C3254426

AC3.1

Chapters

Introduction

History of Nanotechnology

Applications of Nanotechnology

Current Uses of Nanotechnology in Architecture

The Future of Nanotechnology in Architecture

Bibliography

Illustrations

Further Sources
Introduction

I want to build a billion tiny factories, models of each other, which are manufacturing simultaneously.
. . The principles of physics, as far as I can see, do not speak against the possibility of manoeuvring
things atom by atom. It is not an attempt to violate any laws; it is something, in principle, that can be
done; but in practice, it has not been done because we are too big. Richard Feynman, Nobel Prize
winner in physics (Feynman, 1959).

The intention of this critical essay is to evaluate the evolution of nanotechnology and how this has
affected the development of building and faade construction.

I aim to examine how nanotechnology has developed throughout different applications, the
development and current uses of nanotechnology throughout architecture and the future
predictions of the application of nanotechnology in building and faade construction.

The world is forever changing - climate change, natural disasters and human intervention. The
human nature to survive, expand and rule affects us in ways in which we interact with life and our
lives. Our technology must evolve with us to support our thirst to conquer.

Nanotechnology is the engineering of matter at an atomic scale. It has been accepted into all aspects
of life which has resulted in human kind sculpting its own world from nano-foods to nano-materials.
The development of nanotechnology in architecture has allowed for more efficient living, using
materials that are designed for specific tasks for which they are needed. I aim to critically assess the
effect nanotechnology has had and will have on architecture.

Our imagination is stretched to the utmost, not, as in fiction, to imagine things which are not really
there, but just to comprehend those things which are there. - Richard Feynman

Fig1. Scale Down to a Nanometer

History of Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology has developed throughout many aspects of human life over the last five decades.
Initiated by the American physicist Richard Feynman in 1959, whose lectures included exploration of
theories of construction at the atomic and molecular scale. This deeper exploration explained
the interactions between electrons and their antimatter counterparts, positrons. Feynman
expressed his observations using Feynman diagrams, a pictorial representation showing the
behaviour of subatomic particles.

Fig2. Example of a Feynman Diagram

However, it wasnt until 1981 that experimental nanotechnology began. IBM scientists in Zurich
developed the first scanning tunnelling microscope (STM) which enabled them to see individual
atoms by scanning a minute probe over the surface of a silicon crystal. In 1985 the scientists
discovered how to create the buckminsterfullerene (also known as the C60), a perfectly spherical
shaped molecule consisting of sixty carbon atoms. This structure was named after Buckminster
Fuller, the American systems theorist, inventor and futurist.
 Fig3. The Buckminsterfullerene

Fig4. Biosphere for the 1967 World Expedition. A geodesic dome designed by Buckminster Fuller.

During initial years, nanotechnology was kept within the sciences. Though many experiments were
carried out, and the possibilities of applying nanotechnology explored, very little was actually
applied. Few industries of the time had adopted the use of nanotechnology and applied it to their
specific fields in order to become more advanced. However all this was about to change.

In 1992 the U.S. Senate Committee on Commerce, Science, and Transportation's Subcommittee on
Science, Technology, and Space held a hearing on the topic of "New Technologies for a Sustainable
World." Nanotechnology was heavily discussed, influenced by Feynmans proven theories. It was
believed that it may become the basis for sustainable development. This would enable an increase in
the material standard of living while decreasing consumption of resources and reducing the impact
upon the environment. Molecular nanotechnology was further believed to have broad applications.
It provided a general-purpose method for processing materials, molecule by molecule. By its nature,
the committee concluded, it would be highly efficient in both materials and energy use.

This was followed by Dr. Gibbons, the Director of the White House Office of Science and Technology
Policy, whom in 1994 addressed the National Conference on Manufacturing Needs of US Industry.

At this point Nanoscience has become an engineering practice. Dr Gibbons Statement 1994
(Gibbons, 1994).

The Statement continued that in accordance to the theoretical and experimental advances in
nanoscience and nanotechnology, precise atomic and molecular control in the synthesis of solid state
three-dimensional nano-structures is now possible (Gibbons, 1994).

Dr Gibbons declared the next step would be the emergence of nanotechnology, established by the
ability to manipulate individual atoms and molecules during the manufacturing process which would
be initiated by the manufacture of a wide variety of products. From this point on nanotechnology
became accepted as an essential route mankind must invest time and resources into to understand,
develop and harness. Industries have taken nanotechnology into consideration to strive to new
levels of product development. Areas of expertise ranging from the military striving for advances in
surveillance systems, precision-guided munitions and information technology to medicine. Nadrian
C. Seeman discovered a way, through nanotechnology, of attaching strands of DNA to one another in
order to manipulate and construct complex devices on a nanoscale. The application of
nanotechnology flourished allowing industries to work to smaller scales reaping the rewards of the
Nanotechnological age.

Fig5. K Eric Drexler's vision of a nanorobot outlined in his 1986 book Engines of creation.
Applications of Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology has been used to improve many aspects of human life and has heavily influenced
many areas of expertise. In medicine, nanotechnology combined with biology has allowed for the
development of contrast agents, which is a nanomaterial used for cell imaging and in the treatment
for cancer.

However one of the greatest developments through the application of nanotechnology is the
evolution of tissue engineering. Using nanotechnology we can reproduce and repair damaged tissue
because using suitable nanomaterials to artificially stimulate cell growth. In a presentation by
surgeon Anthony Atala, director of the Wake Forest Institution of Regenerative Medicine, he
explains the extent to which mankind has used nanotechnology in his area of expertise. In 2011 at
the Technology, Entertainment and Design Talks, he demonstrated how a 3D printer that uses that
living cells is able to print a synthetic kidney that can be used in transplants, thus solving the current
global organ shortage. He also introduced a patient who received an engineered bladder ten years
ago proving the technology works. In terms of architecture this is similar to a reprap machine. This
is a 3D printer that uses plastics to reproduce models. This machine can be adapted to print with
other materials which have been adapted by nanotechnology to print actual facades or structural
components. If the machine was big enough it would it not be able to print a building as long as
there werent too many layers of different materials.

Fig6 . Photograph of the most advances 3D printer printing a lung for transplant.
Nanotechnology has also been applied to chemistry and enabled the development of nanomaterials
as well as assembly at a nanoscale. This has allowed molecules to be manufactured at a primary
level. This has resulted in particles being specifically designed to fulfil tasks required. This includes
chemical catalysts, catalytic convertors and photo catalytic devices. Nanochemistry has allowed for
advances in the development of waste water treatment, air purification and energy storage devices.
With the use of tools at a nanoscale new improved methods can be introduced, such as
ultrafiltration which filters between 10 and 100 nanometres. This can further be used in medical
renal dialysis and nanoporous membranes which filter below 10 nanometres and are mainly used to
remove ions or the separation certain fluids. This kind of advance in making water, as well as other
liquids, purer and cleaner could change the way in which buildings are serviced. This would make the
filtration of rain water or water from a local source much easier and quicker. Insert an ultrafiltration
membrane into a drainpipe or downspout and the water flowing out of the bottom would be
purified.

Fig7. Showing an ultrafiltration tube.

The ways in which mankind receives information and communication has also changed dramatically
with the application of nanotechnology. High-tech production processors such as those in
computers, novel semiconductor and optoelectronic devices have become both faster and smaller.
Carbon nanotubes are extremely efficient to the extent that technology in field fission display
screens may in the future take over the LCD screen as current prototypes already use half the power
of the LCD screen. However, this is not fully developed yet and so Sony has not put it on the
commercial market. It will be the next generation of flat screen; thinner, more power efficient and
better colour quality than previous models.
There is also Nanologic, which is the improvement of electronic devices at a nanoscale. This has led
to improvement in performance in a range of aspects of electronic devices. These involve virtually
everything from signal processing to better simulation and modelling capabilities. All these advances
improve architecture as well. As the performance of devices such, as monitors and processors,
rapidly improve, the programs that architects also use improve. 3D modelling capabilities become
more advanced so designs become more elaborate. Programs can consider more aspects such as
weather changes, material strengths, life of materials and how it may age. The devices are then able
to then send these instructions to machinery which will make improved high-tech components
design.

Advances in consumer goods due to the application of nanotechnology have been seen by the
general public such as the genetically modified foods as well as the processing and packaging of
produce. House hold products have been impacted in terms of easy to clean surfaces on ceramics
and glass as well as the application of nanomaterials to improve smoothness and heat resistance of
household equipment for example the flat iron used in hair straighteners. Due to nanotechnology
sunglasses now have protective and anti-reflective coatings to prevent scratching and enhance
vision, this scratch resistant coating is also a fundamental part of laser surgery. Nanotechnology has
also been used in textiles to make them water, stain or wrinkle replant, allowed for cleaning at lower
temperatures and been applies to cosmetics such as longer lasting UV protection sun screens. In
terms of building and faade construction these applications can be reconfigures to allow for
smoother surfaces that can be maintaining for efficiently, surfaces that adapt to different
temperatures and surfaces that can be withstand harsher environments. A nanoprotective skin that
can withstand greater temperature differences and harsher environments could be applied to
traveling equipment such as building and facade materials that are used expeditions in deserts or
the arctic. A faade that can withstand the temperature changes and sand storms of the Sahara
desert could lead to it being much more habitable!

The most important evolution in technology due to the application of nanotechnology is in energy.
Through the application of nanotechnology into energy projects energy consumption has reduced
due to more advanced insulators and more efficient lights; such as LEDs rather than filament lamps.
There has also been an increase in the efficiency of energy production such as the technology in
solar cells which continue to evolve rapidly becoming more efficient, there is also the aims to make
combustion more efficient using nanotechnology to design a catalyst which maximised the surface
area of the combustion reaction which would result in all combustion engines becoming more
efficient, if a car got more power per reaction in the engine then it would need less fuel and using
less fuel would reduce its carbon emissions going back to protecting the plant. This is another way in
which energy consumption has become more evolved due to nanotechnology as it has allowed for
the creation of green energy also known as environmentally friendly energy. One of which is the use
of nanotechnology to create the fuel cells powered by hydrogen which has already been introduced
to the commercial market through car companies such as Audi, Honda and BMW. If this can be done
with a car engine can it not be adapted to power buildings? And the use of LEDs as lighting which
use much less power. For faade design LEDs are a much more effective way to illuminate an
exterior. The worlds largest LED display screen which also uses solar power is situated in Beijing. The
Green Pix Zero Energy Media Wall, designed by New York-based architect Simone Giostra, uses
2,292 colour LEDs, is comparable to a 2.200 m2 monitor but is completely solar powered.

Fig8. Hydrogen Engine.

Fig9. The GreenPix Zero Energy Media Wall.

It can be seen, through the application of nanotechnology, human life has advanced drastically.
Being able to work at a nanoscale in everything from materials and electronics to the human body
has completely restructured the way in which mankind works. We can now work faster and more
precisely because of advances in electronics. We can build higher with lower maintenance costs and
more efficient equipment, have cleaner water and air, have cleaner energy and even grow new
synthetic skin if we injure ourselves. We can even correct vision if we cant see clearly.

A fascinating amelioration, in terms of the possibilities of the uses of nanomaterials in the last
decade, is Graphene. This may have a significant impact upon the future of building and faade
design. Graphene is a flat layer of carbon atoms which are bonded to form a two-dimensional
honeycomb arrangement. The first crystals of Graphene were discovered in 2004 but had been
searched for since 1859. It is the first 2D element ever discovered and so has unique properties.
Graphene is the lightest and strongest material known to man. It is harder than diamond and is
approximately 300 times stronger than steel. Furthermore it is the thinnest material known to man
as its atomic structure is only one atom thick, it is also a practically transparent material and is
perfectly flexible.

Fig10. Computer interpretation of a sheet of Graphene.

Graphene, has resulted in more super materials which are two-dimensional, ie. one atom thick.
These new materials can be engineered on demand to meet the needs of many industries.

One of the most extraordinary advantages of Graphene is its conductive properties. It performs as
effectively as copper in terms of electrical conductivity and out performs all other known materials
in terms of heat conductivity. The future of the application of Graphene into many industries is
almost certain. For example, digital interface display manufactures such as Samsung have already
begun exploring the possibility of applying Graphene. A display screen which is lighter, stronger and
electronically more efficient may become possible. The next mobile may wrap around the users
wrist, unfold when the users takes a call or writes a text message, then unfold further to enable the
user to watch a film or write an essay. It will bring mobile communication and working, to the next
level technologically and it could open from a screen into a touch pad laptop, combining the current
touch screen technology and the new Graphene material. All these devices would be lighter and
stronger than any previous devices. Imagine the development of body armour for the military that
was lighter, more durable, and could stretch up to twenty-five percent greater than its original size
yet remain completely impervious. Other possibilities might include automobiles with safety
mechanisms which completely protect their internal occupants.

Fig11. Programed Graphene sheet.

The majority of this research has come to light over the last three decades. Mankind is becoming
more technologically advanced incredibly quickly and thus vastly improving human life. Will mankind
continue to progress at this rate?
Current Uses of Nanotechnology in Architecture

Nanotechnology has allowed architectural design and building construction to become much
greener. This is due to fabrication, starting at a molecular level and so allowing structures to become
more efficient. Nanoarchitecture involves materials and devices, which have been adapted by the
application of nanotechnology. As a result of this they have become more successful at the tasks
they are intended for. Nanotechnology has been used mainly to improve the sustainability of
buildings. This involves making materials more resistant to the effects of the weather, enabling them
to be self-cleaning and/or making new materials which can create clean power to allow the
structures to function.

Self-Cleaning Glass

Nanotechnology has been applied to glass, creating two types that self-clean;

Firstly, Hydrophobic Glass which mimics the Lotus Effect. On a Lotus leaf there are protrusions to
the scale of 1.0 x 10-5 m. Each protrusion is itself covered in nanoscale ridges of a hydrophobic waxy
substance, this has been mimicked in the structure of the glass using nanotechnology. When water
droplets land on the surface, they sit lightly on the tips of the hydrophobic protrusions. This
structure traps a layer of air between the surface and the water droplet preventing the water from
wetting the surface. This also allows for the droplets to be easily displaced if the surface is at an
angle at which the droplets can travel (greater than fifteen degrees from the horizontal). The
droplets will run off the surface collecting any dirt and so leavening it clean.

Fig12. Diagram showing Hydrophobic surface supporting a water droplet.

An example of this can be seen in Locusan self-cleaning paint which was used in 2006 on the Ara
Paris Museum in Rome. Designed by Richard Meier and Partners with the aim of better optimal use
and low maintenance. The coating has protected the white facade from the heavily polluted city so
that the frequency of cleaning has been significantly reduced.
 Fig13. Ara Paris Museum in Rome

Secondly Hydrophilic glass has a photo-catalytic coating, in the form of titanium dioxide, applied to
its surface. This results in the water sheeting rather than remaining in droplets and so flowing freely
off the surface. The photo-catalytic coating chemically reacts with the ultraviolet rays in sunlight.
This photo-catalytic process oxidizes any organic material on the glass, breaking down dirt and other
organic matter on the surface and so cleaning it. However it works on organics matter, but the
process does not break down inorganic matter such as paint splatter.

Fig14. Diagram showing Hydrophobic surface with a water droplet spreading across it in a thin film.

For faade design this allows for greater and more complex glass structures as cleaning is not an
issue. More significantly, using either type, more elaborate angles can be used because as long as
water can run off the surface, the glass will not become dirty. However dirt is a problem at joins or
at angles where it may collect. Both technologies can be applied to other materials. The
Hydrophobic method has already been applied to fabrics to prevent stains from coffee and red wine.
Further research is being looked into for swimsuits and ships hulls with an intention of reducing the
drag effect water has during motion.

This photo-catalytic coating also has a secondary use in hotter climates. Instead of waiting for rain to
wash the surface, jets of water can allow the surface to have a constant sheet of water flowing
across it. This will evaporate rapidly taking with it ambient heat from the surface of the structure
and so reducing the indoor temperature.

The Narita International Airport in Japan incorporated the photo-catalytic membrane in the
refurbishment of its terminal 1 in 2006. The coating has resulted in a reduction of maintenance and
cleaning cost. It is also believed that having cleaner external surfaces such as the windows has made
internal conditions for passengers more comfortable as they feel as though they are in a cleaner
environment.

Fig15. The roof of Terminal 1 at Narita International Airport

A second example is of the MSV Arena Soccer Stadium in Duisbury Germany which opened in 2004.
The 120 meter wide by 11 meter high glass facade comprised of Pilkington Activ Suncool 53/4
which was used due to its self-cleaning properties as well as its UV protection properties.
 Fig16. MSV Arena Soccer Stadium showing the Pilkington glass faade.

Solar Protection

Solar protection has become possible through the application of nanotechnology as it has allowed
for electrochromic smart windows. These work by having nano layers between the panes of glass
which can change colour when an electrical current passes through them. In the case of windows it
goes from coloured to translucent. The process is an oxidation reaction where the ions in a
compound lose an electron. The ions are in two conductive nano layers. When a voltage is passed
through the layers the voltage forces the ions from the ion storage layer, through the ion conducting
layer where they lose their electron and into the electrochromic layer making the surface opaque.
Once the voltage has been passed through the electrochromic layer it does not need to remain on,
as the electricity is only needed for the initial change. The reaction can be reversed by passing the
voltage through the electrochromic layers again.
 Fig17, 18.Diagrams show the reaction that takes place in electrochromic smart windows.

Another type of solar protecting glass is photochromatic, in this the glass reacts to light exposure.
The surface contains embedded microcrystalline silver halides within the glass substrata which
respond to uv light. When the surface is exposed it reacts with the UV, making the surface darken.
This chemical change is completely reversible so when the surface is not exposed, it lightens again.
Photochromatic solar protection is most commonly used in lenses for glasses where the users lenses
darken in strong sunlight but lighten again when out of direct ultraviolet light eg. indoors. This can
be used by architects for facades which get direct sunlight light at certain times of day. As the sun
moves across the faade the windows darken so as not to blind the occupants, this also reduces
solar gain.

Fig19. Shows how photochromatic lenses change when subjected to UV light.

Self-Cleaning Concrete

Another material which with the application of nanotechnology can be created to be self-cleaning is
concrete. Using a similar theory to that of Hydrophilic glass the concrete is combined at a nanoscale
with titanium oxide (TiO2). This again works as a photo catalyst. However unlike where the glass has
a hydrophilic coating, here the titanium oxide has been chemically bonded to the concrete. The
titanium oxide in this case works as a semi-conductor. The energy in natural light causes the TiO2 to
create a charge, separating the electrons. This disperses on the surface and reacts with external
substances, decomposing organic compounds such as; soot, grime and oil, biological compounds
such as mould, algae and bacteria, pollutants such as volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and
tobacco smoke. Then when it rains the water washes the unwanted matter away and thus keeps the
material clean.

Fig20.Diagram showing how the titanium oxide keeps the concrete clean.

An example of this is the Jubilee Church in Rome which uses the nanotechnology to keep its exterior
walls clean. The majority of industry uses for standard concrete which can be stained by organic
materials, biological materials and pollutants can be efficiently replaced by self-cleaning concrete to
provide a surface with reduced cleaning costs. This allows concrete to be a more widely used faade
material. It had previously been seen by some as a material that shouldnt be used for faades as it
becomes dirty easily. With the new advanced version, concrete will become more acceptable as it
will not accrue dirt so quickly.
 Fig21. The Jubilee Church in Rome

Anti-fogging and Anti-reflective

The anti-fogging coating uses titanium oxide similar to hydrophilic glass. It also results in the
attraction of water and so rather than droplets collecting on the surface they form an ultra-thin film.
This transparent film does not prevent a person seeing clearly and the application can be used on
most transparent materials ranging from a bathroom mirror to skiing goggles. This coating is also
being developed into a spray which can be applied to surfaces which havent had the nanocoating
applied during manufacture. However it is not yet on the market for the general public as the effect
does not last long enough.

The anti-reflective treatment consists of silicon dioxide balls which make up a second skin for the
surface. The nanoscale structure is used as a nano film on top of the glass altering the reflective
index. The amount of reflected light is reduced from eight percent down to one percent thus
reducing the amount of light reflected and so preventing the mirror effect that would normally
occur. This process is used for windows and for glass used in exhibition spaces. It has also been
found to be useful when layered onto solar or PV panels. This makes the panels more efficient as it
reduced the light that reflects off, allowing for more energy to be absorbed and resulting in up to a
fifteen percent performance increase.
 Fig21. Fig22.

Fig22. Shows how the anti-fogging coating acts similar to hydrophilic glass.

Fig23. Shows how the anti-reflective coating works on glass to reduce reflection.

Nanocomposite steel

Nanocomposite steel is created in a similar way to other nanocomposite materials where two or
more materials are combined at a nano level resulting in a mutated compound being created. This is
done to control and develop improved structural properties. MMFX created an improved atomic
structure more like to that of plywood which reduces the brittle effect steel has. This results in the
ductile strength being almost doubled resulting in construction projects being completed with 20 to
50% less steel and up to 60% lower labour costs due to construction time reductions.

Fig24. Shows the structure of the improved plywood like structure of MMFX Steel.
Coatings

The composite coatings also have the advantage of prolonging the life of the materials. This is
achieved greater water resistance, improved anticorrosion properties and greater UV protection.
Nanocomposite materials are composed of a nano-ceramic organic hybrid solution. The solution can
be either aqueous or solvent based depending upon what it would be applied to as it forms a nano
thin protective film over the material. For instance, in the case of steel a strong chemical bond is
created between the nano-ceramic organic hybrid material and the metal surface. This improves the
corrosion resistance significantly. The weather proofing coating makes the steel more hard wearing.
For faade design the overall result will be the steel will last longer and demand less maintenance. If
combined with the nano-composite steel the fixings and any components that connect the structure
to the faade will be stronger. The fittings also will last longer and hold a greater weight, resulting in
fewer fixings being needed and so designers can design more free standing or self-loading
structures.

These materials, which have been enhanced by nanotechnology, are leading building and facade
construction into the future. Materials are being made stronger and more weather resistant. This
results in buildings and their facades becoming more sustainable, more responsive to their
environments and more effective for the purpose for which they are intended.

Graphene

The previous nanotechnological applications to architecture considered improving current materials

and surfaces through the application of nanotechnology. Graphene however is a completely new
material, its properties are unique and so could lead architecture to new heights in terms of
sustainability and design. Faade skins would become stronger but thinner and conduct heat more
effectively in order to heat or cool spaces. Walls could have an electrical nervous system build into
them due to Graphenes electrical conductive properties meaning facades could become digital
displays. Temperature and motion sensors could be incorporated making a structures internal
temperature remain constant and take into consideration heat given off by occupants in a space. As
Graphene is the strongest and lightest material known to mankind, if mankind can limit the flexibility
of it, it could be used as a structural building material. For facades being durable and agile it could be
programed to react to different environmental conditions and will need less maintenance as it is
very difficult to damage. It could possibly perform more functions than any single material that is
currently in use.
Fig25. Shows a flexible touch screen made from Graphene. Compared to other materials this touch
screen would be virtually indestructible.
The Future of Nanotechnology in Architecture

This chapter has been strongly influenced by the modern architectural pioneer John Johansen.
Architects are trained to create using the technology they have available to them. However, looking
at nanotechnology, architects should be able to create using materials which are designed
specifically for their design rather than being constrained by the resources they currently have
available to them.

Fig26. Image of modern architectural pioneer John Johansen.

If scientists can use robots at a nanoscale to manipulate DNA and doctors grow synthetic skin, why
cant architects use the same technology to bring even more exciting designs to life? Architects could
be creating the materials and structures that previously were deemed impossible but are now made
possible. Materials being made stronger and so bear greater loads, thus structures can be designed
to make virtually anything possible. If architects can make materials stronger, clean themselves,
react to light as well as other applications, where will the evolution stop? There are currently
assembly robots at a nanoscale which have been used to develop these advanced nanomaterials.
However when will a self-assembling molecule be developed?

John Johansen mentions the theory of programming growth molecules which once programmed
would grow to become the designed structure or feature rather than it having to be built
mechanically. The resultant architecture would grow in a semi organic manner.
 Fig27. Illustrations by John Johansen showing a structure growing over time.

A building could be constructed (or grow?) from stronger lighter material. This would reduce the
amount of material needed and make construction easier. The services within the building itself,
would be dramatically improves by the additional properties of the new materials. These would
include such things as the speed of electrical systems, the purification of water and the control of
light and heat. In addition, the nature of the faade would reduce running costs due to its self-
cleaning and energy harnessing properties.

Fig28. Could a structure organically grow encompassing new properties as it develops?

Graphene verges on this concept. Though as it doesnt grow, its durability, weight and strength could
allow for stronger, lighter and more self-sustaining designs. Through future development the use of
an electronic nervous system which could be embedded into its skin could lead to the next
generation of building and facade construction. Current predictions see the near future of
architecture evolving and becoming more self-sustaining. With all the global issues more use will
need to be made of renewable fuels and recyclable materials. Future research will concentrate on
buildings creating their own energy.

Predictions also depend on who consulted. For example, Professor Richard Smalley from Rice
University in Texas believes it will take a single nanorobot millions of years to assemble a useable
amount of matter and therefore this technology is only theoretical. Whereas Eric Drexler who wrote
"Engines of Creation" and introduced the term nanotechnology believes using nanorobots to build
more nanorobots and then create matter would considerably speed up this process, and so
considers this technology to be a practical possibility.

As we anticipate the future, with buildings created from nanoarchitecture of phenomenal strength,
lightness, integral structure, seamless continuity of surface, transparency, and in evolving, growing
forms these buildings will reshape the man-made environment. Created from the subatomic level
without the use of natural resources, waste-producing factories or laborious physical labour, these
masterfully-programmed buildings will not outdo the modesty of the natural world. They will exist in
symbiotic harmony with the natural environment, adjusting their forms to the needs of people and the
seasonal changes of light, temperature and humidity. John M. Johansen (Johansen, 2011)

The words of John Johansen are theoretical and currently would be viewed by most as a fictitious
frivolous future in architecture. However the human race is rapidly evolving due to of the application
of and research into nanotechnology. I have discussed in this study many exciting advances that will
make the future a more sustainable and architecturally extraordinary place. It is clear to me that
nanotechnology has a positive impact upon existing architectural technologies and will have a
significant influence upon the very way in which we design buildings and aspire to envisage and
create architecture.
Bibliography

Feynman.R, 1959, Physicist and Nobel Laureate Lecture. Available at:< http://www.innovation-
america.org/dr-feynmans-small-idea> [accessed 20.12.2011]

Gibbons.J, 1994. The National Conference on Manufacturing Needs of US Industry. Available at <
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Johansen.J, 2011 Building That Exist in Symbiotic Harmony with Nature.

<http://www.johnmjohansen.com/Official-Website.html> > [accessed 20.12.2011]

Illustrations

Fig1. Scale Down to a Nanometer - my own image

Fig2. Example of a Feynman Diagram my own image

Fig3. The Buckminsterfullerene - http://inventorspot.com/articles/bucky_balls_32825. accessed

27.12.2012

Fig4. Biosphere for the 1967 World Expedition. A geodesic dome designed by Buckminster Fuller. -
http://www.flickr.com/photos/rene_ehrhardt/2616462127/.accessed 26.12.2012

Fig5. K Eric Drexler's vision of a nanorobot outlined in his 1986 book Engines of creation. -
http://www.rsc.org/chemistryworld/Issues/2008/November/ColumnThecrucible.asp .accessed
29.1.2012

Fig6 . Photograph of the most advances 3D printer printing a lung for transplant. -
http://www.yiggler.com/2011/06/3d-printing-is-transforming-manufacturing-around-the-world/.
accessed 24.1.2012

Fig7. Showing an ultrafiltration tube. http://www.filterwater.com/t-ultrafiltration.aspx. Accessed

24.1.2012

Fig8. Hydrogen Engine - my own image

Fig9. The GreenPix Zero Energy Media Wall. http://www.treehugger.com/interior-design/in-beijing-

worlds-largest-led-display-uses-solar-power.html. Accessed 29.1.2012
Fig10. Computer interpretation of a sheet of Graphene. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-
11476301. Accessed 12.1.2012

Fig11. Programed Graphene sheet.

http://www.techsmart.co.za/gadgets/gizmos/Graphene_the_miracle_material.html. Accessed
12.1.2012

Fig12. Diagram showing Hydrophobic surface supporting a water droplet.- my own image

Fig13. Ara Paris Museum in Rome. http://www.abcroomsinrome.com/wp-

content/uploads/2010/07/ara_pacis_03.jpg. Accessed 7.1.2012

Fig14. Diagram showing Hydrophobic surface with a water droplet spreading across it in a thin film.
my own image.

Fig15. The roof of Terminal 1 at Narita International Airport. http://www.airport-

technology.com/projects/narita-international/narita-international4.html. Accessed 22.1.2012

Fig16. MSV Arena Soccer Stadium showing the Pilkington glass faade.
http://www.pilkington.com/resources/msv_arena_duisburg_1.jpg. Accessed 22.1.2012

Fig17, 18.Diagrams show the reaction that takes place in electrochromic smart windows.
http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/construction/green/smart-window4.htm.
Accessed 23.1.2012

Fig19. Shows how photochromatic lenses change when subjected to UV light.

http://www.policemag.com/Channel/Patrol/Products/Images/Photochromic-Ballistic-
Sunglasses/251.aspx. Accessed 29.1.2012

Fig20.Diagram showing how the titanium oxide keeps the concrete clean.
http://www.concretedecor.net/All_Access/504/CD504_New_Tech.cfm. Accessed 26.1.2012

Fig21. The Jubilee Church in Rome.

http://www.concretedecor.net/All_Access/504/CD504_New_Tech.cfm. Accessed 26.1.2012

Fig22. Shows how the anti-fogging coating acts similar to hydrophilic glass. my own image

Fig23. Shows how the anti-reflective coating works on glass to reduce reflection. my own image

Fig24. Shows the structure of the improved plywood like structure of MMFX Steel.
http://www.mmfx.com/technology.shtml. Accessed 22.1.2012
Fig25. Shows a flexible touch screen made from Graphene. Compared to other materials this touch
screen would be virtually indestructible. http://www.mobileinquirer.com/2011/what-is-graphene-
mobile-phones-of-the-future-report/. Accessed 28.1.2012

Fig26. Image of modern architectural pioneer John Johansen.

http://www.johnmjohansen.com/Official-Website.html. Accessed 20.12.2011

Fig27. Illustrations by John Johansen showing a structure growing over time.

http://www.johnmjohansen.com/Theoretical-Architecture.html. Accessed 20.12.2011

Fig28. Could a structure organically grow encompassing new properties as it develops?

http://www.johnmjohansen.com/Nanoarchitecture.html. Accessed 20.12.2011

Further Sources

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http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn9939

http://www.johnmjohansen.com/Official-Website.html

http://www.corearchitect.co.uk/nano-technology-and-the-architecture-of-the-future/

http://www.corearchitect.co.uk/the-nano-revolution-in-architecture/

http://www.cbparch.com/NanoTech%20Materials%20for%20Green%20Building_CATHRYN%20BAN
G%20PARTNERS.pdf

http://www.nanotechbuzz.com/50226711/nanotechs_for_real_in_the_building_industry.php

http://www.foresight.org/nano/history.html

http://www.nanoscience.com/education/afm.html

http://www.personal.reading.ac.uk/~scsharip/tubes.htm

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KWylxB34iXPkUf4I6J7lVS2Ct2KKvJB8/GREENNANOARCHITECTUREmastrdegree.pdf

http://www.dowcorning.com/content/publishedlit/26-1625-01.pdf

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http://www.alcoa.com/aap/north_america/pdf/ecoclean/EcoClean_Newsletter2.pdf

http://home.howstuffworks.com/home-improvement/construction/green/smart-window4.htm

http://nanoarchitecture.net/

http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/02/100224134327.htm

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http://www.kurzweilai.net/the-drexler-smalley-debate-on-molecular-assembly

http://www.scientistlive.com/European-Science-
News/Nanotechnology/Nanotechnology%3A_Promising_uses_for_graphene/22903/

http://metamodern.com/2010/10/05/the-2010-nobel-prize-for-graphene-nanotechnology/
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graphene-skin/

http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/anthony_atala_printing_a_human_kidney.html

http://www.graphene-flagship.eu/GF/Videos.php

http://inhabitat.com/new-graphene-super-paper-is-10x-stronger-than-steel/