Fluidbed Reference

FluidBed Reference Page 1 of 37
FluidBed Reference
FluidBed models fluidized bed units. Small solid particles enter the unit and a gas stream enters the
bottom at a sufficient velocity to fluidize the bed of solid particles in the unit, causing it to behave like a
liquid. Larger particles whose settling velocity is greater than the velocity of the gas remain in the
bottom of the unit, while lighter particles may be carried with the gas. Heat exchanger coils within the
bed can be used to transfer heat to the particles. Reactions may occur within the fluidized bed.
See Also
Flowsheet Connectivity for FluidBed
Specifying FluidBed
About Fluidized Beds
Flowsheet Connecivity for FluidBed
Material Streams
inlet One inlet material stream containing solids

One inlet material stream containing gas
Additional inlet material streams containing gas (optional)
outlet Two outlet material streams
If the fluidized bed contains a heat exchanger, provide inlet and outlet streams for the heat exchange
medium.
The inlet solids stream and the outlet solid and gas streams must each have at least one substream with a
particle size distribution.
file:///C:/Users/Azharuddin/AppData/Local/Temp/~hh61E.htm 02-Nov-16
About Fluidized Beds

The fluidization principle
When fluidized, an initially stationary bed of solid particles is transformed into a fluid-like state by an
upward gas or liquid stream. The volumetric flow rate of this gas or liquid stream has to exceed a certain
limiting value mf (mf denotes minimum fluidization). In many respects, such a fluidized bed behaves
like a liquid:
The bed can be stirred like a liquid.
Objects of greater specific gravity sink, whereas those of lower specific gravity float.
When the vessel is tilted, the bed surface resumes a horizontal position.
If two adjacent fluidized beds with different bed heights are connected to each other, the heights
become equal.
The fluidized bed flows out like a liquid through a lateral opening.
The fluidization principle was first used on an industrial scale in 1922 for the gasification of fine-grained
coal [1]. Since then, fluidized beds have been applied in many industrially important processes. The
present spectrum of applications extends from a number of physical processes, such as cooling/heating,
drying, sublimation/desublimation, adsorption/desorption, coating, and granulation, to many
heterogeneous catalytic gas-phase reactions as well as non-catalytic reactions. Particularly advantageous
features of the fluidized bed for use as a reactor are excellent gas/solid contact in the bed, good
gas/particle heat and mass transfer, and high bed/wall and bed/internals heat-transfer coefficients.
Further information on fluidization technology is given in textbooks (e.g., [2]) and monographs (e. g.,
[3],[4]). Good summaries can also be found in [5] -[13]. Other useful literature includes reports of the
Engineering Foundation Conferences on Fluidization (e. g., [14] - [16]) and the Circulating Fluidized-
Bed Conferences (e. g., [17] - [19]).
Forms of fluidized beds
As the volumetric flow rate or the superficial velocity u = /At of the fluid increases beyond the
value mf or umf corresponding to the minimum fluidization point (diagram A), one of two things
happens: in fluidization with a liquid, the bed begins to expand uniformly; in fluidization with a gas - a
process of greater industrial importance and the one discussed exclusively in the following sections -
virtually solids-free gas bubbles begin to form (diagram B). The local mean bubble size increases
rapidly with increasing height above the grid because of coalescence of the bubbles. If the bed vessel is
sufficiently narrow and high, the bubbles ultimately fill the entire cross section and pass through the bed
as a series of gas slugs (diagram C). As the gas velocity increases further, more and more solids are
carried out of the bed, the original, sharply defined surface of the bed disappears, and the solids
concentration comes to decrease continuously with increasing height. To achieve steady-state operation
of such a "turbulent" fluidized bed (diagram D), solids entrained in the fluidizing gas must be collected
and returned to the bed. The simplest way to do this is with a cyclone integrated into the bed vessel and
a standpipe dipping into the bed. A further increase in gas velocity finally leads to the circulating
fluidized bed (diagram E), which is characterized by a much lower average solids concentration than the
previous systems. The high solids entrainment requires an efficient external solids recycle system with a
specially designed pressure seal (shown as a siphon in diagram E).
Forms of gas-
solid fluidized beds
Advantages and disadvantages of fluidized beds
The major advantages of the (gas/solid) fluidized bed as a reaction system include:
1. Easy handling and transport of solids due to liquid-like behavior of the fluidized-bed
2. Uniform temperature distribution due to intensive solids mixing (no hot spots even with strongly
exothermic reactions)
3. Large solid/gas exchange area by virtue of small solids grain size
4. High heat-transfer coefficients between bed and immersed heating or cooling surfaces
5. Uniform (solid) product in batchwise process because of intensive solids mixing
Set against these advantages are the following disadvantages:
1. Expensive solids separation or gas purification equipment required because of solids entrainment
by fluidizing gas
2. As a consequence of high solids mixing rate, backmixing of gas and resulting lower conversion
3. In catalytic reactions, undesired bypass or broadening of residence-time distribution for reaction

gas due to bubble development
4. Erosion of internals and attrition of solids (especially significant with catalysts), resulting from
high solids velocities
5. Possibility of defluidization due to agglomeration of solids
6. Gas/solid countercurrent motion possible only in multistage equipment
7. Difficulty in scaling-up
Industrial applications
Since a detailed description of particular processes is beyond the scope of this introduction, the
applications are summarized in the following list. For a detailed overview, refer to [2] and [26].
Reactors
Heterogeneous Catalytic Gas-Phase Reactions (e.g. catalytic cracking, synthesis of Acrylonitrile,

Fischer-Tropsch Synthesis, paraffin oxidation)
Combustion and Gasification Processes (e.g. power plants (coal, biomass material), waste
incineration (sludge, residual plastics))
Polymerization of olefins
Solids Processing
Calcination
Roasting
Physical Operations
Heat Exchange
Granulation
Coating
Agglomeration
Drying
Biofluidization
Circulating Fluidized Bed

The principle of a gas solid fluidization in a circulating fluidized bed is technically realized in a wide
range of applications. Fluid Catalytic Cracking (FCC) and heat and power generation in fluidized bed
combustors are economically the most important. A circulating fluidized bed consists of a riser section,
a solids separator (e.g. cyclone) and a return leg. The separated solids are fed back through the return leg
into the riser. This principal layout is shown below. The model explained here, describes only the riser
part of the circulating fluidized bed, and this is simply referred to as the fluidized bed.
Flow structure in a circulating fluidized bed riser [28]
The fluidized bed is usually divided in different vertical zones (see below). At the bottom there is the
dense fluidized bed also called the bottom zone, above which the freeboard or upper dilute zone is
located. The transient region in between is denoted as the splash zone, where rising bubbles from the
bottom bed explode and cause a more fuzzy transition between bottom bed and upper dilute zone. From
this region the solids hold-up gradually decays further until it becomes constant or at least nearly
constant. The distance between this point, where the solids concentration becomes nearly constant, and
the surface of the fluidized bed is called the Transport Disengagement Height (TDH).
Zones in a fluidized bed vessel
Two effects cause the entrainment of particles from the bottom zone and, since small particles are
entrained to a greater extent than big ones, also cause classification. One effect is the ejection of
particles into the freeboard by exploding bubbles [29]. After the ejection into the freeboard with a
certain starting velocity the particles will be decelerate and either fall back to the bottom bed or are
transported by the up-flowing gas dependent on their terminal velocity being smaller or greater then the
gas velocity. Here the assumption is usually made that the particles do not interact with each other [30],
[31].
Some operating parameters have a strong influence on the entrainment of solids. The influence of the
superficial gas velocity of the fluidizing gas is obvious. The particle's size and its density affect its
terminal velocity and therefore its transportability by the up-flowing gas. For fine particles with terminal
velocity ut below the gas velocity in the freeboard, the elutriation rate increases with decreasing particle
size [32]. The particle size distribution affects the amount of particles of a certain size which are ejected
to the freeboard. It is usually assumed that particles are homogeneously mixed in the bottom bed and
therefore the exploding bubbles are ejecting solids with a representative particle size distribution.
Furthermore, the geometry of the freeboard has an influence on the transport of the particles. Expansion
or narrowing changes the gas velocity, influencing the carrying capacity of the gas. The height of the
freeboard is of great importance. Close to the bed surface, the carryover from the fluidized bed decreases
significantly with increasing height. The decay in the entrainment becomes nearly constant when the
Transport Disengagement Height (TDH) is exceeded (see above). Similar to the entrainment flux, the
solids volume concentration in the freeboard also decreases with increasing distance from the bed
surface and becomes nearly constant above the TDH. Many studies were carried out in laboratory scale
risers with small diameters, which raises the question of the influence of diameter. Only few studies of
the influence of scale on the entrainment are available in the literature. Lewis et. al. [33] made a study
on entrainment with units of 0.019 to 0.146 m diameter. As a result they stated that entrainment is
independent of the size for units larger than 0.1 m in diameter. This result is supported by findings of
Colakyan & Levenspiel [34] and Tasirin & Geldart [35]. Further influencing parameters and literature
overview is given in Kunii & Levenspiel [2] and more recently by Werther & Hartge [36].
Unfortunately, the investigations and results of separation effects in fluidized beds were made with
systems containing solids of one material only and have not yet been verified or extended for mixtures
of solids with different densities, respectively.
Fluidized Bed Model

Bed inventory and pressure drop of the fluidized bed
As mentioned in Circulating Fluidized Bed, two zones in the fluidized bed have to be distinguished, the
bottom zone in the lower part of the fluidized bed that is characterized by high solids volume
concentrations, and the upper dilute zone in which the solids volume concentration decreases with
increasing height. The general shape of the axial solids volume concentration profile is shown below.
The bottom zone with the height Hb and the upper dilute zone with the height Hf can be differentiated.
The total height of the fluidized bed Ht is given as sum of the heights of the bottom zone and upper
dilute zone.
Axial solids volume concentration for fast fluidization [37]
The bottom zone is modeled as a bubbling bed according to Werther & Wein [38]. See Bottom Zone for
details. For the description of the upper dilute zone an approach according to Kunnii & Levenspiel [2] is
used. See Upper Dilute Zone for details.
In the present model of the fluidized bed the bed inventory is defined by either:
a given total bed mass mT,def
a given bed pressure drop pBed,def
The total mass of inventory in the fluidized bed mT can be obtained as the sum of the mass within the
different zones.
The mass of solids in the bottom zone mB can be calculated as described in Bottom Zone, while the
accumulated mass within the upper dilute mF zone can be obtained as described in Upper Dilute Zone.
With this the total accumulated mass in the fluidized bed can be calculated as:
For a given total bed mass mT,def the height of the bottom zone (Hb) can be determined by the solution
of the following optimization problem:
The height of the upper dilute zone (Hf) then results as Hf = Ht-Hb. Here Ht is the total height of the
fluidized bed.
Similarly, the total bed pressure drop pT caused by the solids inventory of the fluidized bed is given as
the sum of the pressure drop of the bottom zone pB and the pressure drop pF of the upper dilute zone.
The pressure drop of the bottom zone pBed can be calculated as in Bottom Zone, while the pressure
drop of the upper dilute pF zone can be obtained as in Upper Dilute Zone. The total pressure drop of
the bed can then be calculated as:
For a given bed pressure drop pBed,def the height of the bottom zone (Hb) can be determined by the
solution of the following optimization problem:
In addition to the pressure drop of the bed pBed, also the pressure drop of the gas distributor pDis has
to be considered to determine the overall pressure drop of the fluidized bed pT. Therefore, the overall
pressure drop of the fluidized bed is given as:
For details on the calculation of the gas distributor pressure drop see Gas Distributors.
Mass balance of the fluidized bed
In the steady state the bed inventory mT and thus the bed pressure drop pBed of the fluidized bed
remain constant. The overall mass balance is then given as:
Here in is the mass flow of particles fed to the fluidized bed, e is the mass flow of particles that are
elutriated at the top of the fluidized bed and d denotes the mass flow of particles that are discharged
from the fluidized bed.
Since the size and the density of the particles is not changed in the fluidized bed (no reaction, no
attrition) the mass balance for each terminal velocity class i=1,..n is given as:
The mass flow of particles belonging to terminal velocity class i in the feed stream in,i is given as:
Here Q3,in,i denotes the mass fraction of the particles of terminal velocity class i in the feed stream.
The mass flow of particles of terminal velocity size i that are elutriated e,i is given as:
Here ki, denotes a particle related entrainment coefficient for the terminal velocity class i, while Q3,b,i
denotes the mass fraction of the particles belonging to terminal velocity class i in the bed. A(Hb) is the
cross section of the vessel at the actual height of the bottom zone Hb.
The mass flow of discharged particles belonging to terminal velocity class i, d,i, is given as:
Substituting these into the mass balance leads to:
Then the mass flow of discharged particles d can be expressed as:
This leads then to:
The particle size distribution in the bed (Q3,b,i) as well as the elutriated mass flow ( e) are unknown.
Therefore an iterative calculation has to be performed. In the first step an initial guess for the elutriated
mass flow is made. Based on this, the particle size distribution is calculated as below.
With the determined particle size distribution the corresponding elutriation mass flow is calculated. This
procedure is repeated until the determined elutriation mass flow does not change any longer.
Thermodynamic model
For determination of the pressure, temperature and composition of the vapor phase, first all inlet streams
(including the streams from the secondary gas supply) are mixed. Then an isobaric, isenthalpic phase
equilibrium calculation is performed. From this calculation the pressure, temperature and composition of
the vapor phase are obtained. In addition, the thermodynamic model of the fluidized bed allows you to
specify either the temperature or the heat duty. If you specify the temperature, an isothermal, isobaric
phase equilibrium calculation is performed in order to determine the new composition of the vapor
phase. If the heat duty (H) is specified, the enthalpy of the material within the fluidized bed (Hriser) is
calculated as shown below. Hin denotes in this case the enthalpy of the mixed inlet streams. Based on
the calculated enthalpy an isobaric, isenthalpic phase equilibrium calculation is performed in order to
determine the temperature and composition of the vapor phase.
If a heat exchanger within the fluidized bed vessel has to be considered an additional heat flow (Q.)
between the heat exchanger fluid and the material within the vessel is introduced. The heat flow is given
as:
Here k indicates the heat transfer coefficient, while A is the heat exchanger area. With the number of
tubes NR, the diameter of the tubes d, and the length of the tubes L, the heat exchanger area can be
calculated as follows:
The temperature difference between heat exchanger fluid and the material in the vessel T can either be
as expressed as arithmetic or as logarithmic difference.
Here TA denotes the temperature difference between the material in the vessel (Tbed) and the fluid
entering the heat exchanger bundle (THE,in). TB indicates the temperature difference between the
material in the vessel (Tbed) and the fluid leaving the heat exchanger bundle (THE,out).
Based on an enthalpy balance the temperatures for the material in the vessel and the fluid leaving the
heat exchanger are determined by an iterative procedure.
Determination of the superficial gas velocity
The superficial gas velocity ug(h) at a height h in the fluidized bed is determined based on the mass flow
of vapor g(h) at the height h, the density of the vapor phase g(T,p(h)) and the cross-sectional area A
(h) of the vessel at the given height. The mass flow of vapor g(h) at the height h considers already a
possible secondary gas supply, while A(h) considers a possible change of the vessel diameter with the
height. The superficial gas velocity is then given by:
If a heat exchanger within the fluidized bed vessel has to be considered, the superficial gas velocity
inside the tube bundle u*(h) is given by:
Here the sign * indicates the values which describes the fluid-mechanics inside the bundle. The ratio
At* /At characterizes the local increase of the superficial gas velocity within the bundle caused by the
decrease of free cross-sectional area.
Here sv denotes the vertical spacing between the tubes, N is the number of one upon another arranged
tube rows, d indicates the outer diameter of the tubes, At is the cross-section of the fluidized bed, NR is
total number of tubes in the bundle and L denotes the length of one tube.
Upper Dilute Zone in Fluidized Beds

Fluid dynamics
In the upper dilute zone the solids volume concentration decreases with height until a nearly constant
level is reached.
Axial solids volume concentration for fast fluidization [37]
Kunii & Levenspiel [2] suggest an exponential decay of the solids volume concentration given by:
Here cv,b,i is the solids volume concentration of the particles belonging to the terminal velocity class i at
the surface of the bottom bed. The values of cv,b,i are obtained from the model of the bottom zone. h
indicates the actual height. The constant a is an empirical parameter whose value is given in literature
(see Kunii & Levenspiel [2]). The values vary between 2 and 12.
cv,i* is the solids volume concentration at infinite height. It is given by the mass flow of solids which are
entrained through the interface between bottom zone and freeboard by the same method as used for the
entrainment of solids from a bubbling fluidized bed (see Bottom Zone):
Here ki, denotes a particle related entrainment coefficient for the terminal velocity class i. Q3,b,i
indicates the mass fraction of particles belonging to terminal velocity class i in the bottom zone. s is the
solids density of the particles belonging to terminal velocity class i and u denotes the superficial gas
velocity.
Based on this the mass in the freeboard is calculated as:
Hf is the height of the freeboard (upper dilute zone) between the vessel top (height of gas outlet) and the
height of the bottom zone Hb which can be found as described in Bottom Zone for a given mass of the
bottom zone. Here At(h) denotes the cross sectional area of the bed at the height h.
Calculation of the pressure drop
The pressure drop caused by the solids in an infinitesimal height element with the height dh is given as:
Here ms(h) indicates the mass of solids and mf(h) the mass of the fluid phase within a height element. g
is the standard acceleration of gravity. At(h) denotes the cross sectional area of the bed at the height h. s
denotes the density of the particles that belong to the terminal velocity class i. cv,i denotes the local
solids volume concentration of the particles belonging to terminal velocity class i at height h. n is the
number of defined terminal velocity classes.
Here Hb denotes the height of the bottom zone, while Hf is the height of the freeboard (upper dilute
zone).
Bottom Zone in Fluidized Beds

Fluid dynamics
The bottom zone is modeled as a bubbling bed according to Werther & Wein [38]. This model considers
the combined action of coalescence and splitting of bubbles. It is assumed that the bed region consists of
two phases, a dense and a void phase. The void phase is made up of bubbles which are assumed to be
solid-free. All bed properties are assumed to be independent of the radius, i.e. only cross-sectional
average characteristics are considered.
With the superficial fluidizing gas velocity u, the volumetric flow or through a single opening of a
nozzle of the gas distributor is given as:
Here nor denotes the number of orifices in the distributor.
According to Davidson & Harrison [40] the volumetric flow or will lead to the formation of bubbles
with an initial diameter of the volume equivalent sphere dv,0 given by:
The bubble volume-equivalent sphere with diameter dv and height h, which for Geldart A and B
powders is given by:
where the first term describes growth by coalescence and the second term accounts for bubble splitting.
is the mean duration of life of a bubble with diameter dv which according to Hilligardt & Werther [39]
can be calculated from
Here umf denotes the minimum fluidization as described in Fluid-Mechanical Principles.
The local bubble volume fraction b is given by
where the visible bubble flow is given as:
Here u denotes the superficial gas velocity.
The local bubble rise velocity ub is given by Hilligardt & Werther [50] as
According to Hilligardt & Werther [50] the parameter describes the deviation of the visible bubble
flow rate from the two-phase theory, while accounts for the part of the deviation from the behavior of
a single bubble which is not reflected by the equation for the determination of the visible bubble flow
rate.
The hydrodynamic parameters and are given in the table below for Geldart A, B, and D powders.
Here Db denotes the bed diameter, while Hb indicates the height of the bed.
powder class
Geldart A
Geldart B
Geldart D
Correlations for the determination of hydrodynamic parameters
The local solids volume concentration cv,i of the particles belonging to terminal velocity class i at height
h is then given as
with cvd,i according to Werther and Wein [38] given by
In this correlation cv,mf is the solids volume concentration at minimum fluidization. By use of the bed
porosity at minimum fluidization mf the solids volume concentration at minimum fluidization can be
determined as follows:
For gas fluidized beds mf is approximately the porosity of the fixed bed.
The particle Reynolds number Rep,i and the Archimedes number Ari are defined as follows:
Here f indicates the density of the gas, while s is the solids density of the particles belonging to
terminal velocity class i. f denotes the kinematic viscosity of the gas. dp,i is the average particle
diameter of the particles that belong to terminal velocity class i.
The mass of solids in the bottom bed mB can then be determined as follows:
Here At(h) denotes the cross sectional area of the bed at the height h. Hb is the height of the bottom zone
and Q3,b,i indicates the mass fraction of the particles belonging to terminal velocity class i in the bed. n
is the number of defined terminal velocity classes.
Calculation of the pressure drop
The pressure drop caused by the solids in an infinitesimal height element with the height dh is given as:
Here ms(h) indicates the mass of solids and mf(h) the mass of the fluid phase within an height element. g
is the standard acceleration due to gravity. At(h) denotes the cross sectional area of the bed at the height
h. Q3,b,i indicates the mass fraction of the particles belonging to terminal velocity class i in the bed,
while s denotes their density. cv,i denotes the local solids volume concentration of the particles
belonging to terminal velocity class i at height h. n is the number of defined terminal velocity classes.
The total pressure drop of the bottom zone pB is then given as:
Here Hb denotes the height of the bottom zone.
Effect of internals like tube bundles on the bubble development
The effect of horizontal built-in tube bundles on the bubble development has been experimentally
investigated by Hilligardt [56,57]. Some results are illustrated in the following figures. Accordingly,
large bubbles are evidently splitted by built-in tube bundles. The mean bubble size dv remains constant
within the bundle and is not larger than 1.2 times the horizontal spacing sh between the tubes. The
bubble rise velocity is reduced within the tube bundle, while the bubble volume fraction b within the
tube bundle is increased.
Influence of tube bundles on local bubble diameter dv [57]
Influence of tube bundles on local bubble rise velocity ub [57]
For the fluid-mechanical parameters the following relationships are valid inside the tube bundle:
Here the sign * indicates the values which describe the fluid-mechanics inside the bundle. The ratio
At* /At characterizes the local increase of the superficial gas velocity within the bundle caused by the
decrease of free cross-sectional area.
Here sv denotes the vertical spacing between the tubes, N is the number of one upon another arranged
tube rows, d indicates the outer diameter of the tubes, At is the cross-section of the fluidized bed, NR is
total number of tubes in the bundle and L denotes the length of one tube.
Based on the superficial gas velocity u* within the tube bundle the visible bubble flow V*b, the bubble
rise velocity u*b and the bubble volume fraction *b can be determined as follows:
The parameters and are calculated by the correlations given in the table above.
Gas Distributors in Fluidized Beds

The gas distributor must satisfy the following requirements:
Ensure uniform fluidization over the entire cross section of the bed
Provide complete fluidization of the bed without dead spots
Maintain a constant pressure drop over long operation periods
Often, the gas distributor design must also prevent solids from raining through the grid both during
operation and after the bed has been shut off. The image below shows different types of industrially used
gas distributors with typical bubble formations.
Different distributor types with typically formed bubbles
The principal requirement of a uniform distribution of fluidizing gas over the bed cross section can be
met if the pressure drop pDis across the gas distributor is high enough. Suggested values for the ratio
pDis/pBed are 0.10.3 (with a minimum pDis of 3.5kPa) [41], 0.20.4 [42] and > 0.3 [43].
In the present model of the fluidized bed, two types of gas distributors are considered:
perforated plate
bubble caps
Determination of the distributor pressure drop
The pressure drop of the gas distributor pDis can be determined as follows:
Here uor denotes the fluidization gas velocity within an orifice of the distributor. CDis indicates the
orifice discharge coefficient and f is the density of the fluidization gas.
In case of a perforated plate the velocity uor can be determined by use of the continuity equation as
shown below.
Here nor denotes the number of orifices within the perforated plate. dor indicates the diameter of one
single orifice. is the volume flow of the fluidization gas.
The next equation shows how to calculate uor for bubble caps:
Here ncap denotes the number of bubble caps, while nor indicates the number of orifices per cap.
Determination of the initial bubble size
With the superficial fluidizing gas velocity u the volumetric flow or through a single opening of a
nozzle of the gas distributor is given as:
Here nor denotes the number of orifices in the distributor. In case of a perforated plate the number of
orifices in the distributor is defined by the user. In case of bubble caps the number of orifices can be
obtained as product of the number of bubble caps and the number of orifices per cap.
According to Davidson & Harrison [40] the volumetric flow or will lead to the formation of bubbles
with an initial diameter of the volume equivalent sphere dv,o given by:
Elutriation in Fluidized Beds

In the bottom zone, which is modeled as a bubbling fluidized bed, a homogeneous distribution of
particles is assumed. The particles are partially elutriated from the bed by exploding bubbles at the bed
surface (see Fig.1). If the freeboard is higher than the so-called 'Transport Disengagement
Height' (TDH) the elutriated mass of solids is dependent on the fluidizing gas velocity, the particle
terminal velocity and the solid mass fraction in the inventory [2].
Entrainment of particles into the freeboard by exploding bubbles
The elutriated mass flow e,i of the particle that belong to the terminal velocity class i can be calculated
as follows:
Here ki, is a particle related elutriation coefficient with the dimension of kg/(ms). This coefficient is
the cross sectional specific mass flow of particles of terminal velocity class i that would be elutriated if
the whole inventory contained only particles of that terminal velocity class. In order to obtain the mass
flow of particles of terminal velocity class i that are elutriated from the bed, the coefficient ki, has to be
multiplied by the mass fraction of particles of terminal velocity class i in the total inventoryQ3,b,i and
the cross section At(HB) of the bubbling bed at the actual bed height HB.
ki, is a function of the terminal velocity of the particles ut,i and the fluidizing velocity u. Several
correlations for ki, are given in the literature. Some overviews of the available correlations are can be
found in Kunii & Levenspiel [2] and Werther & Hartge [36]. In the the present model of the fluidized
bed the correlations shown in Table 1 are available for the calculation of the particle related elutriation
coefficient. In the table also the experimental conditions (gas velocity u, bed diameter D, particle
diameter dp,bed) used for determination of the respective correlation are shown. In addition to the
correlations from the literature a user-defined correlation can be used for the determination of the
elutriation coefficient.
u dp,bed
reference D [m] ki, [kg/(s*m)] & default parameter values
[m/s] [mm]
0.071
for Re < 3000: A1 = 23.7; B1 = 2.5; C1 = -5.4
0.08 x
Tasirin & 0.1- 0.03-
0.08
Geldart [32] 0.6 0.2 for Re > 3000: A2 = 14.5; B2 = 2.5; C2 = -5.4
0.15 x
0.15
with Re = Db * u * g /
Db denotes the bed diameter
0.92 x
Colakyan & 0.9- 0.92
0.3-1.0
Levenspiel [34] 3.7 0.3 x
0.3
A = 0.011; B = 2
0.3- 0.05 x 0.04-

Zenz & Weil [30]
0.7 0.53 0.2
for < 3.0E-4: A1 = 1.26E7; B1 = 1.88
for > 3.0E-4: A2 = 1.31E4; B2 = 1.18
Sciazko et al.
- - -
[44]
A = 1.6
Geldart et al. 0.3- 0.05 x 0.04-

[45] 0.7 0.53 0.2
A = 23.7; B = -5.4
Extended Geldart
- - -
et al.
A = 23.7; B = -5.4; C = 1.0; D = 1.0; E = 0.
Correlations for the determination of the elutriation coefficient
Note: The gas velocity u used in the correlations above is the superficial gas velocity at the top of the
fluidized bed. Also the cross sectional area At is the cross sectional area at the top of the fluidized bed.
Fluid-Mechanical Principles of Fluidized Beds

Pressure drop over the fluidized bed
In a fluidized bed, the solid particles are held in a state of suspension by the upward flowing gas.
Pressure drop over the fluidized bed
The pressure drop (p2-p1) of the fluid passing through a fluidized bed is equal to the total weight of the
suspension (ms+mf) per cross-sectional area (At) of the bed, that is, the static pressure of the entire bed.
Here g denotes the standard acceleration of gravity, while is the porosity of the bed. s indicates the
solids apparent density and f the density of the gas. H is the height of the fluidized bed.
The pressure drop that is caused by only the solids can be calculated from the above equations by simply
subtracting the pressure drop of the solids-free column, which is the static pressure of the fluid:
This equation can be also derived by a force balance. Independently of the fluidization state, there are
two forces acting on the solids, namely the weight W and the respective buoyancy B. To keep the solids
in suspension, the difference of these forces has to be compensated by a third one generated by the fluid
flow (the drag force), which can be described by the product (psolids,fb * At). The above equation can
therefore be written as:
With respect of gas fluidized beds the contribution of the fluid can be usually neglected, which leads for
both pressure drops to:
Minimum fluidization velocity
In the fixed bed state, the drag force acting on the solids is not sufficient to compensate their weight,
which can be expressed as:
With increasing gas velocity, the pressure drop increases up to psolids = psolids,fb where the pressure
drop is equal to the pressure caused by the weight of the solids. With further increasing gas velocity, the
pressure drop remains constant. Therefore, the minimum fluidization point, which marks the boundary
between the fixed and the fluidized-bed conditions, can be determined by measuring the pressure drop
p as a function of volume flow rate or superficial gas velocity, respectively (see diagram below).
Pressure drop in flow through packed and fluidized beds
The measurement technique already implies the possibility for calculating the minimum fluidization
velocity umf: The pressure drop in flow through the poly-disperse fixed bed at the point u = umf, given
for example by the Ergun relation [20], is set equal to the solids pressure drop psolids,fb. From the
Ergun relation:
it follows that:
Accordingly, to calculate umf, the characteristics of the gas (f, f), the density s of the particles, the
porosity mf of the bed at minimum fluidization and the volume-specific surface area SV of the solids
must be known. The specific surface area is defined as:
This definition takes into account only the external area, which governs hydraulic resistance, not the
pore surface area as in porous catalysts. Since SV cannot be determined very exactly in practice, umf
should not be calculated on the basis of the measured particle-size distribution of a representative
sample of the bed solids; instead, it is better measured directly. However, this definition of SV can be
employed advantageously to calculate umf in an industrial-scale process on the basis of minimum
fluidization velocities measured in the laboratory under ambient conditions [21].
An equation from WEN and YU [22] can be used for approximate calculations of umf in a wide range of
conditions (0.001 Re 4000):
where
Here dp denotes the Sauter mean diameter that can be calculated as follows from the mass density
distribution q3 of the particle size distribution.
State diagram of the fluidized bed
Whereas the onset of the fluidized state can be described by the minimum fluidization velocity, the bed
operating range and the gas velocity needed to create a given fluidized state can be estimated with the
help of the fluidized bed state diagram (see below) devised by Reh [25]. The ordinate is the quantity
and the abscissa is the Reynolds number formed with the fluidization velocity u and the particle
diameter dp. The diagram is divided in three regions, i.e. the fixed bed ( < 0.4), the fluidized bed and
the transport region ( 1). The regions are characterized by different values of the parameter n, which
is defined as:
n is smaller than one for a fixed bed and equal to one in case of a fluidized bed. A value of n greater than
one indicates pneumatic transport. The state parameter in the fluidized bed region is the mean bed
porosity . Since the diagram has been derived for monosized, spherical particles the lower bound is 0.4
for the fixed bed. The upper bound is 1 for the transport region.
Fluidized bed state diagram, according to Reh [23] a) Circulating fluidized bed; b) Fluidized bed
roaster; c) Bubbling fluidized bed; d) Shaft furnace; e) Moving bed
With this state diagram the mean fluidized bed porosity can be calculated from given numerical values
for the properties of the gas (f, f), the solids (dp, s) and the fluidization velocity u. The use of the
diagram is facilitated by an auxiliary grid with lines of constant M-number and constant Archimedes
number. While the dimensionless groups plotted as ordinate and abscissa each contain both, the particle
diameter and the fluidization velocity, this is not the case with the parameters Ar and M defined as
The Archimedes number characterizes the system's properties only. It represents a given system of gas
and solids independently form the gas velocity as a straight line in the double logarithmic grid. On the
other hand, the M number is independent of the particle diameter. With this auxiliary grid it is possible
to estimate the effects of both changes in the gas velocity (Ar constant) and changes in the particle size
distribution (M constant). Therefore, for a given broad particle-size distribution in the bed the diagram
permits estimation of fines entrained (particle diameter at the intersection of M number and 1) and
coarse solids settling out (particle diameter at the intersection of M number and 0.4) of the bed.
An important practical point is that the state diagram implies a classification scheme that relates various
fluidized bed systems to one another [24, 25]. When a new fluidized bed process is being designed, the
position of the state point in the diagram will identify related fluidized bed systems with potential
similar operating problems.
Transport Disengagement Height

The fluidized bed model is divided into different vertical zones. At the bottom there is the dense
fluidized bed also called the bottom zone, above which the freeboard or upper dilute zone is located. The
transient region in between is denoted as the splash zone, where rising bubbles from the bottom bed
explode and cause a more fuzzy transition between the bottom bed and upper dilute zone. From this
region, the solids hold-up gradually decays until it becomes constant or at least nearly constant. The
distance between this point, where the solids concentration becomes nearly constant, and the surface of
the fluidized bed, is called the 'Transport Disengagement Height' (TDH).
Zones in a fluidized bed vessel
Several correlations for the determination of the transport disengagement height are given in the
literature. In the present model of the fluidized bed the correlations shown below are available for its
determination.
Reference Equation Comment

Chan and Knowlton
-
[46]
George and Grace db is the diameter of a bubble at the
[47] surface of the bottom zone
g is the standard acceleration of
Fournol el al. [48]
gravity
Fung and db is the diameter of a bubble at the
Hamdullahpur [49] surface of the bottom zone
Note: The gas velocity u used in the correlations above is the superficial gas velocity at the top of the
fluidized bed.
Besides the determination of transport disengagement height (TDH) by use of one of the correlations
above, it is also possible to determine the TDH based on the calculated solids volume concentration
profile of the fluidized bed. The present model of the fluidized bed determines the TDH by use of both
approaches. As already mentioned above the solids hold-up gradually decays with height until it
becomes nearly constant. In the present model the solids volume concentration is treated as constant if
the gradient dcV/dh is smaller than a given tolerance (tolcv). The TDH is than given as the distance
between the height H* at which the solids volume concentration becomes constant and the height HB of
the bottom zone.
In the present model of the fluidized bed, the calculated value of the transport disengagement height has
no influence on the calculation result itself. The calculated TDH will be shown on the results tab. If the
calculated height of the freeboard is smaller than the transport disengagement height a warning is raised.
The Geldart Classification of Particles

Geldart [51] observed that in gas fluidized beds different kinds of solids (different density and particle
size) show a different fluidization behaviour. Therefore he proposed an empirically based classification
of solids into four groups (A to D) by their fluidization behavior. From smallest to largest particle the
groups are as follows [2]:
Group C (cohesive powders):
Cohesive or very fine powders. Normal fluidization is extremely difficult for these solids because
interparticle forces are greater than those resulting from the action of gas. Face powder, flour and starch
are typical examples of these solids.
Group A (aeratable powders)
Aeratable particles, or materials having a small mean particle size and/or low particle density (less than
1.4 g/cm). These solids fluidize easily with smooth fluidization at low gas velocities and controlled
bubbling with small bubbles at higher gas velocities. FCC catalyst is representative of these solids.
Group B (sandlike powders)
Sandlike particles, or most particles of diameter 40 to 500 m with a density in the range of 1.4 to 4
g/cm. These solids fluidize well with vigorous bubbling action and bubbles that grow large.
Group D (spoutable powders)
Spoutable particles, or large and/or dense particles. Deep beds of these particles are difficult to fluidize.
They behave erratically, giving large exploding bubbles or serve channeling or spouting behavior if the
gas distribution is very uneven. Drying grains and peas, roasting coffee beans, gasifying coals and some
roasting metal ores are such solids.
Geldart's classification is shown below. The parameters are the mean particle diameter (dp) and the
density difference (s - f) between solid and fluid.
Geldart classification of particles [51]
This grouping of solids is widely used today, with the solids simply called Geldart A solids and so forth
[2]. Also in the present model of the fluidized bed the classification according to Geldart is used.
Specifying FluidBed
Use FluidBed for modeling fluidized beds without reactions. The elutriation effect is modeled, along
with an optional heat exchanger.
On the Specifications sheet, specify:
Bed mass or pressure drop
Bed void fraction at minimum fluidization
Geldart classification of particles in bed
Minimum fluidization velocity of bed or a correlation for calculating it
Model for calculating transport disengagement height and maximum dCv/dh
Elutriation model and decay constant. For user-specified model also specify parameters A to E
On the Configuration sheet, specify:
Fluidized bed shape and dimensions
Location of each secondary gas inlet stream
On the Gas Distributor sheet, specify:
Gas distributor type
Number and size of gas distributor orifices
Orifice discharge coefficient or distributor pressure
Optionally, use the Operation Conditions sheet to specify duty or temperature, or the Heat Exchanger
sheet to specify heat exchanger tubes within the fluidized bed. Using the Heat Exchanger sheet also
requires connecting streams on the flowsheet for the fluid within the tubes.
The Convergence sheet allows you to specify the tolerances on bed mass and pressure drop, parameters
for the integrator, and flash options.
See Also
FluidBed Reactions
FluidBed Reactions
You can specify vapor-phase equilibrium reactions in FluidBed via chemistry ID specified on the Block
Options | Properties sheet.
You can also specify any reactions defined in reaction blocks by referencing those reaction blocks on the
Input | Reactions sheet. When you specify these reactions, you can also specify how the particle size
distribution (PSD) of the product is determined on the Input | PSD sheet. You can choose one of these
options:
Keep PSD. The particle size distribution of all outlet substreams which have participated in
reactions is set equal to the PSD of the corresponding inlets. The number of particles will
generally change with this option. This is the default.
Constant number of particles. The total number of particles in each substream is kept constant.
The particles shrink or grow depending on the mass loss or gain of a substream due to reactions.
Inert particles keep their size.
User specified (Overall). Specify a PSD using a distribution function or fractions for each PSD
interval. The specified PSD is applied to all substreams, even inert ones.
User Specified (Substream ID). Specify a PSD for each substream, using a distribution function or
fractions for each PSD interval. To keep the PSD unchanged for a substream, specify a bypass
fraction of 1 for that substream.
When you specify a distribution function, you can specify the result as the weighted sum of multiple
distribution functions. When you specify the PSD fractions directly, you must enter the complete PSD.
You may specify the fractions using the global PSD mesh or a local one you define in FluidBed.
See Also
Specifying FluidBed
Distribution Functions
FluidBed References
1. I.G. Farben, DRP 437 970, 1922 (F. Winkler)
2. D. Kunii, O. Levenspiel: Fluidization Engineering, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston 1991
3. D. Geldart (ed.): Gas Fluidization Technology, John Wiley & Sons, Chichester 1986
4. J.F. Davidson, R. Clift, D. Harrison: Fluidization, Academic Press, London 1985
5. M. Pell: Gas Fluidization, Elsevier, Amsterdam 1990
6. J.G. Yates: Fundamentals of Fluidized-Bed Chemical Processes, Butterworths, London 1983
7. K.-E. Wirth: Zirkulierende Wirbelschichten, Springer-Verlag, Heidelberg 1990
8. J.S.M. Botterill: Fluid Bed Heat Transfer, Academic Press, London, New York, San Franciso
1975
9. K.B. Mathur, N. Epstein: Spouted Beds, Academic Press, New York, San Francisco,London 1974
10. K.-E. Wirth in: VDI Wrmeatlas, (E.-U. Schlnder), 6. Aufl., VDI Verlag, Dsseldorf 1990, pp.
Lf1-10
11. H. Martin in: VDI Wrmeatlas, (E.-U. Schlnder), 6. Aufl., VDI Verlag, Dsseldorf 1990, pp.
Mf1-8
12. L. Reh in: Ullmanns Encyklopdie der technischen Chemie, Band 3, 4. Aufl., Verlag Chemie,
Weinheim 1973, pp. 433-460
13. W. Frey in: Ullmanns Encyklopdie der technischen Chemie, Band 3, 4. Aufl., Verlag Chemie,
Weinheim 1973, pp. 480-493
14. O.E. Potter, D.J. Nicklin (eds.): FluidizationVII, Engineering Foundation, New York 1992
15. J.R. Grace, L.W. Shemilt, M.A. Bergougnou (eds.): Fluidization VI, Engineering Foundation,
New York 1989
16. K. Ostergaard, A. Sorensen (eds.): Fluidization V, Engineering Foundation, New York 1986
17. A. Avidan (ed.), Circulating Fluidized-Bed Technology IV, AIChE, New York 1993
18. P. Basu, M. Horio, M. Hasatani (eds.): Circulating Fluidized-Bed Technology III, Pergamon
Press, Oxford 1990
19. P. Basu, J.F. Large (eds.): Circulating Fluidized Bed-Technology II, Pergamon Press, Oxford
1988
20. S. Ergun, Chem. Eng. Prog. 48 (1952), pp. 89-97
21. J. Werther, Chem.-Ing.-Tech. 54 (1982), pp. 876-883
22. C.Y. Wen, Y.H. Yu, AIChE J. 12 (1966), pp. 610-612
23. L. Reh: Das Wirbeln von krnigem Gut in schlanken Diffusoren als Grenzzustand zwischen
Wirbelschicht und pneumatischer Frderung, PhD thesis., TH Karlsruhe 1961
24. L. Reh, Chem.-Ing._Tech. 46 (1974), pp. 180-189
25. L. Reh, Chem.-Ing._Tech. 49 (1977), pp. 786-794
26. Ullman, 5th ed., 4, pp. 293-274
27. D. Geldart: The desgin of distributors for gas-fluidized beds, Powder Technol., 42 (1985), pp. 67-
78
28. K. Lcke: On the influence of the performance of large-scale athmospheric circulating fluidized
bed combustors, PhD thesis., TU Hamburg-Harburg 2003
29. E.K. Levy, H.S. Caram, J.C. Dille, S. Edelstein: Mechanisms for solids-ejection from gas-
fluidized beds, AIChE Journal 29 (1983), pp. 383-388
30. P.A. Zenz, N.A. Weil: A theoretical-empirical approach to the mechanism of particle entrainment
from fluidized beds, AIChE Journal 4 (1958), pp. 472-479
31. H.T. Do, J.R. Grace, R. Clift: Particle ejection and entrainment from fluidised beds, Powder
Technology 6 (1972), pp. 195 - 200
32. S.M. Tasirin, D. Geldart: The entrainment of fines and superfines from fluidized beds, Powder
Handling & Processing 10 (1998), pp. 263-268
33. W.K. Lewis, E.R. Gilliland, P.M. Lang: Entrainment from fluidized beds, Chem. Eng. Prog.
Symp. Ser. 58 (1962), pp. 65-72
34. M. Colakyan, O. Levenspiel: Elutriation from fluidized beds, Powder Technology 38 (1984), pp.
223-232
35. S.M. Tasirin, D. Geldart: Entrainment of FCC from fluidized beds - a new correlation for the
elutriation rate constants, Powder Technology 95 (1998), pp. 240-247
36. J. Werther, E.-U. Hartge: Elutriation and Entrainment, In: Handbook of Fluidization and Fluid-
Particle Systems (W.-C. Yang, ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York (2003), pp. 113-128
37. C. Klett: Time-Dependent Behavior of the Particle Size Distribution in Fluidized Bed Systems
with Recirculation of Solids, PhD thesis., TU Hamburg-Harburg 2005
38. J. Werther, J. Wein: Expansion behavior of gas fluidized beds in the turbulent regime, A.I.Ch.E.
Symp. Ser. 90 (301) (1994), pp. 31-44
39. K. Hilligardt, J. Werther, J. Influence of Temperature and Properties of Solids on the Size and
Growth of Bubbles in Gas Fluidized Beds, Chem. Eng. Technol., 10 (1987), pp. 272-280
40. J.F. Davidson, D. Harrison: Fluidised particles, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge 1963
41. J. C. Agarwal, W. L. Davis, D. T. King, Chem. Eng. Prog. 58 (1962) pp. 8591
42. F. J. Zuiderweg, Proc. Int. Symp. Fluid. (1967), pp. 739750
43. F. Zenz, D. Othmer: Fluidization and Fluid/Particle Systems, Reinhold Publ. Corp., New York
1960
44. M. Sciazko, J. Bandrowski, J. Raczek: On the entrainment of solid particles from a fluidized bed,
Powder Technology 66 (1991), pp. 33-39
45. D. Geldart, J. Cullinan, S. Georghiades, D. Gilvray, D.J. Pope: The effect of fines on entrainment
from gas fluidized beds, Trans. Inst. Chem. Eng. (1979), pp. 269-275
46. I.H. Chan, T.M. Knowlton: The effect of pressure on entrainemt from bubbling gas fludized bes,
in D. Kunii and R. Toei (eds.) Fluidization, Engineering Foundation, New York 1984, pp. 283-
290
47. S.E. George, J.R. Grace: Entrainment of particles from aggregative fluidized beds, AIChE Symp.
Series, 74 (1978), pp. 67-73.
48. A.B. Fournol, M.A. Bergougnou, C.G.J. Baker: Solids entrainment in a large gas fluidized bed,
Canadian Journal of Chem. Eng. , 51 (1973), pp. 401-404.
49. A.S. Fung, F. Hamdullahpur: Effect of bubble coalescense on entrainment in gas fluidized beds,
Powder Technology, 77 (1993), pp. 251-265.
50. K. Hilligardt, J. Werther: Local bubble gas hold-up and expansion of gas/solid fluidized beds,
Ger. Chem. Eng., 9 (1986), pp. 215-221
51. D. Geldart: Types of gas fluidization, Powder Technology, 7 (1973), pp. 285-292
52. K. Redemann, E.-U. Hartge, J. Werther: A particle population balancing model for a circulating
fluidized bed combustion system, Powder Technology 191 (2009), pp. 78-90
53. C. Klett, E.-U. Hartge, J. Werther: Dynamic simulation of the particle size distribution in a
circulating fluidized bed combustor, Chem. Eng. Science 63 (2007), pp. 281-293
54. C. Klett, E.-U. Hartge, J. Werther: Time-Dependent Behavior of a Catalyst in a Fluidized

Bed/Cyclone Circulation System, AIChE Journal 4 (2007), pp. 769-779
55. J. Werther, E.-U. Hartge, : A population balance model of the particle inventory in a fluidized-bed
reactor/regenerator system, Powder Technology 148 (2004), pp. 113-122
56. K. Hillidardt: Zur Strmungsmechanik von Grobkorn-Wirbelschichten, PhD thesis., University of

Technology Hamburg-Harburg, Hamburg 1986
57. J. Werther, D. Bellgardt, H. Groenewald, K. Hilligardt : Influence of immersed heat exchange

surfaces on fluid mechanics and solids mixing in fluidized beds, Porc. 9th Int. Conf. Fluidized
Bed Cumbustion, Boston/USA, Amer. Soc. Engrs., New York, Vol. I (1987), pp. 515/522.

Fluidbed Reference

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FluidBed Reference Page 1 of 37

Flowsheet Connectivity for FluidBed

About Fluidized Beds

Flowsheet Connecivity for FluidBed

inlet One inlet material stream containing solids

outlet Two outlet material streams

About Fluidized Beds

The bed can be stirred like a liquid.

Forms of fluidized beds

Advantages and disadvantages of fluidized beds

3. Large solid/gas exchange area by virtue of small solids grain size

5. Uniform (solid) product in batchwise process because of intensive solids mixing

Set against these advantages are the following disadvantages:

3. In catalytic reactions, undesired bypass or broadening of residence-time distribution for reaction

5. Possibility of defluidization due to agglomeration of solids

6. Gas/solid countercurrent motion possible only in multistage equipment

Heterogeneous Catalytic Gas-Phase Reactions (e.g. catalytic cracking, synthesis of Acrylonitrile,

Circulating Fluidized Bed

Flow structure in a circulating fluidized bed riser [28]

Zones in a fluidized bed vessel

Fluidized Bed Model

Axial solids volume concentration for fast fluidization [37]

a given total bed mass mT,def

a given bed pressure drop pBed,def

Mass balance of the fluidized bed

Substituting these into the mass balance leads to:

Then the mass flow of discharged particles d can be expressed as:

This leads then to:

Determination of the superficial gas velocity

Upper Dilute Zone in Fluidized Beds

Axial solids volume concentration for fast fluidization [37]

Based on this the mass in the freeboard is calculated as:

Calculation of the pressure drop

Bottom Zone in Fluidized Beds

Here nor denotes the number of orifices in the distributor.

Here umf denotes the minimum fluidization as described in Fluid-Mechanical Principles.

The local bubble volume fraction b is given by

where the visible bubble flow is given as:

Here u denotes the superficial gas velocity.

Correlations for the determination of hydrodynamic parameters

with cvd,i according to Werther and Wein [38] given by

Calculation of the pressure drop

Here Hb denotes the height of the bottom zone.

Effect of internals like tube bundles on the bubble development

Influence of tube bundles on local bubble diameter dv [57]

Influence of tube bundles on local bubble rise velocity ub [57]

Gas Distributors in Fluidized Beds

Provide complete fluidization of the bed without dead spots

Maintain a constant pressure drop over long operation periods

Different distributor types with typically formed bubbles

Determination of the distributor pressure drop

Determination of the initial bubble size

Elutriation in Fluidized Beds

Entrainment of particles into the freeboard by exploding bubbles

Db denotes the bed diameter

0.3- 0.05 x 0.04-

for > 3.0E-4: A2 = 1.31E4; B2 = 1.18

Geldart et al. 0.3- 0.05 x 0.04-

A = 23.7; B = -5.4; C = 1.0; D = 1.0; E = 0.

Correlations for the determination of the elutriation coefficient

Fluid-Mechanical Principles of Fluidized Beds

Pressure drop over the fluidized bed

Minimum fluidization velocity

Pressure drop in flow through packed and fluidized beds