Jiang Su

Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

Design of SCL Tunnel Using Sprayed Waterproofing Membrane in

Soft Ground

Abstract
Over the last twenty years, sprayed concrete lined (S CL) tunnels have seen rapid development from
the traditional double shell method, through the more recent single sh ell met hod, to the current
composite shell method. Composite shell linings, consisting of a layer of permanent spray ed
concrete primary lining, a layer of spray applied waterproofing membrane and a lay er of s prayed or
cast secondary lining, represent the latest development in the tunnelling industry. While demand for
the composite shell method is increasing, there are still some unknowns associated with it. One of t he
biggest areas of uncertainty for the composite shell method is the extent of composite action in the
interfaces bet ween the sprayed waterproofing membrane and the primary and secondary linings.
A research programme is in progress at the University of Southampton, UK, to investigate the
behaviour of composite shell SCL tunnels. As part of the testing programme, a series of short-term
tension and direct shear tests have been carried out on samples cut from panels built up from a
sprayed primary layer, spray applied waterproofing membrane and sprayed secondary layer. The aim
of the tests has been to understand the fundamental properties of sprayed concrete-membrane
bonding systems, especially the impact of the interface roughness and membrane thickness on
strength and stiffness. This paper will report some of the test results obtained and their significanc e.

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Jiang Su
Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

1 Introduction
The us e of Sprayed Concret e Lining (SCL) is an established method of soft ground tunnelling using
sprayed concrete to support the excavation both temporarily and permanently. Compared with other
tunnelling methods, such as usin g a Tunnel Boring Machine (TBM), the biggest advantage of the S CL
technique is that it allows tunnels and junctions to be built at varying cross sections and sizes with
relative ease. Besides, the SCL technique has low mobilisation costs, making it suitabl e for short
lengths of tunnel construction

2 SCL designed as temporary structures

Until recently, SCL tunnels, consisting of a layer of temporary sprayed primary lining, a layer of sheet
waterproofing membrane and another layer of permanent cast secondary lining, dominated t he
market; mainly because of concerns over safety, watertightness and durability. For the purpose of this
paper, this is called s acrificial primary S CL. The reason why the S CL was only treated as a temporary
structure was due to two aspects: limitations of sprayed concrete technology and design method,
which will be discussed separat ely in the following sections.

2.1 Limitations of S CL technology

Twenty years ago, the early-age strength development was the top priority for sprayed concrete
working as a ground support measure while many other properties had to be compromised, leading to
SCL being treated only as a temporary structure. The main concerns at that time from the tunnelling
industry about the SCL included:
x Low final strengt h in the long-term due to accelerator dosage (Kusterle 1997)
x Long-term durability issues due to shadows behind steel reinforcement (Thomas 2008)
x Poor quality control due to use of the dry-mix process and manual spraying (Austin & Robins 1995)

2.2 Limitations of de sign methodology

The lack of reliable design methods was anot her reason why SCL was perceived only as a temporary
structure, especially in soft ground strata, such as London Clay. Tunnelling used to be an experienc e-
based industry where empirical methods were widely adopted. However, the empirical methods for
soft ground were mostly based on the assessment of previous local practices and lacked universal
acceptance (ICE 2004). Closed-form analytical methods were also developed for tunnelling design.
However, most of them are not suitable for SCL tunnels as the complex soil-structure interaction
caused by the multi-step SCL construction sequence could not be properly modelled.
The numerical modelling was not considered as a viable design tool for SCL tunnels in soft ground
until 1990s, mainly due to insufficient computing capacity. The Heathrow Express Trial Tunnel, the first
soft ground SCL tunnel constructed in London in 1992, was designed by using finite difference
software package FLA C2D (Deane & Bassett 1995). This project represented the most advanc ed
design at that time in the UK.
The success of the Heathrow Express Trial Tunnel gave the industry significant confidence in building
SCL tunnels in soft ground in London. However, the Heathrow Express project posed a much bigger
challenge to the designers as it comprised t hree large -diameter parallel SCL tunnels, in a close
proximity under the terminal building (Van der Berg et al 2003). There were also cross -passage
connections between these tunnels.

2.3 Other issue s about temporary sprayed concrete lining

Until the mid 1990s in the UK, most spraying was carried out using the dry mix method which required
tunnel workers to stand very closely to the tunnel face to spray the concrete, resulting in significant
health and safety issues. Dry mix also creates much more dust than wet mix spraying. In addition, the
temporary SCL caused serious concerns of mat erial waste, cost inefficiency and negative
environmental impact.

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Jiang Su
Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

3 SCL designed as permanent structures

In order to improve the performance of S CL tunnels, constant efforts have been made by different
parts of the tunnelling industry, such as material suppliers, machinery manufacturers, de signers and
contractors. Several advances have made the use of S CL as a permanent structure possible:
x The shift in producing S CL from the dry-mix process to a wet -mix process substantially improved
the quality control and productivity (Austin & Robins 1995).
x The adoption of alkali-free accelerators enabled rapid setting, improved early and final strengths,
reduced environmental impact and enhanc ed safety for tunnel workers (Kusterle 1997)
x The use of fibre reinforcement instead of mes h reinforcement eliminated the concern of shadows,
shortened construction programme and saved overall cost (Thomas 2008).
x The shift from hand spraying to robotic spraying speeded up progress and produced less material
waste (Franz n 1992). It also complies wit h increasingly strict H&S laws in the UK.
x The use of real-time surveying with total stations instead of lattice girders to ensure the correct
profile of the tunnel excavation and control the lining thickness has accelerated construction and
also removed a key durability concern. This has been a huge leap forward. A recent project using
the total station for profile control was the Heathrow Terminal 5 project, which together with the
inclined tunnel face was marketed as the LaserS hell method developed by Morgan Est (Jones et
al. 2008).
x The improvement in t he quality of sprayed concrete has enabled the mature sprayed concrete to
be treated as normal cast in-situ concret e, with the same long-t erm strengt h development, low
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permeability (in the order of 10 and 10 m/s) and durability performance (Annett et al. 1997).
Permanent sprayed concret e has been widely accepted in certain sectors most notably hydropower
projects and certain countries (e.g. Norway) for many years but it has only recently gained its
acceptance more widely in the world and in soft ground applications. For soft ground SCL tunnelling i n
the UK, for the purpose of this paper, the latest design option is called Double Shell SCL, which
consists of a layer of permanent sprayed concrete primary lining, a layer of spray applied
waterproofing membrane and a lay er of s prayed or cast secondary lining, with no adhesive and shear
bond assumed at the sprayed concrete -membrane interfaces. This was the design assumption due to
the lack of evidence on the existence of adhesive and shear bond and thus no bond is assumed
across the interface. Steel fibres are used as the main reinforcement, and no steel bars and meshes
are used except at the tunnel junctions. Lattice girders are eliminated and the tunnel profile is
controlled by the total station. This design option has been adopted on several import ant projects,
such as Crossrail and A3 Hindhead.

Figure 1. Permanent sprayed concrete primary lining in A3 Hindhead

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Jiang Su
Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

4 Further development of SCL

Huge progress has been made over the last twenty years, during which SCL has moved from being
only a temporary structure to a permanent structure without any compromise in structural capacity,
watertightness, durability and safety to tunnel workers, while, at the same time, achieving short er
construction periods and savings in the materials used. The next step is to discuss whether S CL can
be improved further, with even thinner linings and shorter construction periods.

4.1 Further development of design methods

One improvement area comes from further understanding of the creep effect at the early age spray ed
concrete. It is understood that the creep effect is stress-dependent (Thomas 2008) and little
information is currently available regarding this issue. An understanding of this issue could lead to
more accurate modeling of the SCL at early age. Secondly, as the field of material science continues
to develop, in the future it is likely that ultra high tensile steel fibres will be widely used and that it will
either completely replace or significantly reduce the traditional reinforcement at heavy reinforced areas
(Thooft 2013), such as junctions and caverns. Last but not the least, more back-analysis should be
carried out so refinements can be made to the constitutive models for the ground and spray ed
concrete as well as the 2D relaxation methodology. In order to do s o, it is very important to det ermine
the location and techniques to install monitoring systems so that more reliable data will be available for
back analysis. The recent advances represent a significant opportunity for the tunnelling industry to
learn more and apply the benefits to future projects such as HS2 and Crossrail 2.

4.2 Further development of SCL technology

One promising design option, which stands out and attracts most attention at the moment, is the
Composite Shell SCL. The Composite Shell S CL, in the sense of tunnel construction, is the same as
the Double Shell S CL, which is made of a layer of permanent sprayed c oncret e primary lining, a lay er
of spray applied waterproofing membrane and a layer of permanent spray ed concrete secondary
lining. The major difference between them is that the former assumes a certain degree of adhesive
and shear bond exists across the sprayed concrete-membrane interfaces while the latter does not.
This difference makes the t wo lining design options behave in totally different ways under the soil and
water pressures. For the Double Shell SCL, because there are no adhesive and shear bonds
assumed at the interfaces, water could permeate through cracks in the primary lining and seep along
the interface, applying pressure to the extrados of the waterproofing membrane. The water pressure
will be supported by the secondary lining alone in the long-term, becoming the main design case for
the secondary lining t hickness. By contrast, for the Composite Shell SCL, water permeating through
cracks will be prevented from s eeping along the interface, and most water will not reach t he
waterproofing membrane in its 120 years design life, providing that the SCL satisfies the maximum
permeability requirements. (Jones 2012) The water pressure will be supported by bot h the primary
and the secondary linings in the long-term, leading to a substantial thickness reduction in t he
secondary lining. In the case of the Composite Shell SCL, the thickness of the secondary lining could
be as little as 60 mm (Holter & Nermoen 2011). The loading conditions for the Double Shell SCL and
the Composite Shell S CL at the short and long -term are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Typical loading conditions for Double Shell SCL (left) and Composite Shell SCL (right)

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Jiang Su
Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

5 Research Programme
A research programme is in progress at the Univeristy of Southampton, UK, to investigate the
behaviour of composite shell lined tunnels. A testing programme, including short-term direct tension
and direct shear tests on samples cut from composite shell test panels, has been carried out to
understand the fundamental properties of sprayed concrete -membrane bonding systems, especially
the impact of the int erface roughness and membrane thickness on strength and stiffness. This paper
will report some of the test results obtained and their significance, referring to the spray applied
waterproofing membrane TamSeal 800 supplied by TAM International/Normet UK ltd.

5.1 Procurement of te sting samples

The test samples used in the research in Southampton were taken from panels prepared in a similar
manner to t hose used in sprayed concrete t rials to test a mix design. Shotcrete Lt d prepared a total of
15 No. panel boxes (800mm square to 800mm by 1000mm in size, and 200mm deep) and spray -
applied a standard 8mm aggregate, steel-fibre reinforced, primary lining SCL mix, with accelerat or
Tamshot 80AF dosed at 6%, to approximately half the boxes depth. This primary layer was the n
finished in one of three ways by three different interface finishes typically used in S CL tunnel projects:
an as-sprayed finish with relatively rough surface and fibres protruding, a regulated finish, where a thin
regulating layer was sprayed on top of the primary layer and a float finis h, where the standard material
was worked straight after spraying to give a smoothed flat finish.

Figure 3. Left to Right: as-sprayed, regulated and smoothed surface finishes, Top to Bottom: before and
after application of TamSeal 800 spray applied waterproofing membrane

The membrane is supplied as a dry-powder that is mixed with water using a dry-rotor machine and
was applied in two layers to allow for greater quality control of the application. The first layer applied
was in orange and the second one was in white/gray applied a short while later. The samples
simulated the current industry practice and were all targeting an average membrane thickness of
2mm. The thickness of the membrane was verified using depth gauges. The variation in depth c an be
expected to be proportional to the surface roughness: where the m embrane has an uneven substrate,
it will be impossible to apply the consistent thickness that can be achieved on a smoother surface.
The membrane achieves an initial set after only a couple of hours, but was left for 48 hours to allow for
complete curing throughout even the thicker samples. A secondary sprayed concrete layer, using the
same fibre-reinforced mix as used for the primary lining, was then applied directly onto the dampened
membrane surfaces. Once this secondary layer had been allowed to cure fo r 28 days the complet ed
panels were cut or cored into the beams, cubes and cylinders required for the testing phas e of the
project and transported to the University of Southampton. All samples were stored such that they were
not exposed to significant variations in temperature, and particularly not to frost or freezing
temperatures that may affect the membrane.

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Jiang Su
Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

5.2 Short-term direct tension test

Direct tension tests for sprayed conc rete cylinder samples with sandwiched membranes were carried
out to investigate the interface properties in tension, especially the impact of varied interface
roughness. Tests were carried out on eight samples, consisting of three smoothed interface samples
(1-5 to 1-7), three regulated interface samples (2-5 to 2-7) and two as-sprayed interface samples (3-5
& 3-7). The membrane thickness of these eight samples varied from 1-4mm.
The purpose of the short-t erm direct tension test was to obtain the short-term tensile modulus and
tensile strength of t he composite shell interface. The tensile strength of the int erface is critical on
whet her there is sufficient resistance against groundwater that may permeat e throu gh cracks in the
primary lining, causing debonding of membrane from the primary lining and leading groundwat er
pressure to load the secondary lining directly. The test set-up is shown in Figure 4 below.

Figure 4. Typical direct tension test set-up

The test was performed using a Dension Mayes servo hydraulic loading machine with 650kN capacity.
All tension test samples were cylindric al in shape with dimensions of 100mm in diameter and bet ween
180-190mm in height. Steel plates of 20 mm in thickness, to which steel rods were welded
perpendicularly, were attached to both ends of the samples with epoxy adhesion. The rods were
clamped tightly in the serrated steel grips of the machine so as to apply the tension force to the
sample via the plates and epoxy fixing. For eac h test, three pot entiometers arranged symmetrically
around the sample were positioned between two aluminium rings attached to the sample so as to
measure the actual lengthening of samples over the gauge length of approximately 160 mm. Prior to
the tests, the potentiometers were calibrat ed using an electronic length gauge. This use of
potentiometers for local strain measurement eliminated the impact of the deformation of the steel
plates, epoxy adhesive and slip of the steel rods in the machine grips that are included in the machine
stroke reading. Machine load and stroke rate were rec orded once every second during the test s by a
data logger, along with the potentiometers output. All tests were performed in stroke control mode.
The testing procedure was the same for all samples. The sample was firstly loaded in tension up to
0.6MPa to obtain the first loading tensile modulus. This value was chosen becaus e shallow SCL
tunnels are usually constructed 20m to 30m below the ground, with a maximum pore water pressure
around 0.3MPa, and therefore, 0.6MPa is a conservative tensile stress level to obtain the first loading
tensile modulus. The stress was then reduced to below 0.1MP a and then increased back to 0.6MPa to

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Jiang Su
Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

complete a loading-unloading cycle to obtain the reloading tensile modulus and check if there was any
hysteresis. Three repeat cycles of stress were then applied to obtain an average reloading modulus.
After that, the stress was increased to the stage when the samples started to fail and the stress began
to drop. The test stroke rate was kept constant at 0.01mm/s throughout.
The overall stress-strain curves obtained for the membrane interfaces under direct tension are shown
in Figure 5. The strain was calculated using the measured thickness of the membrane. The behaviour
of a selection of samples during t he cyclic phase of loading is shown in Figure 6. It was found that the
tensile strengths for all eight samples were higher than 0.75MP a, with the highest at 1.15MPa, and
that the first loading and reloading pre-peak tensile stiffness for all eight samples were similar, around
16-18MP a. There is no obvious relationship betw een the type of interface finish and the t ensile
strength and pre-peak stiffness.

Figure 5. Membrane behaviour in direct tension test

Figure 6. Membrane behaviour under c yclic loading in direct tension test

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Jiang Su
Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

Except for one smoot hed int erface sample 1-6, all other samples failed in a ductile failure mode with
stress plateaus over the strain range 0.05 up t o 0.35. E ven at the ultimate strain level around 0.35,
four out of six samples could still sustain relatively high tensile stress of bet ween 0.8 and 1.1 5MPa,
whilst the other two samples could sustain lower tensile stress of between 0.6 and 0.8MPa at 0.25
strain. For sample 1-6, it was found that the strain reached 0.04 after three cyclic loadings and failed in
a brittle failure mode, which is different from all other. The reason for this variance is unclear and may
due to the defects within the sample. Despite this, sample 1-6 still achieved a tensile strengt h of
0.8MPa, much higher than the 0.3MPa pore water pressure for a typical shallow SCL tunnels.
It was noticed that, for regulated interface samples, all debonding happened at the sprayed concret e -
membrane interface, demonstrating a higher bonding capacity of the membrane -regulating lay er
interface, possibly due to the chemical mix and finer aggregates in the regulating layer. For other
types of samples, there was equal probability of debonding happening wit h the primary and secondary
linings. Samples wit h debonded interfaces are shown below in Figure 7.

Figure 7. Samples with debonded interfaces

5.3 Short-term direct shear te st

The purpose of the short-t erm direct shear t est was to obtain the short-t erm shear modulus and shear
strength of the composite interface system under realistic vertical stresses. The test was carried out in
a WF large shear box equipped with a Serc omp 7 special hydraulic controller system. The shear box
has two loading systems, one for normal load and one for shear load, and upper and lower two parts
of box. The upper shear box is fixed stationary to the machine and the lower shear box is pushed by
two hydraulic rams to generate shear stress in samples (Fig. 8). A loading ring is positioned bet ween
two hydraulic rams to the rear of the machine.

Figure 8. Elevation of the shearing process

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Jiang Su
Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

A total of six LVDTs were calibrated and used to record test data. One LVDT was located within the
loading ring to record the shear load and another was position at the back of the lower shear box to
measure its horizontal displacement. The remaining LVDTs were positioned on the four corners of t h e
top cap, orientat ed vertically to measure the dilation of the sample during the test. The normal force
applied by the cross beam was recorded automatically. As the dimensions of the shear box es,
300x300x200mm, were larger than those of the block samples which were 150x150x150mm, timber
wedges were used to restrict the movement of the samples within the shear boxes. A typical
configuration of timber wedges is shown in Figure 9.

Figure 9. Timber wedges used to restrict the movement of blocks

Once the block and timber wedges were properly placed in the shear box, a top cap was then placed
on the top of the block followed by the crossbeam, which was used to apply the vertical pressure of
500kPa to simulate a tunnel 25m below ground under full overburden. Once the vertical pressure had
been applied, the hydralic ram started to push the lower shear box at a constant stoke rate at 0.2
mm/min throughout, generating shear deformation at the interfac e.
The testing procedure was similar in concept to the direct tension tests in that load cycles were carried
out firstly. Initially, the blocks were sheared to a shear stress level around 0.7MPa to obtain their first
loading shear modulus, with the stress then reduc ed to 0. 2MPa for a complete cycle of load. The
second and third cyclic loadings were then carried out at higher stress levels, with each of them
usually 0.3-0.4MPa higher than the previous one. The average reloading shear modulus was then
calculated from these three cyclic loading processes for each sample, before it was sheared to the
failure stage, which was judged to be when the shear stress started to drop.
Short-term direct shear tests were carried out on nine block samples, including three smoothed
interface blocks (1-21 to 1-23), three regulated int erface blocks (2-21 to 2-23) and t hree as -spray ed
interface blocks (3-21 to 3-23). The membrane thickness of thes e samples varied from 2-4mm. Test
results of shear stress against shear displacement are shown in Figure 10.
It was found t hat all samples reached the peak shear strength between 2.2-3.5MPa when the shear
displacement was typilcally between 8-10mm and showed strain-softening post-failure behaviour. It
was also found that the peak stresses for samples with as -sprayed interface finish were generally
higher than those with regulated interface finish, larger in turn than those with smoothed interface
finish. However, there was one exception that one as-s pray ed interface finish block 3-22 was tested
and obt ained the lowest peak shear strength, as shown in Figure 10. The reason for this exception is
likely due to the different failure mode, which will be discussed later.
The first loading stiffness for all samples was very close, between 1.7-2.0MP a, and the unloading
stiffness was also very close, between 3.6-4.0MPa, approximately doubling the first loading stiffness.
There was no obvious relationship between the type of interface finishes and first loading and
reloading stiffness.

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Jiang Su
Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

Figure 10. Membrane interface behaviour in direct shear test

The failure modes for tested blocks were complicated, falling into categories of either interface shear
failure or membrane cohesive shear failure. For sam ples with smoothed or regulated interface finish,
the membrane normally slid along one interface, sometimes wit h some cohesive cracks within t he
membrane, as shown in Figure 11 (a) & (b). For samples with as -spray ed rought interface finish, the
membrane normally failed in a mixed failure mode, sliding at the relatively smoothed part of the
interface and peeling within the membrane at the relatively rough part of the interface, as shown in
Figure 11 (c) & (d). No preference on which side of interface the shear failure would occur was found
between different interface finishes.

Figure 11. Typical failure mode for membrane under direct shear test (a) interface failure (b) membrane
cohesive shear failure (c) & (d) mixed failure

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Jiang Su
Mott MacDonald Harding Prize 2013 submission

5.4 Conclusion
Shallow SCL tunnels are mostly 20-30m below ground level, with a maximum pore water pressure
around 0.3MPa. Considering this, the test results for the composite shell lining samples containing
spray-applied TamSeal 800 waterproofing membrane demonstrate there is sufficient and reliable
tensile and shear strength at the sprayed c oncrete-membrane interface to prevent water permeating
through cracks and seeping along the interface in such a way that it could load the secondary lining
directly. Therefore, both the short and long -term pore water pressure may be assumed to apply to t he
extrados of the primary lining in the design, leading to significant reduction in the secondary lining
thickness.
The short-term direct shear tests show that the sprayed concrete-membrane interface is consistently
capable of resisting shear stress, opening up the possibility that partial bond may be assumed
between t he primary and secondary linings for design purposes, leading to significant savings in lining
costs in the composite shell lining concept. Further research is currently in progress to (i) confirm the
shear strength of the interface under longer term loading and (ii) to understand the effect of the shear
and t ensile strength and stiffness recorded on the behaviour of a practical tunnel, by means of a
numerical model, verified also against laboratory test data of beam elements with sandwiched spray -
applied membrane.

6 Acknowledgements
The author would like to thank for the financial support from Mott Mac Donald and TA M-Normet for this
research.
The author woul d also like to thank Ross Dimmock, who inspired the author to work on this research
project, Tony Deane, who led the author into the SCL world, and authors PhD supervisor Alan
Bloodworth, who provided author insightful guidance throughout this research project.

7 References
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Tunnelling 97. 517-534, London: The Institute of Mining & Metallurgy.

Austin, S & Robins , P. 1995. Sprayed Concrete: Properties, design and application, Bristol: Whittles Publishing.
Deane, A.P. & Bassett, R.H. 1995. The Heathrow Express Trial Tunnel, Proceedings of the ICE - Geotechnical
Engineering, Volume 113, Issue 3, pages 144 156
Franzn, T. 1992. Shotcrete for underground support: a state-of-the-art report with focus on steel-fibre
reinforcement. Tunnelling and Underground Space Technology, 7. No.4 383 -391

Holter, K. G & Nermoen, B. 2011. Permanent waterproof tunnel lining based on sprayed concrete and sprayed-
applied double bonded membrane. Proc. World Tunnelling Congress 2011.

ICE 2004. Tunnel Lining Design Guide, The Institution of Civil Engineer, 184pp. London: Thomas Telford
Publishing

Jones, B. D., Thomas, A. H., Hsu, Y. S. & Hilar, M. 2008. Evaluation of innovative sprayed-concrete-lined
tunnelling. Proc Inst. Civ. Engrs Geotech. Engng 161, 137-149

Jones, B. D. 2012. Waterproofing sprayed concrete tunnels. Tunnelling Journal, 2012, June/July, Page: 35 -36
Kusterle, W. A. 1997. New ecologically desirable sprayed concrete. Proc. Tunnelling 97. pp 263 -274, London:
The Institution of Mining & Metallurgy.
Thomas, A.H. 2008. Sprayed Concrete Lined Tunnels. 264pp. Abingdon: Taylor and Francis Publishing.

Thooft, H. 2013. Reinforcing the future. Concrete, 2013, February, Page : 44-45

Van der Berg, J.P., Clayton, C.R.I. and Powell, D.B. 2003. Displacements ahead of an advancing NATM tunnel in
the London clay. Gotechnique, 53, (9), 767-784.

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