Hydropower Engineering

Turbines. Basic concepts

 Kinematic analysis
Hypothesis:
Friction head loss negligible
Incompresible fluid
F=Q(v1-v2)
F is the resultant of all the exterior forces applied
on the fluid
v1, v2 are the velocities on the starting and ending
sections
 Kinematic analysis:
Impulse turbines (I)
F=Qv (1 - m cos )
v is the water velocity relative to the buckets
m v cos water jet relative speed on exit
m 0,96 ; 165
v = w - r
T = Fr = Qvr (1 - m cos )
P = T = Qvr (1 - m cos )
 Kinematic analysis:
Impulse turbines (II)
Taking into account that: v=w-r
w: water jet absolute speed
P=gQH
The efficiency is:
=(w-r)r(1-mcos )/(gH)
I.e.:
Maximum torque is produced at standstill and
decreases linearly up to zero at w= r
Maximum efficiency corresponds to =w/2r and
minimum (0) to =0 =w/r
 Kinematic analysis:
Reaction turbines (I)
Euler Equation (F, T y P):
F=Q(w1cos 1 w2cos 2)
Sub indexes 1 and 2 mean entrance and exit
sections, respectively. The angle between the
absolute velocity vector and the tangent to runner
circumference is
T=Q(r1w1cos 1 r2w2cos 2)
P=T =Q(r1w1cos 1 r2w2cos 2)
 Kinematic analysis:
Reaction turbines (II)
Effective head: H = (r w cos g r w cos )
u
1 1 1 2 2 2

In order to achieve maximum Hu tangential

velocity should be increased at the entrance
and decreased at the exit.
 Similarity laws
Two turbines that have corresponding linear
dimensions with a common geometric ratio
are said to be homologous.
Geometric similarity implies kinematic
similarity, i.e. velocity triangles are similar
when the operating mode is similar.
 Speed coefficients
They are dimensionless relationships between
the speed in any point and the square root of
2gH; they are named with the letter k and a
sub index showing the considered speed. The
most used is the peripheral speed at the exit
section of the runner:
D3 N
ku =
60 2 g H
 Turbine constants
Q N D
= cte = cte (assumes same efficiency)
D N
3
H
From the previous constants and the definitions of power and torque, the following
constants could be obtained:

Q P T
= cte = cte = cte
D H
2
D2 H
3
2 D H
3
 Reduced constants
They correspond to a theoretical turbine
having a unit diameter and operating under a
net head of unity:
N D Q P T
n11 = q11 = 2 p11 = t11 = 3
H D H
3
D H 2
2 D H

These parameters have m1/2/s as S.I. units. In

order to make them dimensionless, they are
divided by the square root of g. These new
parameters are called unitary values.
 Unitary (dimensionless) constants
D Q P
ed = qed = 2 ped =
gH D gH D (g H )
2 3
2

Specific speed (not dimensionless) is the

speed of a turbine producing unit output
under a head of unity.
N P
Ns = 5
4
H
Usually, it is calculated at the point of peak
efficiency.
 Synchronous speed
Electrical generators connected to an
electrical network should rotate at a speed
proportional to the system frequency f. This
speed (in rpm) is:
60 f
N=
p

Where p is the number of pole pairs of the

generator
 Runaway speed
It is the rotating speed, with wicked gates fully
open, for which turbine efficiency is zero. Its
value, relative to rated speed, is circa 1.8 for
Francis turbines; 1.9 for Pelton; 2.2 for vertical
shaft Kaplan and y 2.8 for horizontal shaft
Kaplan.
 Cavitation (I)
It is defined as the formation of voids within a
body of moving liquid (or around a body
moving in a liquid) when the local pressure is
lower than vapor pressure (0,3 m water
column) and the particles of liquid fail to
adhere to the boundaries of the passageway.
It is associated with three conditions: high-
velocity flow, low pressures, and abrupt
changes in the direction of the flow.
 Cavitation (II)
It causes pitting of the boundary surfaces. This
pitting is the actual removal of the metal
because of the violent collapse of the vapor
bubbles formed by cavitation.
The occurrence of cavitation and its inception
is usually associated with increased noise,
vibration, and a loss in performance of the
turbine.
 Cavitation (III)
Applying the Bernouilli theorem between the
outlet of the runner and the outlet of the
draft tube: H + H + V = H 1
2

2 g
s v A

Dividing by H, worst net head for cavitation

(usually maximum head for which the turbine
could operate with wicked gates fully open)
and reordering:
V12 H Hv Hs
= A = (T h n o u m)
2 g H H
 Cavitation (IV)
So, the difference in elevation between
minimum tailwater and the cavitation
reference point at the outflow from the
turbine is: Hs = HA Hv H
This elevation difference Hs should be measured
between the tailwater with only one unit in
operation and the runner worst point. In vertical
units, it is the runner shaft in Kaplan turbines and
the exit section in Francis turbines. In horizontal
units, it corresponds to the most elevated point of
these sections.
 Cavitation (V)
Ha Hv (m)
Elevation 5C 10C 15C 20C 25C
0 10,262 10,226 10,177 10,112 10,027
500 9,662 9,626 9,577 9,512 9,427
1000 9,091 9,055 9,006 8,941 8,856
1500 8,548 8,512 8,463 8,398 8,313
2000 8,031 7,995 7,946 7,881 7,796
2500 7,539 7,533 7,484 7,419 7,334

It should be taken into account that atmospheric pressure varies (0,3 0,5 m) with
weather conditions. Therefore, it is advisable to lightly increase the calculated
elevation difference Hs.
 Typical head range of turbines
Turbine type Ns (rpm) H (m)
Pelton < 28 * n > 400
Francis 65 400 30 500
Kaplan 300 - 1150 < 50
 Hill curves
These are 3D graphical representations of the
variation of various turbine constants as
related to common parameters of head,
speed, flow and power output.
They are developed from extensive tests of
model turbines.
Normally, these hill curves are proprietary
information of a particular manufacturer.
Unitary hill curves (Francis)
n D1
nI =
H

Q
QI = 2
D1 H