Compiled by :

S. Agarwal, Lecturer & Systems Incharge

St. Xaviers Computer Centre,
St. Xaviers College
Kolkata.
March-2003
 BASIC STRUCTURE
The computer receives input, processes it and
delivers output.
To perform these tasks it has different units and
each unit is responsible for a specific task.
The units are INPUT, MEMORY, CONTROL
UNIT (CU), ARITHMETIC & LOGIC UNIT
(ALU) AND OUTPUT.
The CU and ALU together are called CENTRAL
PROCESSING UNIT (CPU).
 INPUT DEVICE
It is used for transferring data from
the users end to the computer.

OUTPUT DEVICE
It is used to transfer processed
information from the computer to
the user in a way required by the
user.
 MEMORY UNIT
It stores instruction and data and provides
them to the various other units as and when
required. It is basically the working memory
of the computer system. This memory unit is
volatile, i.e. it is temporary memory and
nothing can be stored here permanently. The
information is stored in the main memory as
long the computer is switched on or as long
as it is required by the computer.
 CONTROL UNIT
Controls the various operations
within a computer. It basically
manages all the other units and
devices of the computer system. It
does so by transmitting timing and
control signals to the various devices
and units.
ARITHMETIC & LOGIC UNIT
It performs the various arithmetic
and logical operations on the data
stored in memory, as dictated by the
instruction.
There are various basic circuits to
perform these operations.
 SECONDARY STORAGE
It stores the various data, information
and programs permanently for future
retrieval. The information is
organised in such a way to retrieve it
in minimum time whenever required.
The stored information remains as
long the user wants it.
 BUS
These are a set of connecting wires
used for setting interconnection
between the various devices in the
system. Each set of bus has a specific
function to perform like carrying
data, carrying control signals and
addresses.
 BLOCK DIAGRAM
DATA FLOW CONTROL FLOW

SECONDARY
STORAGE

INPUT MEMORY OUTPUT

DEVICE UNIT DEVICE

CONTROL
UNIT

ARITHMETIC
& LOGIC UNIT CPU
KEYBOARD
A keyboard on a computer is almost identical to a keyboard on a
typewriter. Computer keyboards will typically have extra keys,
however. Some of these keys (common examples include Control,
Alt, and Meta) are meant to be used in conjunction with other keys
just like shift on a regular typewriter. Other keys (common examples
include Insert, Delete, Home, End, Help, function keys,etc.) are
meant to be used independently and often perform editing tasks.
Keyboards on different platforms will often look slightly different
and have somewhat different collections of keys. Some keyboards
even have independent shift lock and caps lock keys. Smaller
keyboards with only math-related keys are typically called
"keypads".
 Although the typing portion of the computer
keyboard is identical to a standard typewriter,
computers have several additional keys that
perform different functions.
Pointing Device
A pointing device is any hardware component that allows a user to
input spatial data to a computer. CAD systems and Graphical User
Interfaces (GUI) allow the user to control and provide data to the
computer using physical "gestures" - point, click, and drag -
typically by moving a hand-held mouse across the surface of the
physical desktop and activating switches on the mouse. Movements
of the pointing device are echoed on the screen by movements of
the mouse pointer and other visual changes.
While the most common pointing device by far is the mouse, other
kinds include trackball, touchpad, pointing stick, lightpen, various
kinds of digitizing tablets which use a stylus, and even a special
"data glove" that translates the user's movements to computer
gestures.
MOUSE
A mouse is a small device that a computer user pushes across a desk
surface in order to point to a place on a display screen and to select one
or more actions to take from that position. It is a handheld pointing
device for computers, involving a small object fitted with one or more
buttons and shaped to sit naturally under the hand. The underside of the
mouse houses a device that detects the mouse's motion relative to the
flat surface on which it sits. The mouse's 2D motion is typically
translated into the motion of a cursor on the display.
Common mouse actions include:
clicking the mouse button to select an object or to
place the cursor at a certain point within a document;

double-clicking the mouse button to start a program or

open a folder; and

dragging (holding down) the mouse button and moving

the mouse to highlight a menu command or a selected
bit of text.
Touch pad
A touch pad is a device for pointing (controlling input
positioning) on a computer display screen. It is an
alternative to the mouse. Originally incorporated in laptop
computers, touch pads are also being made for use with
desktop computers. A touch pad works by sensing the
user's finger movement and downward pressure.
Graphics Tablet
A graphics tablet (or digitizing tablet) is a computer peripheral device
that allows for a relatively simple method of inputing hand-drawn
graphics or art into a computer in real time. They typically consist of a
large flat surface for drawing on, and an attached "stylus" for drawing on
the surface, originally as a part of the electronics, but later simply to
provide an accurate but smooth "point".

This device also allows the computer

user to control the mouse cursor by
tracking the stylus pen across the
tablet. To most users, the cordless,
stylus pen is much easier and faster
to use than a mouse and has less
strain on your hand.
TRACKBALL
A trackball is a computer cursor control device used in
many notebook and laptop computers. The trackball is
usually located in front of the keyboard toward the user.
Essentially, the trackball is an upside-down mouse that
rotates in place within a socket. The user rolls the ball to
direct the cursor to the desired place on the screen and can
click one of two buttons (identical to mouse buttons) near
the trackball to select desktop objects or position the cursor
for text entry.
TOUCHSCREEN
A touchscreen is an input device that allows users to operate a PC
by simply touching the display screen. Touch input is suitable for a
wide variety of computing applications. A touchscreen can be used
with most PC systems as easily as other input devices such as
track balls or touch pads. Browse the links below to learn more
about touch input technology and how it can work for you.

Touchscreen systems are

being used in a variety of
applications, including
point-of-sale systems,
public information displays,
industrial control systems,
and more. Follow this link
for additional examples of
how touch technology is
being used today.
Light pen
A lightpen is a device similar to a touch screen,
but is facilitated by use of a special light
sensitive pen instead of the finger. The advantage
of using a pen is more accurate screen input
other that of a touch screen.
JOYSTICK
A lever that moves in all directions
and controls the movement of a
pointer or some other display symbol.
A joystick is similar to a mouse,
except that with a mouse the cursor
stops moving as soon as you stop
moving the mouse. With a joystick,
the pointer continues moving in the
direction the joystick is pointing. To
stop the pointer, you must return the
joystick to its upright position. Most
joysticks include two buttons called
triggers.
Joysticks are used mostly for computer games, but they are also used
occasionally for CAD/CAM systems and other applications.
SCANNER
Scanner is an image acquisition
device connected to the computer,
which captures either an image of
a text document or a picture and
transfers it into bits of
information, which a computer
can understand and manipulate.
Scanning an image is like a copier
copying an image. The major
difference is that the output of
scanning is an electronic file
which can be edited by a software
and stored in a disk.
DIGITAL CAMERA
A digital camera records and stores photographic
images in digital form that can be fed to a computer as
the impressions are recorded or stored in the camera
for later loading into a computer or printer.

The big advantage of digital cameras is that making

photos is both inexpensive and fast because there is no
film processing.
A digital camera stores images digitally rather than
recording them on film. Once a picture has been taken, it
can be downloaded to a computer system, and then
manipulated with a graphics program and printed. Unlike
film photographs, which have an almost infinite resolution,
digital photos are limited by the amount of memory in the
camera, the optical resolution of the digitizing mechanism,
and, finally, by the resolution of the final output device.
Even the best digital cameras connected to the best printers
cannot produce film-quality photos. However, if the final
output device is a laser printer, it doesn't really matter
whether you take a real photo and then scan it, or take a
digital photo. In both cases, the image must eventually be
reduced to the resolution of the printer.
MICR
MICR, an acronym that stands for Magnetic Ink
Character Recognition, is the special set of characters
and symbols that appear at the bottom of checks and
other financial documents. MICR technology was
developed in the mid-1950s to more efficiently process
checks which were increasing in volume and quickly
overwhelming the manual processing system.

Today, many types of financial documents utilize MICR

technology, not only traditional bank deposit slips and
loan payment stubs, but also gift certificates and stock
certificates have adopted this standard. However, checks
still account for the largest volume of MICR documents.
MICR characters are either printed in special inks using offset
printing presses or printed with MICR toners using a laser printer.
The MICR font characters are magnetized and read electronically
by special reader/sorter equipment by financial institutions. The
MICR line contains critical account information and instructions on
how the payment is to be automatically routed and processed.
Processing is done initially at the bank of deposit and progresses
through the Federal Reserve System in the U.S. and/or other
banking systems
OCR
Next to keypunching, Optical Character Recognition is the
oldest data entry technique in existence. Long before the
first key-to-disk system of CRT was used, Optical Character
Readers were entering data in commercial and government
EDP installations.
Data Entry through OCR is faster, more accurate, and
generally more efficient than keystroke data entry. Desktop
OCR scanners can read typewritten data into a computer at
rates up to 2400 words per minute!
Reasons for Using OCR
There are a number of reasons for choosing OCR scanning over
other methods of data entry. Some of the more significant include:
To reduce Data Entry Errors
To Consolidate Data Entry
To Handle Peak Loads
Human Readable
Can Be Used with Many Printing Techniques
Scanning Corrections
Bar Code
Bar code, composed of bars and spaces of varying width,
provides a means of expression for human-readable characters in
a form (bars and spaces) readable by machines.

And in order to read the bar code, there are a wide variety of
readers available, each designed for a specific purpose.

The advantages are that the bar code provides timely, error free
information that can be used to validate receipt, movement or
counting of products. It reduces key entry time, transcribing time
and almost all errors.
Black and white stripes, such as those shown below,
are often seen on packages of snacks, foodstuff, and
sundries stacked on supermarket shelves or
convenience stores - these are known as "Bar Code".
The bar code can also be found on industrial
products, or on delivery request forms for home and
office deliveries - their uses are wide ranging.
OMR
OMR (Optical Mark Reading) is the process to detect the presence
of intended marked responses. A mark or response position as it is
often called, registers significantly less light than the surrounding
paper. In order to be detected by the a mark has to: Be positioned
correctly on the paper Be significantly darker than the surrounding
paper OMR ususally refer to a technique that uses special hardware
equiped with light sensors that capture the reflection or absence of
reflection on paper.
Advantages of OMR readers :
OMR has a better recognition rate because fewer mistakes are made by
machines to read marks than by reading handwritten characters.
Large volumes of data can be collected quickly and easily without the need
for specially trained staff.
The cost of inputting data and the chance of data input errors can be
reduced because it is not necessary to type the details for data entry.

Disadvantages of OMR readers:

Documents for optical mark recognition are complicated to design.
The OMR reader needs to be reprogrammed for each new document
design.
OMR readers are relatively slow.
The person putting marks on the documents must follow the instructions
precisely.
Any folding or dirt on a form may prevent the form from being read correctly.
Input Device Description Usage

Keyboard Data can be entered by pressing the Text input

corresponding keys on the keyboard.

Mouse/ It uses the movement of a small ball Moving the

Trackball to control the pointer and uses pointer, selecting
buttons to perform activities. options and
graphics input
Touch pad It uses the movement of a finger to Moving the
control the pointer and uses buttons pointer, selecting
to perform activities. options and
graphics input
Joystick It uses the movement of a vertical Playing video
stem to control the pointer and uses games
buttons to perform actions.
Input Description Usage
Device

Touch Data can be entered by Information

screen touching the screen. seeking

Digitizer It converts points, lines and Graphics input

curves from a drawing or a
photograph into digital signals.
Graphic It allows a user to input graphic Graphics input
tablet designs into a computer.

Bar code It identifies a bar code by the Reading bar

reader reflected light pattern from the codes
bar code lines.
Input Description Usage
Device

Optical It recognizes characters with Reading retail

character special typefaces. prices, text
reader input

Image It captures images or text into Graphics input

scanner the computer.

Magnetic It reads data stored in the Reading

card reader magnetic strip on a magnetic magnetic cards
card.
Input Device Description Usage

Smart card It reads data stored in the chip on a Reading smart

reader smart card. cards

Speech Data or commands can be inputted Security

recognition to the computer with spoken words. purposes,
device handicapped
people
Digital camera It records images in the form of digital Image input
data.

Digital video It allows a user to input video images Video image input
camera into the computer in digital form.
 Output devices
used to produce information to users
in the form of hardcopies
(printed output) or screen display.
VDU or MONITOR
A monitor, also called the Visual Display Unit (VDU) or a display
screen, is the physical unit where the CRT, or other image-projection
means and other related parts are placed. It is a separate unit
connected to the computer via cables. One distinguishable part of a
monitor, the screen, is a glass surface on which images produced by
the computers video adapter are displayed. The size of a screen is
measured from one corner to the diagonally opposite corner. Common
screen sizes are 14, 17, 19 and 21 inches.

Monitors can be classified by color capability into monochrome (two-

color display), gray-scale (displays different shades of gray), and
colored (many-color display, RGB monitor). Together with the
development on the color capabilities of monitors, are the
improvements on the display modes (sometimes called video or
graphics standards).
The technology behind monitors and
televisions is The cathode-ray tube, or
CRT, A CRT is an sealed glass bottle
with no air inside. It begins with a slim
neck and tapers outward until it forms a
large base. The base is the monitors
screen and is coated on the inside with
a matrix of thousands of tiny phosphor
dots. Phosphors are chemicals which
emit light when excited by a stream of
electrons: different phosphors emit
different coloured light.

Each dot consists of three blobs of

coloured phosphor: one red, one green,
one blue. These groups of three
phosphors make up what is known as a
single pixel
Display modes
Originally, a PC could only display text, and in monochrome only. There are now a variety
of display modes, but display quality still depends on the PCs video card or adapter. For
the full benefit of higher resolution and more colors, the following display modes have been
developed over the years.

CGA : Color Graphics Adapter (CGA) was introduced by IBM in 1981. It was capable of
providing four colors and displaying images at a maximum resolution of 320x200 pixels.

EGA : EGA (Extended Graphics Adapter) was introduced in 1984. It provides up to 16

colors and an improved resolution of 640x350 pixels. EGA made text-reading easier than
CGA, but it is still did not provide enough resolution for sophisticated graphics designs or
desktop publishing.
VGA : Introduced in 1987, Video Graphics Array(VGA) provides a 640x480 resolution at 16
colors, or a 320 X 200 resolution at 256 colors. VGA has become the accepted standard for
the usually less expensive IBM PC-compatibles or clone computers.

SVGA : Super VGA provides greater resolution than VGA. Typically, it can support a
palette of up to 16,000,000 colors. The number of colors that can be displayed at the same
time in a certain computer, however, may be limited by the amount of its video
memory. Most PCs now support the SVGA display. Depending on its size, an SVGA
monitor can provide one of the following resolutions:
800x600 pixels
1024x768 pixels
1280x1024 pixels
1600x1200 pixels

XGA : Extended Graphics Display (XGA) was introduced in 1990. The newer version of
XGA offers a good resolution of 800x600 pixels in 16,000,000 colors (true color) and
1024x768 pixels in 65,536 colors.
Printer
In computers, a printer is a device that accepts text
and graphic output from a computer and transfers
the information to paper, usually to standard size
sheets of paper. Printers are sometimes sold with
computers, but more frequently are purchased
separately. Printers vary in size, speed,
sophistication, and cost. In general, more
expensive printers are used for higher-resolution
color printing.
Personal computer printers can be distinguished as impact or non-impact
printers. Early impact printers worked something like an automatic
typewriter, with a key striking an inked impression on paper for each printed
character. The dot-matrix printer was a popular low-cost personal
computer printer. It's an impact printer that strikes the paper a line at a time.
The best-known non-impact printers are the inkjet printer, of which several
makes of low-cost color printers are an example, and the laser printer. The
inkjet sprays ink from an ink cartridge at very close range to the paper as it
rolls by. The laser printer uses a laser beam reflected from a mirror to
attract ink (called toner) to selected paper areas as a sheet rolls over a
drum.
Dot Matrix printer :
A Dot Matrix printer is an impact
printer that forms characters as a
series of dots. The print head
contains a grid of pins which form
a character. This heads stamps on
to the paper through an inked
ribbon to produce a character (for
example, "H") that is made up of
dots.
The print heads can have from 9 to 24 pins in them. The more
pins the print head has, the better the quality of the printed
output. Printers with 24 pins produce letter quality output. The
quality of the printed output is measured in dpi (dots per inch).
The higher the dpi, the better the quality of the printed output.
Ink-Jet printer :
An inkjet printer is any printer that places
extremely small droplets of ink onto paper to
create an image. If you ever look at a piece of
paper that has come out of an inkjet printer, you
know that:
The dots are extremely small (usually between 50
and 60 microns in diameter), so small that they
are tinier than the diameter of a human hair (70
microns)!
The dots are positioned very precisely, with
resolutions of up to 1440x720 dots per inch (dpi).
The dots can have different colors combined
together to create photo-quality images.
Laser Printer :
A Laser printer uses a laser beam to print. The laser creates an image on a
drum inside the printer. This picks up toner and prints the image on to the
paper like a photocopier does.

The main advantages of laser printers are speed, precision and economy. A
laser can move very quickly, so it can "write" with much greater speed than
an ink jet. And because the laser beam has an unvarying diameter, it can
draw more precisely, without spilling any excess ink.
The four printer qualities of most interest to most users are:
Color: Color is important for users who need to print pages for presentations or maps and
other pages where color is part of the information. Color printers can also be set to print
only in black-and-white. Color printers are more expensive to operate since they use two
ink cartridges (one color and one black ink) that need to be replaced after a certain
number of pages. Users who don't have a specific need for color and who print a lot of
pages will find a black-and-white printer cheaper to operate.
Resolution: Printer resolution (the sharpness of text and images on paper) is usually
measured in dots per inch (dpi). Most inexpensive printers provide sufficient resolution for
most purposes at 600 dpi.
Speed: If you do much printing, the speed of the printer becomes important. Inexpensive
printers print only about 3 to 6 sheets per minute. Color printing is slower. More expensive
printers are much faster.
Memory: Most printers come with a small amount of memory (for example, one megabyte)
that can be expanded by the user. Having more than the minimum amount of memory is
helpful and faster when printing out pages with large images or tables with lines around
them (which the printer treats as a large image). Large volume of information are printed
with the help of a print spooler which uses the printer memory efficiently to complete the
print job.
 Plotter
A plotter is a printer that interprets commands from
a computer to make line drawings on paper with
one or more automated pens. Unlike a regular
printer, the plotter can draw continuous point-to-
point lines directly from vector graphics files or
commands. There are a number of different types
of plotters: a drum plotter draws on paper wrapped
around a drum which turns to produce one
direction of the plot, while the pens move to
provide the other direction; a flatbed plotter draws
on paper placed on a flat surface; and an
electrostatic plotter draws on negatively charged
paper with positively charged toner.
Comparisons between different output devices:
Output Device Description Usage

Visual display unit It displays images on screen. Image output

Dot-matrix printer It is a noisy, low speed and quality Printing multiple hardcopies in
printer. one strike

Inkjet printer It is a quiet, quite high speed and Printing documents, graphics
quality printer.

Laser printer It is quiet, high speed and best Printing high quality documents
quality printer. and graphics

Plotter It produces high quality line Producing maps, charts,

drawings. building plans and circuit
diagrams.
Sound/speech It converts information into speech. Automatic telephone answering
synthesizing systems, voice dictionaries
devices
 MAIN MEMORY
&
BACKING STORE
(STORAGE DEVICES)
 MEMORY
A computer requires a memory to store and
retrieve instructions and data. There are a
variety of storage devices including
semiconductor memories and magnetic
memories. Generally, the term memory
refers to only the small integrated circuits
called chips, which are used as a computer's
internal memory.
Volatile or nonvolatile memory
A memory in which the data stored is lost when
the power is turned off is volatile memory. A
volatile memory is a nonpermanent memory.
RAM is a volatile memory while ROM is a
nonvolatile memory the stored data are
retained even when power is removed. RAM
holds your information while you are working on
it, but when the computer power is removed,
RAM loses all of the information it contained.
How is data stored in a memory chip?
A memory chip is made up of a large number of memory
locations called cells. Each memory cell can store one bit
of data either a 1 or 0. Each memory location has a
unique address. Data is stored in a memory by a process
called write and retrieved from the memory by a process
called read. The process write replaces the previously
stored data at an address by new data. The read process
takes a copy of data and leaves the stored data intact.
Memory Capacity : The amount of information a computer can
store in memory. Bytes are used to measure both computer
memory (RAM) and the storage capacity of floppy disks, CD-
ROM drives, and hard drives.

BYTE : One character. A character can be a number, letter or

symbol. Note: A byte consists of 8 bits. KILOBYTE (K)
Approximately one thousand characters, or one page of double
spaced text. MEGABYTE (MB) Approximately one million
characters, or one novel. GIGABYTE (GB) Approximately one
billion characters, or one thousand novels.
MORE MEMORY UNITS :
1024 bytes = 1 Kilo Byte (KB)
1024 KB = 1 Mega Byte (MB)
1024 MB = 1 Giga Byte (GB)
1024 GB = 1 Tera Byte (TB)
1024 TB = 1 Peta Byte (PB)
1024 PB = 1 Exa Byte (EB)
1024 EB = 1 Zeta Byte (ZB)
1024 ZB = 1 Yota Byte (YB)
Primary memory
The main internal memory of a computer system is called
the primary memory. This memory is accessed directly by
a computer's central processing unit (CPU). The primary
memory is made of mainly semiconductor memories in
form of chips.

There are two types of memories: random access memory

(RAM) and read only memory (ROM). RAM has both
read and write capabilities, while ROM can only be read
and there is no write operation. Computers main RAM
and ROM are located on it's motherboard, besides some
cards may have their own RAM and ROM.
Secondary memory
A memory that is not to be directly accessed by
CPU is known as secondary memory or auxiliary
memory. The information or data from these
memories is first transferred to RAM (main
memory) and then can be accessed by CPU. A few
examples of secondary memory are hard disk,
magnetic tape, floppy disk, and CD-ROM.
Cache memory
A cache memory is increasingly being used in computers. It
is a small but fast memory that is logically positioned
between CPU's own internal memory (registers) and the
primary or main memory. The cache memory stores or
catches some of the contents of main memory. These are
the contents currently being used by the processor. A cache
memory plays a big role in the speed and performance of a
processor chiefly because it is much nearer to the CPU than
the RAM. Cache memory stores anticipated instructions so
that the processor can quickly and easily access them,
instead of constantly returning to RAM. This makes the
processors job easier and helps it to perform more quickly.
RAM
The RAM is a random access memory that has both
read and write capabilities. This memory comes in the
form of memory chips.
There are two types of RAMs: Dyanmic RAM (DRAM) and
Static RAM (SRAM). The two common RAM chip modules are
single-in-line memory modules (SIMMs) and dual-in-line
memory modules (DIMMs).

Most often when we talk about memory in a computer system, it

is about RAM. It is the memory where a computer temporarily
holds information currently being used so the data can move
quickly between the central processing unit or CPU and the
operating system. Essentially, RAM is where the CPU, the
computers main processing chip, does its "thinking."
RAM is the vital workspace of computing; the more RAM a
system contains, the more information it can handle and the more
programs it can run at one time. It is the arrangement of information
in RAM that determines how much data your PC can handle. The
programs you use determine how much RAM you need. Graphical
programs, for example, handle a lot of information and require much
more RAM than word processors or spreadsheets.

RAM is a volatile memory or nonpermanent memory. Though

RAM holds your information while you are working on it, but when
the computer power is removed, RAM loses all of the information it
contained. That means a blink in the power can erase hours of work
if you have not been continually saving your work to permanent
storage on a hard drive or diskette.
 ROM
The ROM is a read only memory. It is a type of memory that only
can be read. There is no write operation.

A ROM is a nonvolatile memory. The stored data are retained even

when power is removed. In ROM data is permanently or semi-
permanently stored.

In a ROM in which data are permanently stored, the specified data

are either manufactured into the device or programmed into the
device by user and can not be altered.

In a ROM in which the data are semi-permanently stored, the data

can be altered by special methods.
Based on this, we have two types of ROMs the mask ROM and
the PROM.
ROM contains many of the basic instructions in BIOS (Basic
Input/Output System). The CPU communicates with diskettes,
hard drive, keyboard and other components through the BIOS
contained in ROM chips. The BIOS is always stored in ROM. The
ROM and BIOS are so interconnected that you will frequently
hear the terms ROM BIOS and BIOS ROM.
Without the BIOS instructions, a computer will not even know
how to read important files such as the Config.sys and
Autoexec.bat files that are integral parts of starting up DOS. The
BIOS must be set up and told exactly what kind and number of
disks, ports, etc., exist in order to successfully intermediate
between these parts and the CPU.

The BIOS traditionally was built into the ROM chip during the
manufacturing process. Later technology let ROM be
programmed after the manufacturing processbut only once.
Now an increasing number of computers have ROM that can be
erased and reprogrammed and a user can customize the BIOS
instructions to suit his needs.
RAM and cache work together to match CPU speed, thereby ensuring the
efficiency of your computer. The amount of RAM in a system is in direct
relationship to the speed at which an application will run. Generally, having more
RAM means accessing the hard drive less frequently resulting in smoother, faster,
more efficient performance.
PROM : The PROM or the programmable ROM is the type
in which data are electrically stored by the user with the aid
of specialized equipment. Some PROM can be written to only
one time.

EPROM : One of the most popular kinds of PROM is

erasable PROM (EPROM, pronounced "e-prom"), which can
be erased and reprogrammed when removed from the
motherboard and exposed to ultraviolet light. EPROMs have
a clear window covered with a label of some kind. Lifting the
label exposes the semiconductor chip and lets it be
reprogrammed. The correct dosage of ultraviolet light quickly
erases the chips and manufacturers change EPROMs with a
special hardware device called a PROM blaster.
Electrically erasable PROM (EEPROM) can be erased and
reprogrammed with an electrical process in which a higher-
than-normal voltage is applied to the chip. EEPROM is more
expensive than EPROM, it is less popular and is rarely used on
the motherboard of a PC.

New computers store BIOS on flash ROM, which like EEPROM,

can be electrically rewritten. It is cheaper than EPROM and
easier to reprogram. Updating the BIOS instructions in a flash
ROM is a much easier than other type of PROMs.
Comparisons between RAM and ROM:

RAM ROM

The stored data vanish The stored data are retained

immediately when the computer when the computer is turned off
is turned off (volatile). (non-volatile).
Data can be read from or Data can only be read form the
written on the RAM ROM

User programs and working Systems programs and data are

data are temporarily stored stored permanently by the
manufacturer.
MEMORY MANAGEMENT
It is a collection of techniques for providing sufficient
memory to one or more processes in a computer system,
especially when the system does not have enough
memory to satisfy all processes' requirements
simultaneously. Techniques include swapping, paging
and virtual memory. Memory management is usually
performed mostly by a hardware memory management
unit.
Real and Virtual Memory
Real memory refers to the actual memory chips that are
installed in the computer. All programs actually run in
this physical memory. However, it is often useful to
allow the computer to think that it has memory that isn't
actually there, in order to permit the use of programs that
are larger than will physically fit in memory, or to allow
multitasking (multiple programs running at once). This
concept is called virtual memory.
Working of Virtual Memory
The way virtual memory works is relatively simple. Let's
suppose the operating system needs 80 MB of memory to
hold all the programs that are running, but there are only 32
MB of RAM chips installed in the computer. The operating
system sets up 80 MB of virtual memory and employs a
virtual memory manager, a program designed to control
virtual memory, to manage the 80 MB. The virtual memory
manager sets up a file on the hard disk that is 48 MB in size
(80 minus 32). The operating system then proceeds to use
80 MB worth of memory addresses. To the operating
system, it appears as if 80 MB of memory exists. It lets the
virtual memory manager worry about how to handle the
fact that we only have 32 MB of real memory.
Why virtual memory?
Virtual memory was a very important invention in
computing, as it allows multitasking as we
know it today. Without virtual memory, you
couldn't run a spreadsheet, word processor and
database program at the same time unless you had
enough memory to hold all of them at once, because
you would constantly be running out of memory and
having to shut down program "A" in order to open
program "B". Most PCs, when running multitasking
operating systems like Windows 95, are using virtual
memory.
SWAPPING
This is process to move a program from fast-access memory
to a slow-access memory ("swap out"), or vice versa ("swap
in"). The term often refers specifically to the use of a hard
disk (or a swap file) as virtual memory or "swap space".

When a program is to be executed, possibly as determined by

a scheduler, it is swapped into core for processing; when it
can no longer continue executing for some reason, or the
scheduler decides its time slice has expired, it is swapped out
again.

This contrasts with "paging" systems in which only parts of a

program's memory is transferred.
PAGING
It is a technique for increasing the memory space available
by moving infrequently-used parts of a program's working
memory from RAM to a secondary storage medium,
usually disk. The unit of transfer is called a page.

Paging allows the total memory requirements of all

running tasks (possibly just one) to exceed the amount of
physical memory, whereas swapping simply allows
multiple processes to run concurrently, so long as each
process on its own fits within physical memory.
The paging process :
A memory management unit (MMU) monitors accesses to memory
and splits each address into a page number (the most significant
bits) and an offset within that page (the lower bits). It then looks
up the page number in its page table. The page may be marked as
paged in or paged out. If it is paged in then the memory access can
proceed after translating the virtual address to a physical address.
If the requested page is paged out then space must be made for it
by paging out some other page, i.e. copying it to disk. The
requested page is then located on the area of the disk allocated for
"swap space" and is read back into RAM. The page table is
updated to indicate that the page is paged in and its physical
address recorded.

The MMU also records whether a page has been modified since it
was last paged in. If it has not been modified then there is no need
to copy it back to disk and the space can be reused immediately.
Backing store or Storage Device
It is a secondary storage with large capacity used to
store programs and data permanently for future use.

Four common types of storage media are

Floppy disk
Hard disk
Compact disc
Tape
Floppy Disk : A floppy disk is a thin, circular, flexible
plastic disk with a magnetic coating enclosed in a square-
shaped plastic shell. A floppy disk is also called a
diskette.
The most widely used floppy disk today is 3.5 inches wide.
Before anything can be written on a new floppy disk, it must
be formatted.
Today, most floppy disk are high-density floppy disk.
Floppy disks usually spin at about 350 revolutions per
minute.
The average access time for current floppy disk drives to
locate an item on the disk is 84 milliseconds, or
approximately 1/12 second.
To care for a floppy disk, it should not be exposed to heat,
cold, magnetic fields, and contaminants such as dust, smoke,
or salt air.
Advantages of floppy disks :
Floppy disk is portable and inexpensive.
Data on a floppy disk can be accessed randomly.
Data on a floppy disk can be write-protected from being changed
accidentally.
Floppy disk can be used to transfer data from one computer to another.

Disadvantages of floppy disks :

Floppy disk is not durable (due to dust and dirt) and can be destroyed by
magnetic field.
Access time of floppy disk is slow (about 84 ms).
Storage capacity of floppy disk is limited (only 1.44 MB).
Hard Disk : A hard disk usually consists of several inflexible,
circular disks, called platters, on which items are stored
electronically.
The hard disk in most desktop and laptop computers is housed inside the
system unit, and is considered fixed disks because being not portable.
Hard disks are sealed tightly to keep out of contaminants (e.g., dust and
smoke particles), which may result in head crash.
Hard disks undergo two formatting steps: a low-level format and a high-
level format.
Some computers are able to improve the hard disk access time by using
disk caching.
The flow of data, instructions, and information to and from a hard disk is
managed by a special purpose chip and its associated electronic circuits
called the hard disk controller (HDC).
Some manufacturers develop a type of hard disk system, called RAID,
which connects several smaller disks into a single unit that acts like a
single large hard disk.
Working of a hard disk :
Hard drives are magnetic storage devices that contain
several discs inside called "Platters" that are attached to
a spindle motor. The number of platters varies
depending on the capacity of the drive. Platters are
coated with a film of magnetically sensitive substance
that is primarily made of iron oxide.
Another important ingredient is a thin layer of cobalt
alloy.
The read/write heads are responsible for reading and
writing to the platters and are attached to the head
actuator which is in charge of moving the heads around
the platters.
Theres a read/write head for each side of each
platter, mounted on arms which can move them
towards the central spindle or towards the edge.
The arms are moved by the head actuator,
which contains a voice-coil - an electromagnetic
coil that can move a magnet very rapidly.
Loudspeaker cones are vibrated using a similar
mechanism.

The heads are designed to touch the platters

when the disk stops spinning - that is, when the
drive is powered off. During the spin-down
period, the airflow diminishes until it stops
completely, when the head lands gently on the
platter surface - to a dedicated spot called the
landing zone (LZ). The LZ is dedicated to
providing a parking spot for the read/write
heads, and never contains data.
Advantages of hard disks over floppy disk :
Hard disks provide far larger storage capacities and much faster
access times than floppy disks.
Hard disk is cheaper than floppy disk per Megabyte.
Hard disk is usually more reliable than floppy disk (a better
protection against dust and dirt).

Disadvantages of hard disk when compared with floppy disk :

Hard disk is not portable (except removable hard disk, which is
usually more expensive).
Data becomes less secure if left on the hard disk.
Head crash may occur due to extreme shock or contaminants.
Compact Disk : A compact disc (CD) is a flat, round, portable,
storage medium that is usually 4.75 inches in diameter and less than one-
twentieth of an inch thick.
Compact discs store items by using microscopic pits and land that are in
the middle layer of the disc.
A compact disc stores items in a single track, which is also divided into
evenly sized sectors, that spirals from the center of the disc to the edge of
the disc.
The drive designation of a compact disc drive usually follows
alphabetically after that of the hard disk (i.e., if the hard disk is drive C,
then the compact disc is drive D).
Variations of compact discs designed for use with computers are CD-
ROM, CD-R, CD-RW, DVD-ROM, DVD-RAM, DVD-R, DVD+RW,
PhotoCD
CD-ROM (Compact Disc Read-Only Memory) is a compact disc that uses
the same laser technology as audio CDs for recording music. A CD-ROM,
however, can contain text, graphics, video, and sound. The contents of
standard CD-ROMs are written, or recorded, by the manufacturer, and
cannot be modified by the user. A CD-ROM drive or CD-ROM player is
required to read items on a CD-ROM. A CD-ROM can hold up to 650 MB of
data, instructions, and information.

CD-R (Compact Disc-Recordable) is a technology that allows a user to

write on a compact disc using his or her own computer. CD-R is a write
once, read many technology. A user can write on the disc in stages, writing
on part of it one time and writing on another part at a later time. However,
the user can write on each part only once and cannot erase it. CD-R
software and a CD-R drive are required in order to write on a CD-R.
 A CD-RW (Compact Disc-Rewritable) is an erasable compact disc that
can be written on multiple times. CD-RW acts like a floppy disk or hard
disk, allowing data, instructions, and information be written and rewritten
onto it multiple times. CD-RW software and a CD-RW drive are required
in order to write and rewrite on a CD-RW. One problem with CD-RW is
that they cannot be read by all CD-ROM drives.
A DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disc-ROM) is an extremely high capacity
compact disc capable of storing from 4.7 GB to 17 GB. A DVD-ROM drive
or DVD player is required to read a DVD-ROM.

DVD+RW is the recordable and rewritable versions of DVD-ROM, which

can be written and read (play) for many times. DVD+RW is similar to a
CD-RW, except it has storage capacities up to 4.7 GB.

PhotoCD is a type of CD that contains digital photographic images saved

in the PhotoCD format developed Eastman Kodak.
Advantages of compact disc over hard disk include
A compact disc is more portable than a hard disk.

Advantages of compact disc over floppy disk include

The storage capacity of a compact disc is very much larger than
that of a floppy disk.
The average access time of a compact disc is faster than that of
a floppy disk.

Disadvantages of compact disc include

Some kinds of compact discs are read only (CD-ROM and DVD-
ROM).
The average access time of a compact disc is slower than that of
a hard disk.
Magnetic tape
Magnetic Tape is a magnetically coated ribbon of plastic capable of
storing large amounts of data and information at a low cost.
It is one of the first storage media used with mainframe computers.
Tape storage requires sequential access, which refers to reading or
writing data consecutively.
Floppy disks, hard disks, and compact discs all use direct access, or
random access, which means that a particular data item or file can be
located immediately, without having to move consecutively through items
stored in front of it.
Tapes are used most often for long-term storage and backup.
Advantages of magnetic tapes include
Magnetic tape is light and portable.
The storage capacity of a magnetic tape is very much larger
than a floppy disk or a compact disc.

Disadvantages of magnetic tapes include

Magnetic tape can be sequentially accessed only.
Tape has a limited shelf life of about 2 years for reliable results.
Comparisons among floppy disks, hard disks, magnetic tapes
and optical disks:
Secondary Cost Capacity Access Access Use
Storage Mode Speed

Floppy Lowest Lowest Direct Slow Usually store data

disk access files

Hard disk Highest Very high Direct Fastest Store program

access and data

Magnetic High High Sequential Slowest Backup programs

tape access and data

Optical Low Higher Direct Fast Store reference

disk access materials and
programs