TRANSFORMER LIFE MANAGEMENT (TLM) BULLETIN:

Measuring Transformer Winding Resistance

A winding resistance test is used to assess the condition of the current carrying path between transformer bushing terminals. Problems such as
loose, defective or incorrect connections; open, partially-open (i.e., broken strands), or short-circuited turns in windings; or high contact resistance in
tap changers will result in a change in resistance, and therefore be indicated by an unexpectedly high, low (for short-circuits) or unstable resistance
measurement in this test.

A number of international standards and guides describe the winding resistance test method, including IEEE C57.152-2013, IEC 60076-1, and CIGRE
TB445. Safety, effectiveness and efficiency are important aspects of a winding resistance test that are dramatically influenced by the test equipment
and methods used.

Safety:
Safety (of the operator, the asset (transformer) and the test instrument) is paramount in all testing but warrants special mention with winding resistance
tests. When executing the test, a tester needs to be mindful that a transformer winding is an inductor. If an inductor is suddenly open-circuited while
dc current is flowing through it, the inductor will oppose the initial change in current by building a high voltage in an attempt to sustain the current.

The voltage across the winding is given by:

V = I*R + L*di/dt =

Where L represents the inductance of winding, I is the dc test current, R is the resistance of the winding, and di/dt = rate of change of current. If a test
lead should become errantly disconnected (falls off or is pulled off of a bushing terminal) during the test, a dangerously high voltage will develop. As
an example, assuming a sample inductance of 100 H, a test current of 25 A, and di/dt = 25/0.1 (100 ms = time for lead to disconnect and current to
change from 25A to 0A), the voltage developed would be greater than 25,000 volts!

The tester must also stay aware that a great deal of energy can be stored in a transformers magnetic field, as is the case when DC test current is
injected into a winding for the duration of a winding resistance test. That energy has to be dissipated before leads can be disconnected, which can
take several minutes for a large transformer.

To safeguard (1) personnel standing in close proximity to the transformer bushing, (2) the transformer under test (that could potentially be damaged
because of an unplanned high voltage), and (3) the test instrument that must survive under a high voltage fault condition (else repair of instruments
will be on-going, expensive and testing will be interrupted), a test instrument should be equipped with a safety circuit that provides an escape path
for energy dissipation. This is typically done using current and potential leads which provide an alternate path for discharge if leads are accidently
disconnected. Additional features recommended in a winding resistance test instrument include: protection/automatic discharge when input power is
lost; an emergency off switch; a test current indicator which is maintained even when instrument power is lost; and protection/automatic discharge
when test current level is accidentally changed before discharging the present test current.

Effectiveness and Efficiency:

An imperative but potentially time-consuming first-step to obtaining stable and representative winding resistance test results is to saturate the
transformer core. In order to efficiently do this, the correct test current and compliance voltage must be selected. Alternative test hookup configurations,
such as (SWM)/dual-injection methods, may be useful to reduce total test time and, for three-phase transformers, the direction of the injected test
current is important.

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Measuring Transformer Winding Resistance

Selection of Voltage and Current:

While it is commonly thought that higher test current speeds up the saturation of large transformers, this is not true in the majority of cases. Voltage
determines the saturation rate of the test, as given by:

(flux) = volts * t (seconds)

When selecting a test instrument, compliance voltages above 40V dc are preferred. A higher test current will speed up a test only when the rated
current of the winding is high. As a general rule, the test current should be greater than 1% of the current rating of the winding under test (Fig 1).
The maximum recommended test current, however, is 15% of rated winding current, as given in IEEE C57.152, to avoid heating of the winding.
Otherwise, the test current may cause unquantifiable error in the results as resistance is a temperature dependent characteristic. Also, a higher current
creates higher energy stored in the winding and a higher state of magnetization (and requirement to demagnetize).

Flux

Maximum Flux
Saturation Flux

Flux current curve

Avoid!
Current

Hysteris curve

Fig. 1: High current windings require higher test currents

for core saturation

As an example, given a 20 MVA transformer, rated 120kV to 4.8 kV, the HV current rating is 96 A and the LV rating is 2400 A. A test current less
than 1% of 2400 A, or 24 A, is likely to be deficient for successful testing of the low voltage winding. For the HV winding, a recommended test
current should be at least 1 A but no more than 14.4 A. One note on current limit relates to an alternate test hookup described below where both
primary and secondary windings are energized at the same time. The extra primary side winding turns and series test current through primary and
secondary windings helps saturate the core more quickly (than if only injecting test current through the secondary winding alone) and helps keep the
core saturated while secondary results are obtained. Under this condition, less secondary test current is required than would typically be needed (see
methods below).

Single winding measurement (SWM)/dual injection method:

To improve saturation on transformer windings when charging time is slow, connecting the primary and secondary windings in series is recommended.
This speeds up the test by providing more VOLT- TURNS of charge (Fig. 2). This method is particularly useful when testing large 3 phase transformers
(>100 MVA) where testing low side delta windings requires long times to reach stability (without very high test current).

Fig. 2: Series test current connection of primary and secondary to

speed up testing

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Measuring Transformer Winding Resistance

Direction of Test Current:

Heeding the direction of the test current through thoughtful placement of test connections may aid in minimizing test time by as much as 30 to 50%.
Conversely, reflexively following the winding nomenclature order to connect test leads, i.e., H1 to H0, H2 to H0 and then H3 to H0, creates longer
test times because these connections require re-magnetization of core legs in opposite directions for each phase measurement (Fig 3), hence twice
the energy and time. When testing H1-H0, a magnetic field is created in the H0-H2 and H0-H3 direction. Therefore, in order to maintain the same
direction of flux in the core and lower charging time, H0-H2 or H0-H3 should be tested next, not H2-H0. This logic is built into Meggers 3 phase
winding resistance test instruments.

Testing one winding at a time maintaining the flux

in same direction

Figure 3 Direction of the flux during a winding resistance test in a three legged, core
type transformer with a Wye-connected winding

Efficient Demagnetization
Demagnetization is recommended after a winding resistance measurement. While putting the transformer in service effectively returns it to a normal
state (unsaturated core), in the process of energizing the transformer, large in-rush currents can be drawn if the transformer is not demagnetized.
These in-rush currents have multiple implications. For the power system, protective relays cannot distinguish between the causes of high current
(e.g., a transformer fault or a magnetized core) and will trip until this condition is corrected. The reader is directed to Meggers Transformer Core
Demagnetization bulletin for more details about core demagnetization.

Interpretation/ Analysis
Typical transformer winding resistance values range from a few milliohms to several Ohms. For a 3-phase transformer, test results from DC winding
resistance tests are most frequently evaluated based on how well they compare across phases. Differences between phase values are expected to be
less than 2 3 %. Although DC winding resistance measurements are temperature dependent, temperature corrections are not generally necessary
when comparing individual phase results as it is presumed that the temperature is essentially the same for each of the three measurements.

DC winding resistance test results may also be compared to a factory reference measurement or other previous test results, or with those from a similar
transformer. In these cases, temperature must be considered. Once test temperature is compensated, test results should not differ by more than a few
percent compared to the reference measurement.

IEEE Std. C57.12.00 2006 provides the following conversion formula to calculate the factory temperature equivalent resistance result, or Rs, when
given the DC winding resistance measured in the field, Rm. This temperature compensated version Rs of the field measured test result, may then be
compared to the original factory reference measurement.

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 Measuring Transformer Winding Resistance

Rs = Rm [(Ts + Tk)/(Tm + Tk)]

Rs temperature compensated DC winding resistance test result

Rm measured DC winding resistance test result

Ts factory, or desired, reference temperature (C)

Tm winding temperature during DC winding resistance test

Tk constant for the winding material (234.5 C for copper; 225 C for aluminum)

Advanced Testing Techniques

For on-load tap-changing transformers, winding resistance testing is an exceptional diagnostic tool with which to assess the mechanical health of
the OLTC (load tap changer) a component susceptible to mechanical problems as one of a transformers few moving parts. Winding resistance
measurements are performed on each tap position and a resistance versus tap graph (Fig 4) enables validation of proper contact resistance at each
OLTC tap position. The resistance readings are even sensitive enough to confirm that the OLTC compartment is positioned closer to A (U) phase on
the transformer in this example (Fig. 4).. This proximity is noted by the lower resistance tap values on the A (U) phase.

Nominal

Tap #

Fig. 4: Acceptable OLTC (Load Tap Changer) results, resistance versus tap position

Confirming that the OLTC is making before breaking during an operation sequence is important as well. Test current is maintained while transitioning
between OLTC tap positions and, with highly sensitive circuits, is monitored for unexpected drops during each tap transition and any deviations from
expected time for transition (Fig. 5).

Low voltage winding resistance

Measured resistance
Current Nameplate Reading Winding Make/Break
TAP (amp) stability % difference %
voltage

Fig. 5: Example of a Make/Break pass and fail criteria for OLTC transition between taps

A related but far more insightful diagnostic method that assesses the OLTC transition, and which is of particular value for resistive-type OLTCs, is
the dynamic resistance measurement. In this test, current, voltage and calculated resistance are plotted as functions of time during the switching
operation. Resistance [e.g., of the winding + diverter resistors] is calculated using a Megger patent pending technique. This method can show
misalignment of contacts and mis-operation and/or absence of critical components, such as transition resistors. Other parameters, such as the
tap changer motor current characteristics, can be recorded to pick up problems during transitions. The reader is directed to Meggers Dynamic
Measurements of On-Load Tap Changers bulletin for more details about this method.

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