MIXED DESIGN MIXDES 2012, 19th International Conference "Mixed Design of Integrated Circuits and Systems", May 24-26,
-26, 2012, Warsaw, Poland
Survey and Analysis of the Design Issues of a Low
Cost Micro Power DC-DC Step Up Converter for
Indoor Light Energy Harvesting Applications
Carlos Carvalho
Instituto Superior de Engenharia de Lisboa (ISEL ADEETC)
Instituto Politcnico de Lisboa (IPL)
Rua Conselheiro Emdio Navarro, n1
1949-014 Lisboa Portugal
e-mail: cfc@isel.ipl.pt
AbstractThis paper discusses the pertinent issues in
designing and developing a DC-DC converter for a low cost,
micro power indoor light harvesting system using CMOS
technology. The different issues associated to this problem are
studied and the relevant literature is analysed. The paper surveys
and analyses the design options available for the PV cells, step-up
voltage converter circuit architecture, maximum power point
tracking (MPPT) methods and energy storage devices. From this
analysis a possible solution is discussed.
Index TermsCMOS, Electronics, Energy harvesting,
Energy storage elements, MPPT techniques, Power management
circuits, PV cells
I. INTRODUCTION
The ability of circuits to obtain energy from the
surrounding environment for self powering is an interesting
feature that has gained increasing importance [1]. In opposition
to traditional powering methods, like those that involve a cord
connection to the power grid, or the use of batteries, obtaining
energy from ambient sources promises to take over the
powering paradigm for sensor networks [2], [3] and embedded
systems [4]. Sensor networks that fully rely on grid powering
only have the opportunity to monitor building indoor
parameters, as they depend upon the cord connection. If one
wants ubiquity and truly pervasive operation, relying on the
power grid can be a limiting factor. One step forward, towards
unlimited sensor location, could be the use of batteries.
Although improving the freedom of sensor distribution, one
obstacle remains, related to the batteries themselves. As their
stored energy gets depleted, batteries need to be replaced. This
can be a problem, if a large number of sensors are deployed,
some in places that are difficult to reach. Thus, the trivial
operation of battery replacement can result in costs a lot greater
than the batteries themselves. The costs with staff and other
logistic means may not pay off the utility of the sensor
network. To achieve indefinite operation, the sensors must be
supplied such that they obtain their power directly from the
surrounding environment. This procedure is known as energy
harvesting. By not using batteries for system main powering
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Joo P. Oliveira, Nuno Paulino
UNINOVA/CTS
Departamento de Engenharia Electrotcnica, Faculdade de
Cincias e Tecnologia
Universidade Nova de Lisboa
Campus FCT/UNL, 2829-516 Caparica Portugal
e-mail: nunop@uninova.pt
purposes, the sensor system will not be responsible for
contributing to chemical pollution caused by disposing them
of, or their manufacturing. In economical terms, not using
batteries represents cost reduction in both devices and
replacement operation procedures.
The organization of this paper is as follows: Section II
presents some considerations about the light energy source.
Section III discusses energy conditioning systems to process
the energy provided by the harvester. Section IV gives an
insight into some devices in which it is possible to store the
harvested energy. In Section V, the MPPT aspects are
addressed, so as to obtain the maximum efficiency out of PV
cells. In the end, Section VI presents the conclusions about this
survey, foreseeing general future applications.
II. LIGHT ENERGY HARVESTING
There are different possible energy sources in the
environment that can be harvested to power electronic
applications [5]. This paper will only be focused on light
energy because, comparing all sources, this is the one that
shows the highest energy density by volume unity, followed by
mechanical and thermal energy respectively [5].
Light energy comes primarily from the Sun, but it also can
be obtained indoor. At the maximum of its height and intensity,
the Sun can provide as much as 1 kW/m2, but in indoor
environments, as the light gets attenuated, the Sun provides
about one tenth of this energy density [6]. Relying on artificial
illumination can result in only about 10 W/m2 [7]. In some
situations it proves useful to have a history of the solar
irradiation of the location where the harvester system is to be
placed [8], [9].
The key element for this kind of harvesting is the PV cell.
This solid state device converts light energy directly to
electrical energy without using moving parts. A PV cell is
basically a photodiode and it can be manufactured in CMOS
technology [10], [11]. However, it is not simple to integrate PV
cells with other circuits in the same die to obtain a complete
System-on-Chip (SoC) [12], [13]. The photons of the incident
988
light can penetrate the die until they reach the substrate where it is mandatory to use two PV cells in series and a voltage
they can cause a positive charge build up ultimately resulting in doubler circuit to step the voltage up. The data in TABLE I.
latch-up. When a series connection of several PV cells is shows some parameters that were obtained by simulating the
needed, building the diodes on the same substrate may be series of two PV cells using the previously described electrical
limiting [14]. To tackle these limitations, it is necessary to use model. The light intensity is swept from 10% to 100%.
more expensive technologies, such as Silicon-on-Insulator
(SOI), allowing for an arbitrary number of series connected PV TABLE I. PERFORMANCE OF A SERIES OF TWO AMORPHOUS SILICON PV
cells to obtain a higher voltage value [15]. CELLS

The efficiency of common PV cells is still relatively low, at Light Maximum power Open circuit Optimal
about 20% [6]. Some solar cells can reach efficiencies as high intensity (Pmax) voltage (voc) voltage (vmax)
as 50%, but involving the use of new layout architectures and 100% 3.550 mW 1.303 V 803.2 mV
less common materials [16], resulting in more expensive 80% 2.830 mW 1.263 V 818.1 mV
systems. 60% 2.037 mW 1.210 V 806.5 mV
To reduce production costs, it is possible to use PV cell 40% 1.187 mW 1.132 V 774.1 mV
technologies with lower efficiencies and lower manufacturing 20% 367.4 W 954.4 mV 591.8 mV
costs, resulting in a larger area for the PV cell, for the same 10% 93.49 W 620.9 mV 316.8 mV
power level. Using amorphous silicon PV cells is an example
of such a trade-off, in which costs are lower, but at the expense
of a larger area [17]. The area of each cell is 1 cm2. A light intensity of 20% of
Based on an amorphous silicon PV cell that was built and the maximum is the threshold that allows for an output voltage
experimentally characterized, an equivalent electrical model of about 1.2 V after the step up operation.
was obtained [17], as shown in Figure 1. This model does not
intend to be an exact physical representation of the cell itself, III. ENERGY CONDITIONING SYSTEMS
but rather to translate its electrical behavior. Since the voltage of a PV cell depends on the light
intensity, temperature and load value, it is necessary to use a
circuit that adjusts the load seen by the PV cell, to maximize
the collected energy and to produce a stabilized output voltage.
As previously explained, the PV cell voltage must be
stepped up (boost operation), or stepped down (buck
operation). These circuits can be inductor based or switched
capacitor based. Either way, the goal is to perform a conversion
Figure 1. Equivalent electrical circuit of the amorphous silicon solar cell
as efficient as possible. The regulator also plays the role of
protecting the energy storage device from overload and when
2000
Solar cell power and current
10
dealing with a PV based system, it sets the output voltage of
the PV cell, in order to have optimal power operation
conditions.
Cell current (mA)
Cell power (W)

A. Inductor Based Converters

1000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
Solar cell output voltage (V)
Figure 2. Power and current curves of the solar cell equivalent circuit model
for maximum illumination (AM1).
The power and current curves of the cell for AM1
conditions are depicted in Figure 2. , where the maximum
power point (MPP) of the PV cell is shown by the dots. This
performance was obtained with a cell having an area of about
1 cm2. The maximum power (Pmax) obtained is 1.775 mW, at a
voltage of about 400 mV (vmax).
If this same cell is to be used indoor, the level of usable
power is substantially lower. Also, the voltage at which the
power of a single cell is optimal (maximum) is insufficient to
power CMOS circuits, which typically require 1.2 V. As such,
5
The inductance value required by most inductor based
converters is outside the range of values that are possible to
integrate in CMOS. Therefore, inductor based voltage
converters require a discrete inductor placed outside the
0.4 0.5 0.6
0
system. There are numerous examples of energy conditioning
systems based on traditional and more elaborated architectures
employing inductors, such as in [8], [18], [19], [20].
A comparative study between inductor and SC based
conversion technologies is given in [21]. This study concludes
that converters based on SC have less losses and that capacitors
have a greater energy and power density, when compared to
inductors, if small devices are used. Also, in [22] it is shown
that for very low power systems (< 1Watt), capacitor based
converters lead the performance, in terms of efficiency.
B. Switched-Capacitor (SC) Based Converters
It is possible to have a SC voltage converter circuit entirely
built using standard CMOS technology without using external

98e
components. These converters can reach high efficiencies.
When dealing with micro-power harvester systems, the limited
available energy makes the converter efficiency a critical issue.
One of the biggest problems is the bottom plate capacitance
associated to every capacitor [18], [23]. If the system has a
substantial power (more than 1 Watt) and integration is not a
requirement, usually the inductor-based converters can achieve
a better efficiency.
Regarding SC topologies, there are some well know,
among which is the Series-Parallel, performing an elevation of
the input voltage, according to the number of capacitors
involved [23]. In general, this topology shows a good
performance. A voltage doubler whose base is according to the
same principle can be found in [24].
To overcome performance limitations due to the parasitic
bottom plate capacitance, [25] proposes some configurations
that try to minimize the amount of charge that is lost. Also, in
[26] and [27] another technique is employed in order to
minimize the bottom plate capacitance loss. For convenience,
the circuit topology used in [26] is depicted in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Switched capacitor doubler, with charge reusing.
In general, when dealing with SC converters performance
studies, work can be found in [28][31]. One interesting
technique is used in [32], where a gearbox, switching
between different topologies, is used so as to maximize the
overall performance of the converter system. The need for
voltage elevation is also related to the number of PV cells
connected in series at the input.
IV. ENERGY STORAGE DEVICES
Once the energy has been harvested and conditioned, some
means must be used to store that energy, so that it can used at a
later time. For a small system, there are two storing devices,
batteries and supercapacitors, available to perform this task [4].
Depending on the energy usage profile of the system, any of
these devices can be used in accordance. However, to optimize
their utility and lifetime, each must fit into the appropriate
energy usage regime [9]. If appropriate, both devices can be
used in the same application, aiming to extend the lifetime of
each other. Each device requires special attention, as their
characteristics involve very specific charging strategies [9].
A. Batteries
Batteries are used when large energy density is required,
but their lifetime is seriously affected by the number of
charging/discharging cycles. So, trying to minimize the number
of these cycles is an important objective. This aspect is related
to the amount of time that a battery can remain in operation, so
that the stored charge can hold for as long as possible. An
example of a work concerning such an issue is presented in
[33].
There are several common types of rechargeable batteries,
for instance, Li+/Li-polymer (Lithium-ion / Lithium polymer),
NiMH (Nickel Metal Hydride) or NiCad (Nickel Cadmium).
Typical operating voltages for these kinds of battery
technologies can be approximately 1.2 V for the last two types
and 3.7 V for the first type [34]. Conventional Li-ion batteries
have typical operating voltages that range from 2.7 V to 4.2 V
[35]. There are some emerging technologies using materials
like LiCoO2 or graphite, that in conjunction with PVDF-Ionic
electrolyte, have given promising results, just like technologies
based on other types of materials and electrolytes [6]. It is
important to note that each type of technology might require a
different circuit to control its charging phase.
Besides being electrical charge buffers, batteries serve as
voltage stabilizers, providing a constant voltage at the output of
the regulator circuit. Examples of systems that use batteries to
store harvested energy can be found in [36], [37].
B. Supercapacitors
Supercapacitors exhibit characteristics that make them
different from ordinary capacitors. The electrical model of a
supercapacitor is not simply a highly valued capacitor, but a set
of several branches with different time constants [38], for the
case of the double-layer capacitor. Capacitance values can be
as high as 1500 F. This type of device can even achieve power
densities higher than that of conventional batteries.
These devices can stand a higher number of
charge/discharge cycles than batteries, being suitable for
applications where this kind of regime is usual. The number of
cycles can be as high as a million, leading to an operational
lifetime of ten years, until the capacitance value starts to show
some degradation [3].
Supercapacitors are cheap, being very appealing to use in
opposition to batteries, as these are more expensive. An
example of a discrete system that makes use of a
supercapacitor to store harvested energy from a solar harvester
can be found in [39].
Nonetheless, there are some applications that use both
battery and supercapacitor [9], [34]. These act as a primary and
secondary energy buffers, respectively.
In the case of a low cost system that is only required to
operate when light is available, or a short time after that, the
most economical solution is to use a supercacitor. As an
example, consider a 1 F supercapacitor was charged to 1.3V
98d
and then allowed to power a circuit until its voltage decreases
to 1.1V. The energy supplied by this discharging capacitor is
E = C Vout2, in this case 0.02 J. This energy could be method requires to previously determining the characteristics
used to power a 10 mW circuit for 2 seconds, which is enough
time, in most cases, to transmit some bytes of information.
V. MAXIMUM POWER POINT TRACKING TECHNIQUES
There are some limiting factors when building a solar
energy powered micro sensor system, such as a low energy
budget, due to size limitations. This budget must be enough to
enable the controlling circuits to operate and to maintain the
interaction between the energy processing system and the
harvester at an optimum level [9].
To maximize the energy obtained from the PV cell, there
are a set of techniques known as Maximum Power Point
Tracking (MPPT), which can be used to reach this goal. For
instance, it is possible to manipulate the PV cell orientation, in
order to maximize the light intensity on its surface [40], but in
small systems this option is not valid because of the low power
and low cost budgets. In indoor applications it is possible to
place the PV cell as close as possible to a light source, with the
correct orientation, in order to maximize the received light
energy.
Figure 2. illustrates the MPPT principle. Its algorithm
should try to reach the dot position, as the equivalent
impedance of both the cell and the converter circuit will vary,
according to load, temperature or irradiance changes. The
arrows in Figure 2. represent the consequence of the controller
action, dealing with an impedance mismatch, vectoring the PV
the maximum value around its vicinity, this is not a big
problem. The Fractional Open Circuit Voltage (Fractional VOC)
of the PV cell [48]. The open circuit voltage can be obtained
using a pilot PV cell, smaller than the main cell, exposed in the
same way as the latter. The circuitry needed to implement the
fractional VOC method is very simple and dissipates little
power, at the cost of producing only an approximation of the
MPP of the PV cell. This trade-off is acceptable for a micro
power system. Work based on this MPPT method can be found
in [48] and [49].
1) Determination of the Fractional VOC Coefficient (k) for
the PV Cell experimentally characterized
In the case of a micro power step-up converter it is possible
to tolerate some inaccuracy in the determination of the MPP, in
exchange for using a simpler method for determining the MPP
of the PV cell that requires less complex circuits and dissipates
less power. The Fractional Open Circuit Voltage (Fractional
VOC) meets these requirements, because it is a very simple and
inexpensive (hardware wise) method.
The Fractional VOC method explores an intrinsic
characteristic of PV cells: there is a proportionality factor
between their open circuit voltage and the voltage at which the
MPP occurs. This factor must be determined beforehand, by
studying the solar cell behavior under several conditions of
illumination and temperature. The cell whose model is depicted
in Figure 1. was simulated and showed the performance
depicted in Figure 4. and Figure 5.
0.5
Effects from changing illumination

cell to the new MPP. A substantially wide set of MPPT

0.45
techniques can be found in [41], providing a broad perspective.
Most of the ones that are presented in this section were 0.4

developed for large PV arrays that provide hundreds or 0.35

VMPP (V)

thousands of Watts. In some cases, these techniques can be

extended to systems with power around W or mW. 0.3

0.25

A. True MPPT Techniques

0.2

These techniques are concerned with obtaining and tracking

the MPP of the PV cell, independently of light and temperature 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65
VOC (V)
conditions. This accurate estimation is often based on
microcontroller computation requiring the use of an ADC. In Figure 4. Fractional open circuit voltage relation between VOC and VMPP
general, these MPPT techniques do not need to know the PV under several conditions of illumination
cell characteristics beforehand, as the converter system adapts
itself automatically to the given PV cell. Examples of such 0.65
Effects from changing temperature

techniques include algorithms like the Hill-Climbing, used in

0.6
[27], [36], [37], [42], [43], and the Ripple Correlation Control
0.55
(RCC), used in [44][47]. Both of these algorithms can also be
implemented using analog circuits, thus reducing the power 0.5

needed to operate. RCC is possibly the best MPPT method, but

VMPP (V)

0.45

it requires a multiplication to compute the instantaneous power. 0.4

Since an analog multiplier is difficult to design and usually 0.35

dissipates a large power, the RCC method is not suitable for 0.3

micro power systems, such as for the case of indoor light 0.25
energy harvesting. 0.2
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.9
VOC (V)

B. Quasi-MPPT Techniques
This type of algorithms cannot reach the true MPP of a PV Figure 5. Fractional open circuit voltage relation between VOC and VMPP
cell. Since the power value does not change significantly from under several conditions of temperature

983
 By performing a linear regression over the points plotted on
the obtained graphs, the same way as in [49], one can
determine the slope of these functions. By sweeping a range of
temperatures that spanned from 55 C to +125 C, the ratio
VMPP/VOC was around 0.84. By sweeping illumination from
10% to 100%, the ratio VMPP/VOC was around 0.76. Assuming
that illumination has more importance, as it is more likely to
vary, a value of 0.77 was selected for k, the Fractional VOC
coefficient. This value agrees with the ones stated in [41].
VI. CONCLUSIONS
This paper presented a survey on the relevant issues to take
into account when designing a low cost, micro power, light
harvesting system for indoor applications. The relevant
literature was analyzed, regarding the light energy source,
types of energy conditioning systems, energy storage devices
and MPPT techniques. Design options about each of these
items were presented. From this analysis, several conclusions
about the constituting elements of the system were reached.
The system should use a low cost PV cell, such as a-Si, the
system should use a SC DC-DC converter and it should use
supercapacitors as the energy storing devices.
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