GEOMETRIC DESIGN

OF HIGWAYS
CHAPTER 4
MITCH A. CE
A. OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

Alignment of highways can exactly be in a straight line,

but were not quite sure if it is a good thing.
OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

In highway alignment we
often change direction,
changing direction in
highways is not the same
as changing directions in
intersections. (often in 90
degree angles). In
intersection we often stop,
or slow down.
OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
On a highway, it
could happen without
stopping or slowing
down. The process of
designing changing
direction of travel on
a highway is called
horizontal
alignment.
OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

The purpose of this

curve is to change
direction without
stopping or slowing
down too much.
OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

The change can be

very gradual. A
horizontal curve with
flat curvature or
called large radius
curve
OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
We can also have a flat
terrain to construct a
highway therefore we
will also have to change
elevation along the
highway which we call
vertical alignment.
Vertical Curves are parts
and puzzle of a vertical
alignment.
 OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

SAG VERTICAL CURVE CREST VERTICAL CURVE

OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
 OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
In the case of vertical curve, it is often that
the length of the curve that matters because
it dictates the safe speed of the curve.
When we talk about speed and radius of the
curve, it corresponds to vehicle dynamics
and road geometry.

Therefore, highway alignment is all about

vehicle dynamics and road geometry.
 OVERVIEW OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
Principles of Highway Alignment
v Highway alignment : a 3-D problem
v 3-dimensional construction is difficult
v Simplification: design in 2-D alignment problems
v Horizontal alignment (x, z coordinates) plan view
(perspective of aerial photo)
v Vertical alignment (x, y coordinates) or profile
view (elevations along the length of highway)
v Involve vehicle dynamics and geometry
TOPICS under HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT
A. Overview of highway alignment
B. Equal tangent parabola (review)
Vertical Alignment
C. Crest Vertical Curves
D. Sag Vertical Curves
E. Circular Curves (review)
F. Horizontal Alignment
B. EQUAL TANGENT
PARABOLA (REVIEW)
CHAPTER 4 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
MITCH A. CE
EQUAL TANGENT PARABOLA (REVIEW)
E.T. Parabola is same as saying the vertical
curve on highway
Parabola results from conic slice and there
is a constant rate of change of slope

y = ax2 + bx + c
EQUAL TANGENT PARABOLA (REVIEW)
1

4
 EQUAL TANGENT PARABOLA (REVIEW)
I
(Intersection)
y where two tangents
intersect

y = ax2 + bx + c

C L/2 x T
(Curvature) (Tangency)
beginning of the curve L end of the curve

(Length)
straight line length between T and C of the curve
 EQUAL TANGENT PARABOLA
(Point of Vertical Intersection)
(REVIEW)
PVI

-G2, %
+G1, %

y = ax2 + bx + c
L/2
PVC PVT
(Point of Vertical Curvature) (Point of Vertical Tangency)
L/2

L
(Length)
 EQUAL TANGENT PARABOLA (REVIEW)
PURPOSE OF THE PARABOLIC V CURVE
v provides a transition between two grades
v provides a constant rate of change of
grade
v rate of change of grade, r = (|G2 G1|)/L
vequal tangents property
v means, PVC to PVI = L/2
v used for both sag curves and crest curves
EQUAL TANGENT PARABOLA (REVIEW)
CREST VERTICAL CURVE
EQUAL TANGENT PARABOLA (REVIEW)
SAG VERTICAL CURVE
 NOTATIONS
v Curve point naming is similar to horizontal curves, with
addition of V for vertical
VERTICAL CURVES HORIZONTAL CURVES
Point of Vertical Curvature (PVC) Point of Curvature (PC)
Point of Vertical Intersection (PVI) Point of Intersection (PI)
Point of Vertical Tangency (PVT) Point of Tangency

v G1 is initial roadway grade (initial tangent grade)

v G2 is final roadway (tangent grade)
v A is the absolute value of the difference in grades (generally
expressed in percent)
v A = | G2 G1 |
v L is the length of the vertical curve measured in a horizontal
plane
 PROPERTIES
I
(Intersection)
y where two tangents
intersect

y = ax2 + bx + c

C L/2 x T
(Curvature) (Tangency)
beginning of the curve L end of the curve

(Length)
straight line length between T and C of the curve
 EQUAL TANGENT PARABOLA
v Parabolic curves are generally used for
design
v Parabolic Function y = ax2 + bx + c
v y = roadway elevation
v x = distance from PVC
v c = elevation of PVC
v Also usually design for equal-length tangents
v ex. half of curve length is before PVI and half
after PVI
FIRST DERIVATIVE OF EQUATION

v First derivative of y = ax2 + bx + c

gives slope
dy/dx = 2ax + b
v At PVC, x = 0, so dy/dx = b = G1
(by definition)
v G1 is initial slope (in ft/ft or m/m)
SECOND DERIVATIVE OF EQUATION
v Second derivative gives rate of change of
slope
d2y/dx2 = 2a

v The average rate of change of slope, by

observation can also be

d2y/dx2 = (G2-G1)/L

v Thus, a = (G2 G1)/2L

OFFSETS
v Offsets are vertical distances from initial tangent to
the curve

v Y = offset at any distance x

v Ym = midpoint offset
v Yf = final offset
OFFSET FORMULA
v For an equal tangent parabola;

v Y = offset (in m or ft) at any distance x, from the

PVC
v A and L are as previously defined

v It follows from the figure that,

v offset at the curve midpoint

v offset at the end of the curve

 K VALUES
v The rate of change of grade at successive points
v A constant amount for equal increments of horizontal
distance
v The algebraic difference between intersecting tangent
grades |G2 G1| or (A), divided by the length of curve
(L), or A/L in percent per ft or m.
v The reciprocal, L/A is the horizontal distance
required to effect a 1% change in gradient and is,
therefore, a measure of curvature.
v The quantity L/A is termed K
 K VALUES
v The K-value can be used directly to compute the
high/low points for crest/sag vertical curves
(provided the high/low point is not at curve end)
by,
v Xhl = K x |G1|
v where x = distance from the PVC to the high/low point

v K-values: important applications in the design of

vertical curves.
 QUESTION:
v Is the high point or low point same as the
midpoint in the curve?

v ANS. It will only be true if G1 and G2 are of the

same magnitude or value. But if doesnt have
same values the midpoint may not be the
high/low point on the curve.
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT RELATIONSHIPS

1. y = ax2 + bx + c 5.
2. dy/dx = 2ax + b
at PVC, x = 0 6.
dy/dx = b = G1
3. d2y/dx2 = 2a 7. K = L/A
a = G2 G1
2L
8. Xhl = K x |G1|
4.
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
C. CREST VERTICAL
CURVES
CHAPTER 4 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
MITCH A. CE
DESIGN CONTROLS
FOR VERTICAL CURVES
v Tolerable rate of change of grade
v Drainage of sag curves is an important
consideration
v Primary controlling factor : SIGHT
DISTANCE
v Minimum stopping sight distance (SSD) shall be
provided
SSD and CURVE DESIGN
v Thou Shalt provide adequate stopping
sight distance (SSD)
v Curve construction is expensive, so
v to minimize curve length, it must be subjected to
adequate SSD
v SSD formulation was discussed
v S = dr + db
v S = vtr + v2 .

2g (f + G)
where: v - speed from w/c the vehicle must come to a
stop, design speed or operating speed
v f = a/g
SSD CONSIDERATIONS
v S = vtr + v2 .

2g (f + G)
For computing SSD on vertical curve:

+G1 -G2

Shall we use G1? or G2?

SSD CONSIDERATIONS
v S = vtr + v2 .

2g (f + G)
For computing SSD on a vertical curve

+G1 -G2

use, G = 0
SSD CONSIDERATIONS
v SSD > L (see figure), but it will not be always the case,
it will depend on the speed and grades G1 and G2. SSD
can either be greater than the length of the curve (L) or
it can be less than (L)

+G1
-G2
 CREST VERTICAL CURVES
POSSIBILITIES

x
 VARIABLES AFFECTING SSD ON CREST CURVES
v The speed and curve geometry
v The drivers eye height in vehicle, H1
v Height of a roadway obstruction object, H2
 SSD and L
v SSD may be > L
v SSD may be < L
 MINIMUM CURVE LENGTH
v By using the properties of a parabola:
 MINIMUM CURVE LENGTH
v Substituting H1 = 1.08 (3.5 ft) m and H2 = 0.6
m (2 ft)
US Customary: Metric:
 MINIMUM CURVE LENGTH
v Current AASHTO design standards use the
following specifications:
v H1 (drivers eye height) = 1.08 m (3.5 ft)
v H2 (object height) = 0.60 m (2.0 ft)
PSD & CREST VERTICAL CURVE DESIGN
v A consideration for two-lane highways
v Only a factor for crest vertical curves
v Sag curves have unobstructed sight
distance
v Assume driver eye height and height of
object on roadway surface both 1.08 m
(3.5 ft)
v PSD is much greater than SSD
 PSD ON CREST CURVES
v Passing sight distance is important in 2-
lane highway design
v Sight distance required for passing is
generally much longer than required for
stopping L
v For PSD < L For PSD > L
VERTICAL ALIGNMENT
D. SAG VERTICAL
CURVES
CHAPTER 4 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
MITCH A. CE
SAG V CURVE POSSIBILITIES
SAG VERTICAL CURVES
v Four criteria for establishing length of
sag curves.
1. Headlight Sight Distance (HSD)
2. Passenger Comfort - L > AV2/395
3. Drainage Control a grade of 0.35%
be provided within 15 m of the level
point of the curve
4. General Appearance - Lmin = 2V (if
design speed (V) > 60 km/h
SAG CURVE DESIGN FACTORS

Seeing is believing.
SAG CURVE DESIGN FACTORS
v On sag curves night time conditions govern
design
v Critical concern for sag curves is the
headlight sight distance (HSD)
v Headlight sight distance is function of
v the height of the headlight above the
roadway, H
v and the inclined upward angle of the
headlight beam, relative to the
horizontal plane of the car, (beta)
 SAG CURVE (PROFILE VIEW)
v the height of the headlight above the roadway, H
v and the inclined upward angle of the headlight
beam, relative to the horizontal plane of the car,
(beta)
 MINIMUM CURVE LENGTH
v Minimum length of crest curve required for
adequate SSD
 MINIMUM CURVE LENGTH
v For the sight distance required to provide
adequate SSD current AASHTO design standards
use the following specifications:
v H (headlight height) = 0.6 m (2.0 ft)
v (headlight angle) = 1o
 MINIMUM CURVE LENGTH
v Substituting these values into the previous two equations
yields:
v H (headlight height) = 0.6 m (2.0 ft)
v (headlight angle) = 1o

v if not sure which equation to use, assume SSD<L first (for either
sag or crest curves)
 UNDERPASS SIGHT DISTANCE
v A structure passing over a sag curve may block a drivers
line-of-sight over the full length of the curve.
UNDERPASS SIGHT DISTANCE
UNDERPASS SIGHT DISTANCE
 UNDERPASS SIGHT DISTANCE
v Again, from properties of parabola for equal-tangent
curve, we can derive the following formulas
DESIGN RESTRICTIONS ON V. CURVES
v Most ideal conditions are not always
possible
v Possible restrictions (any combination of)
v length of the curve
v G1 or G2 or both
v Hc clearance height (for overpass situation)
v Solution
v One major variable at your discretion as
engineer: SPEED
LOW CLEARANCE
v AASHTO 4.42 m (14.5 ft) the best you can
do is to design clearance at 3.84 m (12.6
ft)
WILL IT WORK?
v Low Clearance.mp4
OTHER CHALLENGES
v Compound curves:
v Combined crest and sags (one
immediately follows the other)
v Combined vertical curve on a
horizontal curve
v Limited distances (length)
v Restricted H and V clearances
E. CIRCULAR CURVES
(REVIEW)
CHAPTER 4 GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS
MITCH A. CE
SIMPLE CIRCULAR CURVE

v A segment of the circle

v Used for horizontal alignment

v Has a single, constant radius

CIRCLE

v Center thru origin (0,0)

v x2 + y2 = r2

v Center at (h,k)
v (x-h)2 + (y-k)2 = r2
CIRCULAR CURVES & FORMULAS

R= v2____
g(e + f)
SIMPLE CIRCULAR HORIZONTAL CURVE
SIMPLE CIRCULAR HORIZONTAL CURVE
SIMPLE CIRCULAR HORIZONTAL CURVE
STATIONING
v Stationing is done for short-hand designation
of location on the highway
v 20 m (100 ft) represent one station
v fractional meter are followed by + sign
v Location at 2 + 486.123 = 2 km from the
starting point plus 486.123 meters, 3 +
002.100 = 3 km from SP plus 2.1 meters.
(metric)
v Location at 1138.6 feet is represented by
11 + 38.6
v On horizontal curves, stationing is done
ALONG the length of the curve
PROBLEM 1
v A curving roadway has a design of
110 kph. At one horizontal curve,
the superelevation has been set at
6.0% and the coefficient of side
friction is found to be 0.10.
Determine the minimum radius of
the curve that will provide safe
vehicle operation.
SOLUTION
PROBLEM 2

v A horizontal curve is designed with

a 600 m radius and is known to
have a tangent length of 52m. The
PI is at station 20+000. Determine
the stationing of the PT.
SOLUTION
PI 20+000
52 = 600 tan (I/2)
I I = 9.90
= 600(9.90)
1800

Lc= 104 m

PC = PI - T = 20+000 - 0+052
PC = 19+948
I/2 I/2

PT = PI + T = 20+000 + 0+052
PT = 20+052