American society has indeed made significant progress, and some scholars hail a

new age of racial equality. However, racial inequality is still prevalent and impactful.
I will argue that racial inequality remains powerful through more subtle mechanisms
of discrimination. These subtle forms of discrimination are evident in economically
and socially.

Economically, non-whites still face significant mechanisms of discrimination,

though these are more subtle. For example, the author of the contexts article on
fair employment illustrates the prevalence of job discrimination. Social audit studies
have sent white and minority job seekers with near identical resumes and skills to
apply for the same jobs. The results of these social audits have found that
employers are less likely to interview minority applicants than white applicants.
Another study through the Urban Institute, demonstrates that whites will advance
farther in the application process than blacks 38% of the time. The results of these
studies illustrate the continuing prevalence of workplace discrimination. Through
the job application process, non-whites are systematically disadvantaged. This
illustrates a subtle, yet significant mechanism of discrimination. Furthermore, the
same trend can be seen in call back rates. On a study of 5000 applicants with
similar resumes, those with white names received call backs 10% of the time,
whereas those with black names only received call backs 6% of the time. Again, this
illustrates a preferential treatment of whites over blacks. Firms hold an inherent bias
in the favor of white applicants in the job market. This bias is extremely nuanced,
but leads to employment disparities. It illustrates that managers will perceive whites
as more desirable applicants. Furthermore, the effects of housing discrimination
possess a profound impact on what Dalton calls equity inequality. For example,
neighborhoods that are predominantly black are viewed as less desirable. Whites
will often engage in white flight, selling their property quickly when blacks enter
into a certain community. Consequently, the value of black property rises slower in
comparison to that of whites. This has contributed to the wealth gap, as housing is a
major source of wealth. Median wealth ratios from Pew Research find that whites
have 13 times more wealth than blacks. This housing bias illustrates a subtle
mechanism of unconscious discrimination. Whites inherently perceive the presence
of blacks as undesirable, and so black property is devalued. This unconscious
perception is again nuanced, but the impact has created significant disparities in
wealth. Finally, Dalton Conley highlights the disadvantages blacks face through
racially segregated social networks. According to Conley, employers often use
networks to higher employees. Because of limited information, firms higher through
informal ties. Roughly 50% of jobs are obtained through these weak ties. However,
firm managers are often white and social networks are racially segregated. Thus,
this mechanism of hiring via social networks again inherently discriminates against
blacks. This is another subtle mechanism of discrimination. Social networks are not
visible in the same sense as Jim Crow laws of the 1960s. Thus, nuanced
mechanisms still exist, perpetuating racial inequalities in the economy.
 These subtle mechanisms of discrimination further manifest themselves
socially. The author of the contexts article on racial profiling illustrates the
continuing issue of racial profiling in law enforcement. Empirical studies done in
Charlotte, NC and New York reveal that blacks are 3 times more likely to be stopped
than whites from police. These are attributed to police patrol patterns, where police
inherently patrol black neighborhoods more frequently. This pattern highlights an
inherent bias in the police department. They perceive these black neighborhoods as
more dangerous, and so plan their patrol routes to show more presence in these
areas, leading to more black arrests. Next, Steinbugler illustrates differences in
racial perception using the story of Ben and Helen, an interracial couple. While
jogging a white police officer gestures at Helen a white women to ask if she is safe,
as she jogs with Ben, a black man. This subtle interaction highlights the prevalence
of negative stereotypes in society. Men of the black race possess an inherently
negative stigma. They are characterized as intimating and violent individuals.
Consequently, society perpetuates this image of blacks as less desirable citizens
through negative stereotyping. Next, empirical studies highlight difference in the
perception of doctor patient interaction. Doctors , for example, perceived black
patients as intelligent 13% of the time and whites 27% of the time. This illustrates
another example of differing treatment in the healthcare realm. Lastly, a Jama
pediatrics study, uncovers that whites were more likely than blacks to receive high
intensity opioids. Again the healthcare system illustrates the mechanism
established that disadvantage blacks in the social realm.

Inequalities still remain real in society. These mechanisms are subtle, but the
impact is great. Interestingly the inequalities may be more difficult to combat, as
they are much more invisible. Economic and social inequality is perpetuated
through very nuanced mechanisms.