play of perspective, and a show of
technique.
The visitors to the sculpture Salons based their judgments on their common sense and
their spirit of observation. As in the Oriental theater, artists and art lovers acted out and ap-
preciated a spectacle which was entirely conventional. The viewer was aware of lovely move-
ments and facial expressions, and attached great importance to the artist's choice of model he ;

found it logical that in a beautiful female body with a comely face there should also be a right-
eous soul.
Love remained much-appreciated subject, on the condition that it was limited to the
a
first blush: passion might ruin a prettv face. Under the pretext of truth or naturalism one

could exhibit any nude without being constrained, as in the previous centur\-, to use a fig
leaf. Whole series of adolescent bovs, barely nubile, were exhibited, and silly little girls dis-

plaving birds' nests or sea shells, paltry symbols of their femininity. These poses and mimicries
were principallv aimed at exciting the imagination of the viewer while hiding from the
moralists' eyes what such a representation might contain of the perverse or obscene.
The contemporaries of Bouvard and Pcuchet, Flaubert's two characters who dealt in
platitudes and misunderstood thoughts, were deep thinkers. To express contemplation the
model had to be seated; his fist clenched, supporting his chin, he stared at something. The

more he concentrated, the further away had to be the object of his attention very far, per-
haps even in the hereafter. Death and its consequences were likewise excellent subjects. The
affliction of widows, the face dissimulated behind a mourning veil, could produce a sur-
prising trompe-l'oeil effect with the help of a fortunate puff of wind orphan girls show woe-
;

begone faces the head thrown back and eyes turned up combined w onderfully to record
;

bereavement and sorrow\

But those "little virgins who generally have their public," as Baudelaire described them,
and which amuse as much as they irritate us today, were not to everyone's taste at the time
they were produced. Baudelaire and Gautier denounced their mannerism, and the falsity' and
h^-perhysteria of their gestures. Both also expressed disgust at statuary that was falsely satanic,
because it turned grotesque when it compromised the Romantics' passion for Novalis and the
German poets. Further, in the way of criticism, Baudelaire chastised the "feeble parts" of
Bartolini's work in the Salon of 184S,and in other connections he used phrases such as
"scrawny attempts at energy and elegance," or "the unbearable Rococo of Romanticism"
and "these minutiae and their puerilities." In 1846 he said of Klagmann that he belonged to
"that playful and flutter)^ school" of Pradier, that "he has spent his life fattening up a few
;

377
378

Antique torsoes and fitting the coiffures of kept women onto their necks." The annoyance felt
by a small minority toward sculpture dedicated to triumphant stupidity was followed by a
general outpouring of jokes and ridicule.

Today our desire not to be duped and in art less than in anything else makes us particularly
wary about an art devoted to nice sentiments. Those inspired eyes, those tortured hands can-
not make us forget the shameless bodies and poses. The self-righteousness of this symbolic-
social art irritates us it is the triumph of the pompous, the paroxysm of a hypocrisy which
;

accepted perversion and even obscenity provided they were a bit regretful, clothed with good
intentions, and crowned by the Salon. Whether through decadence of taste or a sadism that
refused to admit its name, everyone loved despairing girls if grief had disrobed them, and
pitiful girls if misery had not yet withered their breasts. Oriental and barbaric girls were ap-
preciated ; their morals may not be ours, but they are authentic, aren't they? French sculpture
had exhausted itself; senile, it got lost in trying to follow the path of Clodion, Carpeaux, and
Dalou. Around 1900 most sculptors plagiarized poses rather than seeking the meaning that
motivated them. This is why Minne, Maillol, and Bourdelle turned against all forms of af-
fectation.
France was not alone in falling into such traps. Pomposity is a Western phenomenon, and
for painters like the Dutch Alma-Tadema or the German Menzel it was a matter of reconcil-
ing Naturalism and Impressionism with the anecdotal.

But after all this criticism, it is the duty of our generation, better informed about what our
grandparents adored or discarded, to justify their opinions with the greatest prudence. In art,
the ridiculous and the naive are often mixed together. It has taken five or six centuries for us
to recognize the importance of popular statues made by artisans at the behest of humble rural
communities. A century or two may be needed to perceive the value of what has so long been
dismissed as insignificant. It may be some time before the frock coat or lounge suit are admit-
ted to the dignity of historical costume. But what makes us laugh above all is that certain re-
dundance in gesture and expression. One need only examine Dutch realistic painting of the
seventeenth century to see with what care the artists, conscious of this danger, painted what
they saw without ever renouncing their role of objective observer : not expressed
the feeling is

by the sitters but by the world to which they belong; their poses remain simple and natural.
And if, in the eighteenth century, people deplored the sight of so much talent spent on
portraying vulgar and gross creatures, at no time did anyone dream of labeling such paintings
as silly.

1
I
 KITSCH 379

1. REINHOLD BEGAS (1831-191 1). Taste and feeling, however, have changed much in the past

Pan and Psyche. 1857. Marble, height 6' 3". Nationaigalerie, century. Thus this statue and his Chinese Acrobat, hailed in his

Berlin time as masterworks, strike us now as paragons of Kitsch.

Though Begas was one of the best official sculptors of the Ger-
many of Kaiser Wilhelm 11, he was never able to rid himself of 7. TIENNE-HIPPOLYTE .MAINDRON (1801-1884).
Shepherd Boy Bitten by a Snake and Succored by His Dog. 1834.
his taste for the picturesque.
Marble. Muse des Beaux-Arts, Angers
2. sTANisLAv sucHARDA (1866-1916): Maindron not infrequently showed much talent and on several
Lullaby, c. 1892. Bronze, height 23^". Narodni Gallery, uhom he was a
occasions collaborated uith David d'Angers, ol
Prague pupil. A belated Romantic, his work seems to lack personality

3. REINHOLD BEGAS (1831-191 1).

today.

Venus and Cupid. 1864. Marble, height 43". Nationaigalerie,

Berlin
8. JOHN GIBSON (1791-1866).
Psyche Borne Aloft by the Zephyrs. 1822 (this copy 1827). Marble.
4. LORENZO BARTOLINI (1777-1850). Galleria Corsini, Rome
Princess Napoleona, Daughter of Elisa Bonaparte Baccbiochi. Marble,
Museum, Rennes 9. PIETRO TENERANl (1789-1869).
The sculptor frequently immortalized members of Napoleon's Psyche Fainting. 1822. Marble, height 462". Galleria Nazionale
family. d'Arte Moderna, Rome
5. ERASTUS DOW PALMER (1817-1904).
10. RANDOLPH ROGERS (1825-1892).
First Disappointment. 1861. Marble, height 462". Walters Art
Nydia, the Blind Girl of Pompeii. 1853. Marble, height 55".
Gallery, Baltimore
MetropolitanMuseum of Art, New York
Palmer's work was thought to be wholesomely American ; that
Moved by Buluer-Lvtton's novel The Last Days of Pompeii, 1834,
is, drawn from nature rather than ancient art. His simplicity,
which enjoved immense success, the sculptor was pleased to
naturalism, and American themes brought him critical acclaim
give us here his idea of the heroine blinded by the fiery ashes of
and public success.
Vesuvius. Originally sell-taught, Rogers went to Florence to
6. VINCENZO GEMITO (1852-1929). study with Bartolini, later settling in Rome among the large
The Little Fisherboj. 1876. Wax. Galleria Nazionale d'Arte group of expatriate American sculptors, \ydia was one ol his

Moderna, Rome most celebrated works, selling over 100 or so marble replicas.
Gemito had much technical ability and made incomparable Rogers also did the bronze doors for the east entrance to the
sketches in wax of scenes he claimed to take directly from life. rotunda of the Capitol in Washington.


380

11. CAMILO TORREGGIANl (bom 1820). 15. ADOLF VON HILDEBRAND (1847-1921).
Bust of Queen Isabella 11 of Spain. 1855. Museo Municipal, Madrid Leda. 1890. Marble, 25 X 20". Staatliche Kunstsammlungen,
Dresden
12. ALBERT-ERNEST CARRIER-BELLEUSE (1824-1887).
Terracotta. Muse Municipal, Laon
16. JEAN-AUGUSTE BARRE (1811-1896).
Vestal Virgin.
The Ballerina Maria Taglioni. 1837. Bronze. Muse des Arts
13. ISTVANFERENCZY (1792-1856). Dcoratifs, Paris
Shepherdess. 1862. Marble. Hungarian National Gallery, Buda- The famous Swedish ballerina danced at the Paris Opra from
pest 1827 to 1847.

14. JOHN ROGERS (1829-1904). 17. VICTOR PETER (1840-1918).

John Alien and Priscilla: "Why Don't You Speak for Yourself, The Muse. Marble. Formerly Muse du Luxembourg, Paris

John?" 1885. Plaster, height 22^". Newark Museum, Newark, 18. JEAN-AUGUSTE BARRE (1811-1896).
New Jersey Queen Victoria. 1837. Bronze. Collection Alain Lesieutre, Paris
As every American schoolchild was once made to learn, John In this year Victoria, aged 18, became Queen of England.
Alden was sent to propose marriage to the fair Priscilla on be-
19. CA.MILLI.
half of the governor of the colony of Massachusetts, Miles
Little Boy with Bass Viol and Umbrella. Bronze. Collection Alain
Standish, but himself fell in love with her. Though we might
Lesieutre, Paris
think her sly or even contriving, the wise young lady finally
In this work and the following, the quality of Kitsch attains a
pushed the conscience-ridden young man over the brink by
certain sublimity and verges on something one might almost call
asking her immortal question. Rogers was a mechanic who, as
Surrealist.
a pastime, modeled small groups in clay and eventually became
one of America's favorite sculptors. Plaster copies of his liter- 20. ARISTIDE-ONSI.ME CROISY (1840-1899).
ary and commonplace scenes were issued in the thousands The Nest. 1882. Marble, lifesize. Formerly Muse du Luxem-
an answer to the demand for works of art at modest prices. bourg. Paris
 I
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11 12
13 14
 il

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20
 21. THE UNUSUAL; THE BIZARRE

We have already noted the point at which works intended to represent a

initially
historical or mythical event can soon appear ridiculous with changing times,
morals, or fashions. Similarly, certain sculptures tend to strike us as extraordinary
though their authors conceived them in a quite different spirit.
Our conception of the unusual or bizarre seems to have been bom in the
Romantic spirit of Germany and England. For a lon^ time, however, the drawings of William
Blake, the animate flowers of Granville, and the citadels with warriors' heads bv Gustave Dor
were considered to be oddities. Not appeared did anyone seek the deeper
until psychoanalysis
reasons that led a few artists and writers in each generation to take pleasure in the bizarre.
Actually, the Roman anamorphoses, the animated gardens of Charles VI, the grottoes m.ade of
shells, the objects suggesting death and vanity all these testify to men's irresistible urge to

reconstruct in one way or another some shreds of dream ima2;es not entirely driven away by
daylight and subsisting, more or less buried, in the depths ol the unconscious.
Our reactions to such fantasy are generally conditioned by our relations with the super-
natural and inexplicable. When the supernatural returns to the list of admissible ideas, the ex-
traordinary tends to disappear. In the past, men suspected divine intervention or the evil
presence in happenings on earth or in the heavens, or in other phenomena now scientifically
explained, and these events were thought to be extraordinary. This is why Bosch's hells or
Ligier Richier's dead figures devoured by worms were not found at all bizarre or strange by
the contemporaries of those artists
more familiar than we are with death, though less so
with the subconscious such scenes were simply taken to present diverting, edifying, or, at
;

most, terrifying spectacles.

While princes willingly sent to the stake the authors of works devoted to magic and
occult sciences, the Church was more indulgent toward artists. There is scarcely a trace of
proceedings against the stonecarvers who peopled the tympanums and capitals of churches
with figures agitated by satanism and the demons of the flesh.

Following the French Revolution, one might expect the new agnostic or scientific society to
rid itself easily of the repertory of mvths and legends instead one observes a revival of symbol-
;

ism, both social and religious, as if people were trying in this way to counter the extreme
moralism which raged more than ever among the contemporaries of Balzac. The somewhat
cynical prankishness one senses in the works of Clodion or Falconet was succeeded by the
most conventional themes. Winged cupids, maids with downcast eves, and veiled widows
suggested Love, Innocence, and Death. There was no question here of the occult or the bizarre
but only of "refined" imagery.
Certain historical or social scenes escaped from the conventional precisely because their
authors were willing to make them factual. Any historical reconstruction, even if it strives for
authenticity (artists' studios were litteredwith arms and finery of the past to be used as
models), will risk appearing to the eyes of later generations as a more or less naive and con-
ventional representation. Only a special manner of idealizing the subject or of creating a poetic

389
 390

and dreamlike atmosphere can save such scenes from ridicule, and Gustave Dor, Robida, and
Victor Hugo (referring to his wash drawings) succeeded in giving their works such overtones
of strangeness. When Gustave Dor modeled a knight in armor, who, face hidden behind a
helmet, plays leap-frog over the bent back of a fat monk in homespun robe, he may have been
trying to surprise the viewer more than to amuse him, but in any case the effect is irresistible.
In comparing the following illustrations with those in the preceding chapter on "Kitsch,"
one sees that the margin between them is often narrow. Gilbert Bayes' Knight-Errant, Ernesto
Biondi's Saturnalia, and Achille d'Orsi's Parasites (p. 391, 2, 3, 5) escape being justly called
ridiculous by proving themselves, in the end, fantastic.

Ancient artists already understood how sculpture could be given a surprising aspect by the
choice of materials, and even more by certain ways of combining them: gold and ivory, in
chryselephantine works, or precious substances like gold, amber, or ivory juxtaposed with
iron or brass, the barbaric metals. Great nineteenth-century artists, especially Germans with
a passion for ancient art, often used these procedures, sometimes to the detriment of the
strength of their work.
The taste for the extraordinary also gave rise to extravagance in movement or to the
artist's power in making models take poses that defy the laws of equilibrium, as in Giorgos
Vroutos' Genius of Copernicus or Gustave Dor's Acrobats (p. 392, 13, 15); in the latter work
the excessive stiff^ness of the bodies and fixed expressions of the faces suggest that the artist,
rather than reproducing a real episode, was attempting to ennoble a moment in the act of a
troupe of traveling acrobats,

II
I
In the work of Carabin, a woodcarver in the Vosges mountains, one finds the most sincere
I
and original products of bizarre sculpture of the last century (p. 392, 27, 28). Everything is
intermingled^realism, popular art, sensualism, poetical symbolism, and the Wagnerianism

then so strong along the Rhine and the whole is brought to a unique technical perfection.
Carabin does not seek his effects in choosing precious materials or rare finishes but in his
understanding of the carving of wood. He has the same knowledge of his craft as the great
German sculptors of the Renaissance, and the genius of the eighteenth-century Venetian
Brustolon, Like the latter, but with more originality and, above all, ambiguity, he has given
surprising and unheard-of forms to such everyday objects as furniture, cabinets, chairs. And
unlike the Salon artists. Carabin sought his models among women of the working class. Their
hair dressed like the workwomen in Steinlen's lithographs, Carabin's broad-hipped, heavy-
breasted women sensual and maternal in equal measure could have illustrated the pages of
Zola, de Maupassant, or Maeterlinck,
 THE UNUSUAL; THE BIZARRE 391

1. WILLIAM LUKE (1790-1839). 7. VICTOR ROUSSEAU (1865-1954).

Tawanend, cast of figurehead from U.S.S. Delaware, launched at Demeter. 1898. Marble, height 462". Muses Royaux des
Norfolk, Virginia, in 1820. Polychromed plaster (original, Beaux-Arts, Brussels
wood). United States Naval Academy, Annapolis, Maryland
8. LON MIGNON (1847-1898).
2. GILBERT BAYES (1874-1953). Ladj Godiva. Bronze. Muse des Beaux-Arts, Lige
Knight-Errant. 1900. Silver, length 25". In auction catalogue The art of Mignon, a Belgian from Lige, often has much in

of November 11, 1969, Sotheby's, London common w ith that of Frmiet.

3. ERNESTO BIONDI (1855-1917). 9. MIKHAIL ALEKS.'VNDROVICH VRUBEL (1856-1911).

The Saturnalia. 1888. Bronze. Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moder- Head of a Demon. 1890. Painted plaster. Russian Museum, Len-
na, Rome ingrad
Vrubel meets the challenge here of creating an expressionistic
4. GUSTAVE DOR (1832-1883).
work without becoming either stereotyped or ridiculous. This
Leap-frog. Bronze. Collection Fred Jouaust, Paris
was a theme, however, to which he turned many times, perhaps
Despite the comicality of this piece by the artist who illustrated
a manifestation of his own tragic obsessions which ultimately
Balzac's Droll Tales, it is infinitely less fantastic than the etchings
led to madness. His last five vears were spent in an asylum.
he made of similar subjects.
10. MAX KLINGER (1857-1920).
5. ACHILLE d'orsi (1845-1929).
The New Salome. 1893. Four colored marbles, eyes in amber;
The Parasites. 1877. Bronze, 45" X 6' 6i". Galleria d'Arte
height 342". Museum der Bildenden Kiinste, Leipzig
Modema. Florence
Klinger does not answer to what we usually expect from a
6. VICTOR ROUSSEAU (1865-1954). sculptor. Indifferent to convention, he remains especially sensi-
The Sisters of Illusion. 1907. Marble, height 6' 2". Muses Royaux tive to the richness of materials, and as to emotion he prefers
des Beaux-Arts, Brussels the fantastic.
Some day Victor Rousseau will be accepted among the great
11. FERNAND KHNOPFF (1858-1921).
sculptors of his time. Albert Mockel wrote about his work in
Mask of a Young Englishwoman. Polychromed plaster, height 16".
1904: "The body of the elder, by its noble attitude, recalls
Muses Royaux des Beaux-Arts, Brussels
very vaguely the awakening Adam in Michelangelo's Creation

of Man. But the sentiment and the language of the lines are 12. JEAN-LON GROME (18241904).
quite otherwise. Here there is more abandon; all the relaxed Sarah Bernhardt. Tinted marble. Muse du Louvre, Paris
muscles express the repose of meditation and not the expect- This surprising and even disturbing work reveals an unknown
ancy of life and of effort to come." side of Grome.
 392

13. GIORGOS VROUTOS. Bugaboo. Bronze, height 18". Muse Royaux des Beaux-Arts,
The Genius of Copernicus. White marble. National Picture Gal- Brussels
lery, Athens
22. gaetano callani (1736-1809).
14. JOSEPH-MARIA-THOMAS Called JEF LAMBEAUX (1852-1908). Caryatid, c. 1778. Marble. Hall of the Caryatids, Palazzo Reale,
Wrestlers. 1895. Bronze, height 7' 62". Koninklijk Museum Milan (virtually destroyed in 1943)
voor Schone Kunsten, Antwerp See p. 239, 6.
Lambeaux gave free rein to his Flemish temperament while, at
the same time, evading both the naturalism so much in style in 23. Attributed to auguste rodin (1840-1917).
his time and the excesses of some adepts of Art Nouveau. His The Seasons. Private collection
Fountain of Brabo on the main square of Antwerp is one of the
24. BOLESLAS BIEGAS.
most astonishing and most successful works of the epoch.
Spring. Gilded bronze, 35 X 10". Galleria II Levante, Milan
15. GUSTAVE DOR (1832-1883).
Acrobats. Bronze, height 5O2". John and Mable Ringling Muse- 25. MIGUEL BLAY (1866-1936).
um of Art, Sarasota, Florida Saint George and the Music of Catalonia, statue group on the Palau
de la Musica Catalan (architect Lluis Domenech y Montaner),
16. ZACHARIE ASTRUC (1835-1907).
Barcelona
The Mask Vendor. 1883. Bronze, jardin du Luxembourg, Paris
I
The masks are portraits of Balzac, Barbey d'Aurevilly, Banville, 26. VACLAV LEVY (1820-1870).
Berlioz, Carpeaux, Corot, Delacroix, Dumas fiis, Faur, Gam- Fantastic Heads carved from rocks in the forest of Libechov,
betta, Gounod, and Victor Hugo. Czechoslovakia. 1841
To our knowledge there are no other examples from the nine-
17. GUST.AVE DOR (1832-1883).
teenth century of this "savage" type of primitive art.
Terror. Salon of 1879. Bronze. Collection Fred Jouaust, Paris

18.JUAN ROIG Y SOLER (1835-1918). 27. FRANCOIS-RUPERT CARABIN (1862-1921).

Woman with Umbrella. 1884. Fountain. Parque de la Ciudadela, Statuette of a Woman. Boxwood. Collection Maurice Rheims,
Paris
Barcelona
Verism and naturalness save this work from seeming ridiculous.
28. FRANCOIS-RUPERT CARABIN (1862-1921).
19. JENS FERDINAND WILLUMSEN (1863-1958). Table. 1890. Walnut, height 3U". Collection Maurice
War. 1897. Statens Museum for Kunst, Copenhagen Rheims, Paris
The female figures supporting this table are so placed as to
20. Attributed to sarah Bernhardt (18441923).
make it seem that contrary to custom the piece of furniture
Fantastic Animal. Bronze. Collection Michel de Bry, Paris
rests on only three legs. Everything here is surprising, from the
This very strange work, generally thought to be by the great
faces of his workwoman models to the tabletop made to re-
actress, seems the product of the union of various underw ater
semble a huge account book. As a creator of furniture Carabin
concretions.
is related to the greatest of the medieval carvers of church
21. GIDE ROMBAUX (1865-1942). decoration.
 0if<m@'"Wf/&:
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25

26
 22. PRECIOUS MATERIALS

Descriptions of nineteenth-centurv houses, whether those of the bourgeoisie of

Balzac and Flaubert or of wealthy real-life merchants in London or Moscow, tell us
how much they enjoyed being surrounded by extraordinary bric--brac. These
objects were curios rather than objets d'art, and were placed in interiors whose
decoration was stylized rather than genuinely old.
The XVIIth Arrondissement of Paris was for many years like a Versailles for the French
and international upper class. Some of the houses were pervaded by an atmosphere that no
decorator would know how to recover todav. A few have escaped demolition, and their wood-
work carved under the Second Empire seems infinitely richer than the Gothic mansions they
took as their models, executed five centuries earlier. Such richness ended by giving town
houses the look of a wilderness, so that one could find it natural to meet a lifesize bear carved
in oak and rolling its ivory eyes, whose true vocation was to receive the visiting cards left by
callers. Dancing girls of silver twirled around the creature, as if to charm him their garments
;

were incrusted with enamels to turn the heads of ivory w^arriors, who, their gold torsos girded
in armor of burnished steel and with onyx-bladed broadswords in hand, pretended to defend
to the death the tea platters loaded with petits Jours iced in blue, turquoise, emerald green,
and fuchsia. Dominating all this, a bird of prey modeled by Frmiet clenched in its beak the
tube of the gaslight chandelier.

Napoleonic field marshals and parvenu merchants showed a passion for objects carved in
precious materials. In 1805 Chaudet produced an over-lifesize allegorical statue of Peace in
solid silver, thanks to the metal derived from melting down the monuments containing the
hearts of Louis XIII and Louis XIV (page 14, /).

With the Restoration architects saw themselves as stage designers for epic tragedies :

their rich clients were reading Walter Scott, Victor Hugo, and Alexandre Dumas, and rlso
Ponson du Terrail, and dreamed of those castles once occupied by the characters in Stendhal's
Italian novels. Rather than trying to pry genuine antiques from their rightful owners (usually
still locked inside mansions that were inaccessible to the trade), art dealers approached clever

craftsmen, mostly grouped in the le Saint-Louis and nearby, who were past masters in iron-
work, enamels, and woodcarving. Among those craftsmen one finds the names of the great
sculptors of the time: Feuchre, Klagmann, Triqueti, Geoffroy de Chaume, and even Barye
turned out incense burners, tankards, armor, daggers. Baudelaire wrote of the Salon of 1846
that "as soon as sculpture permits being viewed close up, there are no niggling details and
puerilities that the sculptor does not dare to do, surpassing triumphantly what is found on all
the peace pipes and fetishes. When it becomes an art for the salon or the bedchamber one gets
the Caribbeans (savages who practice craftsmanship for its own sake) of lace, like M. Gayrard,
and the Caribbeans of the wrinkle, the hair, and the wart, like M. David." He was equally
merciless toward Feuchre, possessor of "the gift of a desperate universality colossal figures,
:

matchboxes, jewelry designs, busts, and reliefs he is capable of everything." Thophile
Gautier cites the case of Vetsche he produced goldsmith work and armor in Gothic or
;

405
406

Renaissance style, later sold as authentic by those art dealers who, like Arnoux in Flaubert's
ducation sentimentale, ran a business where "one found a bit of everything modern pictures
:

and sculptures, ancient bibelots, books, and catalogues of the Salon," Until the eye became
more selective, about 1900, many of these pieces decorated the cabinets of art lovers
throughout Europe. From Thiers to Spitzer, the greatest amateurs were taken in. As their
wealth increased, industrialists and merchants aspired to own objects which testified to their
taste and fortune it was a resurgence of the situation in the late fifteenth century when de-
;

signers and craftsmen outdid themselves to supply princes and bankers with the most unusual
and sumptuous objects.

But the best "fakers" wearied of recopying and reinterpreting works executed by older mas-
ters. Spurred by a creative passion and encouraged by a clientele whose taste was developing,
they set to creating original objects on their own. By 1860 one could find in the Salon sculp-
tures whose charm lay in their originality and modest dimensions "statuettes," said Gautier,
:

"with which one can live and which ask as a pedestal only a pier table or a mantelpiece, and
will not drop like a bomb through the ceilings below,"
Yet, from the time sculpture began to lose its traditional dimensions and became small
enough to grace a private salon, it lost in the aesthetic realm what it gained in the popular
domain. The taste for the ornamental statuette was found in every country. After 1875, statu-
ettes issued in ten to fifteen thousand copies were displayed in department stores in Germany at
a price within reach of anyone. Do we not find the same situation today, when printmakers,
with limited editions, claim at the same time to take on an artistic mission and to reap sub-
stantial benefits for their efforts?
The vogue was for Neo-Renaissance busts. Black slaves and Indian chiefs were carved in
white marble, then loaded with semiprecious stones. And sculptors around 1880 rediscovered
the advantages of ivory, as in the ancient, Byzantine, and medieval art and like the great
craftsmen of sixteenth-century Nuremberg and Augsburg. The tonality and grain of ivory pro-
vide, when used for representing the female nude, remarkably lifelike effects, and its capacity
to take on color from other materials led to attractive combinations with gold, silver, or box-
wood. Colored glass pastes also enchanted the amateurs of Art Nouveau with effects of trans-
parency and glazed surfaces.

At time social and political problems were intruding upon the domain of aesthetics and
this
philosophy. Those concerned with applied art spoke in missionary tones of the obligation of
the artist in the new society: to create beautiful objects, low in cost, which would be acces-
sible to all budgets.
But too much effort was spent realm to the detriment of the aesthetic, and
in the material
more Wcis sacrificed to picturesqueness as the century neared its end. As Jean Cassou put it so
well with regard to Jean-Lon Grome, whoever wished to succeed as a painter or sculptor
in those years had to "have the wisdom to stay with the weaknesses and strengths of the
system." Though Grome is viewed today with much disdain, in his time he enjoyed a success
equal to that of our greatest contemporary painters. He took his profession with great serious-
ness he traveled abroad and missed none of the international expositions, keeping abreast of
;

everything new in techniques and fashions. Late in life he suddenly abandoned painting for no

apparent reason he was still winning gold medals at every Salon
to devote himself to sculp-
ture (p. 391, 12). In turn an Orientalist and then a Parnassian, he was especially enthusiastic
for the pagan and anacreontic genres he worked in polychromy and gold-and-ivory tech-
;

niques, trying to transpose Heredia's Parnassian sonnets into sculpture.

 PRECIOUS MATERIALS 407

1. MAX KLINGER (1857-1920). 12. ALFRED GILBERT (1854-1934).

Beethoven. 1886-1902. Greek marble from Syra, Pyrenees Saint Flizabeth of Hungary. Polychrome bronze with ivory face,

marble, alabaster, amber, bronze, ivory, mosaic strips of an- height 18". Property of the Kirk Session of the parish church,

tique class tesserae, aaate, jasper, mother-ol-pearl, gold leaf, Kippen (Stirlingshire)

height including pedestal 10' 2". Museum der Bildenden This is a variant of a hgure on the monument to the Duke of
Kiinste, Leipzig Clarence in the .Albert Memorial Chapel, Windsor Castle, de-

Here \ve are far from Bourdelle's version (see p. 256, 61). The signed by Gilbert 1892-98.
only point in common is the admiration of both sculptors for
13. JEAN-AUGUSTE DAMPT ( 1 8 5 3-1 946).
the musician and their insistence on transcending a likeness of
Kefiective .Mood. 1898. Carved ivory, metal, and wood. Col-
his features.
lection Comte de Ganav, Paris

2. JEAN-AUGUSTE BARRE (1811-1896). Dampt made a show of wearing huge leather aprons to prove
Portrait of the Tragedienne Rachel. 1848. Ivory, heiaht 17:^". himself kin to the "true" craftsmen ot the past; his contem-
Muse du Louvre, Paris poraries compared him ith Giambologna and Cellini.

The areat actress of French classical tragedy (1820-58); see p.

14. LUCA MADRASSi (active 1869-1914).
88, 7; p. 253, IS.
Women Kissing. Ivory, boxwood, gold, silver, and pearls. Col-

3. ANTOINE CHAUDET (1763-1810). lection Maurice Rheims, Paris

Peace. 4805. Silver, silver gilt, height 5' 8". .Muse du Louvre,
15. LO LAPORTE-BLAISIN (1865-1923).
Paris (see also colorplate I, p. 14)
RohI. Silver and marble. In auction catalogue ot September
Each Salon, beginning in 1801 \s ith his Young Oedipus (p. 46,
3, 1970, Sotheby's, London
34) and the lollowing vear with his Cupid and Butterflj, marked
tor Chaudet another rung on the ladder ol glory. Peace \sas ex- 16. PAUL GAUGUIN (1848-1903).
ecuted in 1805 with the help ot Cherest, an-excellent gold- Tobacco Jar. Varnished terracotta, height 1 \". Muse du Louvre,
smith. Paris
The inscription on the bottom reads: "The Sincerity of a dream
4. JULIEN DILLENS (1849-1904).
to the idealist Schutenecker. Souvenir Paul Gauguin."
.allegretto. 1897. Ivorv and silver, base of marble and copper,
The tollowing examples ot objects sculpted, modeled, or cast in
height 24". Muse Roval de l' Afrique Centrale, Tervuren
terracotta or glass paste belong more properly among the ap-
(Brussels)
plied arts than to sculpture. Thev are particularly revealing of
5. AUGUSTIN-JEAN MOREAU-VAUTHIER ( 1 83 - 89 3)
1 1 .
the intluence ot Art Nouveau.
The .in of Painting. Ivorv, green quartz, and silver, height 19".
17. NIELS SKOVGAARD (1858-1938).
In auction catalogue of September 3, 1970, Sotheby's, London
Aage and FIse. 1887. Terracotta with colored glass, height I82"
6. CHARLES VAN DER STAPPEN ( 1 843-1 9 1 0). Statens Museum tor Kunst, Copenhagen
The .Man uith the Foil. c. 1881. .Marble and bronze, height 6' 1
1"
18. CESAR-ISIDORE-HENRI CROS (1840-1907).
Muses Royaux des Beaux-.\rts, Brussels
Incantation. Salon of 1894. Colored glass paste. Collection
7. CHARLES-HENRI-JOSEPH CORDIER (1827-1905). Madame B. Lorenceau, Paris
.Algerian Jewess. Bronze, partly enameled, with onyx and por-
19. CSAK-ISIDORE-HENRI GROS (1840-1907).
phyry. Muse des Beaux-.Arts, Troyes
The Story of Water. Earthenware. Formerly Muse du Luxem-
8. CHARLES-HENRI-JOSEPH CORDIER (1827-1905). bourg, Paris
Negress. Salon of 1861. Bronze and marble. Muse du Louvre,
20. HERBERT ADAMS (1858-1945).
Paris
Primavera. 1893. Polychromed marble, height 21 2". The Cor-
9. HENRI ALLOUARD (1844-1929). coran Gallery of Art, Washington, D.C.
Fulani Tribeswoman. Bronze and veined marble. Formerly Muse In 1890 .Adams began a bust ot a beautiful American girl who
du Luxembourg, Paris was studying in Paris, then put it aside unfinished with the in-
tention of one day carving it in marble, a medium in which he
10. ELISEO TUDERTE FATTORINI (?-?).
was highly skilled. The eventual result, exhibited at the Coluni-
Woman in .issjrian Stjic. Various marbles, height 5' 7". Private
bian Exposition ot 1893, proved to be this springlike personi-
collection, London
fication ot American youth. It was exhibited several times at
11. JULIEN GAUSS (active after 1890). the National Academy of Design and, in 1945, at the National
The Ice Fairy. Bronze and crystal. Reproduced in An Dcoratif, Sculpture Society to which Adams belonged for half a century,
February, 1901, p. 182. From the Hies of Sotheby's, London and ot which he was twice president.
 1

il

i
X. CHARLES-HENRI-JOSEPH CORDIER (1827-1905). Bust of a Sudanese
Negro. 1856-57. Marble, onyx, bronze; height 31". Muse du Louvre,
Paris. See also p. 20, 37; p. 407, 7, 8
T
 '"%--

0^f \
t

I
11 ~ 12

13
 14

15
 17

19

^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

GENERAL

Hamilton, George Heard, 19th and 20th Centuries Art: Painting, Sculpture, Architecture, New York, 1970
Huyghe, Ren, L'art et l'homme, Larousse Vol. 3, Paris, 1961
Licht, Fred, Sculpture 19th and 20th Centuries, Greenwich (Conn.), 1967
Molesworth, H. D. and P. Cannon Brookes, Histoire de la sculpture europenne de l'poque romaine Radin, Paris, 1969
Novotny, Fritz, Painting and Sculpture in Europe, 1780-1880, Penguin, Baltimore, 1960

BELGIUM and THE NETHERLANDS

Bosmant, Jules, La peinture et la sculpture au pays de Lige de 1793 nos jours, Lige, 1930
Daalen, P. K. van, Nederlandse beeldhouwers in de negentiende eeuw, The Hague, 1957
Fierens, Paul, L'an en Belgique du moyen ge nos jours, Brussels, 1939
Goris, Jan Albert, La sculpture moderne en Belgique, Brussels, 1952
Lemonnier, Camille, Constantin Meunier, Paris, 1904
Pierron, Sander, La sculpture en Belgique, 18301930, Brussels, 1931

CZECHOSLOVAKIA, POLAND, HUNGARY, ROMANIA

Ali, Jusuf, Meitrovi and Serbian Sculpture, London, 1916

Dobrowolski, Tadeusz, d., Historia sztuki polskiej, Cracow, 1962
Gador, E., Hungarian Sculpture, Budapest, 1955
Geist, Sidney, Brancusi, New York, 1975
Jianu, lonel, Brancusi, New York, 1963
Narodni Galerie v Prage, Prague, 1961
Tafrali, Oreste, La sculpture sur bois roumaine, Bucharest, 193536
Tatarkiewicz, Wladyslaw and D. Kaczmarzyk, Klasycysm i romantyzm w rzezbie, Warsaw, 1956

FRANCE

Baudelaire, Exhibition Catalogue, Petit Palais, Paris, 1969

Benoist, Luc, La sculpture romantique, Paris, 1928
Blanche, Jacques Emile, Les arts plastiques, Paris, 1931
David d'Angers, Exhibition Catalogue, Htel de la Monnaie, Paris, 1966
Elsen, Albert, Kodin, New York, 1967
Gray, Christopher, Sculpture and Ceramics oj Paul Gauguin, Baltimore, 1963
Hubert, Grard, Les sculpteurs italiens en France sous la Revolution, 1790-1830, Paris, 1964
, Sculptures des XVIII^ et XIX^ sicles au Muse du Louvre, Paris, n.d.
Jianu, lonel and Michel Dufet, Bourdelle, Paris, 1965
Jouin, Henri, Les cimetires de Paris, Mcon, 1898
, David d'Angers, Paris, 1878
Lami, Stanislas, Dictionnaire des sculpteurs de l'cole franaise au XIX^ sicle, Paris, 1914-21
Rewald, John, Degas: Works in Sculpture, New York, 1944

GERMANY
Heilmeyer, Alexander, Moderne Plastik in Deutschland, Bielefeld, 1903
Micheli, Mario, La scultura tedesca deir800. Milan, 1969
Osten, Gert von der, Plastik des 19. Jahrhunderts in Deutschland, sterreich und der Schweiz, Knigstein im Taunus, 1961

417

m ~a- * 4-^-,
 418

GREAT BRITAIN

I8S0-I914, Exhibition Catalogue, Fine Art Society, London, 1968

British Sculpture.

Gunnis, Rupert, Dictioryary of British Sculptors, 1660-1 8S I rev. d., London, 1968
,

The Romantic Movement, Exhibition Catalogue, Tate Gallery, London, 1959

Whinney, Margaret Dickens, Sculpture in Britain, 1 520-1 830, Penguin, Baltimore, 1964

ITALY

Ferrari, La tomba nell'arte italiano, Milan, 1917

Maltese, Corrado, La scultura dell'800 in Europa, Milan, 1966
Mostra Canoviana, Exhibition Catalogue, Treviso, 1957
Papini, Giovanni, Medardo Kosso, Milan, 1940
Pirovano, Carlo, Scultura italiana, Milan, 1966-68

SCANDINAVIA

Rostrup, Haavard, Moderne shulptur dansk og udenlandsk, Copenhagen, 1964

Thorlacius-Ussing, Viggo, Danmarks Billedhuggerkunst, Copenhagen, 1950
The Thorvaldsen Museum, Copenhagen, 1970

SPAIN and PORTUGAL

Araujo y Gomez, Fernando, Historia de la escuhura en Espaha, Madrid, 1885

Barreira, J., A escuhura em Portugal, Lisbon, 1929
Byne, Arthur, Spanish Ironwork, New York, 1915
Calvert, Albert Frederick, Sculpture in Spain, London, 1912
Franca, Jos Arturo, A arte em Portugal no sculo XIX, Lisbon, 1967
Gaya Nuno, Juan Antonio, Arte del siglo XIX, Madrid, 1966
Un siglo de arte Espahol, 1856-1956, Madrid, 1956
Pardo Canalis, Enrique, Escuhores del siglo XIX, Madrid, 1951

U.S.A.

Craven, Wayne, Sculpture in America, New York, 1968

Gardner, Albert Ten Eyck, American Sculpture, Catalogue of the Collections of the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1965
Garrett, Wendell D., et al., The Arts in America: The 19th Century, New York, 1969
Gerdts, William H., A Survey of American Sculpture; Late 18th Century to 1962, Neuark, 1962
"Nineteenth-Century America: Paintings and Sculpture, Exhibition Catalogue, The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, 1970
Taft, Lorado, History of American Sculpture, New York, 1924

U.S.S.R.

Arenkova, Y. A. and G. I. Mekhova, Le monastre Donskoi, Moscow, 1970

Bobrinsky, Alexei Alexeievich, La sculpture en pierre en Russie (in Russian), Moscow, 1916
Hamilton, George Heard, The Art and Architecture of Russia, Penguin, Baltimore, 1954
Kaganovitch, A. L. Russian Sculpture: An Anthology, Leningrad, 1966
Vrangel, Nikolai Nikolaevich, Istoria skulptury (Vol. 5 of L'histoire de l'art russe, d. by Igor Grabar, in Russian), Moscow, 1914
 INDEX
Titles of works of art are in italics. Artists' names are in small capitals. Numerals in roman type refer to pages;

numerals in italic type refer to black-and-white illustrations; Roman numerals refer to colorplates.

Aage and Else (Skovgaard) 407, 17 AuB, Jean-Paul 195, 9

Aaron (Strazza) 319, 20 Awakening of Spring (Cabet) 20, 43
Abdu-1-Kadir, Surrender o/"(Carpeaux) 101
Abel, The Dead (Dupr) 46, 23 Babes in the Wood, The (Crawford) 333, IS
About, Edmond 79 Bacchante with an Infant Faun (MacMonnies) 127, 14
Adam and Eve (Barnard) 142, 30; (Levy) 110, 5 Bachelet, mile-Just 319, 21
Adams, Herbert 408, 20 Bacon, John 330; 333, 8
Adams Memorial, The (Saint-Gaudens) 335, 51 Bagge, Grace, Monument to (Westmacott) 333,7
AdAn, Juan 18, 12 Bailliarg, Franois 318, /
Adda, Countess d' , Tomb of (Vela) 334, 27 Bailliot (L'infatu de soi), Portrait of (Daumier) 288,

Adoring Figure (Stauffer) 167, IS 9

Affre, Monseigneur Denis-Auguste, Funeral Monument of Bailly, Jean-Sylvain, Portrait of (Auht) 195, 9

(Debay) 318, 7 Baily, Edward Hodges 47, 47, 48

African Water Carrier (Guittet) 183, 8 Baj Macario Family, Monument of the (Fellini) 334, 23
Aguiar, Joo-Jos de 198, 26 Bakh, Robert Robertovich 197, 18
Akers, Benjamin Paul 362, 19 Ball, Thomas 197, 17
Alais, Franois 286 Ballu (fils), Albert 112, 27
Albert, Prince 86, 193; Albert Memorial, T/ie (Scott) Ballu, Thodore,Monument to the Architect (Barrias and
196, 14, 15 Coutan) 112, 27
Alceste, The Death of (Allar) 46, 17 Balmat, J., and H.-B. de Saussure, Monument to. Com-
Alden,John, and Priscilla (J. Rogers) 380, 14 memorating the First Ascent of Mont Blanc in 1789
Alexandra Feodorovna, Empress, ne Princess of Prussia, (Salmson) 88, 2S
on Horseback (Blaser) 297, 22 Baltard, Victor 333, 10
Algerian Jewess (Cordier) 407, 7 Balzac, Honor de 10; 41; 79; 250; 288; 332; 389;
Allar, Andr-Joseph 46, 17 391 405; (Rodin) 137; 138; 250; 256, 62
;

Allegrain, Christophe IS Banks, Thomas 333, /

Allegretto (Dillens) 407, 4 Baptismal Font, after Viollet-le-Duc (Bachelet) 319,
Allouard, Henri 407, 9 21
Alma-Tadema, Lawrence 378 Barbarian Woman Carrying Her Dead Son from Battle
Almeida, Jos Simoes d' 20, 38 (Sinding) 46, 32
Almsgiving (Mendes de Costa) 288, 2 Barbedienne, F. 86; Tomb o/" (Chapu and Boucher)
Amazon (Stuck) 168, 20; (Tuaillon) 168, 19 335, 48
Amor Caritas (Saint-Gaudens) 1 27, 3 Barbey d'Aurevilly 288 392 Bust o/(Astruc) 255, 44
; ;

Amphitrite (Klinger) 362, 18 Barnard, George Grey 142, 30, 31

Amy, Jean-Barnab 256, 54 Barre, Jean-Auguste 380, 16, 18; 407, 2
Andriessen, Mari 184, 16 Barrias, Louis-Ernest 46, 31; 112, 19, 20, 27;
Anernheima, Madame (Troubetzkoy) 142, 20 195, S; 226; 332; 334, 38
Angel Holding a Holy- Water Basin (Thorvaldsen) 47, Bartholdi, Frdric-Auguste 199, 43; 200, S3;
46 228, 10; 240, 12
Angel of Death and the Sculptor, The (French) 335, 43 Bartholom, Albert 167, 13
Angel of Evil, The (J. Geefs) 127, 2 Bartolini, Lorenzo 47, SO; 139; 254, 27; 318;
Angel with a Book (Bailli arg) 318, / 334, 28; 335,44; 377; 379,4
Angelica and Roger Fleeing on the Hippogriff (Bakye) 296, Barye, Antoine-Louis 10; 44; 45, //; 137; 293-
7 295; 294, Vlll; 296, 1,7, 13; 405
Angelini, Giuseppe 5 Basin, Peter Vassilyevich (PoDOZEROv) 255, 33
Anna Paulowna, Princess (Gel) 253, S Basin of the Grand Palais (Larche) 228, 18
Anonymous (LiGETi) 198, 32 Basset Hound (Barye) 296, 13
Antokolsky, Mark Matvejevich 197, 24; 295; 319, Basset Hounds Ravaget and Ravageole, The (FrMIET)
IS; 362, S 297, 2S
Apollo (Fogelberg) 18; Head o/" (Bourdelle) 167, S Bastien- Lepage, Jules (Saint-Gaudens) 256, 53
Apostol, Corne/ii(Gabriel) 253, 7 Bastos, Victor 46, 22
Apotheosis of Louis XVI (Bosio) 318, <S Bat Woman (Leonard) 127, 12
Apparition, The (MoKEAU) 111, 14 Bates, Harry 298, 35
Archery Lesson (Hildebrand) 167, 16 Bather (Stewardson) 168, 31
Ariadne Riding on a Panther (Dannecker) 20, 44 Baudelaire, Charles 10; 14; 15; 16; 41 42 46; 47 ; ;

Ariza, The Marquesa de (Cubero) 254, 26 48; 80; 85; 86; 107; 108; 110; 112; 125; 126
Armstead, Henry Hugh 196, 14, IS 138; 225; 251; 253; 285; 288; 315; 316; 319
18,4
Art Beseeching Inspiration from Poetry (Sim art) 332; 334; 363; 377; 378; 405
(Moreau-Vauthier) 407, S
Art of Painting, The Bayes, Gilbert 390; 391, 2
Astruc, Zacharie 255, 44; 392, 16 Bazzaro, Ernesto 256, 58; 335, 54, 55
At the River (Bourdelle) 363, 22 BE IN LOVE AND YOU WILL BE HAPPY (Gauguin)
Athlete (Stuck) 167, 14 167, 2
Atlantes (A. Terebenev) 18, 3 Beecher, Henry Ward, Monument to (Ward) 198, 36
Atropos, The Fate (Carstens) 140, / Beethoven (Klinger) 1 66 with Flowing Hair (Bourdelle)
;

Attack and Defense (Croisy) 200, S7 256, 61 ; The Young (Grandi) 128, 22

419

^^K
420

Begas, Reinhold 166; 379, /, 3 Buhenberg, Adrian von. Monument to (Stauffer) 199, 52
Beginning of Music, The (Galberg) 18, 7 Buchon,Madame Max (Courbet) 255, 50
Belisarius, The Blind (Oechslin) 47, 28 Bugaboo (Rombaux) 392, 21
Bell, John 199 Bull (Barye) 294, VIll; (R. Bonheur) 297, 29;
Bellerophon Slaying the Chimera (ScH aller) 18, ^ (Philipsen) 298, 30
Bellver, Ricardo 45, 12 Burgess, Captain Pdchard Bundle, Monument to (Banks)
Benoist, Luc 41 43; 45; 319; 330
; 333, /

Berlioz, Hector 392; (Dantan) 288, 4 Burghers of Calais (Rodin) 140, 9

Bernard, Claude 85 Burke, Robert O'Hara, and W. J. Wills, Memorial to

Bernard, Samuel (Falconet) 42 (Summers) 199, 44

Bernhardt, Sarah 392, 20; Portrait of (Grome) BuscH, Wilhelm 288, 5
391, 12 Bust (Mucha) 127, 10
Bernstamm, LioPOLD 88, 4, //; 112, 23 (Leenhoff) 19, /<?
Byblis
BerthoUet, Claude-Louis, Monument to (Marochetti) Bystrm, Johan Niklas 19, 28
198, 35
Besesti, Antonio 330 Cabet, Jean-Baptiste-Paul 20, 43
Bichat, Marie-Franois-Xavier, Monument of (David Cain and His Race Cursed by God (tex) 45, 13
d'Angers) 80, 7 Cain, Auguste-Nicolas 295; 297, 28
BlEGAS, BOLESLAS 392, 24 Calandra, Davide 200, 55; 295
(Stracke) 198, 29
Bilderdijk, Willem (Powers) 20, 39
California
Binon, Jean-Baptiste 195 Callamard, Charles-Antoine 20, 42
BiONDi, Ernesto 390; 391, 3 Callani, Gaetano 239, 6; 392, 22
Birch, Charles Bell 47, 44 Calloigne, Jean-Robert 20
BissEN, Herman Vilhelm 20, 49; 88, <?; 183; 199, 48 Callot, Jacques 45; 85
Bistolfi, Leonardo 126; 335, S6 Cambi, Ulisse 19
Blake, William 389 Camel Driver of Asia Minor (Blaser) 297, 23
Blanche, Jacques-Emile 102 Camilli 380, 19
Blaser, Gustav 195, <?; 297, 22 Campeny y Estrany, Damian 45, 5
Blay, Miguel 87; 228, 20; 392, 25 Canova, Antonio 7; 8; 10; 1 1 ; 13 ; 16; 17; 18, 13;
Bloch, LISA 199, 49 19, 27, ii;45, /O; 46, 20; 47; 48; 77; 198; 253,
Bloche, Roger 183, 14 10; 333, 2
Boecklin, Arnold 166; 167; 238 Cappiello, Leonetto 288, 6
Boehm, J.
Edgar 127 Carabin, Francois-Rupert 12; 183, 13; 390; 392,
Bogliani, Giuseppe 226 27, 28
Boilly, Louis-Leopold 85 Card Players (Graillon) 288, 3
Boldini, Giovanni 142 46
Carducci, Giosu (Cecioni) 255,
Bologna, Giovanni da, see Giambologna Carenica 226
Bonheur, Isidore-Jules 298, 34 Carles, Jean-Antonin 128, 16; 335, 47
Bonheur, Rosa 295; 297, 29; 297 (line cut) Carlier, mile-Joseph 45, 15
Bonnassieux, Jean-Marie-Bienaim 333, 10 40
Carpaneto Family, Tomb of the (ScANZl) 334,
Borel d'Hauterive, Joseph Petrus 250 Carpeaux, Jean-Baptiste 11; 13; 44; 80; 101; 102,
Borghese, Pauline Bonaparte, see Pauline Bonaparte 1-6; 252; 255, 39; 378; 392
Borghese Carpeaux, Madame, as Mater Dolorosa, Portrait of (Car-
Bosch, Hieronymus 285; 389 peaux) 102, 4
Bosio, Franois-Joseph 16; 41; 46; 47, 42; 48; Carpeauxat Work (Bourdelle) 142, 35

127; 254, 25; 294; 318, <? Carrier-Belleuse, Albert-Ernest 19; 88, 9; 102;
Botzaris, Marco, Tomb o/"(David d'Angers) 334, 42 137; 198; 238, VI; 239, 3-5; 285; 362, 9; 380, 12
Boucher, Alfred 335, 48 Carrire, Eugne 108; 142
Boulogne (or Boullongne), Louis 181 Carries, Jean-Joseph-xMarie 112, 29; 256, 52
Bourdelle, mile-Antoine 8; 44; 126; 142, 32, Carstens, Asmus Jakob 140, /
35, 36; 165; 166; 167, /, 5; 184; 195; 249; 256, Cartellier, Pierre 17; 333, 14
61; 319, 23; 363, 22; 378; 407 Carter, The (Orsi) 183, 10
Bouval, Maurice 128, 19 Caryatid, Caryatids (Callani) 239, 6; 392, 22; (Car-
Bowes, General Ford, Monument to (chantrey) 198, 41 rier-Belleuse) 239, 4
Bowl (Laporte-Blaisin) 407, 15 Cassou, Jean 406
Boy Fishing (Stavasser) 18, 2 Causse, Julien 407, //
Boy Fishing for Chub (Courbet) 88, 18 Cavaceppi, Bartolommeo 7
Boy Playing Game of Nail and King (Loganovsky) 19, 22 Cavelier, Pierre-Jules 227, 8
Boy Testing the Water (Ginzburg) 88, 17 Caylus, Anne Claude de Tubires, Count of 15
Boy with Crab (Gemito) 88, /i Cecioni, Adriano 46, 18; 87; 88, 22; 255, 46
Braekeleer, Jacques de 46, 27 Cellarer and the Devil, The (Busch) 288, 5
Brancusi, Constantin 6; 165; 198, 38 Cellini, Benvenuto 407
Braquemond, Flix 256 Tomb o/^ (Carles) 335, 47
Cernuschi, Henri,
Brascassat, Jacques-Raymond 287 Monument to (Piquer) 195, 3
Cervantes,
Brentano, Clemens (Tieck) 253, 6 Cevasco, Giovanni Battista 330
Breton, Paul-Eugne 362, 8 Czanne, Paul 138
Brien, Urbain, see Desroches Chalepas, Yannoulis 167, //
Broken Mirror, The (Dalou) 168, 28 Chalgrin, Jean-Franois-Thrse 315
Brouwer, Adriaen 85 Chambord, Henri de Bourbon, Count of 10; 41
Bruat, Admiral, Tomb o/^ (Maindron) 334, 37 Champfleury (pseud.) 85
 INDEX 421

Chantrey, Francis 46, 19; 198, 41; 2S3, /; 330; 7, 8; 408, X

333, 4 Corot, Camille-Jean-Baptiste 392
Chapu, Henri-Michel-Antoine 87; 88, 14; 112, Corradini, Antonio 330
2/; 226; 253, 12; 332; 335,45,4* CoRTOT, Jean-Pierre 48, 59; 198 (line cut); 318, /O
Charcot, Jean Martin 125 Costa, Pietro 226; 228, 14; 330
Chardigny, Barthlmy-Franois 183, / Costa, TomAs 19, 36
Charles \'I 389; Succored by Odette de Champdivers (Hu- Courbet, Gustave 85; 88, 18; 182; 255, 50;
GUENIN) 46, 33 (Dalou) 254, 19
Charles X, King of France 195; 249; (Bosio) 254, 25 CouTAN, Jules-Flix 112, 27
Charlet, Frantz 285 Crauk, Gustave 18,25; 200
Chamod, F. (bronzecaster) 45 Crawford, Thomas 87; 198, 31; 333, 15
Charpentier, Alexandre 182; 240 Crespi Family, Pasquale, Monument of (Bazzako) 335, 55
Chassriau, Thodore 315 Croisy, Aristide-Onsime 200, 57 380, 20 ;

Chateaubriand, Franois Ren, Viscount of 249 ; 315 Cromwell, Agnes, Monument to (Flaxman) 46, 2/
Chatrousse, Emile 47, 39 Cros, Csar-Isidore-Henri 407, 18, 19
Chaudet, Antoine 14, /; 46, 34; 405; 407, 3 Crouching Woman (Maillol) 168, 32
Chaume, Geoffroy de, see Geoffroy de Chaume, Cruikshank, George 285
Adolphe-Victor Ctirad and Sarka (Myslbek) 47, 38
Cherest (goldsmith) 407 CuBERO, Jos Alvarez 45, 14; 254, 26
Chinard, Joseph 16; 19, 31 253, 8; 254, 23
; Cugnot, J., Inventor of the Automobile, Monument to (Fosse)
Chirico, Giorgio de 332 196, 13
Chizhov, Matvey Afanasyevich 183, // Cutting of the Isthmus of Suez (Magni) 1 10, 3
Cbloris Caressed by Zephyr (Pradier) 361 ; 362, 2
Cholera Morbus (Bastos) 46, 22 Dagonet, Ernest 361; 362, 12
Chopin, Frdric-Franois 87 ^Wonuraent to (Froment-
; Dali, Salvador 255
Meurice) 112, 23 Dalou, Aim-Jules 87; 88, 3; 102; 111, 16; 165;
Christ, Baptism of (Rude) 319, 12 168, 28; 182; 184, 17, 18; 240, 10, 13; 254, 19;
Christ Before the People (Antokolsky) 319, IS 334, 30; 378
Christ Healing the Blind (Tartarkiewicz) 318, 5 Dampt, Jean-Auguste 86; 87; 88, 19; 126; 165;
Christ on the Cross (Prault) 319, 25 (Rude) 319, 14
;
362, 10; 407, 13
Christ with Mary and Martha (Levy) 318, 4 Dance, The (Carpeaux) 102, /

Christen, Joseph-Anton-Maria 255, 36 Dancer (Stuck) 128, 18

Christina of Sweden, Queen, Refusing to Spare the Life Dancer Looking at Her Right Foot (Degas) 142, 27
of her Equerry Monaldeschi (Fauveau) 195, 2 Dancing Muse (Meissonier) 142, 23
Christophe, Ernest 111, 17; 362, 7 Dannecker, Johann Heinrich von 7; 16; 20,
City of ValenciCDDes Defending Her Ramparts (Carpeaux) 44; 253, 4
102, 5 Dantan, Jean-Pierre (Dantan the Younger) 14;
Claretie, Jules 102; 110; 194 286; 287; 288, 4
Claris, Edmond 138; 139 Dante 108; 316; 379
Claudel, Camille 141, 13, 16; 363, 24 D'Aronco, Raimondo 335
Claudel, Paul 138; 141; 315; 363 Daudet, Alphonse, Monument to (Falguire) 198, 34
Clre, Georges 167, 12 Daughters of Satan, The (Rombaux) 142, 29
Clsinger, Jean-Baptiste (called Auguste) 17; Daumas, Louis-Joseph 227, 7
46, 24; 111, //; 253, //, 14; 363 Daumier, Honor 9; 10; 42; 137; 140, 6; 165;
Clock (Delaplanche) 240, 14; (Goldsmith Co., 182; 252; 256, 55; 285; 286; 288, /, 8-11
London) 240, 12 David, Jacques-Louis 77; 193; 250; 287; 405
Clodion, Claude-Michel 43; 239; 378; 389 David, Pierre-Jean, see David d'Angers
Coalman (Hoetger) 184, 20 David d'Angers, Pierre-Jean 8; 11; 12; 17; 19;
Coeur, Jacques 43 Model for the Statue of (Prault)
; 20, 48; 42; 43; 44; 46; 47; 77-80; 80, 1-9;
48, 57 110; 126; 193; 239; 249; 250; 252; 253; 254,
Cold, The (Bloche) 183, 14 31; 286; 296; 319; 329; 332; 334, 42; 335; 379
Columbus, Christopher 194; Monument to (Melida) Dawn and Night (Pradier) 239, 2
334, 34; (SuoL) 194 Dayot, Armand 139
"Corne Thou Blessed": Monument to Agnes Cromwell Dead Abel, The (Dupr) 46, 23
(Flaxman) 46, 21 Dead Pearl Diver (Akers) 362, 19
Comedy (Rush) 110, 2 Death of Alceste,' The (Allar) 46, 17
Comte, Auguste 85 Debay, Auguste-Hyacinthe 47, 29; 318, 7
Concierge, The (Rosso) 142, 19 Defense of Saragassa, The (Cubero) 45, 14
Cond, Le Grand (Louis II) 77; (David d'Angers) 79 Degas, Edgar 88, 12; 126; 139; 141, IV; 142,
Confdence (Breton) 362, 8 25-28; 165; 167; 296; 298, 41
Conquistador, The (Callandra) 200, 55 Delabrieu, Edouard 295
Conradsen, Harald 183, 4 Delacroix, Eugne 8; 10; 41; 45; 79; 85; 249;
Constant 1 37 293; 296; 332; 333; 392
Convers, Louis 112, 22 Delaplanche, Eugne 240, 14; 361 362, ; //
Copernicus, The(Vroutos) 390; 392, 13
Genius of Delavigne, Casimir (David d'Angers) 79
Coquart, Ernest-Georges 335, 45 Deligand, Louis-Auguste 20, 41
Coquelin Cadet in the Title Role of the Malade Imaginaire Deluge, I/ie (Kessels) 45, 16
by Molire (Bernstamm) 88, 4 Delvaux, Laurent 330
Corbet, Charles-Louis 43 Delvaux, Paul 87; 332
Cordier, Charles-Henrj-Joseph 20, 37 ; 295 ; 407, Demeter (RousSEAU) 391, 7
422

Demidoff, Count Anatolius, Mode! for the Monument to EsPERciEux, Jean-Joseph 20, 45
(Bartolini) 335, 44 Etcheto, Jean-Franois 195, //
De Mille, Cecil B. 195 TEX, Antoine 9; 10; 11; 46, 13; 193; 225; 293;
Demon, Head of a (Vrubel) 391, 9 332; 333, //
De.mut-Mali\ovsky, Vasily Ivanovich 19, 20 Etruscan Art Represented by a Seated Woman (Simyan)
Dencheau, Sraphin 362, 14 19, 17
Denis, Maurice 107 Eulalia, The Christian Martyr (Franceschi) 362, /

Dcnon, Dominique-Vivant, Tomb oJ(C\RTElUR) 333, 14 Eustatbis, Funeral Stele of (Filipotis) 3 34, 35
Deperthes, Roger-douard
227, 9 Eve (J. Costa) 19, 36; (Fantacchiotti) 48, 52;
De Saussure, H.-B., andj. Balmat Commemorating the First (HioLLE) 48, 53
Ascent of Mont Blanc in 1786, Monument to (Salmson) Eve, Adam and (Barnard) 142', 30; (Levy) 110, 5

88, 25 Eve After the Fall (Dagonet) 362, 12

Descent from the Cross, Entombment, and the Three Women Eve at the Fountain (Baily) 47, 48
at the Tomb (Michel-Pascal) 319, 16 Eve Before the Fall (Delaplanche) 362, //; (Imhoe)
Desk Accessor)' (Korschmann) 128, IS 19, 35
Desbordes- V'almore, Marceline 334 Evens, Otto 183, 2
Desmoulins, Camille 101 Evil Genius (Droz) 362, 6
Desnoyers, /.ou/s (Prault) 253, 13 Exile, The (SoARs DOS Reis) 45, 8
Despairing Peasant (Chizhov) 183, //
Despiau, Charles 167 F., Madame, Portrait of (Rodin) 140, 8
Desroches (Urbain Brien) 318, 2 Fadrusz, Janos 200, 54
Desseine 250 Faith in God (Bartolini) 47, 50
Devosge, Franois III 18 Falconet, Etienne-Maurice 18; 19; 42; 389
Diana (Saint-Gaudens) 167, 17 Falguire, John-Alexandre-Joseph 165; 198,
The (Fessard) 33
Dias-Santos Tomb, 5, 50 34; 228, 9; 256, 57; 363, 21
Diderot, Denis 85 Fallen Archangel, The (Bellver) 45, 12
DiEUDONN, Jean-Augustin 47, 37 Fallires, Armand 237; 378
Dillens, Julien 296, 5; 334, 26; 407, 4 Falling Horseman (MoiNE) 296, 4 I

Ding, Henry-Marius 197, 21 Fantacchkjtti, Odoardo 48, 52

Ditch Digger (Dalou) 184, 17 Fantastic Animal (Bernhardt, attr.) 392, 20
Docker, The, study tor (Andriessen) 184, 16 Fantastic Heads (Levy) 392, 26
Dolgorouki Family, Tomb of the (artist unknown) 334, Farragut, Admiral, J/onumcnt to (Saint-Gaudens) 195, /

39 Fate (Christophe) 111, 17

Door of the Ten Commandments (Triqueti) 319, 19 Father and Son (Moreno) 335, 35
Dor, Gustave 48; 87; 143 (line cut); 389; 390; Fattorini, Eliseo Tuderte 407, 10
391, 4; 392, 15, 17 Faure, lie 17; 182
Draft Horse Led to Slaughter (Frmiet) 296, 8 Faure, Flix,Tomb o/^ (Saint-Marceaux) 334, 29
Dream of Horace, The (Westmacott) 45, 2 Faure, Urbain 392
Gabriel
Dressed Ballet Dancer, \ude Study for (Degas) 142, 26 Fauveau, FLICIE DE 10; 41; 195, 2; 316; 334, 33
Dreyfus, Alfred 166 Favreau, Miss Louise, Monument to (Fauveau) 334, 33
Driollet, Henri-Thodore 228, // Felibien, Andr 44
Drossis, Leonidas 18, 5 Female Bather Looking at Herself in the Water (Klinger)
Droz, Jules-Antoine 362, 6 168, 29
Dubois, Paul (1829-1905) 333, 13 Female Figure (Volkmann) 168, 24
Dubois, Paul (1859-1938) 88, 6; 165 Ferenczy, Istvan 380, 13
Ducommon du Locle, Henri-Joseph 228, // Fernkorn, Anton 255, 34; 298, 38
Dufour, General Guillaume-Henri , Equestrian Statue of Ferrari, Ettore 19
(Lanz) 197, 19 Ferrary, Dsir-Maurice 364, IX
Dumas, Alexandre {fth) 392; (Carpeaux) 102 Ferreira, Count of (Soars dos Reis) 2 54, 29
Dumas, Alexandre (pre) 405; (Carrier-Belleuse) Fessard, Nol-tienne 335, 50
88, 9; (Chapu) 253, 12 Feuchre, Jean-Jacques 405
DupR, Giovanni 20, 47; 46, 23; 139; 334 Feuerbach, Anselm von 166; 2 38
Durance River Betneen Corn and Wine, The (Cavelier) Feure, Madame de (Martilly) 128, ///
227, 8 Feydeau, Georges 332
DuRET, Francisque-Joseph 18, 6; 253, 15 Fiedler, Frau Maria (Hildebrand) 88, 10
Dying C/i/c/" (Crawhord) 198, 31 Fighters (Prokofiev) 140, 2
Dying Lucretia (Campeny) 45, 5 Fighters, The (MoLiN) 45, 9
Filipotis, Dimitrios 334, 35
Ecce Homo (Meunier) 319, 22 Firedamp (Meunier) 184, 22
Electricity (Barrias) 112, 20; 226 Fireplace (artist unknown) 240, / / ;
(Dalou) 240,
Elegant Creature (Troubetzkoy) 142, 22 10; (Laplanche) 240, 9
Elephants (Milles) 298, 40 First Cradle, The (Debay) 46, 29
Hlgin, Lord 77 First Disappointment (Palmer) 379, 5
Elizabeth Fountain, The (Meili) 227, 3 First Funeral, The (Barrias) 46, 3
Else and the Angel (Skovgaard) 407, 17 First Step, The (Kamensky) 88, 21
Episode in the Napoleonic Wars, An (Spalla) 199, 40 Fish,Hamilton 47
Equestrian Statue
from the Antique (GRICAULT) 296, 3 Monument to (Flaxman) 333, 9
Fitzharris, Lady,

Ermak, Timoteev 319 Fix-Masseau, Pierre-Flix 127, 5

Escholier, Raymond 285 Flamand, Jacques 128, 17
EscouLA, Jean 167, 4 Flaubert, Gustave 12; 361; 405; 406
 INDEX 423

Flaxman, John 18, 10; 46, 21; 47; 77; 193; 195, 6; 405
4; 333, 9 George, Waldemar 165; 166
Flower Woman (Bouval) 128, 19 Georgescu, Ion 19, 19, 26; 198
Flute Player (Claudel) 363, 24 Grard, General Etienne 43
FoGELBERG, Bengt Erland 1 17; 48, 56
1 ; Gricault, Thodore 9; 79; 140, 3, 4; 165; 250;
Foley, John Henry 196, /S; 199, SO 293; 296, 3; 329; (David d'Angers) 80, 6;
Fontaine, Fierre-Franois-Lonard 77 Tomb of (TEX) 333, //
Fontaine Sainte-Marie (Falguire) 228, 9 Germania (Schilling) 226
Forain, Jean-Louis 285; 288, 7 Grome, Jean-Lon 11; 392, 12; 406; (Carpeaux)
Forge, Anatole de la. Defender of Saint-Quentin on the 255, 39
Somme 1871, Tomb o/" (Barri as) 334, 38
in Giacometti 10
Fortia de Piles, Count Alphonse 15 Giambologna 407
Foscolo, Ugo, After the Treaty of Campo-Formio (Tab- Gibbs and Pakenham, Generals, Monument ta the Memory of
BACCHi) 88, 24 (Westmacott) 333, 6
Fosse, Dsir 195, 13 Gibson, John 296, 16; 379, 8
Fountain (Molin) 228, 12 Gilbert, Alfred 127, 6; 200, 51; 256, 56; 362;
Fountain of the Nymph (Schwanthaler) 227, 4 407, 12
Fountain of the Vintages (N. Giraud) 227, 5 GiNs, Jos 7; 318, 3
Four Quarters of the Globe (Carpe aux) 102 GiNOTTi, Giacomo 362, 17
Fox Hunt in Scotland (Mne) 296, 19 Ginzburg, Ilya Yakovlevich 88, 17
Foy, General Maximilien-Sbastien (David d'Angers) Giraud, Nol 227, 5
79; 250 Giraud, Pierre-Franois-Grgoire 333, 16
Frampton, George James 127, / Giraud Family Tomb, Projectfor the (P. Giraud) 333, 16
Franceschi, Emilio 362, / Girl Reposing (ScHADOw) 19, 23
Franceschi, Louis-Julien (Jules) 255, 45 Gladiator Saluting (Welonski) 199, 45
Francis I, King of France 225 Glamour of the Rose (John) 127, 4
Franz Josef I, Emperor 238; (Fernkorn) 255, 34 Glass Blower (Meunier) 184, 19
Fratin, Christophe 10; 295; 296, 9 Gleaners (Millet) 85
Frmiet, Emmanuel 9; 19; 42; 45; 196, V; 198, Gleyre, Marc-Gabriel-Charles 85
30; 295; 296, 8, IS; 297, 25; 362, 20; 391; Gobert, General Jacques-Nicolas, Monument of (David
405; (Grber) 88, / d'Angers) 79; 80, 1,4; 329
French, Daniel Chester 87; 228, 16; 335, 43 Godebski, Cyprian 255, 37; 362, 4
French Chanson, The (Dalou) 111, 16 GoDECHARLE, Gilles-Lambert 20; 255, 38
Freud, Sigmund 125 Godiva, Lady(Mignon) 391, 8
Freund, Christian 47, 45 Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von 195 ;
(David d'Angers)
Frog, The (Hasselberg) 362, 16 80, 5; (Rauch) 254, 30; (Schadow) 254, 20
Fromanger, Alexis-Hippolyte 335, 46 Goethe and Schiller, Monument to (Rietschel) 195, 12
Froment-Meurice, Jacques 112, 25 Gogh, Vincent van 182
(Tilgner) 255, 42
Fuhrich, Josef von Gogol, Nikolai Vasilyevich (Ramazanov) 254, 18
Fulani Tribeswoman(Allouard) 407, 9 Golden Age, The (Rosso) 141, 18
Funerary Monument (Mauder) 335, 53 Concourt, Edmond and Jules 12; 45; 101 142; 256 ;

Fytalis, Giorgios 183, 7 Gorilla and Woman (Frmiet) 362, 20

Fytalis, Markos 254, 32 Gossipers (Claudel) 141, 16
GouGET, mile-Joseph-Alexandre 295
Gabriel, Paulus-Joseph 253, 7 Gounod, Charles 87; 102; 392; Monument to (Merci)
Gagarina, Princess E. I., Tomb of (Martos) 19, 16 112, 26
Galberg, Samuel Ivanovich 18, 7 Gourlot, Louis Sebastien, Tomb of (sculptor unknown)
Gambetta, Lon 392 333, 20
Ganneron, the Financier, Portrait o/^ (Daumier) 288, 10 Goya (y Lucientes), Francisco Jos de 42 ; 285 288
;

Gardet, Georges 295 Graillon, Pierre-Adrien 286; 288, 3

Garibaldi, Giuseppe (Rosa) 256, 41 Grande Arabesque, Third Time (Degas) 142, 25
Garnier, Charles 79; 102; 237; (Carpeaux) 102, 3 (Dampt) 88, 19
Grandmother's Kiss, The
Garrard, George 296, 17 Grandi, Giuseppe 128, 22; 142, 34
Gaudez, Adrien-tienne 199, 46 Granet, Franois-Marius 78
GaudI, Antonio 126; 317 Graves, Anna Marie, Monument to (Chantrey) 46, 19
Gauguin, Paul 108; 126; 138; 165; 167, 2, J; 182; Gray, Thomas 110
255, 47; 407, 16 Grber, Henri-Lon 88, /
Gauguin, Madame, Portrait of (Gauguin) 255, 47 Greek Slave, The (Powers) 48, 54
Gautier, Thophile 12; 16; 41; 125; 253; 288; Greek Woman Preparing to Enter Fier Bath (Espercieux)
293; 316; 319; 377; 405; 406 20, 45
Gavarni, Sulpice 44 Greenough, Horatio 195, 10
Geefs, Guillaume 197, 28 Greuze, Jean-Baptiste 85
Geefs, Joseph-Germain 127, 2 Grvy, Jules 237
Geel, Jan Lodewyck van 253, 5 Grieving Shepherd (Izso) 183, 5
Gemito, Vincenzo 88, 13; 379, 6 Grille, Franois 77
Genius of Copernicus (Vroutos) 390; 392, 13 Grilliat in the Coils of the Octopus (Carlier) 45, 15
Genius of Navigation, The (Daumas) 227, 7 Grootaers, Louis-Guillaume 228, //; 298, 33
Genius of Sculpture Roughing Out the Mask of Olympian Gros, Antoine-Jean 43; 294
Jupiter (Maggesi) 111, 15 Groux, Charles-Corneille-Auguste de 182
Geoffroy de Chaume, Adolphe- Victor 286; 318, Gsell, Pau! 107; 108; 137
 I
424

Guilbert, Yvette (Cappiello) 288, 6 Imhof, Heinrich 19, 3S

(Reynolds-Stephens) 127, 7
Guinevere and the Nestling (Cros) 407, 18
Incantation

Guinot, Eugne 11; 18; 286 Ingres, Jean-Auguste-Dominique 9; 78; 315;

GuiTTET, Georges-Henri 183, 8 Tomb o/"(Baltard; Bonnassieux) 333, 10
Guizot, Franois 10 Innocence (SiMONis) 20, 46
Gumerv, Charles-Alphonse-Achille 102 Innocence Warming a Viper in Her Bosom (Callamard)
Gutenberg (David d'Angers) 80, 2 20, 42
GuYSKi, Marceli 254, 17 Inspiration (Lenoir) 110, //
In the Morning (Schoenwerk) 20, 40
Haan, Meyer de (Gauguin) 108 Iron Puddler, The (Meunier) 184, 21
Hahn, Hermann 168, /<? Isabella the Catholic, Queen, Equestrian Monument to

Hand of God, The (Rodin) 363, 23 (Oms) 194

Handel, George Frederick (Roubillac) 85 Isabella II, Queen of Spain, Bust o/^(Torreggiani) 380,
Hannaux, Emmanuel 335, 46 //
Hares (MNE) 297, 27 Ivan the Terrible 319; (Antokolsky) 198, 24
Harvesting Olives (Chardigny) 183, / IvANOv, Sergei Ivanovich 88, IS
Harvesting Woman (Wijk) 184, IS Izso, MiKLOS 87; 183, 5
Hasselberg, Karl Peter 362, 16
Haudebourg-Lescot, Madame (David d'Angers) 80, 3 Jackson, Andrew (Powers) 254, 28
Haussmann, Baron Georges 237 Jacobsen, Carl 20
Havard, Henri 332 Jacquemart, Henri-Alfred-Marie 240, 10; 295,
Hebe (Canova) 18, /J 296, 18; 297, 23
/yecufc(3(PRiAULT)48, 57 Jacques, Charles 295
Hell (Vigeland) 110, 5 Jenner, Edward, Inoculating His Infant Son with Smallpox
Helmi, Sophia, Funeral Stele o/" (Vitsaris) 334, 41 Vaccine (Monteverde) 183, 12
Hlose and Ablard Reading Together (Chatrousse) Jenner, Rudolf Ludwig, Monument to (Sonnenschein)
47, 39 45, 4
Henner, Jean-Jacques 250 Jerichau, Jens Adolf 168, 23; 199
Hercules and Lichas (Canova) 45, 10 Jewish Republic (Marianne as a Jewess) (Forain) 288, 7
Hercules Strangling theNemaean Lion (Clre) 167, 12 Jianou, lonel 45 198
Hrdia, Jos-Maria de 406
;

Joan of Arc 43; 194; (Frmiet) 9; 42 I

Hero and Leander (Laurent) 47, 3S Joo VI, King of Portugal (Aguiar) 198, 26
Hildebrand, Adolf von 87; 88, 10; 166; 167, John, William Goscombe 127, 4; 319, 18
10, 16; 228, 19, 21; 255, 3S; 295; 296; 380, IS Sir
Jones, William, Monument to (Flaxman) 195, 4
Hillebrand, Karl (Hildebrand) 255, 3S Joseph, Chief of the Nez Perc Indians (Warner) 254,
Hiolle, Ernest 48, S3 22
History (Teixeir\ Lopes) 334, 31 JouFFROY, Franois 2 56; 362, 3
Hoetger, Bernard 184, 20 Jouin, Henri 18; 44; 78; 79; 182; 225; 332
Hofer, Ludwig von 168, 21 Jourdan, Count Jean-Baptiste 78
Hoff, Sergeant, Tomb o/" (Bartholdi) 199, S3 Joursauvault, Baroness of (Proudhon) 254, 21
Hoffmann, E. T. A. 44 Juno and the Infant Hercules (Origin of the Milky Way)
Hogarth, William 285 (Bystrom) 19, 28
Hohenstein, Bishop Lon Thun, Monument of (Prachner)
19 Kamensky, Fyodor Fyodorovich 88, 16, 21
Holocaust (Bistolfi) 331, S6 Katharina, Queen of Westphalia (Dannecker) 253, 4
Horace, The Dream o/"(Westmacott) 45, 2 Kendrick, Josephus John Pinnix 333, 3
Horse (Myslbek) 296, 14; (Tuaillon) 296, 12 Kessels, Mathias 45, 16
Horse and Horse Tamer (Klodt) 19, 2/ Khnopff, Fernand 126; 391, //
Horse, Head of a (Gibson) 296, 16 Kiesling, Leopold 18; 19, 30
Horse Tamer (Hofer) 168, 21 Kiss for the Knight, A (Dampt) 362, 10
Horse Walking (Degas) 298, 4/ Kiss of Viaory (Gilbert) 200, SI
Horses of Anahita,(Hunt) 296, 2
The Klagmann, 137; 378; 405
Jean-Baptiste-Jules
Houdon, Jean-Antoine 7; 8; 16; 18, /; 19; 42; Klinger, Max 109; 125; 166; 167; 168, 29; 295;
85; 101; 102; 107; 251; 252; 255 296; 362, 18; 391, 10; 407, /
Hove, Victor van 18, 14 Klodt, Peter Karlovich 19, 21; 87; 195, 7; 198,
Hugo, Victor 41; 79; 108; 137; 142; 193; 249; 33; 131
389; 392; 405; (Falguiere) 256, 57; (Rodin) Kneeling Woman, study of head (Lehmbruck) 167, 8
141, 10 Knight-Errant (Bayes) 391, 2
Huguenin, Jean-Pierre 46, 33 Konenkov, Sergey Timofejevich 183, 9
Hugues, Dominique-Jean-Baptiste 240, 7 Korschmann, Charles 128, IS
Hunt, William Morris 296, 2 KozLovsKi, Michael Ivanovich 15; Model for the
Hunting Dogs (Cain) 297, 28 Tomb of (PiMENOv) 334, 22
Hunting Dogs on the Leash (Bates) 298, i5 Krger, Franz (Pierde-Kruger) 254
HuszAR, Adolf 197, 22 Krylov, Ivan Andreyevich, Monument to (Klodt) 198, 33
Huysmans, J. K. 361 KuRSAWA, Antoni 110, 12
Hylas Stolen by the Nymphs (Thorvaldsen) 47, 43
Lady, A (Bissen) 88, 8
Icarus (Gilbert) 127, 6 Lady Waiting, Monument
in to Ester Piaggio (ScANZl)
Ice Fairy, The (Causs) 407, / / 334, 32
Ignis Fatuus (Pegram) 1 10, (S Lafayette (Larche) 199, 47
 INDEX 425

Lafayette and (Bartholdi) 198, 43

Washington Louis XV, King of France 181
Lalaing, Jacques de 335, 52 Louis XVI, Apotheosis of (Eosio) 318, <?

Lamartine, Alphonse de 249 Louis XVIII, King of France 193

Lambeaux, Joseph-Marie-Thomas (Jef) 166; 392, Women
Louison the Flower- Vendor Leading the Market in

M 1789 (Gaudez) 198, 46

the Revolution of

Lami, Stanislas 1 Louis-Philippe, King of France 10; 193; 315

Lamoricire, General, Tomb oj {Meditation) (Dubois) Lovers, The (Hildebrand) 167, 10

333, 13 Lucretia, Dying (Campeny) 45, 5

Lanceray, Ievgeny Alexandrovich 296, 20 Luisa and Friederike, The Princesses (Schadow) 47, 30
Landseer, Edwin Henry 295 Luke, William 391, /
Lanz, Karl-Alfred 197, 19 Lullaby (Sucharda) 379, 2
Laocon 43 Lullaby of Love (Reynolds-Stephens) 128, 21
Laplanche, Pierre-Albert 240, 9, // Lysippus 79
Laporte-Blaisin, Lo 407, 15
Larche, Raoul 127, //; 198, 47; 226; 228, 18 MacMonnies, Frederick William 87; 126; 127, 14
Laurens, Henri 166; 167 Madrassi, Luca 407, 14
Laurent, Pierre-Antoine 47, 3S Maeterlinck, Maurice 390
La Valette, Marquise de (Carpeaux) 101 Magdalen, St. Mary, Transported to Heaven (Maroch^TTI)
Lavoisier Explaining the Role of Oxygen in Air (Barrias) 319, //
195, 5 Magdalen, The Repentant (Canova) 46, 20
Lawrence, Thomas 18; (David d'Angers) 78 Maggesi, Dominique 111, 15
Leander, Hero and (Laurent) 47, 35 Magni, Pietro 110, 3
Leap-Frog (Dor) 391, 4 Magritte, Ren 87; 332
Le Brun, Charles 111 Maid Ironing (Pradier) 183, 6
Lechery (Gauguin) 167, 3 Maillol, Aristide 9; 44; 128; 165; 166; 167, 9;
Le Clerc de Juign, Monseigneur, Archbishop of Taris, 168, 27, 32, 33; 228; 295; 378
Funeral Monument of (\'iOLLZi-LE-Duc) 318, 9 Maindron, tienne-Hippolyte 47, 49; 137; 334,
Leconte de Lisle 125; Study for the Monument of 37; 379, 7
(PUECH) 110, 9 Malinsky, Josef 88, 5
Leda (Hildebrand) 380, 15 Malinsky, Pavel 183, 3
Lederer, Hugo 167 Man Watering a Horse (Evens) 183, 2
Leenhoff, Ferdinand 19, 18 Man with the Foil, The (Stappen) 407, 6
Lejvre (ne Soubise), Madame (Carpeaux) 102, 2 Mandiargues, Andr Pieyre de 317
Lefuel, Hector 237 Manet, Edouard 19
Lehmbruck, Wilhelm 165; 166; 167, 8; 182 Manet, Julie, Head o/" (Morisot) 255, 49
Leighton, Frederick 168, 30 Manship, Paul 166
Lemaire, Henri 101 Marcel, Etienne 43
Lemoyne, Jean-Baptiste 15 Marcello (Adle d'Afifry, Duchess of Castiglione-
Lenoir, Alfred 110, //; 165 Colonna) 240, 8
Leonard, Agathon 127, 12 Mares, Hans von 166
Leopold I, King of Belgium (G. Geefs) 197, 28 Maria Christina, Archduchess, Tomb o/^ (Canova) 333, 2
Leroux, Frdric-Etienne 88, 7 Marie-Amlie, Queen of France (Bosio) 47, 42
Lesbia's Sparrow (Truphme) 18, 32 Marie-Antoinette, Queen, Succored by Religion (CoRTOT)
Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim 1 318, 10
Lessing, Karl Friedrich (Blaser) 195, 8 Marie-Christine, Princess of Orlans 319, 17
Le Vel, Armand-Jules 196, 20 Mark Anthony, Triumph o/" (Strasser) 198, 37
Henryk (Oleszcynski) 253,
Levittoux, 3 Marochetti, Charles 10; 195, 6; 198, 35; 226;
Levy, Vaclav 110, 5; 318, 4; 392, 26 316; 319, 11
Liberty Leading the People (Delacroix) 41 Marriage of the Virgin, r/)e (Pradier) 319, 13
Liberty, Statue of, see Statue of Liberty Mars, Mademoiselle (David d'Angers) 80, 9; in the Role
Liebermann, Max 254 of Climne (Thomas) 253, 16
LiGETI, MlKLOS 198, 32 Mars, Venus, and Cupid (Kiesling) 19, 30
Light Poetry (Pradier) 18, // Marseillaise, La: The Departure of the Volunteers in 1792
Lincoln, Abraham 193; (Saint-Gaudens) 196, 16; (Rude) 41 ;44; 45, /
(Ball) 197, 17 Martilly 128,///
Linder, Henry 127, 8 Martins, Oliveira, Tomb of (Teixeira Lopes) 334, 31
Linnaeus (Carl von Linne)(Rush) 254, 24 Martos, Ivan Petrovich 16; 19, 16; 333, 18
Lion of Aspera (Fernkorn) 298, 38 Mask Vendor, The (AsTRUc) 392, 16
Lipchitz, Jacques 166; 167 .Wajsaci-e (Prau LT) 110, 10
Liszt, Franz (Strobl) 197, 25 Mathieu, Charles, Monument to (Theunissen) 112, 28
Little Boy with Bass Viol and Umbrella (Camilli) 380, 19 Mathilde (Bonaparte), Princess (Carpeaux) 101
Little Fisherboy, The (Gemito) 379, 6 Math at the Feet of Salammb (Rivire) 126; 362, 15
Little Girl Crying (Bartholom) 167, 13 Matisse, Henri 142, 33; 168
Little Relic Bearer, The (Minne) 168, 25 Matthias Corvinus, King, Monument to (Fadrusz) 199, 54
Livy 79 Mauder, Josef 335, 53
LOGANOVSKY, ALEXANDER VaSILYEVICH 19, 22 Maupassant, Guy de 194; 390; Monument to (Verlet)
LoisoN, Pierre 46, 26 112,24
Lorrain, Jean 361 Maus, Octave 182
Louis XIII, King of France 405 ; 407 Maximilian II, Monument to (Zumbusch) 228, 15
Louis XIV, King of France 1 8 1 ; 405 407
; Mazzini, Giuseppe 87; Monument to (Costa) 228, 14

^Fmrm
426

Mazzuccbetti , Augusta (Bazzaro) 256, S8 Munes, Alberto 20

Medieval An (Linder) 127, 8 MuNRo, Alexander 47, 36
Meditation, from Tomb of General Lamoricire (Dubois) Muse, r/ie (Peter) 380, 17
333, 13 Music (Dalou) 240, 13; (Hove) 18, 14; (Myslbek)
Meili, Heinrich 227, 3 142, 24
Meissonier, Jean-Louis-Ernest 142, 23; 194; 198, Muzhik on Horseback (Lanceray) 296, 20
42; 295; 296, // Myers, Colonel Sir William, Monument to (Kendrick)
Melida y Alinari, Arturo 334, 34 333, 3
Mellery, Xavier 108 Myslbek, Josef Vaclav 47, 38; 142, 24; 296, 14;
Memory (Merci) 333, 19 318; 333, 21
Mendes da Costa, Joseph 288, 2 Mysteriarch (Frampton) 127, /

Mne, Pierre-Jules 295; 296, 19; 297, 27

Menzel, Adolf Friedrich Erdmann 254; 378 "Nana" 239
Mephistopbeles (Antokolsky) 362, 5 Napoleon I 8; 46; 142; 193; 194; 197; 198; 315;
Merci, Marius-Jean-Antonin 112, 26; 165; 298; (HouDON) 18, /; (Rude) 329
333, 19 Napoleon, The Dying (Vela) 198, 23
Mercury Fastening His Winged Sandal (Rude) 17; 18, 9 Napoleon, Equestrian Statue of (Le Vel) 197, 20
Meunier, Alexandre 228, 17 Napoleon III 237; 239; 316
Meunier, Constantin-mile 110; 127; 166; 182; Napoleona, Princess (Bartolini) 379, 4
184, 19, 21, 22; 228, 17; 240; 295; 296,
10; Napoleonic Wars, An Episode in the (Spala) 199, 40
319, 22; 334 Nature, Mysterious and Veiled, Unveils Herself Before
Michael the Brave, Prince of Wallachia 194; (Carrier- Science (Barrias) 112, 19
Belleuse) 198 Negress (Cordier) 407, 8
Madman (Valbudea) 45, 6
Michael the Nerval, Grard de 253
Michel, Andr 20 Nest, The (Croisy) 380, 20
Michelangelo 13; 15; 47; 77; 101; 102; 108; New Salome, The (Klinger) 391, 10
137; 139 Ney, Marshal Michel 43; (David d'Angers) 195;
Mickiewicz, Adam (Kursawa) 110, 12 (Grandi) 142, 34; (Rude) 142; 195
Mignon, Lon 391, ^ Nez Perc Indians, ChiefJoseph of the (Warner) 254, 22
yWi^rant5 (Daumier) 140, 6 Nicholas I, Tsar of Russia 19; Monument to (Klodt)
Milles, Carl 127, 13; 298, 40 195, 7
Millet, Jean Franois 85 Niederhusern, Auguste de (Niederhusern-Rodo)
Milmore Memorial (French) 335, 43 255, 48
Minne, George 126; 166; 167, 6, 7; 168, 25; Nieuwerkerke, Count of, Alfred-Emile O'Hara 8 ; 316
378 Nol, Edm-Antony-Paul (Tony-Nol) 334, 24
Mistral, Frdric (Amy) 256, 54 Noir, Victor 332 Tomb of (Dalou) 334, 30
;

Mockel, Albert 391 Norseman (Foley) 199, 50

Moignez, Jules 298, 32 Novalis (Baron Friedrich von Hardenberg) 377
Moine, Antonin-Marie 296, 4 Nude Figures (Watts) 140, 5
Moldau River (Prachner) 18, 15 Nude in Armchair (Dalou) 88, 3
MoLiN, Johan Peter 45, 9; 228, 12 Nydia, The Blind Girl of Pompeii (R. Rogers) 379, 10
Molitor (cabinetmaker) 333 Nymph and Satyr (Gricault) 140, 3
Monet, Claude 8 142 ;
Nymph of the Spring (Georgescu) 19, 26
Monge, Gaspard 249; Monument to (Rude) 227, 6 Nymph Riding a Sea-Bull (Hildebrand) 228, 21
Monla- Vicuna, Madame (Rodin) 255, 43 Nyssia (Pradier) 48, 55
Mont Blanc, Monument to H.-B. de Saussure and J. Balmat
Commemorating the First Ascent of, in 1 786 (Salmson) Ober, Artem Laurentevich 298, 36
88, 75 Ochse, Madeleine 316
Montagne, Pierre 197, 27 Odette de Champdivers, Charles VI Succored by (HuGUEtiln)
Montesquieu (Clodion) 43 46, 33
MONTEVERDE, GlULIO 183, 12 Odin (Fogelberg) 48, 56
Montpensier, Duke of. Tomb of (Westmacott) 45 Oechslin, Johann Jakob 46, 28
Morand, Paul 256 Oedipus, The Young, Brought Back to Life by the Shepherd
MoREAU, Gustave 108; 111, 14 Phorbas (Chaudet) 46, 34; 407
Moreau-Vauthier, Augustin-Jean 407, 5 Old Mine Horse, The (Meunier) 296, 10
Moreno, Giacomo 330; 334, 36 Old Woman of Tinos (M. Fytalis) 255, 32
MoRisoT, Berthe 255, 49 Oleszcynski, Wladyslaw 253, 3
Moser, Koloman 317; 362 Olympus (Clsinger) 17
Mosse and Riou, Captains, Monument to (Rossi) 333, 5 Oms, Manuel 194
Mother, The (Cecioni) 88, 22 Ophelia (Prault) 46, 25
Mother and Child on a Tomb (artist unknown) 333, 17 (Deligand) 20, 41
Oracle in the Fields, The
Mother and Daughter (Troubetzkoy) 142, 21 Orengo, Luigi 330
Mother and Dying Daughter (Rodin) 140, 7 Orestes (Duret) 18, 6
Mother Weeping over Her Dead Child (Minne) 167, 6 Origin of the Milky Way, see Juno and the Infant Hercules
Motherhood (Vallotton) 168, 26 (Bystrom)
Mountain Man, The (Remington) 297, 24 Orlando Furioso (Seigneur) 45, 7
Mounted Torchbearer (Frmiet) 198, 30 Orlans, The Duke o/"(MAROCHErri) 195, 6
Mucha, Alphonse 127, 10 Orlans, Princess of, Marie-Christine 319, 17
Mucius Scaevola, The Russian (Demut-Malinovsky) Orpheus (Rodin) 141, //
19, 20 Orsay, Count of, Alfred Guillaume Gabriel 10
 INDEX 427

Orsi, Achille d' 183, 10; 391, 5 Pradier, Jean-Jacques (James) 18, //; 43; 46; 48,
Osiris 332 55; 88; 183, 6; 239, 2; 286; 319, 13; 361; 362,
Our Dear Mother (Strobl) 88, 27 2; 378
Prault, Antoine Augustin 10; 46, 25; 48, 57;
Paciurea, Dumitru 198 108; 110, 10; 137; 253, 13; 286; 296; 315; 319,
Paderewski, Ignace (Gilbert) 256,56 25; 329; 331 (line cut); 332
Paganini, Niccolo (David d'Angers) 254, 31 Primavera (Adams) 407, 20
Pailleron, Edouard, Monument to (Bernstamm) 112, 23 Proctor, Alexander Phimister 298, 37
Pajou, Augustin 20 Prodigal Son, T/ie (Rodin) 141, 13
Pakenham and Cibbs, Generals, Monument to (West- Prokofiev, Ivan Prokofievich 140, 2
macott) 333, 6 Prud'hon, Pierre-Paul 17; 254, 21; 332
Palagi, Pelagio 226 P/c/ie (Canova) 19, 33

Palmer, Erastus Dow 47, 40; 87; 379, 5
Pan and Psyche (Begas) 379, /
Paolo and Francesco (Munro) 47, 36
Paradise Lost (Dieudonn) 47, 37
Parasites, The (Orsi) 391, 5
(Carabin) 183, 13
Parisian Couple Dancing
Parisienne, (Flamand) 128, 17
The
Pascal, Franois-Michel (Michel-pascal) 319, 16
Pasche, Albert 334, 25
Patrone Family, Lazzaro,
49
Psyche Borne Aloft by the Zephyrs (Gibson) 379, 8
Psyche Fainting (Tenerani) 379, 9
Puberty (Almeida) 20, 38
Puech, Denys 110, 9
PuGET, Pierre 107
Pushkin and His Friend Delvig (Bernstamm) 88, //
Pushkin, Monument to (Bakh) 197, 18
Pygmalion and Galatea (Rodin) 141, 14
Pythian Priestess on the Tripod (Marcello) 240, 8
Monument of the (Varni) 335,
C^adriga (Recipon) 239, /

Pauline Bonaparte Borghese as Venus Victorious (Canova) Quatremre de Quincy 10

19, 27 Queen of Sheba, The (Ferrary) 364, IX
Peace (Chaudet) 14, /; 407, 3 Queirolo, Francesco 330
Pegram, Henry Alfred 110, 8 Quelen, Monseigneur Louis de. Funeral Monument of
Pellini, Eugenio 334, 23 (Geoffroy De Chaume) 318, 6
Penelope (Drossis) 18, 5
Percier, Charles 77 Rachel, Portrait o/ (Barre) 407, 2
Perfume, The (Vallgren) 128, 20 Rachel, Mademoiselle, Before Going on the Stage (Leroux)
Prignon, Marshal, Tomb o/" (Plantar) 333, 12 88, 7
Perseus (Dillens) 296, 5 Rachel in the Role of Phdre (Duret) 253, 15
Perseus and Pegasus (Chalepas) 167, / / Racine, Monument to (David d'Angers) 17; 20, 48;
Perseus Freeing Andromeda (Chinard) 19, 3/ 78
Persil, Portrait (Daumier) 288, //
o/" Leontine (Rauch) 253, 9
Radziwill,
Persuasion (Godebski) 362, 4 Ramazanov, Nikolai Alexandrovich 2 54, 18
Peter, Victor 380, 17 Ratapoil (Daumier) 285; 288, /
Peter Pan (Frampton) 127 Rauch, Christian 253, 9; 254, 30; 296, 6
Petofi, Sandor, Monument to (Huszar) 197, 22 Readers, The (Dor) 227, /
Phidias 45 ; 78 Rau, Louis 16; 319
Philip, John Birnie 196, 15 Reber Tomb, The (Nol) 334, 24
Philipon, Charles 288 Rcamier, Madame (Canova) 253, 10; (Chinard)
(Chinard) 254, 23
Philippe galit 253, 8
Philipsen, Theodor 298, 30 Recipon, Georges 239, /
Piaggio, Ester, Monument to (ScANZl) 334, 32 ReflectiveMood (Dampt) 407,' 13
Picking Flowers(Freund) 47, 45 Regnault, Henri, Monument to (Coquart, Degorge,
Piermarini, Giuseppe 239, 6 and Chapu) 335, 45
PiGALLE, Jean-Baptiste 15; 18; 107; 181 Reibnitz, Madame de (Schadow) 253, 2
Piles, Roger de 44 Remington, Frederick 297, 24
Pilon, Germain 237 Ren d'Anjou, King, Monument of (Dwiu d'Angers) 80, 8
Pilot of Life (ScANZi) 334, 40 Renoir, Auguste 6; 138
PiMENOv, Stepan Stepanovich 334, 22 Repentant Magdalen, The (Canova) 46, 20
Piquer y Duart, Jos 48, 58, 60; 195, 3; 318 Republic, The (Clsinger) 111,//; (French) 228, 16
Pissarro, Camille 8; 138 Resignation (Orlans) 319, 17
Planche, GusUve 18; 43; 195 Resting Faun (Sergel) 19, 24
Plantar, Jean-Baptiste-Louis 333, 12 Resurrection of the Russian Fleet (I. Terebenev) 227, 2
Playing Children, Tomb with (Bazzaro) 335, 54 Return from the Post Office, The (Rivalta) 88, 2
Pleszowski, Antoni 88, 20 Rey, Robert 288
'
Ploughman Fiomeward Plods His Weary Way, The' Reynolds-Stephens, William 125; 127, 7; 128, 21 ;
(W. Thornycroft) 10, 7 1 317
PoDozERov, Ivan Ivanovich 255, 33 RiCHiER, Ligier 389
Polar Bear (Ober) 298, 36 RiETscHEL, Ernst 195, 12
Pompon, Franois 295; 297, 26 Rinehart, William Henry 19, 34; 87
Ponson du Terrail, Viscount of, Pierre- Alexis 405 Riou, Captains Mosse and.
Monument to (Rossi) 333, 5
Potato Picker (Dalou) 184, 18 Rivalta, Augusto 86; 87; 88, 2
Poussin, Nicolas 46; 79; 286 Rivers Flowing into the Ocean, Fountain
of the (Bartholdi)
Poverella {Poor Young Thing) (Vigne) 362, 13 228, 10
Powers, Hiram 20, 39; 48, 54; 87; 168; 254, 28 Rivire, Thodore-Louis-Auguste 20; 126; 165;
Prachner, Vaclav 18, 15 362, 15

^^ ^- ^^^Tl
 7

428

Robert, Elias 20 2; 254, 20

Rodin, Auguste 8; 11; 13; 44; 47; 80; 102; 107; ScHALLER, Johann Nepomuk 18, 8
108; 110; 111; 126; 137-40; 140, 7-/2; 141, Scheffer, Ary 316
13,14; 142; 165; 166; 167; 184; 240; 249; Schiller, Friedrich von 20

250; 251, VII; 252; 255, 43; 256, 62; 285; 295; Schiller and Goethe, Monument to (Rietschel) 195, 12

296; 332; 363, 23; 392, 23; (Troubetzkoy) Schilling, Johann 226
256, S9 ScHNiRCH, Bohuslav 199, S6
Rogers, John 194; 198, 39; 380, 14 Schoelcher Tomb, The (Fromanger and Hannaux) 335,
Rogers, Randolph 87; 379, W 46
RoiG Y SoLER, Juan 392, 18 Schoenwerk, Alexandre 20-,40
Rolland, Colonel, Defender of Le Bourget, Monument to Schoolgirl Walking in the Street (Degas) 88, 12
(Bloch) 199, 49 Schuffenecker, Emile 407
RoUinat (Carries) 256, 52 Schwanthaler, Ludwig 227, 4
RoMBAUx, GIDE 142, 29; 392, 21 Scott, George Gilbert 196, 75
Rosa, Ercole 226; 228, 13; 255, 41 Scott, Sir Walter 1 95 405 Bust o/"(Chantrey) 253,
; ; /

Rossetti, Dante Gabriel 127 Sculptor's Dream, The (Rodin) 140, 12

Rossi, John Charles 333, S Seasons, The (Convers; 112, 22; (Rodin) 392, 23
Rossi, Pellegnno (Tenerani) 88, 26 Seated Bather (Maillol) 168, 27
Rosso, Medardo 8; 13; 108; 126; 139-40; 141, 17; Seated .Mermaid {]ekich\\i) 168, 23
142, 18, 19; 256, 60 Seated Woman (Dubois) 88, 6
RouBiLLAC, Louis-Franois 85; ,330 Secret, I/ie (Fix-Masseau; 127, 5; (Rousseau) 168, 22

Rounblom, Anders Mathias, The Swedish Bell-Founder Seduction, The, see Hlose and Ablard Reading Together
(Rounblom) 255, 40 (Chatrousse)
Rounblom, August Leonard 255, 40 Seigneur, Jean du 45, 7
Rousseau, Victor 126; 127; 142; 166; 168, 22; Self Portrait (Daumier) 256, SS
391, 6, 7 Self-Portrait on the Sculptor's Tomb (Carries) 112, 29
Rubio, Doctor, Monument to (Blay) 87 ; 228, 20 Sergel, Johan Tobias 19, 24
Rude, Franois 8; 10; 18, 9; 41; 42; 44; 45, /, Servais-Godebska, .Madame Zofia (Godebski) 255, 37
i; 101; 111; 126; 142; 195; 227,6; 319, 12, 14; Shchedrin, Fedos Feodorovich 7; 15
329 Sheba, The Queen o/" (Ferrary) 364, IX
Rush, Joseph 254 Sheep (I. Bonheur) 298, 31
Rush, William 110, /, 24
2; 254, Shepherd, The (G. Fytalis) 183, 7
Russian Fleet, Resurrection of the (I. Terebenev) 227, 2 Shepherd Boy Bitten by a Snake and Succored by His Dog
Russian Mucius Scaevola, The (Demut-Malinovsky) 19, (Maindron) 379, 7
20 5/)ep/ierc/e5j (Ferenczy) 380, 13
Ruxthiel, Henri Joseph 19 Sherman, General William Tecumseh (Saint-Gaudens) 87
Rysbrack, John Michael 330 Shubin, Fedot Ivanovich 15
Sick Dog (Frmiet) 296, IS
Madame ApoUonie-Agla (Clsinger) 253, 11
Sabatier, Sick Person in Hospital (Rossoj 141, 17
Saccomanno, Santo 330 Siege of Paris, study for (Meissonier) 296, //
Saint-Gaudens, Augustus 87; 127, 3; 167, 17; 195, Siesta, The (Bourdelle) 142, 32

/; 196, 16; 256, S3; 335, SI SiMART, Pierre-Charles 18, 4

Saint-Marceaux, Charles-Ren de 112, 18; 256, Simonis, Louis-Eugne 20, 46
SI; 334, 29 SiMYAN, Victor 19, /
Sainte-Beuve, Charles Augustin 199 SiNDiNG, Stefan 46, 32; 110
St. Cecilia (David d'Angers) 78 SiSLEY, Alfred 6; 138
St. Flizabeth of Hungary (Gilbert) 407, 12 Sisters of Bethany, The (Wood) 19, 29
St. George and the .Music of Catalonia (Blay) 392, 2 S Sisters
of Illusion, The (Rousseau) 391, 6
St. George Killing the Dragon (FrmieT) 196, V Sizeranne, Robert de la 138
St. Hubert, Fountain(Hildebrand) 166
o/^ Skovgaard, Niels 407, 17
St. Jerome (Piquer) 48, S8 Slave, The (GisoTTi) 362, 17; (Matisse) 142, 33
St. John of God (Vallmitjana) 319, 24 Sleeping Reaper (Veray) 48, SI
St. John the Baptist (John) 319, 18 Sluggard, The (Leighton) 168, 30
St. Luke and the Bull (Desroches) 318, 2 Smallpox Vaccine, Edward Jenner Inoculating His Infant Son
St. .Mary .Magdalen Transported to Heaven (Marochetti) with (Monteverdi) 183, 12
319, // Snipe (MoiGNEZ) 298, 32
St. Michael Slaying Satan (Flaxman) 18, 10 SoARs DOS Reis, Antonio 20; 45, 8; 254, 29
St. Sebastian (Bourdelle) 319, 23 Sobakina, Mme. M. ., ne Princess Mesherska, Funerary
Salammb, .Mathd at the Feet o/" (Rivire) 126; 362, IS Monument to (Martos) 333, 18
Salmson, Jean-Jules 88, 2S Sola, Antonio 195, 3
Salome, The New (Klinger) 391, 10 Soldiers Burying Their Dead (Bissen) 199, 48
Sand, George (Clsinger; 253, 14 Solidarity (Minne) 167, 7
Sappho Abandoned (Dupr) 20, 47 Sommaruga, Giuseppe 330
Saragassa, The Defense o/'(Cubero) 45, 14 Sonnenschein, Johann Valentin 45, 4
Sarka, Ctirad and (Myslbek) 47, 38 Sorrow (Pleszowski) 88, 20
Saturnalia, I/ie (Biondi) 391, 3 SouFFLOT, Jacques Germain 15; 315; Bust o/" (Dan-
Satyr and Bacchante (Carrier-Belleuse) 362, 9; (Gri- ton) 16
cault) 140, 4 Souk, Marshal, Minister of War and Foreign Affairs in
ScANZi, Giovanni 334, 32, 40 Louis-Philippe's Cabinet, Portrait of (Dausmer) 288, 8
Schadow, Johann Gottfried 19, 23; 46, 30; 253, Spalla, Giacomo 198, 40
I
i

I
 INDEX 429

Spanish Dance (Degas) 142, 28 Tiger Family (Cain) 298, 39

Sparkes, John 87 TiLGNER, Viktor Oskar 256, 42
Spartacus (Vela) 100, 13 Tobacco Joe (Gauguin) 407, 16
Sphinx, r/ie (Stappen) 127, 9 Tomb (Pasche) 334, 25
Spring (BiEGAS) 392, 24 Tomb Figure (Dillens) 334, 26; (Lalaing) 335, 52
Spring, The (Maillol) 168, 33 Torchre (Carrier-Belleuse) 239, 5; (Hugues) 240,
Stag (I. Bonheur) 298, 34 7
Stag Beetle (Pompon) 297, 26 Torreggiani, Camilo 380, / /
Stag Hunt (Jacquemart) 296, 18 Toulouse-Lautrec, Henri de 138
Stalking Panther (Proctor) 298, 37 Tour de France par deux enfants (Bruno) 1 93
Stappen, Charles van der 108; 127, 9 Triga (Schnirch) 200, 56
Stark, Robert 295 Trimolet, Louis Joseph 285
Statue of Liberty, replica of (Bartholdi) 240, 12 Triqueti, Henri-Joseph-Franois 10; 42; 316; 319,
Statuette (Larche) 127, // 19; 405
Statuette of a Woman (Carabin) 392, 27 Triumph of 1810 Celebrating the Peace of Vienna (CoR-
Stauffer, Karl 167, IS; 199, S2 tot) 48, 59; 198
Stavasser, Peter Andreevich 18, 2 Triumph of Mark Anthony (Strasser) 198, 37
Steam (Chapu) 112, 21 226 ; Trotti, Count (Bartolini) 254, 27

Steinlen, Thophile-Alexandre 285; 390 Troubetzkoy, Paul 126; 142, 20-22; 256, 59; 295
Stendhal 1 117; 41 85 86; 193 237
; ; ; ; Truphme, Andr-Franois 19, 32; 47, 41
Stephen the Great 194; (Frmiet) 198 TuAiLLON, Louis 166; 168, 19; 296, 12
Stevens, Alfred 110, 4
Stewardson, Edmund 168, 31 Ugolino (Rodin) 108
Stewart, Augustus 362 Ugolino and His Sons (Carpeaux) 101
Stone Breakers (Courbet) 85
Stonecrusher (KoNENKOv) 183, 9 Valbudea, Stefan Ionesco 45, 5; 198
Storck, Karl 19; 45; 198 Valenciennes, The City of. Defending Her Ramparts (Car-
Story of Water, The (Cros) 407, 19 peaux) 102, 5
Stracke, Johannes Theodorus 87; 198, 29 Valry, Paul 138
Strasser, Arthur 198, 37 Valet (J. Malinsky) 88, 5
Strazza, Giovanni 319, 20 Valette, Marquise de la (Carpeaux) 101
Strobl, Aloys 88, 27; 198, 2S Vallgren, Ville 128, 20
Struggle of Two Natures in Man, The (Barnard) 142, 31 Vallmitjana, Agapito 319, 24
Stuck, Franz von 128, 18; 166; 167, 14; 168, 20; Vallotton, Flix-douard 168, 26
295 Valor and Cowardice (Stevens) 1 10, 4
Sucharda, Stanislav 379, 2 Varni, Santo 335, 49
Suez, Cutting of the Isthmus o/"(Magni) 1 10, J Vasari, Giorgio 15
Suffren, Bailli de, Pierre Andr (Montagne) 197, 27 Vela, Vincenzo 110, 13; 182; 184; 198, 23; 226;
(Cecioni) 46, 18
Suicide, The 334, 27
Sullivan, Louis 166; 330 Vellda (Maindron) 47, 49
Summer and Spring (Carrier-Belleuse) 239, 3 Ven, a. J. 20
Summers, Charles 199, 44 Venus (Fogelberg) 18
SufJOL, Jernimo 194 Venus and Cupid (Begas) 379, 3
Supreme Kiss, The (Christophe) 362, 7 Venus of the Alameda de Osuna (AdAn) 18, 12
Surrender of Abdu-1-Kadir (Carpeaux) 101 Veray, Jean-Louis 48, 57
Sragrovsky, Vaclav, Sarcophagus o/^(Myslbek) 333, 21 Vercingetorix 194
Verhaeren, Emile 182
Tabbacchi, Odoardo 88, 24 Verlaine, Paul, The Poet (Niederhausern) 255, 48
Table (Carabin) 392, 28 Verlet, Raoul-Charles 112, 24
Taglioni, Maria, The Ballerina (Barre) 380, 16 Verne, Jules (Franceschi) 256, 45
Talleyrand 286 Vernet, Carle 285
ramanenc/ (Luke) 391, / Vestal Virgin (Carrier-Belleuse) 380, 12

Tartarkiewicz, Jakob 318, 5 Victims of Labor, The (Vela) 184, 23

Teixeira Lopes, Antonio 87; 88, 23; 334, 31 Victoria, Queen 181; 193; (Barre) 380, 18; on
Tenerani, Pietro 88, 26; 379, 9 Thornycroft) 297,
Horseback (T. 21
Terebenev, Alexander Ivanovich 18, 3 Vigeland, Gustav 110, 6
Terebenev, Ivan Ivanovich 227, 2 ViGNE, Paul de 362, 13
Terror (DoR) 392, 17 Vigny, Count Alfred Victor de 249
Theseus and the Minotaur (Barye) 46, 1 Villon, Franois 43; (Etcheto) 195, //
Theunissen, Corneille 112, 28 Vine, r/ic (Saint-Marceaux) 112, 18
Thierry, Augustin 194 VIOLLET-LE-DUC, EuGNE 318, 9; 391, 21
Thiers, Adolphe 10; 193; 406 Vitellius, Portrait of (Brancusi) 8; 198, 38

Thomas, Gabriel-Jules 253, 16 Vitsaris, Jean 334, 41

Thornycroft, Thomas 297, 21 Vittorio Emmanuele, King, Monument to (Rosa) 226 228, ;

Thornycroft, William Hamo 110, 7 13

Thorvaldsen, Bertel 11; 16; 17; 46; 47, 43, 46; Vivant Denon, Dominique, see Denon
77; 110; 168; 183; 199; Leaning on the Statue VoLKMANN, Arthur 168, 24
of Hope (BissEN) 20, 49 Voltaire (Houdon) 42
TiECK, Christian Friedrich 253, 6 Vroutos, Giorgos 390; 392, 13
Tiger Devouring a Crocodile (Barye) 296, / Vrubel, Mikhail Alexandrovich 391, 9
430

Wagner, Otto 317 Wood Nymph (Birch) 47, 44

Waiting (Braekeleer) 46, 27 Workers Constructing a Bridge (P. Malinsky) 183, 3
War (WiLLUMSEN) 392, 19 Wounded Horse, study for The Siege of Paris (Meissonier)
Ward, John Quincy Adams 198, 36 296, //
Warner, Olin Levi 254, 22 " Wounded to the Rear" One More Shot (]. Rogers) 198,
Warrior, Large (Bourdelle) 167, / 39
Washerwoman (Maillol) 167, 9 Wrestlers (Lambeaux) 392, 14
Washington, George 193; (Greenough) 195, 10;
Lafayette and (Bartholdi) 199, 43
Water Nymph (Cordier) 20, 37 Young Boy Washing (Ivanov) 88, 75
Water Nymph and Bittern (Rush) 110, / Young Convalescent, The (Loison) 46, 26
Watt, James (Chantrey) 253; (Munro) 47 Young Englishwoman, Mask of a (Khnopff) 391, //
Watts, David Pike, Monument to (Chantrey) 333, 4 Young Girl at the Spring (Truphme) 47, 41
Watts, George Frederick 140, 5; 295 Young Girl at the Well (Conradsen) 183, 4
Weekes, Henry 195, 14 Young Girl Confding Her First Secret to Venus (Jouffroy)
Wellington, Duke of, Arthur Wellesley 43; 110; 362, 3
(Stevens) 110, 4 Young Girl of Tangermiinde, The (Rauch) 296, 6
Welonski, Pius 199, 4S Young Girl Picking Apples (Bourdelle) 142, 36
Wemyss, Lord 298 Young Girl Sleeping (Baily) 47, 47
Westmacott, Richard 16; 43 45, 2; 330; 333, 6, 7
; Young Greek Girl on Tomb of Marco Botzaris, Fighter for
Whitbread, Samuel, Monument to (Bacon) 333, 8 Greek Independence (David d'Angers) 33435, 42
White Captive, The (Palmer) 47, 40 Young Horseman, The (Hahn) 168, 18
Widow, The (Teixeira Lopes) 88, 23 Young Indian Girl (Bosio) 47, 42
WijK, Charles van 184, /5 Young Man with a Lance (Georgescu) 19, 19
Wild Horses of Duncan, The (Garrard) 296, 17 Young Oedipus, The, Brought Back to Life by the Shepherd
Wilhelm II 194; 379 Phorbas (Chaudet) 46, 34; 407
Wills, W. J., and Robert O'Hara Burke, Memorial to Young Robert D. (Chapu) 88, 14
(Summers) 199, 44 Young Sculptor, The (Kamensky) 88, 16
WiLLUMSEN, Jens Ferdinand 392, 19 Youth (Carles) 128, 16; (Milles) 127, 13
Winckelmann, Johann Joachim 15; 194 Youth and Love (Crauk) 19, 2 S
Winged Genius Sacrificing a Bull (Rude) 45, 3 Youth on a Sea-Horse (Hildebrand) 228, 19
Woman Bitten by a Snake (Clsinger) 46, 24
Woman Caressing a Chimera (Dencheau) 362, 14
Woman in Assyrian Style (Fattorini) 407, 10 Zadkine, Ossip 167
Woman of Gaul (Rude) 17 Zamoyska Czartoryski, Countess Sofa, Monument to

Woman of Samaria, The (Rinehart) 19, 34 (Bartolini) 334, 28

Woman with Peacock (Falguire) 363, 21 Zamoyski, Andrzej (GuYSKi) 254, 17
Woman with Umbrella (RoiG Y Soler) 392, 18 Zola, Emile 5; 12; 183; 193; 239; 332; 390; Monu-
Women Kissing (Madrassi) 407, 14 ment to (C. Meunier) 228, 17
Wood, John Warrington 19, 29 ZuMBUscH, Kaspar 228, IS

I
1

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
/ wish to thank M. O'Meara, my kind and helpful editor, as well as Mme Claude Nabokov, whose meticulous research and assistance greatly
contributed to the production of this book.

Dr. Hubert Adolph, Vienna; Miss Aflin, London; Luis Monreal Rouen; Jean-Max Leclerc, Paris; Marcel Lecomte, Paris; Mau-
Agusti, Barcelona; Gail Anderson, Boston; Dr. Erwin M. riceLe Roux, Paris; Alain Lesieutre, Paris; George Levitine,
Auer, Vienna; Prof. Dr. Erich Bachmann, Munich; Pierre College Park, Md. ; Jean Leymairie, Paris; Marie-Christine
Baudson, Brussels; Dr. F. A. Baumann, Zurich; Jean Bguin, Livingston, Bristol; Sbastien Leste, Paris; Dott. Caterina
Lige; Jacques-Edouard Berger, Lausanne; Emilio Bertonati, Marcenaro, Genoa; Peter O. Marlow, Hartford; Dr. Jiri Masin,
Milan; Dr. A. W. Biermann, Bonn; Paul Bittler, Paris; Prof. Prague; Edgar de N. Mayhew, New London; Simone Mazire,
Dr. Peter Bloch, Berlin ; Helena Blum, Cracow ; Prince Em- Paris; David McKibbin, Boston; Dr. F. MellinghofF, Essen;
manuel R. Bodgan, Paris; Prof. Dr. Zbigniew Boghenski, Grard Menetrat, Paris; Ingrid Mesterton, Gteborg; Eleanor
Cracow; L. Bourdil, Rouen; Dott. Palma Bucarelli, Rome; N. Monahon, Providence; Dott. Alessandra Mottola, Milan;
Dr. Gunter Busch, Bremen; Adeline Cacan, Paris; Julien Mouradian et Vallotton, Paris ;
John Murdoch, Birmingham,
Cain, Paris; Raffaello Causa, Naples; Ren de Chambrun, England; Thomas Neurath, London; Jane E. Nitterauer, Buf-
Paris; Sylvie Chevalley, Paris; Albert Dasnoy, Brussels; Dr. falo; Franoise Nora-Cachin, Paris; Prof. Dr. Fritz Novotny,
Elisabeth Decker, Berlin ; Henri-Franois Duchne, Paris ;
Vienna; J. R. Ostiguy, Ottawa; Constance-Ann Parker, Lon-
Michel Dufet, Paris; Jacques Dupont, Paris; Georg Duthaler, don; Leslie Parris, London; Merribell Parsons, Minneapolis;
Basel; Dr. Essayan, Lisbon; Hugh A. Eudy, Hendersonville, Dott. Aldo Passoni, Turin; Jacques Pierre, Quebec; Dott.
N.C. ; Dr. Gerhard Ewald, Stuttgart; Prof. Italo Faldi, Rome; Sandra Pinto, Florence; Dr. G. E. Pogany, Budapest; Jacques
Robert Femier, Omans; Aage Fersing, Copenhagen; Robert Politis; Mme. Alexandre Popofif, Paris; O. Popovitch, Rouen;
Finck, Brussels; Philippe Foumier, Rouen; Dr. Jos-Augusto Dr. Vaclay Prochazka, Prague ;
Janusz Przewozny, Poznan ;

Franca, Lisbon; J. R. Gaborit, Paris; Hugues R. Gall, Paris; Pierre Quarr, Dijon; Dr. Raumschssel, Dresden; Joseph
Comte de Ganay; Dott. Mercedes Precerutti Garberi, Milan; J.
Rischel, Chicago; Jeannette E. Roach, St. Louis; Edouard
Jos M. Garrut, Barcelona; Dr. W. Geismeier, Berlin; Dr. Roditi, Paris; Haavard Rostrup, Copenhagen; Theodore Rous-
G. Gepts, Anvers; Ellen Goheen, Kansas City, Missouri; seau, New York; Barbara Rumpf, Los Angeles; Dr. V. Ru-
Ccile Goldscheider, Paris; Diana M. Gray, Philadelphia; thenberg, Berlin; G. Salles, Le Havre; Dr. Wulf Schadendorf,
Hans Haller, Basel; W. Halsema-Kubes, Amsterdam; R. Ham- Nuremberg; Manera Settino, Treviso; Gyde V. Shepherd,
macher-Van den Brande, Rotterdam ; Katherine Hanna, Cin- Ottawa; Dr. Dominges Solaris, Genoa; T. Stevens, Liverpool;
cinnati; Dr. Susanne Heiland, Leipzig; Maurice Herzog, Barbro Sylwan, Stockholm; Oscar Thue, Oslo; Jacques Toja,
Chamonix; John K. Howat, New York; Charles F. Hummel, Paris; Walter Trachsler, Zurich; Alan Trapenard, Paris; Wil-
Winterthur, Del. Noel S. Hutchinson, Australia; Radu Iones-
;
liam H. Truettner, Washington D.C. ; A. J.
M. van der Vaart,
co, Bucharest; lonel Jianu; Diana Johnson, Baltimore; The Hague; Christian Vemes, Paris; Dina Vierny, Paris;
William R. Johnston, Baltimore; Dr. Frances Follin Jones, Dr. Evelyn Weiss, Cologne; H. Wade White, Cambridge,
Princeton; J.
M. Joosten, Amsterdam; Marinos Kalligas, Mass.; Hermann Warner Williams, Jr., Washington, D.C;
Athens; Dr. Jiri Kotalik, Prague; Dr. F. Lahusen, Cassel; Peter Wilson, London; Dr. Werner Zimmermann, Karlsruhe;
Emily Lane, London; Robert Lebel, Paris; Jean Lecanuet, Zdzislaw Zygulski, Cracow.

^m
 PHOTOGRAPHIC CREDITS
The author and publisher wish to thank the libraries, museums, and private collectors for permitting the reproduction of sculptures in their
collections. Photographs have been supplied by the owners or custodians of the works of art except for the following, whose courtesy is

gratefully acknowledged :

A.C.L., Brussels (1) 46, (2) 16, 27, (4) 6, (7) 2, 9, (8) 29, Troyes (1) 4, (2) 53, (22) 7; Andr Gomet, Paris (7) 5; Hen-
(9) 6, 7, 22, 25, (10) 19, 21, 22, (11) 28, (14) 5, 38, (16) 5, riette Grindat, Lausanne (21) 25; Grooteclaes, Lige (21) 8;

10,(17)22, (18)26, (19) 13, (21)6, 7, 11, 21, (22) 6; Studio Hauchard, Valenciennes (5) 5, (9) 4; H. Heiniger, Spiez (11)
Alen, Laon (20) 12; Alinari, Florence (18) 28; Alinari-Gi- 52; Andr Held, Ecublens (9) 21 ; Studio Helgen, Bourg-en-
raudon, Paris (1) 27, (11) 23, (12) 14, (13) 6, (17) 20, (18) Bresse (3) 7; Louis Helo, Weimar (11) 12; Peter Heman,
32, 49, (21) 22; Lungaard Andersen, Copenhagen (1) 49; Basel (12) 3;Tibor Honty, Prague (11) 56; Hutin, Compigne
Bernard Anginot, Vendme (2) 35, 39; Marchaorillier Apol- (I) 42, (16) 25, (19) 6; Studio Jean-Louis, Le Bourget (11)
lon, New York (9) 5 ; Art Commission, City of New York (11) 49; Studio J. -P., Mer (2) 26; Keller Studio, Cincinnati (8)
1, 36; Art et Dcoration, Paris (7) 21, (18) 52, 56; Atelier 30; Studio E. Klein, Strasbourg (3) 2; Ralph Kleinhempel,
d'Art de Paris (7) 19; Direk Balmer, Bristol (2) 47, 48; Pierre Hamburg Koch, Schaffhausen (2) 28; Lafay,
(4) 10, (14) 20;
Batillot, Paris (8) 20; Bavaria- Verlag, Munich (12) 4, 15, 19, Le Mans (11) 57; Marc Lavrillier, Paris (19) 22; H. Leboeuf,
21; Frederick O. Bemm, Washington, D.C. (12) 16; Ber- La Ferte-Milon (1) 48; Lecharpentier, Beaune (14) 21;
nardoy, Athens (18) 42; Bevilacqua, Milan (18) 23, 54, 55; Made, Nantes (12) 11, (16) 23; Malinowski, Cracow (11)
Photos Bianquis, St.-Tropez (11) 27; Biblioteca Communale 45; Gilbert Mangin, Nancy (9) 12; Manso, Madrid (2) 60,
A. Saffi, Forli (1) 13; Bignon, Dole (2) 33 ; Lourches (6)
Bleja, (17) 3; Mas, Barcelona (1) 12, (2) 5, 12, (11) 3, (12) 20, (17)
28; L. Borel, Marseilles (2) 25, (10) 1; Brogi, Florence (18) 24, (21) 18; Studio Maywald, Paris (9) 9, 27, 32, 33; Studio
33; Edizioni Brogli, Milan (12) 13; Bulloz, Paris (2) 57, 59, Meury, Besanon (14) 19; Meyer, Vienna (11) 37, (14) 34,
(6) 10, (14) 4, 6, (17) 14, (19) 7; Cameraphoto, Venice (8) 42, (16) 38, (18) 2; John Mills, Liverpool (7) 1 Ministry of ;

19; J.
Camponogara, Lyons (1) 31, (2) 13, 41, (8) 35, (14)8; Culture, Moscow (1) 2, 3, 7, 16, 20-22, (4) 15-17, 21, (8)
Castellanos, Madrid (14) 26; Patrice Clment, Paris (13) 1; 2, 22, (10) 9, 11, (11) 7, 18, 33, (12) 2, (14) 18, 33, (16)
Conte, Crespano (14) 10; Daniel, Beaune (12) 6; A. Danvers, 36, (17) 15, (18) 18, 22, (19) 5, (21) 9; J. -J. Moreau, Tours
Bordeaux (6) 15, 19; M. Desjardins, Paris (14) 61; Jean (I I) 46, (16) 4; J. Moutet, Vichy (13) 3; Nagoraquon, Athens
Dieuzaide, Toulouse (16) 8; Kvzysztoj Dominik, Cracow (4) (10) 7; National Monuments Record, London (2) 21, (18) 1,
20; Florin Dragu, Paris (1) 19, 26, (2) 6; Josef Ehm, Prague 3, 4; National Park Service, Washington, D.C. (11) 17;
(1) 15, (4) 5, (18) 53, (21) 26; Donald E. F. Elbridge, Guild- Neuporxqitos, Athens (18) 36, 41; Nogier, Nimes (1) 11,
ford (8) S; Ellebe, Rouen (4) 7, (12) 9; Evers, Angers (2) (11) 34; M. Novais, Porto (14) 29; Oronoy, Madrid (20) 11 ;

29, (14) 31, (19) 14, (20) 7; J.-C. Felt, Antwerp (21) 14; Claude o'Sughrue, Montpellier (2) 37, 55; Alberto Palau,
The Fine Art Society, London (7) 6, (9) 30, (11) 50, (16) 35; Seville (18) 34; Gino Pedroli, Mendrisio (6) 13, (10) 23;
Flammarion, Paris (3) 1, 4, 9, (4) 3, 9, 11, (5) 4, (6) 9, 11, Peyreigne, Dijon (12) 5; Phlipot-R. G. Phlipeaux, Auxerre
14, 16, 22-27, 29, (8) 4, 6, 32, 33, 36, (9) 3, 26, 28, (10) (1) 41; Photo Piccardy, Grenoble (8) 23, (11) 21, (16) 11;
17, (11) 30, 42, 53, (12) 18, (13) 4, 5, 7-11, 13, 14, (14) P. C. Pignon, Lyons (12) 10; Photo Plein Soleil, Annecy (11)
12-16, 40, 45, 50, 51, 55, 57, 59, (15) 1, 7-11, (16) 3, 9, 35; Eric Pollitzer, New York (13) 12; T. Prast, Madrid (2)
13, 15, 18, 19, 27, 29, 31, 32, 39 (17) 6-13, 16 19, 2l, 23, 14, 58; Rampazzi, Turin (7) 22, (11) 40; Raynal, Calais (8)
(18) 10-12, 14, 17, 20, 24, 25, 29, 30, 37-39, 46-48, 50, 9; Teofilo Rego, Porto (2) 8; Rmy, Dijon (2) 3; tude
(19)10,24,(21)4, 17, 20, 27, 28,(22)13, 14; R. B. Fleming, Rheims, Paris (10) 18; Rheinisches Bildarchiv, Cologne (9) 16;
London (7) 7; Francis, Dreux (17) 17; Gabinetto Fotografico Jean Richard, Saint-Cast (16) 33; Rivanodium, Athens (1) 5,
Nazionale, Rome (20) 8, 9, (21) 5; Gabinetto Fotografico, (9) 11; M. Serejo, Lisbon (1) 36, 38, (2) 22, (4) 23, (11) 26,
Soprintendenza all Gallerie, Florence (2) 18, 23, (4) 2; (18) 31 ; Sotheby, London (7) 10, 11, (22) 5, 11, 15; Sperryn's
Gauthier, Prigueux (16) 34; Gay-Couttet, Chamonix (4) 25; Ltd.,London (6) 4, (7) 15, (16) 21, (21) 2; Stinkelmann,
Helmut Gemsheim, London (11) 41; Giraudon, Paris (1) 1, Bremen (1) 33, (8) 11, (9) 10, 18-20, 24, 29, (14) 2, 35,
25, (2) 1, 15, 17, 24, 31, 32, (3) 3, 5, 6, (4) 1, 4, 14, 19, (16) 12; Studio Slection, Reims (6) 18; Laurent Sully-Jaul-
(5) 1-3, 6, (6) 17, 20, 21, (8) 10, (9) 2, 13, (10) 14, (11) 5, mes, Paris (4) 13, (7) 13, 16, 20, (10) 13, (14) 60, (20) 19;
9, 11, 13, 43, (12) 1, 8, 17, (13) 2, (14) 23, 25, 39, 43, 52, Thiriat,Ornans (4) 18; Tuvanoduku, Athens (21) 13; U.S.
54, 62, (16) 28, (17) 25, (18) 13, 19, 45, (19) 2, 3, 8, 9, 11, Naval Academy, Annapolis (21) 1; O. Vaering, Oslo (2) 34,
12, 15, 20, 21, 23, (20) 16, 17, 20, (21) 12, 16, 23, (22) 2, (6) 6; Photo Vedette, Toulon (12) 7; A. Villani e Figli, Bo-
9, 16, 18-19; Girondal, Lourne-Lille (19) 4; Andr Godin, logna (2) 20; Zandvoort, Baarn (1) 14, (10) 15.
I

I
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