EXTERNAL FORCED CONVECTION

Prabal Talukdar
Associate Professor
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi
E-mail: prabal@mech.iitd.ac.in
p
Fluid flow over solid bodies frequently occurs in practice, and it
is responsible for numerous physical phenomena such as the drag
force acting on the automobiles, power lines, trees, and
underwater pipelines; the lift developed by airplane wings;
upwardd draft
d ft off rain,
i snow, hail,
h il andd dust
d t particles
ti l ini high
hi h
winds; and the cooling of metal or plastic sheets, steam and hot
water pipes, and extruded wires.

P.Talukdar/Mech-IITD 2
 What is Drag?
Drag is a mechanical force. It is generated
byy the interaction and contact of a solid
body with a fluid. For drag to be
generated, the solid body must be in
contact with the fluid. If there is no fluid,
there is no drag
drag. Drag is generated by the
difference in velocity between the solid
object and the fluid

There must be motion between the object and the fluid. If there is no motion,
there is no drag. It makes no difference whether the object moves through a
static fluid or whether the fluid moves past a static solid object
object. Drag acts in a
direction that opposes the motion. (Lift acts perpendicular to the motion.)
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We can think of drag as friction, and one of the sources of drag is the skin
friction between the molecules of the fluid and the solid surface of object.

Because the skin friction is an interaction between a solid and a gas, the
magnitude of the skin friction depends on properties of both solid and gas
gas.

For the solid, a smooth, waxed surface produces less skin friction.
For the gas, the magnitude depends on the viscosity of the air

This source of drag depends on the shape of the aircraft and is called form
drag.

As air flows around a body, the local velocity and pressure are changed. A
varying pressure distribution will produce a force on the body.

We can determine the magnitude of the force by integrating (or adding up)
the local pressure times the surface area around the entire body.

The component of the force that is opposed to the motion is the drag;

The component perpendicular to the motion is the lift.

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 Factors that affect drag
The Object
Aircraft geometry has a large effect on
the amount of drag generated. As with
lift, the drag depends linearly on the
size of the object moving through the
air The cross-sectional
air. cross sectional shape of an
object determines the form drag
created by the pressure variation
around the object.
If we think
hi k off d
drag as aerodynamic
d i
friction, then the amount of drag
depends on the surface roughness of
the object; a smooth, waxed surface
will produce less drag than a
roughened surface. This effect is
called skin friction and is usually
i l d d iin th
included the ddrag coefficient.
ffi i t

P.Talukdar/Mech-IITD 5
Motion of the Air
Drag is associated with the movement of the aircraft through the air, so drag will
then depend on the velocity of the air. Like lift, drag actually varies with the
square of the velocity between the object and the air air. How the object is inclined
to the flow will also affect the amount of drag generated. If the object moves
through the air at speeds near the speed of sound, shock waves may be formed
on the object which create an additional drag component called wave drag. The
motion
ti off the
th object
bj t th
through h th
the air
i also
l causes b boundary
d llayers tto fform on th
the
object. A boundary layer is a region of very low speed flow near the surface
which contributes to the skin friction.
Properties of the Air
Drag depends directly on the mass of the flow going past the aircraft. The drag
also depends in a complex way on two other properties of the air: its viscosity
and its compressibility. These factors affect the wave drag and skin friction
which
hich are described aboabove.
e
We can gather all of this information on the factors that affect drag into a single
mathematical equation called the Drag Equation. With the drag equation we can
predict how much drag
p g force will be g
generated byyaggiven body y moving g at a
given speed through a given fluid.

P.Talukdar/Mech-IITD 6
 FrictionandPressureDrag

The drag force is the net force exerted by a fluid on a body in the direction
of flow due to the combined effects of wall shear and pressure forces. The
part of dragg that is due directlyy to wall shear stress w is called the skin
p
friction drag (or just friction drag) since it is caused by frictional effects, and
the part that is due directly to pressure P is called the pressure drag (also
called the form drag because of its strong dependence on the form or shape of
the body).
When the friction and pressure drag coefficients are available, the total drag
coefficient is determined by simply adding them,
C D = C D ,friction + C D ,pressure
The drag force FD depends on the density of the fluid, the upstream
velocity, and the size, shape, and orientation of the body, among other
things.
The drag characteristics of a body is represented by the dimensionless drag
coefficient
ffi i t CD defined
d fi d as FD
CD =
1
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V 2
A 7
2
 When a fluid is forced to flow over a curved
surface at sufficientlyy high
g velocities,, it will
detach itself from the surface of the body.
The low-pressure region behind the body
where recirculating and back flows occur is
called the separation region
region. The larger the
separation area is, the larger the pressure
drag will be.

The effects of flow separation are felt far

downstream in the form of reduced velocity
(relative to the upstream velocity). The
region of flow trailing the body where the
effect of the body on velocity is felt is called
the wake.

The separated region comes to an end when the two flow streams reattachreattach,
but the wake keeps growing behind the body until the fluid in the wake region
regains its velocity. The viscous effects are the most significant in the
boundary layer, the separated region, and the wake. The flow outside these
regions can be considered to be inviscid.

P.Talukdar/Mech-IITD 8
 Frictionaldragcomesfromfrictionbetweenthefluidandthe
surfaces over which it is flowing This friction is associated
surfacesoverwhichitisflowing.Thisfrictionisassociated
withthedevelopmentofboundarylayers,anditscaleswith
Reynoldsnumberaswehaveseenabove.
Pressuredragcomesfromtheeddyingmotionsthatareset
upinthefluidbythepassageofthebody.Thisdragis
associated with the formation of a wake
associatedwiththeformationofawake.
Formally,bothtypesofdragareduetoviscosity(ifthebody
wasmovingthroughaninviscidfluidtherewouldbenodrag
atall),butthedistinctionisusefulbecausethetwotypesof
dragareduetodifferentflowphenomena.
Frictionaldragisimportantforattachedflows(thatis,thereis
Frictional drag is important for attached flows (that is there is
noseparation),anditisrelatedtothesurfaceareaexposedto
theflow.Pressuredragisimportantforseparatedflows,andit
isrelatedtothecrosssectionalareaofthebody.
l d h l f h b d
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 For the flow of an idealized fluid with zero
viscosity past a body, both the friction drag
and pressure drag are zero regardless of
the shape of the body.

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 Two Opposite Situation
Drag force acting on a flat plate
normal to flow depends on the
pressure only and is independent
of the wall shear, which acts
normal to flow
P.Talukdar/Mech-IITD
For parallel flow over a flat plate
plate, the
pressure drag is zero, and thus the
drag coefficient is equal to the friction
coefficient and the drag force is equal
to the friction force
11
 Heat Transfer Coefficient
Nu x = f1 ( x * , Re x , Pr) & Nu = f 2 (Re L , Pr)

Nu = C. Re mL . Pr n

h x .x 1
Laminar flow Nu x = = 0.332 Re x . Pr 3
0 .5
Pr > 0.6
k

h x .x 1
Turbulent flow Nu x = = 0.0296 Re x . Pr 3
0 .8 0.6 Pr 60
k 5 x 105 Re
R x 107

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 Parallel flow over flat plate
The transition from laminar to
turbulent flow depends on the
surface geometry,
surface roughness,
upstream velocity
velocity,
surface temperature, and
the type of fluid, among other
things, and is best characterized
by the Reynolds number.

The Reynolds number at a

distance x from the leading edge
of a flat plate
is expressed as
V x V.x
Re x = = For flow over a flat plate
plate, critical Re

Vx cr
Re cr = = 5x105
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13
 Friction Coefficient

5x 0.664
L i
Laminar flflow v,x = 1
& Cf ,x = 1
Rex < 5 x 105
Re x 2 Re x 2

0.382 x 0.0592 5 x 105 Rex 107

Turbulent flow v,x = & Cf ,x = 1
1
Re x 5 Re x 5

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 Average values
ReL < 5 x 105
1.328
Laminar flow Cf = 1
R L2
Re
5 x 105 ReL 107
0.074
Turbulent flow Cf = 1
Re L5

In some cases, a flat plate is sufficiently long

for the flow to become turbulent,, but not longg
enough to disregard the laminar flow region
1 cr
x L
Cf = C f , x _ la min ar dx + C f , x _ turbulent dx
L 0 x cr

The average friction coefficient over the entire plate is determined to be

0.074 1742
Cf = 1
5 x 105 ReL 107 Taking the critical Reynolds
Re 5 Re L number to be Recr = 5 x 105
L
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 Cf for turbulent flow
For laminar flow, the friction coefficient
depends on only the Reynolds number, and
the surface roughness has no effect
effect.

For turbulent flow, however, surface

roughness
g causes the friction coefficient to
increase severalfold, to the point that in fully
turbulent regime the friction coefficient
is a function of surface roughness alone, and
independent of the Reynolds
number
A curve fit of experimental
p a data
da a for the average
a ag
friction coefficient in this regime is given by In the
h absence
b off a better
b
Schlichting as relation, this relation can be used
2.5 for turbulent flow on rough
Rough surface, surfaces for Re > l06, especially
turbulent flow
f C f = 1.89 1.62 log
L when /L > 10-4.
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 Variation with x

h x .x 1
Laminar flow Nu x = = 0.332 Re x . Pr 3
0.5 Pr > 0.6
k
0.664
Cf ,x = 1
Rex < 5 x 105
Re x 2
h x .x 1
0.6 Pr 60
Turbulent flow Nu x = = 0.0296 Re x . Pr 3
0. 8

k 5 x 105 Re
R x 107
0.0592 5 x 105 Rex 107
P.Talukdar/Mech-IITD
Cf ,x = 1
Re x 5
 Average Coefficient
L
1
C D = C D, x dx
L0
Average quantities
L
1
h = h x dx
L0

h.L 1
Laminar flow Nu = = 0.664 Re L . Pr 3
0.5 Pr > 0.6
k Rex < 5 x 105

h.L 1
Turbulent flow Nu = = 0.037 Re L . Pr 3
0.8 0.6 Pr 60
k 5 x 105 Rex 107

P.Talukdar/Mech-IITD 18
 h for combined laminar and
turbulent
b l fl
flow
In some cases, a flat plate is sufficiently long for the flow to become
turbulent, but not long enough to disregard the laminar flow region
1 cr
x L
h= h x ,la min ar dx + h x , turbulent dx
L 0 x cr


The average h over the entire plate is determined to be

T b l t flow
Turbulent fl Nu =
h.L
k
( 1
= 0.037 Re L 871 . Pr 3
0.8
) 0.6
0 6 Pr 60
5 x 105 ReL 107

Taking the critical Reynolds

b to bbe Recr = 5 x 105
number

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 Liquid metals such as mercury have high thermal conductivities.
However, they have very small Prandtl numbers, and thus the thermal
boundary layer develops much faster than the velocity boundary layer.
Then we can assume the velocity in the thermal boundary layer to be
constant at the free stream value and solve the energy equation. It
gives h .x
Nu x = x
k
( 1
= 0.565 Re x . Pr ) 2 Pr < 0.05

It is desirable to have a single correlation that applies to all fluids,

including liquid metals
1
0.5
h x .x 0.3387 Re . Pr 3
Churchill and Ozoe : Nu x = = x

( )
1
k 0.0468 2
3
4

1 + Pr
Applicable for all Prandtl
numbers and is claimed to be
accurate to 1%,

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