ECE 2207: CIVIL ENGG

DRW III
SECOND YEAR

KIMATHI UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

F. Sanewu
May, 2012

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ECE 2207: CIVIL ENGINEERING DRAWING III (2 Units)
COURSE OUTLINE

Detailing of timber structures and connections

Detailing of steel structures and connections
Civil engineering design presentation: roads cross-sections, longitudinal
profiles, kerb details, and road drainage structures.
Water supply and waste water disposal: pipe network profile, fitting
details, connections and intake works.

Course lecturer: S. I. Fundi

Contacts: cell: (+254)721 331 375

Email: fsanewu@gmail.com

Reference

Alan, H., and Frank, W. (2002). Steel Detailers Manual, 2nd Edition.
Blackwell Publishers.
Allan, H. (1983). A handbook of Building structure. The Architectural
Press, London.
McGinley, T. J. and Ang, T. C. (1992). Structural Steelwork: Design to
Limit State Theory. Butterworth-Heinemann ltd
Dangerfield B.J (1983). Water Supply and Sanitation in Developing
Countries. The Institution of Water Engineers and Scientists, London.
Marie-Odile C et al. (2007). Road Drainage: Technical Guide. Republique
Francaise.
Terence and McGhee, J. Water Supply and sewerage.

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Course content

TOPIC SUBTOPIC REFERENCE

Detailing of timber structures
and connections
Detailing of steel structures
Civil engineering design
presentation:
Water Supply and waste water
disposal
Course evaluation
-Introduction
-Connections in timber
structures
-Truss detailing
-Steel connections
-Beams and columns
- Roof trusses
-Road cross-section
-Longitudinal profile
-Kerb details
-Gully pots
-Road drainage structures
-Pipeline profile
-Pipe network details
-Connection and intake works
Silvatec Design. Timber
Frame Standard Details.
McGinley, T. J. and Ang, T.
C. (1992). Structural
Steelwork: Design to Limit
State Theory. Butterworth-
Heinemann ltd
Marie-Odile et al (2007).
Road Drainage: Technical
Guide.
Dangerfield B.J (1983).
Water Supply and Sanitation
in Developing Countries.

Assignment - 20%
CAT - 30%
Exam - 50%

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1.0 Drawings
Engineers drawings
Engineers drawings are defined as the drawings which describe the employers requirements
and main details. Usually they give all leading dimensions of the structure including
alignments, levels, clearances, and member size and show members in assembled form.
Engineers drawings achieve the following purposes:

Basis of engineers cost estimate before tenders are invited

To invite tenders upon which competing contractors base their prices
To give instructions to the contractor during contract execution and indicating any
revisions and variations
Basis of measurement of completed work for making progressive payments to the
contractor.

Drawings are the means by which the requirements of architects and engineers are
communicated to the fabricators and erectors, and must be presented in an acceptable way.
Drawings are needed to show the layout and to describe and specify the requirements of a
building. They show the location, general arrangement and details for fabrication and
erection. They are also used for estimating quantities and cost and for making material lists
for ordering materials. Drawings can be classified as;

Site or location plans: these show the location of the building in relation to other buildings,
site boundaries, streets, roads, etc

General arrangement: this consists of plans, elevations and sections to set out the function of
the building. These show locations and leading dimensions for offices, rooms, work areas etc.
Materials and finishes are also specified in general arrangement drawings.

Marking plans: these are the framing plans for the frame building showing the location and
mark numbers for all structural members in the roof, floor and various elevations.

Foundation plans: these show the setting out for the column bases and the structures
foundation and should be read in conjunction with detail drawings of the foundation.

Detail drawings: these show the details of structural members and give all information
regarding materials, sizes, welding, drilling, etc. for fabrication.

Timber structures
Timber is used as a major structural material in a great variety of building and civil
engineering applications. Lightweight timber frame systems (based on structural timber,
engineered wood products and panels) may be used for single family houses, multi-storey
residential buildings and commercial buildings. Similar elements are used as walls and roofs
in industrial buildings. Timber is often used for roof construction in buildings, even if the rest
of the structure is made from concrete or steel.

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There are many general advantages in using timber for building purposes. It is an
environmentally friendly, easily recyclable material. The energy consumption during
production is very low compared to that of other building materials. Timber has a low weight
in relation to strength, which is advantageous for transport, erection and production.
Furthermore, wood has aesthetic qualities, which give great possibilities in architectural
design.

Sawn timber in structural dimensions is a non-homogeneous material, which contains growth

defects in the form of knots, zones with compression wood or oblique fibre orientation. Such
growth characteristics will usually reduce the strength significantly when the timber is sawn
and used for other purposes.

When timber is to be used for structural purposes, some type of non-destructive evaluation of
strength (or grading) is required to guarantee the safety of the structure. Usually visual
grading or machine grading of each timber element is normally performed following specified
rules. The fact that the load-bearing capacity of timber is governed by the presence and
characteristics of random growth defects means that the strength of timber elements also
depends upon the size of the structural element itself, and the way in which it is loaded.

Timber frame building concept

Timber frame buildings are built up by a skeleton of timber joists and studs, covered with
panels fastened to the wood elements. Wood-based panels, such as plywood, chipboard, with
structural quality, are commonly used in timber buildings.

Timber frame systems can be conceived as composite wall and floor units built up from
timber framing, panel products, insulation, cladding, etc., with good possibilities to adapt the
design to various requirements.

Connections in timber structures

The competitiveness of timber structure, relative to other building materials, may be
determined by the efficiency of the connections. In most cases the fastening of timber to
timber requires little skills however in heavy construction, joints may require ingenuity and
the use of specialized connectors, such as nail-plates, bolts, shear-plates, coach screws or
glued-in threaded rods. The shrinkage and swelling characteristics of timber in response to
drying and wetting, the possibility of fungal decay in the presence of moisture and the need to
protect metallic fasteners from fire or corrosion, call for special construction detailing.

Factors affecting the detailing of connections

Changes in moisture

Changes in the moisture content of the timber will cause the timber to swell and shrink. The
dimensional change in the perpendicular-to-grain direction can be large, especially if the
moisture content variation is large. This must be borne in mind when a horizontal timber
member is connected to a vertical timber or steel member. If the connectors prevent
shrinkage, splitting of the timber may occur.

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Shear strength

The horizontal shear strength of timber is low, typically one tenth of the bending strength.
This can cause problems when there is an eccentricity between the loaded point and the
support. This is aggravated when the loaded point has damaged the supporting member. The
effective shear transfer area is greatly reduced. The high stresses at these supports must be
borne in mind, when designing a truss.

Selection of fasteners
A mechanical fastener is any device, metallic, plastic or timber, which transfers load from one
piece of timber to another piece of timber. The most common types of fasteners are metallic
and include;

Nails Coach-screws
Dowels Toothed ring connectors
Screws Split rings
Bolts Nail plates
Most fasteners transfer forces through bearing on the timber and shear in the connector.
Screws may under certain circumstances be used in withdrawal, although end grain withdraw
is not recommended.

Joint detailing principles

To achieve good joint design and structural detailing, the following general principles should
be observed;

Avoid connections that can trap moisture

Avoid exposing unprotected timber to the weather. If capping is used, ensure that all
the moisture can escape and that the capping is properly ventilated. Capping that leaks
and is not ventilated will hasten the onset of and promote fungal decay
Avoid placing especially the en-grain of timber in direct contact with concrete.
Concrete is hygroscopic and will increase the moisture content on the interface
between the concrete and the timber. If possible leave an air gap between the timber
and the concrete. If the timber cannot be supported away from the concrete, insert a
steel plate between the timber and the concrete.
If moisture can enter at bolt holes, treat the timber in the hole with a preservative that
does not leach out.
Use chemically treated timber where moisture ingress could be a problem
Where possible transfer forces through direct bearing, thereby shortening the load
path.

Beam-to-column connections
Beam to column connections are generally not moment resisting. A few details are given in
the following sketches.

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Figure 1.1: Beam to column detail

Figure 1.2: Beam to steel column detail

Figure 1.3: Beam to column connection where the column is continuous past the beam level

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Standard truss
In general, a truss can resist in-plane forces only, and therefore special care must be taken to
ensure the 3D stability of the roof structure.

Roof Panel connections

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Roof bracing

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2.0 Steelwork Detailing
Use of structural steel
Structural steel has distinct capabilities compared with other construction materials such as
reinforced concrete, pre-stressed concrete, timber and brickwork. In most structures it is used
in combination with other materials, the attributes of each combining to form the whole. In
many projects the steel frame can be fabricated while the site construction of foundations is
being carried out. Steel is also very suitable for phased construction which is a necessity on
complex projects. This will often lead to a shorter construction period and an earlier
completion date. Using modern techniques for corrosion protection, the use of steel provides
structures having a long reliable life, and combined with use of fewer internal columns
achieves flexibility for future occupancies. Eventually when the useful life of the structure is
over, the steelwork may be dismantled and realise a significant residual value not achieved
with alternative materials.

Steel for structural use is normally hot rolled from billets in the form of flat plate or section at
a rolling mill by the steel producer, and then delivered to a steel fabricators workshop where
components for joining them together at site are fabricated. Fabrication involves operations of
sawing, shearing, punching, grinding, bending, drilling and welding to the steel so that it must
be suitable for undergoing these processes without detriment to its required properties.

Structural steel must possess sufficient ductility so as to give warning (by visible deflection)
before collapse conditions are reached in any structure which becomes unintentionally loaded
beyond its design capacity and to allow use of fabrication processes such as cold bending.

Structural shapes
Most structures utilise hot rolled sections in the form of universal beams (UBs), universal
columns (UCs), channels and rolled steel angles (RSAs). Other sections include hollow
sections in the form of circular (CHS), square (SHS) and rectangular (RHS) (Figure 2.1).
Although these sections are efficient as struts or columns, the end connections tend to be
complex especially when bolted. They are often used where clean appearance is vital, such as
steelwork which is exposed to view in public buildings. Wind resistance is also less in open
section thus giving them an advantage in open braced structures such as towers where the
steelwork itself contributes to most of exposed area.

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Figure 2.1: Rolled sections sizes

Connections
Connections are required to connect members in a structure. It is always wise to consider the
connection type to be used at the conceptual design stage.

With appropriate stiffening either an all welded or a high strength friction grip (HSFG) bolted
connection is able to achieve a fully continuous joint. However such connections are costly to
fabricate and erect. Therefore, many economical beam/column structures are built using angle
cleat or welded end plate connections without stiffening and then joined with black bolts.
These are defined as simple connections which transmit shear forces.

At site either welding or bolting is used, but the latter is faster and usually cheaper. Welding is
more difficult on site because assemblies cannot be turned to permit down-hand welding and
erection costs arise for equipment in supporting/ aligning connections, pre-heating/ sheltering
and non-destructive testing (NDT).

Connections to hollow sections are generally more costly and often demand butt welding
rather than fillet welds. Bolted connections in hollow sections require extended end plates or
gussets and sealing plates because internal access is not feasible for bolt tightening whereas
channels or rolled steel angles (RSAs) can be connected by simple lap joints. Figure 2.2
compares typical welded or bolted connections.

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Figure 2.2: Connections in hot rolled and hollow sections

Detailing practice
Drawings of steelwork should be carried out to a uniformity of standard to minimise the
possible source of errors. Certain conventions such as welding symbols which are established
by standards or other design codes should be used wherever possible.

Beam and column detailing

When detailing columns from a floor plan, two main views, A viewed from the bottom and B
from the right of the plan, must always be given. Whenever possible columns should be
detailed vertically on the drawing, but often it will be more efficient to draw horizontally in
which case the base end must be at the right hand side of the drawing with view A at the
bottom and view B at the top. If columns are detailed vertically the base will naturally be at
the bottom with the view A on the left of the drawing and view B at the right. Auxiliary views
are drawn as necessary.

When detailing beams from a floor plan, the beam must always be viewed from the bottom or
right of the plan. If a beam connects to a seating, end connections must be dimensioned from
the bottom flange upwards but if connected by other means (e.g. web cleats, end plates) then
end connections must be dimensioned from top flange downwards. Beam detailing is largely
concerned with showing the length, end joints, welding and drilling required.

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Figure 2.3: Multi-storey frame column details

Figure 2.4: typical beam details

Plate girders detailing

A detail drawing of a plate girder will show the girder dimensions, flange and web plate sizes,
sizes of stiffeners and end plate, their location and the details for drilling and welding.
Generally all information may be shown on an elevation of the girder together with sufficient
sections to show all types of end plates, intermediate and load-bearing stiffeners. Notes are
also added to cover drilling, welding and special fabrication procedures as indicated in Figure
2.5.

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Figure 2.5: Plate girder detailing

Trusses and lattice girders

Where sloping members occur in steel trusses the slope is normally indicated by a small
triangle adjacent to the member to indicate the slope. The sizes of truss members are usually
indicated by notes adjacent to the member. Details of truss connections are enlarged and
included for clarity purposes. Figure 2.6 indicate an example.

Figure 2.6: Steel truss details

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Figure 2.7 indicates a number of frame types. A single bay is indicated but multiple bays are
often used for large buildings for economy when internal columns are permitted.

Figure 2.7: Single-storey frame building

Connections details
The following sketches are typical examples of connection details. Both simple and
continuous connections are shown as applicable to beam/column structures.

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Figure 2.8: Typical beam/column connections

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Figure 2.9: Typical column top and splice detail

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Figure 2.10: Typical bracing details

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Figure 2.11: Typical hollow section connections

Figure 2.12: Typical truss details

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3.0 Civil Engineering Design Presentation
Road cross-section
Definition
Shoulder: the space between the roadway and the ditch.
Ditch: channel that carries away water.
Sub-grade: upper surface of a road.
Base course: middle surface of a road.
Sub-base: lower surface of a road.
The cross section of a road includes some or all of the following elements:
Travelled way (the portion of the roadway provided for the movement of vehicles,
exclusive of shoulders)
Roadway (the portion of a highway, including shoulders, provided for vehicular use)
Median area (the physical or painted separation provided on divided highways
between two adjacent roadways)
Bicycle and pedestrian facilities
Utility and landscape areas
Drainage channels and side slopes
Clear zone width (i.e., the distance from the edge of the travelled way to either a
fixed obstacle or non-traversable slope)

Considered as a single unit, all these cross-section elements define the highway right-of-way.
The right-of-way can be described generally as the publicly owned parcel of land that
encompasses all the various cross-section elements of a road.

In selecting the appropriate cross-section elements and dimensions, designers need to consider
a number of factors, including the following:
Volume and composition (percent trucks, buses, and recreational vehicles) of the
vehicular traffic expected to use the facility
The likelihood that bicyclists and pedestrians will use the route
Climatic conditions (e.g., the need to provide storage space for pillowed snow)
The presence of natural or human-made obstructions adjacent to the roadway (e.g.,
rock cliffs, large trees, wetlands, buildings, power lines)
Type and intensity of development along the section of the highway facility that is
being designed
Safety of the users

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However, the most appropriate design for a highway improvement is the one that balances the
mobility needs of the people using the facility (motorists, pedestrians, or bicyclists) with the
physical constraints of the corridor within which the facility is located.

Road Profile
A profile is a longitudinal-section view of the earth along the centre-line, and it is always
viewed perpendicular to the centre-line. Profile-levelling procedures are used to determine the
ground elevations at each of the station points along the centre-line. These elevations are
recorded in the surveyors notebook, which is used by the draftsman to prepare the profile
drawing. Generally, the profile is drawn on the bottom portion of plan-and-profile paper,
directly below the road plan. A road grade line is also drawn on the lower portion of the plan-
and-profile paper and is represented by a heavy solid line. Like the profile, the grade line is a
longitudinal section taken along the centre line and shows the elevations to which the road is
built. The grade line is normally the centre-line elevations of the finished surface but may be
the centre-line elevations of the sub-grade. If the sub-grade was used, make a special note of
it. The grade lines are a series of straight lines that are connected, where necessary, by curves.

Figure 3.1: Longitudinal section of a road

Figure 3.2: Transverse section of a road

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Road Kerbs
Road kerbs serve a number of purposes:
- retaining the carriageway edge to prevent 'spreading' and loss of structural integrity
- acting as a barrier or demarcation between road traffic and pedestrians or verges
- providing physical 'check' to prevent vehicles leaving the carriageway
- forming a channel along which surface water can be drained
There are different types of road kerbs, including;

Extruded kerbs
This form of kerb edging is normally only found on large road schemes, such as motorways
and dual carriageways. These kerbs are formed from concrete and are common on long
straight highways.

Figure 3.3: extruded kerbs

Natural stone
Natural stone has been used as kerbs however they are expensive. Natural granite is popular
choice, but gabbro, basalt and sandstone have also been used. While the stone kerbs used
nowadays are dressed to a standard profile and finish, they come in random lengths. Older
kerbs may not match a standard profile and consequently repairing or replacing these units
can be a problem for highway authorities.

Pre-cast concrete
Pre-cast concrete units are now the most popular choice for kerbing. Hydraulically-pressed
kerbs are strong, durable, and cheap and can be manufactured to strict tolerances (BS 7263).
There are some special shapes, notably quadrants and some droppers that are manufactured
from vibrated concrete. The basic kerb profiles most common include half-battered, bull-
nosed, splayed and square (Figure 3.4).

Figure 3.4: Kerb profiles

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All kerbs, other than those with a square profile, have what is known as a 'watermark' or a
'waterline'. This is a line on the face above which surfacing (and therefore surface water) is
not normally expected to extend. In many cases, the surfacing level is kept 25 mm or more
below the watermark. The watermark is not a physical mark but generally coincides with a
change in angle of the kerb face (Figure 3.5).

Figure 3.5: Water mark in kerbs

The most commonly used precast road kerbs are the half-battered profile (Figure 3.6). These
provide an element of check sufficient to warn the motorists that they are dangerously close to
the carriageway, while the slopping back profile enables road rollers to operate right up to
the edge of the pavement without scratching or damaging the kerb face when the surfacing is
laid. They are normally used where a footpath is provided adjacent to the carriageway.

Figure 3.6: Half-battered kerbs

Sprayed profile kerbs are used in those situations where a vehicle may need to bump up onto
a verge in an emergency. For safety reasons, those are not used when a footpath is present.

Figure 3.7: Splayed kerb details

Where a crossing is required, normally for access to a private driveway, access point or
pedestrian crossing, a bull-nosed or chamfered kerb is used.

Figure 3.8: Bull-nosed kerbs

Special kerbs

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Other kerbs seen on highways include;

Side offlet kerbs (weir kerbs): for use with behind-kerb drainage systems. They often have a
cast iron or steel grille or facing to keep the worst of the street litter out of the sewers.

High containment kerb: they are used to prevent traffic leaving the carriageway and are often
used to protect vulnerable footpaths or sensitive roadside equipment such as fuel pumps at
filling stations, pedestrian islands, dangerous curves etc.

ROAD CROSS-SECTION ELEMENTS

Travel Lanes
The number of lanes needed for a facility is usually determined during the concept stage of
project development. It is usually the number of lanes necessary to accommodate the expected
traffic volumes at a level of service determined to be appropriate for the facility. The number
of lanes can only be added in integer units, i.e., a two lane highway can be widened to three or

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four lanes. Each additional lane represents an increase in the traffic carrying capability of the
facility.

Knowing future projected travel demands, the designer, using the analysis procedures in the
Highway Capacity Manual, can provide input into the decision making process during project
development to determine the appropriate number of travel lanes for the level of service
desired. Community input also plays a part in this decision.

In urban and suburban areas, signalized intersections are usually the predominant factor
controlling the capacity of the highway or street. For example, a two lane facility approaching
an intersection can be expanded to four lanes (one left turn lane, two through lanes, one right
turn lane) at the intersection itself and then returned to two lanes beyond the intersection. The
need to distribute traffic safely will determine the need for any expansion of the approach
roadway. The added lanes at the intersection can be in a variety of configurations to serve the
travel desires of the traffic.

Lane Width
The width of travel lanes is limited by the physical dimensions of automobiles and trucks to a
range between 2.7 and 3.6 m. Generally, as the design speed of a highway increases, so must
the lane width to allow for the lateral movement of vehicles within the lane. However,
constricted right-of-way and other design restrictions can have an impact on this decision.
Medians
An important consideration in the design of any multilane highway is whether to provide a
median and, if one is provided, what the dimensions should be. The primary functions of
highway medians are to:
Separate opposing traffic flows
Provide a recovery area for out of control vehicles
Allow space for speed changes and left turning and U-turning vehicles
Minimize headlight glare
Provide width for future lanes (particularly in suburban areas)
Provide a space for landscape planting that is in keeping with safety needs and
improves the aesthetics of the facility
Provide a space for barriers.

Depending on regulating board practice and specific location requirements, medians may be
depressed, raised, or flush with the surface of the travelled way. Medians should have a
dimension that is in balance with the other elements of the total highway cross section. The
general range of median widths is from 1.2 m, usually in urban areas, to 24 m or more, in
rural areas. An offset of at least 500 mm should be provided between any vertical element
located within the median, such as a curb or barrier, and the edge of the adjacent travelled
lane.

Shoulders
Shoulder widths typically vary from as little as 0.6 m on minor rural roads, where there is no
surfacing, to about 3.6 m on major highways, where the entire shoulder may be stabilized or
paved.

The treatment of shoulders is important from a number of perspectives, including safety, the
capacity of the highway section, impact on the surrounding environment, and both the initial

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capital outlay and ongoing maintenance and operating costs. The shoulder design should
balance these factors. For example, a designer must consider the impact of the shoulder width
and other roadside elements on the surrounding environment and, at the same time, how these
dimensions will affect capacity. Even with a maximum lane width of 3.6 m, the absence of a
shoulder or the presence of an obstruction at the edge of the travel lane can result in a
reduction in capacity of as much as 30 percent, compared to an area where shoulder or clear
zone exists that is a minimum 1.8 m wide. On the other hand, significant environmental,
scenic, or historic resources may be adversely affected by a widened shoulder.

Another consideration is the accommodation of pedestrians and non motorized vehicles. In

many parts of the country, highway shoulders provide a separate travelled way for
pedestrians, bicyclists, and others (when no sidewalks are provided).

Clear Zones
Clear zone can be defined as the unobstructed, relatively flat area provided beyond the edge
of the travelled way for the recovery of errant vehicles.

The width of the clear zone is influenced by several factors, the most important of which are
traffic volume, design speed of the highway, and slope of the embankments. The AASHTO
Roadside Design Guide' is a primary reference for determining clear zone widths for
freeways, rural arterials, and high speed rural collectors based on these factors.

Sidewalks and Pedestrian Paths

The safe and efficient accommodation of pedestrians along the travelled way is equally
important as the provisions for vehicles. Too often, pedestrians are a secondary consideration
in the design of roadways, particularly in suburban areas. Although sidewalks are an integral
part of city streets, they are much rarer in rural areas and provided only sporadically in
suburban areas, despite data that suggest that providing sidewalks along highways in rural and
suburban areas results in a reduction in pedestrian accidents.

Sidewalks can also provide space for street furniture and necessary traffic poles and signals;
however, additional width should be added to sidewalks to accommodate these fixtures. The
wider the sidewalk, the greater the number of pedestrians that can be accommodated and the
less difficult it is for them to manoeuvre around these fixed objects. When considering the
placement of objects inside sidewalks, it is important not to overlook the need to maintain as
unobstructed a pathway as possible. For instance, locating utility poles to the sides and not in
the centre, of sidewalks is important. This detail facilitates the movements of people with
disabilities as well.

Accommodating Bicycles
Transportation designers should consider the needs of cyclists in the design of facilities.
Basically, there are five types of bicycle facilities:
Shared lane-a "standard width" travel lane that both bicycles and motor vehicles share
Wide outside lane - an outside travel lane with a width of at least 4.2 m to
accommodate both bicyclists and motorized vehicles
Bicycle lane - a portion of the roadway designated by striping, signing, and/or
pavement markings for preferential or exclusive use by bicycles and/or other non-
motorized vehicles

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 Shoulder - a paved portion of the roadway to the right of the travelled way designed to
serve bicyclists, pedestrians and others
Multiuse path - a facility that is physically separated from the roadway and intended
for use by bicyclists, pedestrians, and others

There are three primary factors to consider when designing facilities to accommodate bicycles
and other non motorized vehicles:
i. What type of bicyclist is the route most likely to serve, i.e., advanced bicyclists, basic
bicyclists, or children?
ii. What type of roadway project is involved, i.e., new construction, major reconstruction,
or minor rehabilitation?
iii. What are the current and future traffic operations and design characteristics of the
route that will affect the choice of bicycle design treatments?

Six factors are recognized by transportation planners and engineers as having the greatest
effect on bicycle use:
Traffic volume-higher traffic volumes represent greater potential risk for bicycles.
Average motor vehicle operating speed-operating speed is more important than the
posted speed limit; motor vehicle operating speed can negatively affect the bicyclist's
comfort unless mitigated by special design treatments.
Traffic mix-the presence of trucks, buses, and other large vehicles can increase risk
and have a negative impact on the comfort of bicyclists.
On-street parking-additional width is needed for bicycle lanes on roads that have on-
street parking.
Sight distance-this must be sufficient to allow a motor vehicle operator to either
change lane position or slow to the bicyclist's speed when overtaking the bicycle,
primarily on rural highways.
Number of intersections-the number and frequency of intersections should be
considered when assessing the use of bike lanes. Intersections pose special challenges
to bicycle and motor vehicle operators and require special treatments.

Utilities
One element of cross-section design that is often overlooked is the accommodation of public
utilities. Overhead utilities typically include electric, telephone, and cable television. For new
construction in urban areas, electric, telephone, and other telecommunication lines are now
often placed underground.

The most desirable design solution, in terms of safety for overhead utilities, is to locate the
utility poles where they are least likely to be struck by a vehicle. The 1996 AASHTO
Roadside Design Guide notes the following options for the location and design of utilities:
Bury power and telephone lines underground
Increase lateral pole offset
Increase pole spacing
Combine pole usage with multiple utilities
Use a breakaway pole design
Use traffic barriers to shield poles

Road Drainage Structures

Road drainage relates to the collection and evacuation of water present in the sub-grade and
pavements. It is one of the three aspects of road drainage along with surface water evacuation

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(surface drainage) and re-routing natural flows. Drainage is an essential component in the
pavements good performance and thus makes a significant contribution to the durability of
road structures. Subsuraface water to be drained comes from:
Infiltrations through the pavement towards the pavement layers and pavement
interfaces
Infiltrations from the shoulders towards the pavement layers and pavement interfaces
fed by the formation level
Water ingress from the lateral surroundings towards the pavvement interfaces and the
sub-grade originating from catchment areas, cuts and discharges from water table.

Drainage Structures and Systems

Road drainage structures include:
Deep ditches
Cut-off drains
Grips (and draining stacks)
Fin drains at pavement edge
Draining courses
Shafts (vertical drainage)

Deep Ditches
This type of ditch, over 50 cm deep, basically performs two functions: it collects the run-off
water and enables the water to be lowered in certain conditions. It is used extensively in
provisional phase during earthwork, where it sometimes makes operations easier by reducing
the water content of soils to be extracted.
Dimensioning requirements
Project geometry (particularly bank slopes)
Safety considerations
Water table (depth, seasonal and annual variations, flow direction, permeability) and
all elements required to calculate the dewatering flow rates
Soil types
Cut-off Drains
Their purposes include draining the sub-grade and lowering the water level under the road-
bed (to enable long term gain in bearing capacity). They are basically used when the water
table must be lowered to create the cut, wherein lies the fundamental difference with fin
drains at the pavement edge. Their depth may vary for a major cut (current maximum six
meters in mechanized trench). They can sometimes only be used in provisional phase for the
earthworks (even if there is no gravity outlet, with discharge via traditional or vacuum
pumping).
Dimensioning requirements
Project geometry
Water table
Soil type
Grips and Draining Stacks
Grips are normally installed under shoulders in water accumulation zones (low points). Their
purpose is to evacuate water percolating through the pavement. They must always be
combined with a draining course or a draining capping layer for which it is the outlet (towards
a ditch or cut-off drain).

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The drain stack is a variant of the transverse grip installed under the roadbed. Its role is
normally to recover the water from the low or singular points (for example change from a cut
to a fill). It can also occasionally reinforce the draining course (pre-screening the water table).
Fin Drains at Pavement Edge
A soil drained efficiently becomes a non-saturated soil; its water content stays at a level that is
dictated by its suction characteristics and water movements in such a soil are complex. The
main objective of fin drains is to improve the hydro state of materials in the pavement and
sub-grade, over a thickness dependent on the pavement type, to evacuate water which has
penetrated the pavement and limit water ingress from the shoulders. Unlike the cut off drain,
fin drains cannot be installed very deep (1.5 m maximum) and must not be used to lower a
water table.
Draining Courses
The draining course is made up of very permeable aggregate material to intercept an upwards
or downwards water current. It is therefore found:
Slotted between pavement and sub-grade; it recovers any water ingress through the
pavement and above all water inflows from the sub-grade, for example:
Under a concrete pavement structure, to drain infiltration water vertically
On cut and fill interface to evacuate water ingress from the cut roadbed and prevent it
flowing towards the fill
Underneath a cut or skimming profile pavement, when the water table is likely to raise
up to the structure
In flat zones or those liable to flooding, as courses standing in the way of capillary
water rises (fill base material in draining material)
Underneath a fill in a compressible or wet zone (draining base)
Under the pavement and the fill in mixed profile
Slotted between an impermeable layer (invert, geomebrane) and the sub-grade. The
objective here is to intercept water ingress from the sub-grade and reduce the sub-
pressures.
Shafts (vertical drainage)
Shafts evacuate water vertically on an ad hoc basis by raising it to a surface outlet. They are
most frequently used as temporary installations during earthworks. The zone where the water
table level is lowered (drawdown influence zone) varies according to soil permeability.

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4.0 Water Supply and Waste Water Treatment
Water supply and works refer to the provision of water for domestic, industrial and irrigation
needs and the engineering installation to pump and treat the water to the consumer. In
planning and design work for various drinking water supply projects it is necessary to
estimate the water demand within the project area.

Categories of Consumption
Water demand is normally classified according to the nature of the user. It is convenient to
divide water demand into the following categories;
Domestic: this is the water furnished to homes for sanitary, culinary and other purposes. Its
use varies with the economic level of consumers. It can be divided into;
In-house drinking, cooking, ablution, sanitation, house cleaning
Sprinkling garden watering, lawn sprinkling
Standpipes from public standpipes and fountains
Trade: it is water furnished to industrial and commercial establishments. The quantity of
water required for commercial and industrial purposes has been related to such factors as units
produced, number of persons employed or flow areas of establishments. The category
includes;
Industrial factories and industries
Commercial shops, offices, restaurants
Institutional schools, hospitals
Agriculture: crops, livestock, horticulture, greenhouses, dairies
Public: street watering, public works, sewer flushing
Losses: this is the water which is not accounted for in the sense that it is not assigned to a
specific user.
Consumer wastage leakage and wastage from consumers premises, misuse
Distributional loses leakages and overflows from service reservoirs, leakage from
mains, service pipes
Metering and other loses source meter errors, supply meter errors, unrecorded
consumption

Water Demand
A fundamental consideration for the sizing of any water system or its component parts is an
estimate of the amount of water to be used by the consumers on the system.

Factors influencing water demand

Water demand projections should normally be made for the initial, future and the
ultimate year. The initial year is the year when the supply is taken into operation which
may be assumed to be 4 years from the date of the preliminary design. The future year is ten
years and the ultimate year is 20 years from the initial years. A water demand should
normally be designed for the ultimate demand however, phasing of implementation based on
initial and future demand projections may be necessary due to financial constraints and
mechanical equipment.

When estimating the water demand, the following factors are to be considered;

The type of centres which have to be supplied with water

The population and its increase in future

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 Water consumption rates

Peak Demands
The daily demand for water in most countries changes form season to season. Normally those
changes are absorbed largely by changes in the rate of abstraction from the source and/ or
alternatively by the throughput at the treatment works. The capacity of the trunk lines must
thus be greater typically 15 to 25 per cent more than the average yearly throughput.
Changes in the rate of usage that occur during the day are on the other hand generally
absorbed by means of storage provided by service reservoirs within the distribution system.
However, the capacity of the pipe-work in the system should like the trunk main, be greater
than the average rate of demand and should be sufficient to meet at least the highest hourly
flow.

Distribution System
After complete treatment of water, it is necessary to distribute it to homes, industries, estates
and public places by means of a systematic system of distribution. The requirements of a good
distribution system are;
It should convey the treated water to the consumer with the same degree of purity as it
receives from the treatment plant or service reservoir
Adequate pressure of water should be available at the delivery end
Adequate quantity of water should be available to meet the requirements of the
consumer
The system should be economical in outlay and easy to maintain and operate
It should be able to supply sufficient quantity of water during emergency such as fire
fighting
Should be reliable, so that even during breakdown in repairs of one line, water should
reach the consumer through another
During repair works, it should not cause obstruction to the traffic

The purpose of distribution system is to convey water from the point at which the trunk main
terminates to all the consumers. Distribution system incorporates;
Pipe-work for conveying water from one point to another
Service reservoirs and water towers for storing water at suitable elevations so that the
supply can be properly maintained when the demand exceeds the inflow from the
trunk main
Pumping station, both re-lift stations for lifting water to zones within the supply area
but which are above the area commanded by the trunk main and booster stations for
increasing the flow through the pipe system, especially at periods of peak demand.
Pipe-work
It comprises of a number of sections serving different purposes as defined below;
Trunk distribution mains: are mains within the distribution system and are intended to carry
water in bulk from one part of the network to another. It is likely that they will be some
branch connections, but consumer connections are to be discouraged.

Secondary mains: provide the basic structure of the system and are used to link the service
mains with the service reservoirs and/ or with the trunk distribution mains. Generally, there
will be a number of direct connections to consumer especially those with large individual
requirements.

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Service mains: are those laid with the prime purpose of carrying water from the secondary
mains to the smaller consumers. This category includes particularly those mains laid in the
roads and streets of residential and commercial areas. Such mains are intended to convey
water from the secondary mains to a point at or adjacent to the consumer.

Service pipes: are those pipes that connect the consumers plumbing to the service main. In
the case of domestic supplies their diameters are generally less than 25 mm, but other
consumers may require the lager sizes. Service pipes are frequently further divided in the
communication pipe which is the section between the service ain and the boundary of the
premises being supplied, and the supply pipe which is the portion within the boundary.

Depending upon the method of distribution, the distribution system can be classified as;

i. Gravity system
ii. Pumping system
iii. Dual system
Gravity system
When a sufficient high altitude area is available between the source of supply and delivery
zone, the height of the area is utilized for distribution system. The pressure at the delivery end
is available due to elevated position of service reservoir. This system is reliable and no
pumping is required
Pumping system
In this system water is directly pumped into the mains. As the pumping is carried out at
different rates throughout the day, the operational cost is considerably increased. The system
is not very reliable.
Dual system
Also known as combined gravity and pumping system. The pumps are connected to the mains
as well as to the reservoir. In the case of increased demand, the mains are fed directly from
the pumps as well as from the service reservoir. This system is economical and more reliable.

Layouts of Distribution Systems

Distribution systems are divided under the following categories;
i. Dead end or tree system
ii. Grid iron system
iii. Circular or ring system
iv. Radial system
Dead end or tree system
Main features are;
-The system is suitable for haphazardly developed towns and cities.
-The main is connected to the reservoir. The mains feed the sub-mains and distributor lines
which supply water to individual houses
-The initial cost of the system is comparatively less
Disadvantages
-Dead ends are formed as a result of which stagnation ad degeneration of quality of water
takes place
-If there is breakage of any line, the mains have to be closed and the entire area served by the
mains is without water.

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Grid iron system (Reticulated system)
It is an improvement over the dead end system, over which it has the following advantages;
-it is convenient for flows having rectangular layout
-pressure of the water remains high in all the branches

Disadvantages
-it is costlier because of additional valves, pipes and fittings
-the design of pipes and fittings is comparatively complicated and difficult

Circular or Ring System

Water mains are laid around all the four sides of the square, or around the circle. The branches
and sub-mains are laid inside the blocks.
All the sub-mains and branches are taken off from the boundary mains and are interconnected.
Every point receives the supply from two directions

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This system is the best of all the systems. However, it requires more valves and longer pipe
lengths.

Radial System
A reservoir is provided in each zone which feeds the radial branches of the zone. Good
pressure is maintained in the entire distribution region.

Disposal of flushing water and sludge

During water treatment, sludge is produced by a number of processes tat remove undesirable
constituents from raw water. The most commonly used treatment processes that remove this
materials and subsequent produce sludge include;

Chemical coagulation
Lime-soda softening
Removal of iron and manganese
Filtration

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The options to dispose sludge from treatment plant that exist include;

Discharge to water ways

Discharge to sanitary sewers
Co-dispose with sewage sludge under waste water treatment plant
Lagooning
Mechanical dewatering with land filing of residue
Coagulant recovery
Land application especially of softening sludge
Use for building or fill materials

Intake Works
Intakes are structures used for admitting water from the surface sources (i.e. rivers, lakes,
reservoirs, etc) and conveying it further to the treatment plants. Generally an intake is a
masonry or concrete structure with an aim of providing continuously relatively clean water
free from pollution, sand and objectionable floating materials. Screens (bar racks and mesh
screens) are frequently used in opening of intake structures to protect the intake from floating
objects. Screens should be of corrosion resistance metals and easily removable.

Selection of site
The following points should be considered when selecting a suitable site for the intake
structure;

i. The intake should be so selected that it may admit water even under worst condition of
flow in the river or under lowest possible level in a lake reservoir.
ii. Its site should be as near to the treatment work as possible
iii. It should be so located that it admits relatively pure water free from mud, sand and
other floating materials
iv. It should be located that it is free from pollution .river intakes should be located
upstream of points of discharge of sewage and industrial wastes.
v. It should not interfere with river flow if any
vi. The intake should be so located that good foundation conditions are available and the
possibility of scouring is the least
vii. Its site should be selected that its further expansion is possible.

Types of intakes
Intakes can be classified as

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 INTAKES

Submerged
wet text
intake

submerged exposed River reservoir canal

wet intake dry intake lake intake
intake intake intake intake intake

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