UNIT 1

INTRODUCTION TO URBAN DESIGN

URBAN DESIGN

Urban design is the collaborative and multi-disciplinary process of shaping the physical setting for life in
cities, towns and villages; the art of making places; design in an urban context. Urban design involves the
design of buildings, groups of buildings, spaces and landscapes, and the establishment of frameworks and
processes that facilitate successful development.

Peter Webber defines urban design as 'the process of molding the form of the city through time'.
Jerry Spencer has described it as 'creating the theatre of public life'.

In the words of the writer and critic Peter Buchanan: 'Urban design is about how to recapture certain of the
qualities (qualities which we experience as well as those we see) that we associate with the traditional city: a
sense of order, place, continuity, richness of experience, completeness and belonging.

Urban design is essentially about place making, where place is not just a specific space, but all the activities
and events that it makes possible. As a consequence the whole city is enriched.

Urban Design is generally accepted name for the process of giving physical design direction to urban
growth, conservation and change. It is understood to include landscape as well as buildings, both
preservation and new construction and rural areas as well as cities.
Modern Cities Chandigarh, Bhuvneshwar, Gandhinagar
Medieval Cities Shahjahanabad, Madrai, Jaipur
Baroque Cities Delhi

Urban Design forms the intersection of urban planning, landscape architecture and architecture and it
requires a good understanding of a range of others as well such as urban economics, political economy and
social theory.

Urban Design is the composition of architectural form and open space in a community context. The
elements of a citys architecture are its buildings, urban landscape and service infrastructure just as form,
structure and internal space are elements of a building. Whether public or private in actual ownership, urban
design comprises the architecture of an entire community that all citizens can enjoy and identify their own.
Like architecture, urban design reflects considerations of function, economics and efficiency as well as
aesthetics and cultural qualities.

COMPONENTS OF URBAN SPACE

BUILDINGS

Buildings are the most pronounced elements of urban design - they shape and articulate space by forming
the streetwalls of the city. Well designed buildings and groups of buildings work together to create a sense
of place.

PUBLIC SPACES

Great public spaces are the living room of the city - the place where people come together to enjoy the city
and each other. Public spaces make high quality life in the city possible - they form the stage and backdrop
to the drama of life. Public spaces range from grand central plazas and squares, to small, local
neighborhood parks.
STREETS

Streets are the connections between spaces and places, as well as being spaces themselves. They are defined
by their physical dimension and character as well as the size, scale, and character of the buildings that line
them. Streets range from grand avenues such as the Champs-Elysees in Paris to small, intimate pedestrian
streets. The pattern of the street network is part of what defines a city and what makes each city unique.
TRANSPORT

Transport systems connect the parts of cities and help shape them, and enable movement throughout the
city. They include road, rail, bicycle, and pedestrian networks, and together form the total movement
system of a city. The balance of these various transport systems is what helps define the quality and
character of cities, and makes them either friendly or hostile to pedestrians. The best cities are the ones that
elevate the experience of the pedestrian while minimizing the dominance of the private automobile.

LANDSCAPE

The landscape is the green part of the city that weaves throughout - in the form of urban parks, street trees,
plants, flowers, and water in many forms. The landscape helps define the character and beauty of a city and
creates soft, contrasting spaces and elements. Green spaces in cities range from grand parks such as Central
Park in New York City and the Washington DC Mall, to small intimate pocket parks.

Need for Urban Design

Design can help to enhance a citys assets:

physical needs of citizens;

safety, security and protection;
an environment free of pollution, noise, accidents, and crime;
a conducive social environment ..a sense of community;
an appropriate image and prestige;
creativity and self-expression in neighbourhoods;
aesthetically pleasantness as a place of culture and a work of art.

URBAN ISSUES

Some of the major problems of urbanisation in India are 1. Urban Sprawl 2. Overcrowding 3. Housing
4. Unemployment 5. Slums and Squatter Settlements 6. Transport 7. Water 8. Sewerage Problems 9. Trash
Disposal 10. Urban Crimes 11. Problem of Urban Pollution

1. Urban Sprawl: Urban sprawl or real expansion of the cities, both in population and geographical
area, of rapidly growing cities is the root cause of urban problems. In most cities the economic base
is incapable of dealing with the problems created by their excessive size. Massive immigration from
rural areas as well as from small towns into big cities has taken place almost consistently; thereby
adding to the size of cities. The greatest pressure of the immigrating population has been felt in the
central districts of the city (the old city) where the immigrants flock to their relatives and friends
before they search for housing. Population densities beyond the old city decline sharply.This is due
 to the fact that such large cities act as magnets and attract large number of immigrants by dint of
their employment opportunities and modern way of life. Such hyperurbanisation leads to projected
cities sizes of which defy imagination. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, etc. are
examples of urban sprawl due to large scale migration of people from the surrounding areas.

2. Overcrowding: Overcrowding is a situation in which too many people live in too little space.
Overcrowding is a logical consequence of over-population in urban areas. It is naturally expected
that cities having a large size of population squeezed in a small space must suffer from
overcrowding. This is well exhibited by almost all the big cities of India. For example, Mumbai has
one-sixth of an acre open space per thousand populations though four acre is suggested standard by
the Master Plan of Greater Mumbai. Metropolitan cities of India are overcrowded both in absolute
and relative terms. Absolute in the sense that these cities have a real high density of population;
relative in the sense that even if the densities are not very high the problem of providing services and
other facilities to the city dwellers makes it so. Delhi has a population density of 9,340 persons per sq
km (Census 2001) which is the highest in India. This is the overall population density for the Union
territory of Delhi. Population density in central part of Delhi could be much higher. This leads to
tremendous pressure on infrastructural facilities like housing, electricity, water, transport,
employment, etc. Efforts to decongest Delhi by developing ring towns have not met with the
required success.
3. Housing: Overcrowding leads to a chronic problem of shortage of houses in urban areas. This
problem is specifically more acute in those urban areas where there is large influx of unemployed or
underemployed immigrants who have no place to live in when they enter cities/towns from the
surrounding areas. The major factors are shortage of building materials and financial resources,
inadequate expansion of public utilities into sub-urban areas, poverty and unemployment of urban
immigrants, strong caste and family ties and lack of adequate transportation to sub-urban areas where
most of the vacant land for new construction is located.
4. Unemployment - One of the major causes of urban unemployment is the large scale migration of
people from rural to urban areas. Rural-urban migration has been continuing for a pretty long time
but it has not always been as great a problem as it is today. The general poverty among the rural
people pushes them out to urban areas to migrate in search of livelihood and in the hope of a better
living. But the growth of economic opportunities fails to keep pace with the quantum of immigration.
The limited capacity of urban areas could not create enough employment opportunities and absorb
the rapid growth of the urban labour force.
5. Slums and Squatter Settlements: The natural sequel of unchecked, unplanned and haphazard
growth of urban areas is the growth and spread of slums and squatter settlements which present a
striking feature in the ecological structure of Indian cities, especially of metropolitan centres.
The following criteria characterises an area as Slum:
(i) All areas notified Slum by state govt. under any Act.
(ii) All areas recognised as slum by state govt. which have not been formally notified as slum under any
Act.
(iii) A compact area of at least 300 populations or about 60-70 households of poorly built congested
tenements in unhygienic environment usually with inadequate infrastructure and lacking in proper
sanitary and drinking water facilities. Normally, squatter settlements contain makeshift dwellings
constructed without official permission (i.e., on unauthorised land). Such settlements are constructed by
using any available material such as cardboards, tin, straw mats or sacks. Squatter settlements are
constructed in an uncontrolled manner and badly lack essential public services such as water, light,
sewage.
6. Transport: With traffic bottleneck and traffic congestion, almost all cities and towns of India are
suffering from acute form of transport problem. Transport problems increase and become more complex
as the town grows in size. With its growth, the town performs varied and complex functions and more
people travel to work or shop. As the town becomes larger, even people living within the built-up area
have to travel by car or bus to cross the town and outsiders naturally bring their cars or travel by public
transport. Wherever, trade is important, commercial vehicles such as vans and trucks will make problem
of traffic more complicated.

Since most of the commercial activities of the towns are concentrated in the Central Business District
(C.B.D.), the centres are areas of greatest congestion. However, other parts of the town are not free from
traffic congestion.

Such areas include the roads leading to factories, offices, schools, etc., which will be thronged with
people in morning and evening; minor shopping centres which grow up in the suburbs; sporting arenas,
entertainment districts which will be busy at night, roads leading to residential and dormitory towns
which will be busy when commuters flock to the cities in the morning to work and return home in the
evenings.

Such congestion becomes greater when the centre is built up in tall skyscraper blocks whose offices
sometimes employ thousands of workers, because at the end of the office hours everyone leaves the
building within a short space of time to make their way home.This puts tremendous pressure on public
transport and causes journeys to take much longer period than they normally would.

7. Water: What is one of the most essential elements of nature to sustain life and right from the
beginning of urban civilisation, sites for settlements have always been chosen keeping in view the
availability of water to the inhabitants of the settlement. However, supply of water started falling short of
demand as the cities grew in size and number. The individual towns require water in larger quantities.
Many small towns have no main water supply at all and depend on such sources as individual tubewells,
household open wells or even rivers. Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP) was
launched to provide water to towns with population of less than 20,000.
Mumbai draws water from neighbouring areas and from sources located as far as 125 km in the Western
Ghats. Chennai uses water express trains to meets its growing demand for water. Bangalore is located on
the plateau and draws water from Cauvery river at a distance of 100 km. Water for Bangalore has to be
lifted about 700 metres with help of lifting pumps.Hyderabad depends on Nagarjuna Sagar located 137
km away. Delhi meets large part of its water requirements from Tajiwala in Haryana. Water is also
drawn from Ramganga as far as 180 km.

8. Sewerage Problems: Urban areas in India are almost invariably plagued with insufficient and
inefficient sewage facilities. Not a single city in India is fully sewered. According to latest estimates,
only 35-40 per cent of the urban population has the privilege of sewage system. Most of the cities have
old sewerage lines which are not looked after properly. Often sewerage lines break down or they are
overflowing.Most cities do not have proper arrangements for treating the sewerage waste and it is
drained into a nearly river (as in Delhi) or in sea (as in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai), thereby polluting
the water bodies.In most Indian cities, water pipes run in close proximity to sewer lines. Any leakage
leads to contamination of water which results in the spread of several water borne diseases.

9. Trash Disposal: As Indian cities grow in number and size the problem of trash disposal is assuming
alarming proportions. Huge quantities of garbage produced by our cities pose a serious health problem.
 Most cites do not have proper arrangements for garbage disposal and the existing landfills are full to the
brim.

10. Problem of Urban Pollution: With rapid pace of urbanisation, industries and transport systems
grow rather out of proportion. These developments are primarily responsible for pollution of
environment, particularly the urban environment. National Commission on Urbanization (NCU) has, in
its policy proposal of 1988, stressed the need for (a) the evolution of a spatial pattern of economic
development and hierarchies of human settlements, (b) an optimum distribution of population between
rural and urban settlements, and among towns and cities of various sizes, (c) distribution of economic
activities in small and medium-sized growth centres, (d) dispersal of economic activities through the
establishment of counter-magnets in the region, and (e) provision of minimum levels of services in urban
and rural areas.

The other major development programmes that had concern for averting pollution directly or through
indirect strategic means include (i) Urban Basic Services for the Poor (UBSP) programme, (ii) the
Environmental Improvement of Urban Slums (EIUS) programme, (iii) the Integrated Development of
Small and Medium Towns (IDSMT), (iv) various housing and infrastructure financing schemes of
Housing and Urban Development Corporation (HUDCO), (v) the Mega Cities Project, and (vi) the
Integrated Urban Poverty Eradication Programme (IUPEP).

OBJECTIVES OF URBAN DESIGN

Aesthetics: Strong Visual Impact

Development: New Investment. Employment opportunities
Functional Efficiency
Improved Environmental conditions
Safety (ref. Safer Cities Program; CEPTED)
Guardianship and Space standards
Technical Solutions to unique problems
Cultural Identity and symbolism
Community Integration
Character: A place with its own identity
Continuity and Enclosure: A place where public and private spaces are clearly distinguished
Quality of the Public Realm: A place with attractive and successful outdoor areas
Ease of Movement: A place that is easy to get to and move through
Adaptability: A place that can change easily
Legibility: A place that has a clear image and is easy to understand
Diversity: A place with variety and choice

There are four Objectives:

1. To minimise the opportunity for crime and help to reduce the fear of crime for residents in their homes and
public spaces.

2. To consider the needs of the most vulnerable groups in society (the elderly, children, women, disabled people
and ethnic minority groups) above others. This is because fear of crime disproportionately affects these groups
and greatly hampers their chances of enjoying the environment and taking a full part in community life.
3. To achieve reductions in crime across the community, not simply the displacement of crime from one area to
others.

4. To create a more sustainable environment by ensuring ease of maintenance, long life and adaptability.

SCOPE OF UD

The need for UD as a discipline has arisen as a result of the fundamental cultural, political, social and
economic changes. Other issues include the impact of environmental issues and quality of life on the nature
of the city and how urban form can best be adapted to our current and future needs. It has proved difficult to
provide a simple, commonly accepted definition of the scope of UD.

1. Ecological Significance: Urban Design involves modifying the natural environment. It largely deals with
the quality of built environment that are vital for preserving nature. It can be effected positively or
negatively; more emphasis on pedestrian circulation; relevance of site (like contour site). Neighborhood
concept everything in 10 minutes reach by walking.

2. Economic Significance: Due to competition, quality of built environment is the key factor that
significantly affects local, regional and international image of countries and sets the stage for all economic
activity. As Harvey points out that there is string relationship between technological changes in the
economic production and structural changes in the quality and production of urban spaces. Here we can
consider the concept of smart cities (fully hi-tech designs).

3. Social and Cultural Significance: An important factor determining why people choose to visit, invest in or
relocate to a particular place is the atmosphere or the cultural identity (eg- Chandigarh or Goa)

Ensure high quality: To raise the quality of life by providing a high quality built environment
commensurating with the natural setting.

Embrace robustness: To give a set of robust guidelines on urban design enduring over time.

Encourage dynamism: To encourage Hong Kong's spirit on pluralism and dynamism.

Accommodate flexibility: To give flexibility for innovative ideas and possibilities.

 UNIT 2

HISTORIC URBAN FORM

1.GREEK AGORA

The Agora - An ancient marketplace. The agora in Athens had private housing, until it was reorganized by Peisistratus
in the 6th century BC.
It was originally an area inhabited by various families in small houses, will in the course of the 5 th century, be
progressively built up, articulated with grand public buildings around its perimeter, in order to frame and give a point
of reference to the life of the democratic polis, or city-state.

Buildings and structures of the classical agora

unos

council)
 toa)

Agora, in ancient Greek cities, an open space that served as a meeting ground for various activities of the citizens.
The name, first found in the works of Homer, connotes both the assembly of the people as well as the physical
setting; it was applied by the classical Greeks of the 5th centuryBC to what they regarded as a typical feature of
their life: their daily religious, political, judicial, social, and commercial activity.
The agora was located either in the middle of the city or near the harbour, which was surrounded by public
buildings and by temples.
Colonnades, sometimes containing shops, or stoae, often enclosed the space, and statues, altars, trees, and
fountains adorned it.
The general trend at this time was to isolate the agora from the rest of the town. Earlier stages in the evolution of
the agora have been sought in the East and, with better results, in MinoanCrete (for instance, at Ayi Tridha) and
in Mycenaean Greece (for instance, at Tiryns).
In the 5th and 4th centuries BC two kinds of agora existed.
Pausanias, writing in the 2nd century AD, calls one type archaic and the other Ionic.
He mentions the agora of Elis (built after 470 BC) as an example of the archaic type, in which colonnades and
other buildings were not coordinated; the general impression created was one of disorder.
The agora of Athens was rebuilt to this type of design after the Persian Wars (490449 BC). The Ionic type was
more symmetrical, often combining colonnades to form either three sides of a rectangle or a regular
square; Miletus, Priene, and Magnesia ad Maeandrum, cities in Asia Minor, provide early examples.
This type prevailed and was further developed in Hellenistic and Roman times. In this later period the agora
influenced the development of the Romanforum and was, in turn, influenced by it.
The forum, however, was conceived in a more rigid manner than the agora and became a specific, regular, open
area surrounded by planned architecture.
The use of the agora varied at different periods. Even in classical times the space did not always remain the place
for popular assemblies.

In Athens the ecclesia, or assembly, was moved to the Pnyx (a hill to the west of the Acropolis), though the
meetings devoted to ostracism were still held in the agora, where the main tribunal remained.

A distinction was maintained between commercial and ceremonial agoras in Thessaly and elsewhere
(Aristotle, Politics, vii, II, 2). In the highly developed agora, like that of Athens, each trade or profession had its
own quarter. Many cities had officials called agoranomoi to control the area.
The agora also served for theatrical and gymnastic performances until special buildings and spaces were reserved
for these purposes.
In Athens respectable women were seldom seen in the agora. Men accused of murder and other crimes were
forbidden to enter it before their trials. Free men went there not only to transact business and to act as jurors but
also to talk and idlea habit often mentioned by comic poets. In exceptional circumstances a tomb in the agora
was granted as the highest honour for a citizen.
2. ROMAN FORUM
The Roman Forum is a rectangular forum (plaza) surrounded by the ruins of several important ancient
government buildings at the center of the city of Rome. Citizens of the ancient city referred to this space,
originally a marketplace, as the Forum Magnum, or simply the Forum.
It was for centuries the center of Roman public life: the site of triumphal processions and elections; the venue for
public speeches, criminal trials, and gladiatorial matches; and the nucleus of commercial affairs.
Here statues and monuments commemorated the city's great men.
The teeming heart of ancient Rome, it has been called the most celebrated meeting place in the world, and in all
history.
Located in the small valley between the Palatine and Capitoline Hills, the Forum today is a sprawling ruin of
architectural fragments and intermittent archaeological excavations attracting 4.5 million sightseers yearly.
Many of the oldest and most important structures of the ancient city were located on or near the Forum.
Eventually much economic and judicial business would transfer away from the Forum Romanum to the larger and
more extravagant structures (Trajan's Forum and the Basilica Ulpia) to the north.
The reign of Constantine the Great, during which the Empire was divided into its Eastern and Western halves, saw
the construction of the last major expansion of the Forum complexthe Basilica of Maxentius (312 AD). This
returned the political center to the Forum until the fall of the Western Roman Empire almost two centuries later.
STRUCTUES
Temple of Saturn,
Temple of Vespasian and Titus,
Arch of Septimius Severus,
Curia Julia,Rostra,
Basilica Aemilia,
Forum Main Square,
Basilica Iulia,
Temple of Caesar,
Regia,
Temple of Castor and Pollux,
Temple of Vesta
 An impressive if rather confusing sprawl of ruins, the Roman Forum was ancient Rome's showpiece centre, a
grandiose district of temples, basilicas and vibrant public spaces.
The site, which was originally an Etruscan burial ground, was first developed in the 7th century BC, growing over
time to become the social, political and commercial hub of the Roman empire. Landmark sights include the Arco
di Settimio Severo , the Curia , and the Casa delle Vestali .
Like many of Rome's great urban developments, the Forum fell into disrepair after the fall of the Roman Empire
until eventually it was used as pasture land. In the Middle Ages it was known as the Campo Vaccino ('Cow Field')
and extensively plundered for its stone and marble.
The area was systematically excavated in the 18th and 19th centuries, and excavations continue to this day.
Entering from Largo della Salara Vecchia you can also enter directly from the Palatino or via an entrance near
the Arco di Tito you'll see the Tempio di Antonino e Faustina ahead to your left. Erected in AD 141, this was
transformed into a church in the 8th century, the Chiesa di San Lorenzo in Miranda . To your right the 179 BC
Basilica Fulvia Aemilia was a 100m-long public hall with a two-storey porticoed facade.
At the end of the path, you'll come to Via Sacra , the Forums main thoroughfare, and the Tempio di Giulio Cesare
(also known as the Tempio del Divo Giulio). Built by Augustus in 29 BC, this marks the spot where Julius Caesar
was cremated.
Heading right up Via Sacra brings you to the Curia , the original seat of the Roman Senate. This barn-like
construction was rebuilt on various occasions before being converted into a church in the Middle Ages. What you
see today is a 1937 reconstruction of how it looked in the reign of Diocletian
In front of the Curia, and hidden by scaffolding, is the Lapis Niger , a large piece of black marble that's said to
cover the tomb of Romulus.
At the end of Via Sacra, the 23m-high Arco di Settimio Severo is dedicated to the eponymous emperor and his
two sons, Caracalla and Geta. It was built in AD 203 to commemorate the Roman victory over the Parthians.
In front of the arch are the remains of the Rostrum , an elaborate podium where Shakespeare had Mark Antony
make his famous 'Friends, Romans, countrymen' speech. Facing this, the Colonna di Foca (Column of Phocus)
rises above what was once the Forum's main square,
 The eight granite columns that rise behind the Colonna are all that remain of the Tempio di Saturno , an important
temple that doubled as the state treasury. Behind it are (from north to south): the ruins of the Tempio della
Concordia , the Tempio di Vespasiano , and the Portico degli Dei Consenti .
From the path that runs parallel to Via Sacra, you'll pass the stubby ruins of the Basilica Giulia , which was begun
by Julius Caesar and finished by Augustus. At the end of the basilica, three columns remain from the 5th-century
BC Tempio di Castore e Polluce . Nearby, the 6th-century Chiesa di Santa Maria Antiqua , is the oldest Christian
church in the Forum.
Back towards Via Sacra is the Casa delle Vestali (currently off-limits), home of the virgins who tended the sacred
flame in the adjoining Tempio di Vesta . The six virgin priestesses were selected from patrician families when
aged between six and 10 to serve in the temple for 30 years. If the flame in the temple went out the priestess
responsible would be flogged, and if she lost her virginity she would be buried alive. The offending man would be
flogged to death.
Continuing up Via Sacra, past the Tempio di Romolo , you'll come to the Basilica di Massenzio , the largest
building on the forum. Started by the Emperor Maxentius and finished by Constantine in 315, it originally
measured approximately 100m by 65m. Its currently out of bounds due to construction work on a new metro line.
3. MEDIEVAL TOWNS
Life in Medieval Towns and Cities

In urban areas there was essentially freedom within the walls. When cities and towns received their charters, a
certain amount of freedom was gained, but it was by no means a democratic society.

Population and Urban Environment

Medieval cities were extremely small by our standards. London had only 10,000-100,000 residents during the
medieval period. Cities were geographically small with the average about 1 square mile with 300,000 inhabitants. The
streets were exceedingly narrow and unpaved; mud was common. Sometimes the main street and market square were
cobblestoned. Cities and larger towns were usually surrounded by a wall, which enhanced the separation between
urban and rural, but the fields frequently came up to the wall. City dwellers would help rural people who came to the
city for market.

Buildings

The guild hall was a large building and was often the building that housed city protection until the late middle ages
when cannons were introduced. Churches were the largest buildings especially in cathedral cities. Cathedrals were the
seat of the bishops of a diocese. Generally there were several parish churches and castles that straddled the city walls
with the main gate to the city.

Space was at a premium. Houses were tiny and clustered closely together. When a story was added to a house the
second story projected out over the first, and so on. The results were that houses facing each other on opposite sides of
the street nearly met in the middle and the houses formed a tunnel-like passage way over the street. The first floor
generally housed the artisans shop with living quarters on the upper floors. These houses were made of wood;
therefore, they burned frequently. Fire was a constant threat in medieval cities and towns.
Sanitation and Health

Contents of chamber pots were emptied into the streets. With mud streets this presented a messy problem. With a
heavy rain one could hope for a flushing action to wash the excrement to the river. A light rain only added to the
problem. This was a health problem; polluted springs and wells were common. The most commonly consumed
beverages were not water but wine and beer. Beggars, who were seen as social victims, abounded. Disease was
viewed as punishment. Smallpox was endemic, leprosy was common and the victim was segregated.

Those who operated the cities and large towns were those who had money. These were guild masters--masters of the
guilds of merchants and craft guild masters.

4. RENAISSANCE PLACE MAKING

Place making is a people-centred approach to the planning, design and management of public spaces. It
involves looking at, listening to, and asking questions of the people who live, work and play in a particular
space, to discover needs and aspirations. This information is then used to create a common vision for that
place. The vision can evolve quickly into an implementation strategy, beginning with small-scale, do-able
improvements that can immediately bring benefits to public spaces and the people who use them.

Place making is a multi-faceted approach to the planning, design and management of public spaces. Place
making capitalizes on a local communitys assets, inspiration, and potential, ultimately creating 1good public
spaces that promote peoples health, happiness, and wellbeing. Place making is both a process and a
philosophy.

The concepts behind Place making originated in the 1960s, when writers like Jane Jacobs and William H.
Whyte offered ground-breaking ideas about designing cities that catered to people, not just to cars and
shopping centers. Their work focused on the importance of lively neighbourhoods and inviting public
spaces. Jane Jacobs advocated citizen ownership of streets through the now-famous idea of eyes on the
street. William H. Whyte emphasized essential elements for creating social life in public spaces.

Place making is a term that began to be used in the 1970s by architects and planners to describe the process
of creating squares, plazas, parks, streets and waterfronts that will attract people because they are pleasurable
or interesting. Landscape often plays an important role in the design process.
Place making can be used to improve all of the spaces that comprise the gathering places within a
communityits streets, sidewalks, parks, buildings, and other public spaces
Place making is not just the act of building or fixing up a space; it is a process that fosters the creation of vital
public destinations. It refers to the kind of places where people feel a strong stake in their communities and
commitment to making things better.
Place making capitalizes on a local communitys assets, inspiration and potential, creating good public spaces
that pro mote peoples health, happiness, and economic well-being.

5. IDEAL CITY
An ideal city is the concept of a plan for a city that has been conceived in accordance with the dictates of some
"rational" or "moral" objective.
Concept

The "ideal" nature of such a city may encompass the moral, spiritual and juridical qualities of citizenship as well as
the ways in which these are realised through urban structures including buildings, street layout, etc.

The ground plans of ideal cities are often based on grids (in imitation of Roman town planning) or other geometrical
patterns.

The ideal city is often an attempt to deploy Utopian ideals at the local level of urban configuration and living space
and amenity rather than at the culture- or civilisation-wide level of the classical Utopias such as St Thomas Mores

History

Several attempts to develop ideal city plans are known from the Renaissance, and appear from the second half of the
fifteenth century. The concept dates at least from the period of Plato, whose Republicis a philosophical exploration of
the notion of the 'ideal city'. The nobility of the Renaissance, seeking to imitate the qualities of Classical civilisation,
sometimes sought to construct such ideal cities either in reality or notionally through a reformation of manners and
culture.

Examples

Examples of the ideal cities include Filarete's "Sforzinda", a description of which was included in his Trattato di

Architettura (c. 1465). The city of Sforzinda was laid out within an eight-pointed star inscribed within a circular moat.

Further examples may have been intended to have been read into the so-called "Urbino" and "Baltimore" panels

(second half of the fifteenth century), which show Classicallyinfluenced architecture disposed in logically

planned piazzas.

The cities of Nicosia and Valletta, whose fortifications were built in the 1560s by the Republic of Venice and Order of

St. John respectively, are considered to be practical examples of the concept of the ideal city.

James Oglethorpe synthesized Classical and Renaissance concepts of the ideal city with new Enlightenment ideals of

scientific planning, harmony in design, and social equality in his plan for the Province of Carolina. The physical

design component of the famous Oglethorpe Plan remains preserved in the Savannah Historic District.

Late nineteenth-century examples of the ideal city include the Garden city movement of Sir Ebenezer Howard,

realised at Letchworth Garden City and Welwyn Garden City in England. Poundbury, Prince Charles' architectural

vision established in Dorset, is among the most recent examples of ideal city planning.
 Plan of Sforzinda, Filarete, c. 1465

Ideal city

The yearning for better community in the material, social and spiritual sense is older than recorded history. This
yearning is expressed in the literature of faith, ranging from Biblical to Vedic scripture, and of secular social
reform from Plato to Le Corbusier.
The search for an Ideal City recurs in all cultures and at every level of expression from Thomas Moores Utopia to
web-based learning tools like Quest or the video game Sim City, both developed mainly in Vancouver.
This search is almost always associated with the criticism of existing conditions and the search for new solutions.
The vision of creating real improvements through imaginative planning resonates in just two of the names given to
such schemes: the actual settlement of New Harmony in Indiana and the imaginary Broadacre City.
The attempt to provide for all human needs and aspirations in an uplifting environment is highly organized in Le
Corbusier's Radiant City project as against the less formal pattern of Ebenezer Howard's Garden City.
Each shared extensive landscaping and each have set examples for much modern urban development - including
cities and company towns in Canada. For example, Kitimat in northern British Columbia was planned by Alcan as
a model of urban settlement and echoed in Tumbler Ridge which was even planned to survive the termination of
the resource development that had instigated its construction.
At Kitimat, however, the town development suffered what might be called the tragedy of planning: the slippage
from the ideal during the implementation of the plan, including the abandonment of the social values and
community facilities in its original form. That idealism had helped change Canadian housing policy and especially
the provision of affordable housing, spearheaded by the Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation.
The Ideal City has always helped to illustrate how human habitation and society can be improved and to inspire
effective action.
The story of the Ideal City can establish criteria and strategies for dealing with the huge and ongoing increases in
urban populations and the new type and scale of problems they pose for town planning.
The city is the place where the pulse of new political thought, economic system, cultural, expression and
technological has played out with greatest intensity.
 The power of ideas on society - and its major creation the city - is obvious in the continuing impact of Aristotle,
Buddha, Christ or Marx. The idea of sustainability itself owes a good deal to early 20th-century thinkers such as
R.H. Franc who promoted biocentrism: the relation of science, technology and society to organic processes.
The story is summarized in this position paper and accompanying knowledge resource, each of which is designed
to enable people to contribute to thinking out the city of the twenty-first century.
The idea of the ideal city

The Ideal City stands at the crossroads between imagination and experience, where the mind reconstructs
ordinary living into harmonious community.
 It is a virtual place that can correct or change what seems deficient in contemporary conditions by recovering
the effective in past practice and revealing previously undefined improvements in organization and
appearance.
It is an expression of exasperation and of hope. It confirms the power of thought over material state and of
aspiration over convention.
And it demonstrates that ideas are inseparable from technique and ultimately concerned with the practical.
The Ideal City intends pragmatic improvement just as much as the betterment of the individual citizen and of
civic society.
What is more, the Ideal City seeks a wider amelioration of human settlement across the boundaries of time,
ethnicity, gender, politics, economics, culture, custom and location. Similarly, its legacy intends to be the
enhancement of nature through the quality of its artifice.
Its fabric is made of words and images charged with the desire to re-make the major invention of humankind -
the city - through technological aptitude, including systems of knowledge and organization, in pursuit of
transcendent values.
But its force exists in those more mundane plans and schemes that aim to improve the urban environment and
the architectural scenery of everyday life.
So the Ideal City is made and re-made in books, pictures and designs inspired by imagination or reason and
recurs across history and geography.
Its vision can be seen in children's and adult fiction as well as in science-fiction and scientific fact.
The significance of such exercises in hopeful forward-thinking is proved by their reappearance in philosophy,
poetry and popular song. While mainly the product of educated or expert people, it inspires those who build
and inhabit cities and whose lives make the total social order.
Popular music abounds with such sentiment. One instance is the reference to the "wide universal skies" in a
hit song from the 1960s by the Canadian group The Birds - ironically the name the Greek playwright
Aristophanes gave to his satire of ideal city planning as "cloud cuckoo land." The song expressed the wish of
belonging anywhere and everywhere, of being a singular person yet connected with all society. That is a
fundamental goal of every Ideal City.
Over and over again those who imagine or try to realize the Ideal City remind us that the chief component of
urban life is we citizens, gifted with extraordinary powers of creativity but troubled by inner anxieties and
negative impulses no less than external difficulties.
Quite literally, a good part of the idea and actuality of city, as of all aspects of life, lies within the complex
system of our own mental space. Plato, the Greek thinker who imagined many features of modern democratic
society and thus helped create modern urbanism, stressed the popular dimensions of the good town.
To be good it had to improve what existed in terms of personal experience in the physical and spiritual sense.
Plato reflected the eastern Mediterranean ideology that regarded 15 The Ideal City moral human community
as the highest objective of material organization. Hence the famous definition of the city voiced with the
greatest force by the ancient Greeks including Plato, Pericles, Lycurgus and Thucydides, and often
paraphrased as, "The strength of the city lies not in its walls but in its people."
Their rhetoric reminds us that the solution to our current worries about terrorism or criminality, contagion or
environmental degradation cannot be found in structure or system alone.
 It also speaks to our increasing concern at the millennium with inclusivity, which, nonetheless also illustrates
how the nature and application of the ideal changes over time.

6. INDUSTRIALIZATION AND CITY GROWTH:

The era of industrialization

In both Europe and the United States, the surge of industry during the mid- and late 19th century was
accompanied by rapid population growth, unfettered business enterprise, great speculative profits, and public
failures in managing the unwanted physical consequences of development.
Giant sprawling cities developed during this era, exhibiting the luxuries of wealth and the meanness of
poverty in sharp juxtaposition.
Eventually the corruption and exploitation of the era gave rise to the Progressive movement, of which city
planning formed a part.
The slums, congestion, disorder, ugliness, and threat of disease provoked a reaction in which sanitation
improvement was the first demand.
Significant betterment of public health resulted from engineering improvements in water
supply and sewerage, which were essential to the further growth of urban populations.
Later in the century the first housing reform measures were enacted. The early regulatory laws (such as Great
Britains Public Health Act of 1848 and the New York State Tenement House Act of 1879) set minimal
standards for housing construction.
Implementation, however, occurred only slowly, as governments did not provide funding for upgrading
existing dwellings, nor did the minimal rent-paying ability of slum dwellers offer incentives for landlords to
improve their buildings.
Nevertheless, housing improvement occurred as new structures were erected, and new legislation continued to
raise standards, often in response to the exposs of investigators and activists such as Jacob Riis in the United
States and Charles Booth in England.

Also during the Progressive era, which extended through the early 20th century, efforts to improve the urban
environment emerged from recognition of the need for recreation.
Parks were developed to provide visual relief and places for healthful play or relaxation. Later, playgrounds
were carved out in congested areas, and facilities for games and sports were established not only for children
but also for adults, whose workdays gradually shortened.
Supporters of the parks movement believed that the opportunity for outdoor recreation would have a civilizing
effect on the working classes, who were otherwise consigned to overcrowded housing and unhealthful
workplaces.
New Yorks Central Park, envisioned in the 1850s and designed by architects Calvert Vaux and Frederick
Law Olmsted, became a widely imitated model.
Among its contributions were the separation of pedestrian and vehicular traffic, the creation of a romantic
landscape within the heart of the city, and a demonstration that the creation of parks could greatly enhance
real-estate values in their surroundings. (See landscape architecture.)
 Concern for the appearance of the city had long been manifest in Europe, in the imperial tradition of court and
palace and in the central plazas and great buildings of church and state.
In Paris during the Second Empire (185270), Georges-Eugne, Baron Haussmann, became the greatest of the
planners on a grand scale, advocating straight arterial boulevards, advantageous vistas, and a symmetry of
squares and radiating roads.
The resulting urban form was widely emulated throughout the rest of continental Europe. Haussmanns efforts
went well beyond beautification, however; essentially they broke down the barriers to commerce presented by
medieval Paris, modernizing the city so as to enable the efficient transportation of goods as well as the rapid
mobilization of military troops.
His designs involved the demolition of antiquated tenement structures and their replacement
by new apartment houses intended for a wealthier clientele, the construction of transportation
corridors and commercial space that broke up residential neighbourhoods, and the
displacement of poor people from centrally located areas.
Haussmanns methods provided a template by which urban redevelopment programs would
operate in Europe and the United States until nearly the end of the 20th century, and they
would extend their influence in much of the developing world after that.
Population changes also transformed the city. Urban growth reflected the geographic mobility of the industrial
age; people moved from city to city as well as within them. The new transience led to diverse populations.
Migrants from rural areas and newcomers from abroad mingled with wealthy long-time residents and the
middle class. Immigrants constituted the fastest growing populations in big cities, where industry offered
work. Urban political machines helped immigrant communities by providing services in exchange for votes.
For immigrants, boss politics eased the way to jobs and citizenship. Most, but not all, city machines were
Democratic.
Just as industrialization and immigration transformed the city, new technology reshaped it. Taller buildings
became possible with the introduction of elevators and construction using cast-iron supports and, later, steel
girders. The first steel-frame skyscraper, ten stories high, arose in Chicago in 1885. In 1913 New York's
Woolworth Building soared to a height of 60 stories. Taller buildings caused land values in city centers to
increase.
New forms of transportation stretched cities out. First, trolleys veered over bumpy rails, and steam-powered
cable cars lugged passengers around. Then cities had electric streetcars, powered by overhead wires. Electric
streetcars and elevated railroads enabled cities to expand, absorbing nearby towns and linking central cities
with once-distant suburbs. For intercity transport, huge railroad terminalsbuilt like palaces, with columns,
arches, and towersarose near crowded business hubs.

7. AMERICAN GRID PLAN

HISTORY OF THE AMERICAN GRID

The grid has been used continuously throughout the world as a development pattern since Hippodamus first used it at
Piraeus, Greece in the 5th century BC. A lot happened over the next 2,000 years after that, but in 1682 William Penn
used the grid as the physical foundation for Philadelphia. With that, the grid began its new life in the new America.
Penns instructions for laying out his orthogonal plan were simple:

Be sure to settle the figure of the town so as that the streets hereafter may be uniform down to the water from the
country boundsThis may be ordered when I come, only let the houses built be in a line, or upon a line, as much
as may be

Penns use of the grid may have been influenced by Richard Newcourts plan for London following the fire of 1666.
However, Penn may have utilized the grid for its indexical qualities. The grid by its very nature has no built-in
hierarchy. Philadelphia was the first city to use the indexical system of numbers for north-south streets and tree names
for east-west streets. Because of this coordinate system, the intersection at 12th/Walnut has no more or less social or
political meaning than that at 18th/Cherry. Every plot of land is essentially equal to every other.

Over 100 years after Philadelphia, Thomas Jefferson executed the purchase of the Louisiana Territory. Following the
acquisition of such a vast territory came the challenges of subdividing, selling, and occupying it. It was impossible to
survey the entire area ahead of time so Jefferson devised a system that would make platting and selling achievable
from a distance. Jefferson answered with the grid in the Land Ordinance of 1785. The Ordinance divided the entire
western territory into townships, sections, quarter-sections, and so on. A system of Euclidean geometry made this
possible. Having never stepped foot on their property, someone could point to a map, make a purchase, and start their
wagon westward knowing precisely where they were going. Today, a cross-country flight will easily show the
physical ramifications of Jeffersons decision to subdivide our territory upon the grid. The vast majority of Americas
western land is so arranged in logical lattice-work.

Following the precedent of Philadelphia, the grid has been used extensively in a number of American cities in every
one of our now 50 states. Each of these cities, with their own purposes and reasonings, adopted the grid as their
foundation with varying outcomes. In Chicago, the grid was used as a vehicle to maximize both the speed of
development and financial speculation. In San Francisco, the grid flatly ignored topography and created a city of
dramatic hills and valleys. In Paragonah, Utah, the grid was executed to promote the doctrine of Mormonism. But
perhaps most famous of all American grids is that found in Manhattan. In 1811, the Commissioners adopted a master
street plan that would come to define the city of New York centuries later.

As known now Manhattan did grow and it grew well beyond all expectations within only a single century. The grid
was there to accommodate that growth.

In the 1920s, the roles of both the federal government and the States in the development of towns and cities were
refined and codified. Amongst all of the legal changes, two documents stand out: the Standard City Planning Enabling
Act (SCPEA) and the Standard State Zoning Enabling Act (SSZEA). The SSZEA specifies the creation, adoption, and
use of a zoning map. The SCPEA, on the other hand, specifies the components of a municipal master plan which is
made up of a zoning map and a master street plan. Unfortunately, over the last 80 years judicial interpretation over
what constitutes a master plan has allowed the zoning map to replace the master street plan. Without a master street
plan the grid is essentially impossible to execute. Thus, our American grids recent history has been a stagnant one.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE AMERICAN GRID

1. Walkable

With the proper block size, the grid is inherently walkable. Proper block size is the key term here. Blocks with sides
less than about 600 feet and perimeters less than 1,800 feet agglomerate together to form a connected network that
behooves everyone whether traveling by foot, car, segway, or stroller. By its very geometry, the grid provides the
connectivity necessary for good urbanism.

2. Navigable

Never ask for directions again. The grid gives you an immediate sense of where you are in the world: left-right, east-
west, uptown-downtown. As a bonus, it also gives you a sense of distance. As long as you know the unit of measure
between intersections, the grid behaves like a giant yard stick.

3. Adaptable

Land uses change constantly. With rectilinear lots and blocks, old land uses can move out and new land uses can
simply plug in.

Take Manhattan, for example. The block at 71st Street and Madison Avenue once accommodated Lenox farm. Fast
forward almost 200 years and that exact same block today accommodates high-rise apartments, office buildings, and
art galleries.
4. Orthogonal

The Commissioners of New York in 1811 recognized this when they chose the grid for Manhattan:the right sided and
right-angled houses are the most cheap to build and most convenient to live in.The same holds true for skyscrapers as
well.

Orthogonal blocks allow objects and land uses to trade places with ease and efficiency. These geometric efficiencies
compound upon each other as you move up in scale: rectangular desks beget rectangular rooms beget rectangular
buildings beget rectangular blocks. This leads to the next point

5. Economical

A rectangular block allows you to do the most with the least. The exact same block in Manhattan has accommodated
everything from a farmhouse to a skyscraper.

6. Sustainable

A rectangular block allows you to do the most with the least. The exact same block in Manhattan has accommodated
everything from a farmhouse to a skyscraper.

7. Appendable

With the grid, the method for expansion is obvious; new developments know exactly what form to take. Since the
block is the fundamental unit of the grid, new blocks can append to old in a logical sequence that can theoretically
guide development forever.

8. Historical

The grid is a fundamental part of our American heritage. While the grid has been utilized around the world for
thousands of years, William Penn introduced it to America in 1682 via Philadelphia. Since then, the grid has made its
way across our vast country thanks predominantly to Thomas Jeffersons 1785 Land Ordinance. Countless others,
from greedy developers to Mormon settlers, have followed suit. By utilizing the grid, todays city planners and urban
designers can continue this long lineage of linearity.

Conclusion

Simply put, the grid works; it is a two-dimensional organizing framework for urbanism. By using the grid, all of the
benefits above are built right into your plan; your urbanism will be off to a great start. Zoning and economy together
are responsible for the three-dimensional form that materializes on top of the grid. This is where things can really go
right or wrong. The grid, just like any other form of urbanism, is subject to the successes and failures of urban design,
architecture, and all the other considerations that make up our built environment.
The simple, rational street grid has been a default choice of planners for centuries (one that was widely discarded in
the U.S. in the 1950s as we moved into suburbs and cul-de-sacs). The 1811 Commissioners Plan for Manhattan tried
to establish a strict street grid for the development of the rest of the island. Several decades later, this 1852 map of San
Francisco did the same, conveniently ignoring the citys irregularly shaped coastline and topography.

8. CITTE NUOVO- THE NEW CITY

The Citt Nuova apartment building with external elevators, galleries, covered walkways, on three street levels
(tramlines, automobile lanes, and pedestrian walkway), lamps and wireless telegraph

In spring 1914 Antonio SantElia exhibited a series of drawings relating to his utopian vision of a completely
industrialized and technologically advanced Citt Nuova (New City).
 These were shown at an exhibition of Lombard architects and, two months later, at the exhibition Nuove
Tendenze: Milano lano due mille (New Tendencies: Milan the Year Two Thousand).
His Messagio, a polemical statement, printed in the catalogue, did not mention the words Futurist or Futurism, but
emphasized the need to respond to the new industrial age and to celebrate the conditions and focal points of
contemporary urban life grand hotels, railway stations and ports.
SantElia stressed that it was necessary to reinvent the city as a dynamic entity and to construct buildings like
gigantic machines.
The drawings can be linked with the Futurists celebration of speed and the dynamism of modern life.
They convey a total vision of a future metropolis in which streets are no longer confined to ground level and in
which buildings, as tall as American skyscrapers, do not stand alone (as in New York), but are part of an
integrated urban complex.
SantElias drawing style owed much to the conventions of Viennese architecture of about 1900, especially the
widely published designs of Otto Wagner and his students.
SantElias precise and elaborately detailed ink drawings were the result of a process of preparatory sketches and
studies related to their function as exhibition drawings.
The apartment building has external elevator shafts linked to the building by a series of bridges and covered
walkways.
This arrangement accentuates the mechanistic components of the housing block, making them a dominant aspect
of the buildings facade. It is articulated with both flat and stepped-back walls and is pierced by transportation
lines and bridges, which link it directly to other elements in the city.
In this way SantElia abolished the notion of the monolithic, free-standing building and integrated it fully into the
complete urban machine. Similarly, he fused different modes of transport (rail and air) into a single multi-levelled
structure with cable cars and elevators, again emphasizing the mechanistic purpose of the building and its dynamic
role within the life of the city.
With its symmetrical towers and colossal scale, however, it resembles a cathedral of the future, a monument to
the vision of a future way of living.
9. RADIANT CITY

Le Corbusiers Radiant City

Le Corbusier was trying to find a fix for the same problems of urban pollution and overcrowding, but unlike
Howard, he envisioned building up, not out. His plan, also known as Towers in the Park, proposed exactly that:
numerous high-rise buildings each surrounded by green space.
Each building was set on what planners today would derisively refer to as superblocks, and space was clearly
delineated between different uses (in the above diagram, this includes housing, the business center,
factories and warehouses). Le Corbusiers ideas later reappeared in the design of massive public housing
projects in the U.S. in the era of urban renewal.
The Ville Radieuse was a linear city based upon the abstract shape of the human body with head, spine, arms and
legs.
 The design maintained the idea of high-rise housing blocks, free circulation and abundant green spaces proposed
in his earlier work.
The blocks of housing were laid out in long lines stepping in and out. Like the Swiss Pavilion they were glazed on
their south side and were raised up on pilotis.
They had roof terraces and running tracks on their roofs. The ingenious layout is intended to make maximum use
of minimal space. 337 apartments are arranged over twelve storeys, interlocking, jigsaw-like.
Those on one side of the central corridors are entered at a single-aspect lower floor before ascending up to a
double-aspect upper one (as in the plan below).
Those leading off from the other side open into single-aspect upper floors before descending to double-aspect
lower ones.
Every flat has a double-height reception room with mezzanine and a deep balcony, and stretches from one side of
the building to the other, looking east towards the hills on one side and west towards the sea on the other.
23 different layouts provide living space for between one and ten people.
Built between 1947 and 1952, Marseille's Radiant City is a different beast altogether.
Classily designed to a high standard, today it's a fashionable middle-class Mecca and a vertical township in its
own right.
(slides from lakshmanans lecture presentation le corbusiers forays into urbanism)
10. CITE INDUSTRIELLE

TONY GARNIER:CITY INDUSTRIALLE:

Tony Garnier designs the plans of an ideal city, called An industrial city during his stay at Villa Mdicis
(1899-1904). Published in 1917, it is a milestone in the 20th century history of architecture and urban planning.
Tony Garnier will be rebuked many times by the French Academy for not dedicating his full energy to his
research project, Tusculum which concerned the reconstitution of a Roman city.
He dedicated himself instead to avant-garde ideas, by working on his modern city project, designed for about
35.000 inhabitants.
The Industrial City of Tony Garnier, which can be compared to a city of labor, illustrates the ideas of Fourier.
Tony Garnier located it in a place that can be identified as being in Saint-Etienne area (near by Saint-Chamont /
Rive-de-Gier), which was heavily industrialized at the beginning of the 20th century.
Going against urban conceptions of his time, the architect developed the zoning concept, dividing the city into
four main functions: work, housing, health, leisure.
The city is located on a rocky headland, the industrial area being clearly separated from it and located down the
headland, at the confluence of a river.
Four main principles emerge: functionnalism, space, greenery, and high sunshine exposure.
Tony Garnier'An industrial city'

Tony Garnier (1869- 1948) was the son of Pierre Garnier the architect of the famous Paris Opera house that
formed one of the focus points of the 19th century transformation of Paris.
Garnier studied at the Ecole des Beaux arts that was so much associated with 19th century eclectic architecture.
His interest in town planning was sparked of during his stay in Rome after winning the prestigious Prix de Rome
where he met other prize winners that had a lot of interest in town planning and design.
Garniers development coincides with the revision of ideas at the Ecole des Beaux arts under the influence of
growing criticism. Working in Rome and living from the stipendium Garnier developed his plan for an ideal
industrial city.
He got negative comments by the academy because he had deviated completely from the commission given to
him under the Prix de Rome conditions.
Despite this his work was exhibited in Paris in 1904.Although there were some negative reactions, the written
press and the professional press did not react either in a positive nor in a negative sense.
It looked as if his very unconventional work had sparked interest but no one could catagorize it. Also Garnier was
modest, not a strong debater and he did not propagate strong opinions or make strong statements.
This in contrast with the arrogance and out loud preaching of opinions by the modernist. So in history his work
fell somewhere in between. It was only first publicized in 1917.
Only later he was regarded as the fore runner of modernism, but this is only partly true.
He shared the concern about social questions and the idea that the design of cities as a whole should be
approached rational and that industry had te be seperated from living quarters.
On the other hand he showed great sensibility to the symbolic meaning of buildings and the quality of urban
space, something the modernists lacked.
 He also considered the city to be a 'rhizome' where citizens could circulate freely, whereas the modernists
advocated strickt hierarchical road networks and separation of types of traffic.
In hind sight Garnier was a 'stand alone' case in urban design. It is amazing to see the enormous number of
drawings Garnier produced, describing the city in detail and designing every important building as well as
numerous housing types. It is by far the most comprehensive ideal town ever designed.
The general design of Garniers city shows a seperation between living quarters and industry and also a separate
health centre outside the city.
This is understandable as 'industry' in his case equals heavy industry with its associated pollution.
The main patterns are grids. However the part with living quarters is kept narrow to minimize distances to
nature.This is also the reason why there is no explicit park within the city. In the centre of the town is a large
civiccentre.
9 The grid patterns are not 'stamped' all over the city. The design of the civic centre is based on adispositon of
buildings around a central axle.
This shows elements of classic design. On the other hand all buildings are free standing and the open spaces are
enormous. In the whole of the plan there are few squares, let alone enclosed squares.
The living quarters show an innovative new type of building block with free standing houses and 'urban villas'
(although using this word in this respect is an anachronism) on an 'island' between streets. This type of building
block had been taken up in recent urban design in the Netherlands.
The result is that there are no enclosed streets.
Trees form very much part of the design. Indicating the more important streets and losely planted within the
blocks.
Garnier has a lot of drawings showing public space in living quarters, indicating that he cared about everyday
living conditions. For the civic centre he only shows the buildings.
This suggests that he did not consider the design of public space around public buildings to be a very important
matter.
11. ANTI URBANISM AND THE PICTURESQUE
Antiurbanism

Anti-urbanism is a discourse of fear of the city, produced and reproduced via a variety of negative representations
of urban places, and drawing its power from deeply entrenched pro urban and pro-rural sentiment.
Industrialisation was the force which triggered anti-urban representations, as the rampant, unchecked urbanization
that characterised the industrial city was widely perceived to be a profound moral upheaval, an unwelcome
disruption to traditional values, and the intensification of urban malaise.
Whilst anti-urbanism is a widespread discourse, it is particularly advanced in the United States, partly because of
the influence of major intellectual figures who all treated the city with suspicion. This article uses the art of
Edward.
Hopper to explain the power of the anti-urbanism discourse, and its implications. It concludes by offering some
comments on recent accusations that writers such as Mike Davis are reproducing anti-urban discourse in their
popular work on contemporary urbanization.
 Anti-urbanism is best defined as a discourse of fear of the city, and something fuelled by the impact of images of
urban dystopia we see in a variety of media, cinematic, literary, artistic, photographic and in the case of the
Qashqai, corporate representations of urban places.
It is a discourse that has been around for a long time, in conjunction with the emergence of the industrial city, and
often constructed in relation to the good city of the ancient Greeks, and especially the perceived virtues of rural
life. Anti-urbanism is particularly advanced in the United States in a variety of guises, from the celebration of
rural small-town kinship and community to the fact that Los Angeles has been completely destroyed 138 times in
various motion pictures from 1909 to 1999! Critical analyses of anti-urbanism are vital if the material
consequences of widespread urban fears are to be exposed and challenged.
As cultural geographers have argued for a long time now, if we leave powerful representations unquestioned, then
supposedly fixed evidence about how a society is organized can very easily become treated as overwhelming
evidence of how it should, or must be organized.

Picturesque
The idea of the picturesque in urban design is the idea of looking at the environment as a 'picture' or a collection
of 'pictures'.
Analysis is aimed at discovering and categorizing these 'pictures' and design is aimed at making 'pictures': spatial
compositions of buildings and objects. This means this activity is aimed at the perception of the environment. The
idea being that a pleasant composition can evoke a feeling of well being and thus contribute to a good
environment.
Sequentional analysis

In the visual arts, architecture and urban design a sequence is a series of images expressing a thought or
feeling.space-time experience In architecture and urban design the idea behind sequences is that the represent a
certain space-time experience.
This space-time experience is an unavoidable part of any architecture and urban design. As the size and scale of
design increases it plays a more important role. On e could say that a very large building complex or city can only
be experienced as a sequence cinematographic view Characteristic for the idea of sequences is the
cinematographic view.
The environment is interpreted as a dynamic succession of scenes. Together they constitute a story. In essence
sequences are about manipulating experiences and feelings.
The most extreme form of this are theme park rides that manipulate visual impressions but above all impressions
of the human system of equilibrium. This leads to what in psychological terns is called a 'Kinesthetic experience'
(the word is a combination of 'kinetic' and 'esthetic').
The Picturesque tradition found its original impulse in a popular reaction to the changing face of English cities in
the seventeenth century as commercial expansion, social upheaval, and industrial technology began to transform
the medieval royal center into a crowded, dehumanizing urban catastrophe.
The shocking spectacle of urban deterioration prompted many observers to comment on the unseemly state of
affairs, particularly in London, where filth and high density appeared hand-in-hand with crime, licentiousness, and
 social chaos. John Evelyn complained in 1661 that Catharrs, Phthisicks, Coughs and Consumptions rage more in
this one City than in the whole Earth besides.
He suggested that the problem could be ameliorated by planting a greenbelt around the city which would be
diligently kept and supplyd, with such Shrubs, as yield the most fragrant and odoriferous Flowers, and are aptest
to tinge the Aer upon every gentle emission at a great distance.
4 In addition to this early proposal for a natural remedy for pollution, Evelyn collaborated with Christopher Wren
on a plan for rebuilding London after the Great Fire. Their plan relied on a spider web pattern which
subordinated the grid to a network of boulevards and plazas.

INDIA

PLANNING OF BHUBANESHWAR OTTO KOENIGSBERGER

Bhubaneshwar capital of Orissa is located 48km from the sea.
Between Mahanadhi Delta and gently undulating woodland
Foundation laid by Jawaharlal Nehru on April 13, 1948
The city was designed for 40,000 people
Original idea by Arturo Soria Y Mata - Spanish planner
Otto Koenigsberger Main designer

SITE SPECIFICATION
Selected in Feb 1948 for a new capital
Characterized by salient features like an air field, a railway line
Original town of Bhubaneswar had 12,000 population.
A Major Shaivite center of India with 300 Temples
Important temple Lingaraja Temple
Main Road to the Site linked with NH from Chennai to Calcutta towards north
The site has road links to Cuttack and Puri

KEY FACTORS
Based on Nehrus policies on Social Agenda
Neither caste nor socio-economic segregation to exist
Gender equality to be stressed
Education to be Stressed
Climate and context to be emphasized
Idea of reducing differences between rich and poor

DESIGN FEATURES
City laid out in a linear fashion.
Central artery forming the main spine
Neighborhood units are attached to main spine
Each Neighborhood unit accommodates major amenities of life schools, clinics, shopping centers,
libraries, etc.,
Easy walking distance even for a child.
Fairly high density unit can hold up to 5000 to 6000 people
Each unit planned around educational & recreational area.
Shopping center for every two units.
Central shopping district near railway station.
Every second housing site was allocated for non-officials.
Standard amenities provided for both old & new towns.
MASTER PLAN - BHUBANESHWAR
LOCATION - BHUBANESHWAR
 CHANDIGARH
EARLY PLANNING SCENARIO
After the partition of India, Pakistan became the capital of West Punjab and the search was on for the new
capital of East Punjab.Various locations were identified and discarded for shortage of water, poor
accessibility and defense vulnerability

SITE SPECIFICATIONS / POTENTIALS

Site located in Sub-mountainous region
260Kms North of Delhi
Central Location to the State
Proximity to National Capital
Plentiful water and Natural drainage
Shivalik Hills as Background
Had a great potential for Imaginative Landscape and offered magnificient view

SITE DETAILS
Chandigarh owes its name to Goddess Chandi
Boldest experiment in Indian Context
Site has mainly farmlands
Mango groves and has 24 villages
Bound by two Seasonal rivulets Patiali ki rao and Sukhna Choe which flow North-west and South-east
Lies on Longitude 76Degrees E and Latitude 20 Degrees N.
Altitude of 304.8 Mts to 365.76 M above Sea Level
Extreme Temperature

EARLY TEAM OF ARCHITECTS

Albert Mayer of Meyer, Whittlesey and Glass was invited to design the capital.
Other experts were engaged for planning citys economics and transportation, utilities and road and site
engineering and landscape.
 Matthew Nowicki, Polish architect, was also invited to colloborate.
First plan prepared in 1949.
Nowicki died in plane crash and a new team was recruited in 1950.
Le corbusier, Jean, Fry and Jane Drew were selected

DESIGN FEATURES
Mayer and Nowickis Plan
Mayer and Nowicki prepared a plan for 500,000 People
Based on Low- Density Neighborhood concept
Roads were slightly curved
Capitol complex at the Northern end
City center at the center
Industrial sector at east
Two natural valleys on either side proposed as parkways
Unit of housing is superblock.
Each superblock measures 500m X 1000m
Three blocks comprises a superblock
Each individual block will comprise of housing, schools, shopping centers and other amenities
Three types of housing units LIG, MIG, HIG planned around green space.

Nowickis scheme
Nowicki conceived another schematic plan of his own.
Derived from the organic form of a leaf
Stem of leaf compared with a commercial axis
Stem cuts through the center of the city
Traffic arteries will branch out from stem

PLANNING OF CHANDIGARH - LE CORBUSIER

Chandigarh is one of the most significant urban planning experiments of the 20th century. It is the only one
of the numerous urban planning schemes of Le Corbusier, the famous French architect-planner, to have
actually been executed It is also the site of some of his greatest architectural creations. The city has had far-
reaching impact, ushering in a modern idiom of architecture and city planning all over India and has become
a symbol of planned urbanism. It is as famous for its landscaping as for its architectural ambience. Most of
the buildings are in pure, cubical form, geometrically subdivided with emphasis on proportion, scale and
detail.

Le Corbusier summed up his work on the city in an "edict", quoting the following:

EDICT OF CHANDIGARH

The object of this edict is to enlighten the present and future citizens of Chandigarh about the basic concepts
of planning of the city so that they become its guardians and save it from whims of individuals. This edict
sets out the following basic ideas underlying the planning of the city.

1. HUMAN SCALE:
The city of Chandigarh is planned to human scale. It puts us in touch with the infinite cosmos and nature. It
provides one with places and buildings for all human activities by which the citizens can live a full and
harmonious life. The radiance of nature and heart are within our reach.

2. SECTORS:
This city is composed of sectors. Each sector is 800 meters by 1,200 meters, enclosed by roads allocated to
fast mechanised transport and sealed to direct access from the houses.

Each sector caters to the daily needs of its inhabitants, which vary from 5,000 to 25,000 and has a green strip
oriented longitudinally stretching centrally along the sector in the direction of the mountains. The green strip
should stay uninterrupted and accommodate schools, sports fields, walks and recreational facilities for the
sector.
Vehicular traffic is completely forbidden in the green strips, where tranquility shall reign and the curse of
noise shall not penetrate.

3. ROADS:
The roads of the city are classified into seven categories, known as the system of 7 Vs, as below: V-1 -- Fast
roads connecting Chandigarh to other towns; V-2 -- arterial roads; V-3 -- Fast vehicular roads; V-4 --
Meandering shopping streets; V-5 -- Sector circulation roads; V-6 Access roads to houses; V-7 -- footpaths
and cycle tracks
Buses will ply only on V-1, V-2, V-3 and V-4 roads. A wall shall seal the V-3 roads from the sectors.

4. AREAS OF SPECIAL ARCHITECTURAL INTEREST:

Certain areas of Chandigarh are of special architectural interest. Where harmonised and unified construction
of buildings is aimed at, absolute architectural and zoning control should remain operative.
Along V-2 central, dual carriageways Madhya Marg and Uttar Marg, where skyline, heights, character and
architecture of buildings as planned shall not be altered.
No building shall be constructed north of the Capitol Complex
Along V-2 beyond dual carriageway areas are reserved for cultural institutions only and shall never have any
residential buildings

5. CITY CENTRE:
The central plaza in Sector 17 was designed by Le Corbusier as "Pedestrian's Paradise". No vehicular traffic
will be permitted in the plaza.

6. INDUSTRIAL AREA:
Only such industry as is powered by electricity would be permitted in the Industrial Area, so that atmosphere
is saved from pollution.

7. THE LAKE:
The Lake is a gift of the creators of Chandigarh to the citizens to be at one with the lake and its
environments and its tranquility shall be guaranteed by banning noises.

8. LANDSCAPING:
The landscaping of this city is based on careful observation of the vegetation of India. Selected ornamental
trees, shrubs and climbers have been planted according to colour schemes to beautify it. In future planting
and replacements, these principles must be kept in view. There should be no haphazard replacements, so that
the avenues retain their harmony and beauty.
The Leisure Valley, the Rajendra Park and other parks shall be developed as parks only and no building
other than already planned shall be permitted.

9. NO PERSONAL STATUES SHALL BE ERECTED:

The age of personal statues is gone. No personal statues shall be erected in the city or parks of Chandigarh.
The city is planned to breathe the new sublimated spirit of art. Commemoration of persons shall be confined
to suitably placed bronze plaques.

10. TRUTHFULNESS OF BUILDING MATERIALS TO BE MAINTAINED:

The truthfulness of materials of constructions, concrete, bricks and stone, shall be maintained in all buildings
constructed or to be constructed..
 BACKGROUND
The Four Functions
(CIAM, Charter of Athens)

The force of this Charter lies in

1. giving the first place to the dwellings: the environment of living -- the family under the rule of '24 solar
hours'.
2. The second place is given to working, which is the daily act of human obligation.
3. The third is the culture of body on one hand and an intellectual leisure on the other.
4. When all these goals have received their definitive containers, it is possible to give to each of them a
respective rightful place and at this moment can interfere the problem of realizing the contacts: that is
'circulation'.

THE BIOLOGICAL ANALOGY - CONCEPT

Le Corbusier liked to compare the city he planned to a biological entity: the head was the Capitol, the City
Centre was the heart and work areas of the institutional area and the university were limbs.
Aside from the Leisure Valley traversing almost the entire city, parks extended lengthwise through each
sector to enable every resident to lift their eyes to the changing panorama of hills and sky.
Le Corbusier identified four basic functions of a city: living, working, circulation and care of the body and
spirit.
Each sector was provided with its own shopping and community facilities, schools and places of worship.
"Circulation" was of great importance to Le Corbusier and determined the other three basic functions.
By creating a hierarchy of roads, Le Corbusier sought to make every place in the city swiftly and easily
accessible and at the same time ensure tranquility and safety of living spaces.
If "circulation" was the dominant function, then of all "bodily elements", it was the "head" -- that is the
Capitol -- that most completely engaged the master architect's interest. Le Corbusier always looked for a
chance to make a dramatic statement: in the context of Chandigarh, that was the Capitol -- in this, the
priorities of the Indian government and Le Corbusier's natural inclination converged

BASIC PLANNING COMPONENTS MASTER PLAN

Le Corbusier's plan was based on the gridiron defined by a system of seven types of roads, which Le
Corbusier called the 7 Vs (from the French word 'voie') and their expected functions around and within
the neighbourhood.
The neighbourhood itself is surrounded by the fast-traffic road called V3 intersecting at the junctions of the
neighbourhood unit called sector with a dimension of 800 meters by 1200 meters.
The dimensions of the sector and its creation are best explained in Le Corbusier's own words: "Its
dimensions are an outcome of studies made between 1929 and 1949 of the Spanish 'Cuadra' of 100 to 110
meters. A useful reclassification of the (Cuadras) led me to adopt a ratio of harmonious dimensions and
productive combinations: seven to eight 'cuadras' on one side, ten to twelve 'cuadras' on the other, that is
to say 800 meters by 1200 meters." And this was the "Sector" issued from an ancestral and valid geometry
established in the past on the stride of a man, an ox or a horse, but now adopted to mechanical speeds...
The entrance of cars into the sectors of 800 meters by 1200m, which are exclusively reserved to family life,
can take place on four points only; in the middle of the 1200 m. in the middle of the 800 meters. All
stoppage of circulation shall be prohibited at the four circuses, at the angles of the Sectors.
The bus stops are provided each time at 200 meters from the circus so as to serve the four pedestrian
entrances into a sector.
Thus, the transit traffic takes place out of the sectors: the sectors being surrounded by four wall-bound car
roads without openings (the V3s). And this (a novelty in town-planning and decisive) was applied at
Chandigarh: no house (or building) door opens on the thoroughfare of rapid traffic.
 CIRCULATION TRANSPORTATION NETWORK

Le Corbusier's traffic system followed Mayer's lines but was more elaborate; he called it Les Sept Voies de
Circulation, or Seven Vs.
The rationale of his planning was the motor car. "From his early studies in urbanism, Le Corbusier had
identified the motor car as the central factor of modern town planning. His initial, primarily aesthetic, quasi-
Futurist response to the motor car and to rapid movement in the cities had, by 1950, metamorphosed into a
theoretical solution to the problems of modern traffic -- a graded system of circulation, from crossing
continents to walking to the front door.
[As Le Corbusier put it] 'The 7 Vs act in the town plan as the bloodstream, the lymph system and the
respiratory system act in biology. These systems are quite rational, they are different from each other, there
is no confusion between them, yet they are in harmony.
The 7Vs are no longer the sinister instruments of death, but become an organised hierarchy of roads which
can bring modern traffic circulation under control.
The 7Vs establishes a hierarchy of traffic circulation ranging from : arterial roads (V1), major
boulevards (V2) sector definers (V3), shopping streets (V4), neighbourhood streets (V5), access lanes
(V6) and pedestrian paths and cycle tracks (V7s and V8s).
The entrance of cars into the sectors, which are exclusively reserved to family life, can take place on four
points only; in the middle of the 1,200 meters; in the middle of the 800 meters.
All stoppage of circulation shall be prohibited at the four circuses, at the angles of the sectors.
The bus stops are provided each time at 200 meters from the circus so as to served the four pedestrian
entrances into a sector. Thus the transit traffic takes place out of the sectors; the sectors being surrounded by
four wall-bound car roads without openings (the V3s).

BUILDINGS
A) THE CAPITOL
The Capitol is Le Corbusier's focus : he began to sketch the designs for the Capitol buildings during his first
visit itself, in early 1951.
Like the Acropolis, which Le Corbusier loved, the complex stands aloof and dominates the city.
These geometrical concrete buildings are intended to embody the essential spirit of the new city; the size and
solidity of the structures denote power -- the power of the people in a democratic state.
Le Corbusier devoted great attention to the placement of the various buildings and other elements to avoid a
static balance of rigid geometry but at the same time preserve the alignment along a crossed axis and give
the whole a subtle visual cohesion.
The approach to the Capitol is through the vast expanse of a part pastoral land part consciously landscaped
plain ending at the base of the hills.
The V2 stately avenue called Jan Marg leads to this complex as a culminating focal point from the rest of
the city.
In contrast to the panoramic Shivalik hills that form the most picturesque backdrop for the Capitol -- the
small artificial hillocks planned by Le Corbusier play a delightful visual game of hiding and revealing the
edifices from the rest of the city.
The vantage point for observing this designed visual drama is from the Leisure Valley -- a central linear
green belt.
In Le Corbusier's original concept, the Capitol was to consist of the edifices consisting of i) Secretariat;
ii) Assembly, iii) High Court; and iv) Governor's Palace.
Besides these main buildings there were also to be a number of monuments based on Corbusier's personal
philosophy -- to adorn the piazzas and the open spaces between the edifices.
However, the proposed Governor's Palace was later changed to a more democratic institution called the
Museum of Knowledge. Although all other structures of the Capitol have been built -- sadly the pivotal
structure of the Museum of Knowledge has still not been built, leaving Le Corbusier's great masterpiece
somewhat like an unfinished symphony.
B) THE SECRETARIAT
The first conspicuous building to come into view is the Secretariat -- the largest of all from the buildings in
the complex (254 meters by 42 meters).
 Positioned at a sharp right angle to the mountain range it is designed as a vast linear slab-like structure -- a
workplace for 4000 people.
An endless rhythm of balconies and louvre on its linear facades punctuated in a subtle way by a deliberately
asymmetrical composition of brise-soleil (a sun shading device), evolved by Le Corbusier in one of his
earlier studies and conceptual design of a skyscraper in Algiers in 1938.
While a repetitive brise-soleil clads the five bays of the linear facade, the sixth bay, which contains the
double-height rooms of the ministers has an asymmetrical pattern.
It's faade, besides the rhythmic brise-soleil, is also sculpturally punctuated by the protruding masses of
angled ramps and stairways.
The roofline has a playful composition of a restaurant block, a ramp and a terraced garden, to break the
endless linearity.
Inside, each floor is organised as a long central corridor -- perhaps a very monotonous space visually-- with
offices on both sides. The windows on the exterior are in the form of fixed floor to ceiling undulatory
glazings and small aerators.
C) THE ASSEMBLY
Close to the huge sunken parking area in front of the Secretariat is located the most sculptural and eye-
catching of all the geometrical forms of the Capitol the Assembly.
When Le Corbusier first arrived in Delhi, he saw the old astronomical observatory called Jantar Mantar,
built by Maharaja Jai Singh. Reacting to its structures Le Corbusier recorded, They point the way; bind
men to the cosmos... the precise adaptation of forms and organisms to sun, rain air etc." The essence of
these forms took seed in Le Corbusier's imagination and later when he began sketching for the Assembly --
they were manifested in his concepts. All the initial sketches incorporated some form or the other of a tower
atop a cuboid building.
But it was only on his fifth trip to India in May/June 1953 that his vision of the Assembly got concretized.
Flying over Ahmedabad, he noticed the cooling towers of a power station. It was the shape he had been
looking for and accordingly a great hyperbolic drum, 39 meters in both diameter and height was
incorporated in the plan along with a pyramidal skylight connected to the drum by a small bridge.
Inside, the legislative chambers are dramatically illumined with shafts of light.
The building has two entrances: one at the basement level for everyday use and the other from the piazza
level for ceremonial occasions through a massive entrance, 7.60 meters high and 7.60 meters broad, whose
enameled door (a gift to Punjab from France) translates a cubist mural painted by Le Corbusier himself. The
door and many other elements of the Capitol demonstrate Le Corbusier's predilection for melding art and
architecture.
The large cuboid base of the hyperbolic drum contains the independent volumes of the upper and the lower
chambers -- now divided between the Punjab and Haryana states as their respective legislative chambers.
The outer box acts like a container of two auditorium-like spaces used by the two Legislative Assemblies.
An irregular space between the two chambers is a large lobby with sculptural lights designed by Le
Corbusier.
The external facades of the cuboid base has rhythmic pattern of the brise-soleil with its play of light and
shadow on three sides. And on the fourth opening towards the large piazza facing the High Court is a huge
trough supported on massive pylons.
D) THE HIGH COURT
The High Court is a linear block with the main faade toward the piazza.
It has a rhythmic arcade created by a parasol-like roof, which shades the entire building.
Keeping in view the special dignity of the judges, Le Corbusier created a special entrance for them through a
high portico resting on three giant pylons painted in bright colours. Very much in the tradition of the Buland
Darwaza of Fatehpur-Sikri, this grand entrance with its awesome scale, is intended to manifest the Majesty
of the Law to all who enter.
Juxtaposed between the main courtroom of the Chief Justice and eight smaller courts, is a great entrance
hall. Its scale -- especially the height -- is experienced most intensely while walking up the ramp.
The symbolism of providing an "umbrella of shelter" of law to the ordinary citizen is most vividly
manifested here.
The continuity of the concrete piazza running into this space establishes a unique site and structural unity of
the structure with the ground plane.
 The massive concrete pylons representing again the "Majesty of Law" are painted in bright primary colours
and visually punctuate the otherwise rhythmic facade of the High Court.
The rear side of this ceremonial entrance for the judges is a working entrance and a large car park at a
sunken level.
The massive piers and the blank end walls have interesting cut-outs and niches, to establish a playful
connection with the human scale.
Each courtroom was provided with an independent entrance from the piazza -- and the gracefully curving
overarching profile of the brise-soleil screen was intended to provide the symbolic protection. However, this
"metaphor" of protection proved highly non-functional against intense summer heat and the monsoon rains
-- thus requiring a single-storeyed continuous verandah running in front of them as a later addition.
Space for archives and library also proved insufficient, even after the open terraces of the library had been
taken over, so Le Corbusier agreed to design an unobtrusive, expandable annex to the north.
Colourful tapestries, one to each courtroom, cover the entire rear wall -- 12 metres square in the main
courtroom and 8 metres square for the smaller courtrooms.
A number of symbols that encapsulated Le Corbusier's view of man, earth, nature, the emblems of India and
the scales of justice were depicted in abstract, geometric patches. They were also required for acoustical
reasons. These tapestry designs referred to the architectural plan, in particular Le Corbusier's exaltation of
the right angle as basic element of architecture, and of order generally. The designs are based on Le
Corbusier's Modular, which he used to organise the entire Capitol Complex and give dimensions to all its
buildings.
He described the Modular as "a modest servant offered by mathematics to people desirous of harmony, a
universal tool for all kinds of fabrications destined to be sent to all parts of the world. Furthermore, it solves
by the decimal system the inextricable manipulation of the inch-foot system, an ancestral and totally
respectable measure. The Modular is based on human height ... it places man at the centre of the drama, its
solar plexus being the key to the three measures, which express the occupation of space by its members."

E) MONUMENTS

One day in 1952 when the first drawings were being made, Jane Drew casually suggested to Le Corbusier:
"Why don't you set between the edifices of the Capitol some of the signs that you sometimes evoke and which
symbolise your strongest preoccupations?" Le Corbusier accepted the suggestion and so it was that besides
the three major buildings of the Capitol Complex, Le Corbusier planned a number of monuments along the
main piazza to activate and embellish its linear perspective.

i) THE OPEN HAND

The most significant of these is the Open Hand. Conspicuous by its scale, this giant hand in metal sheet rises
26meters from a sunken trench and rotates freely in the wind from a high concrete pedestal, conveying the
symbolic message: "Open to give, Open to receive". It is the official emblem of the city.

Ii) TOWER OF SHADOWS

Le Corbusier's idea of the "24 Solar Hours" provides the impetus for this monument. This is an interesting
study of the movement of the sun. Here he explored various shading devices and demonstrated "that one can
control the sun on the four cardinal points of an edifice and that one can play with it even in a torrid country
and obtain lower temperatures."

iii) MARTYRS' MEMORIAL

A memorial to the martyrs of the Punjab partition consists of an enclosure -- where symbolic sculptures are
to be placed.
.LANDSCAPE
Three spaces were identified for special plantation: the roadsides, spaces around important buildings,
parks and special features such as Sukhna Lake.
While evolving the iron grid layout of the city, Le Corbusier incorporated an integrated park system of
continuous green belts from one end of the city to the other, allowing an unobstructed view of the
mountains.
 For the V2 avenue,on the one hand, it seems useful to demarcate the highway by a border of high trees
and on the other hand to unite with one glance the entire width of the avenue."
The conspicuous non-flowering trees are along V3 roadsides. These trees, noted for their vast, thick
spreading canopies form great vaulting shelters
"To specialise the character, each V-4 will be planted with trees having different colour, or of a different
species. For example one V-4 will be yellow, one V-4 will be red, one V-4 will be blue."
Pedestrian paths and cycle-tracks were to be laid out through these irregularly shaped linear parks to allow a
person to travel the entire length of the city under a canopy of green.
The valley of a seasonal rivulet that ran through the city site for about 8 kilometers with a depth of about 6
meters and a width extending to a maximum of 300 meters, was imaginatively made use of.
A series of special gardens transformed the existing eroded area into what is now called the Leisure Valley
PLANNING & DESIGN OF GANDHI NAGAR
BACKGROUND CONTEXT - The city was first designed and implemented between 1965 and 1970 by
two Indian town planners, H. K. Mewada and P. M. Apte. At the time an influential group of architects from
Ahmedabad, with the active support of certain industrialists, had tried to bringing in American architect
Louis Kahn who was in Ahmedabad to design the buildings of the management institute. The state
government, however, was determined to have the city designed by Indian town planners in the best
traditions of Gujarats rich heritage of town planning and principles of Mahatma Gandhi, who had his
Ashram just south of the new site on the banks of the river Sabarmati. The government therefore persisted
with its choice of the two men to plan the new capital.
SITE - Unlike Chandigarh, designed on barren lands with no sizeable existing human settlement nearby, the
site of Gandhinagar is just 23km north of the flourishing city of Ahmedabad. In order to establish and
maintain a separate identity for the new city, a surrounding area consisting of about 39 villages was brought
under a Periphery Control Act (as in Chandigarh) that permitted new development of farm houses only. The
area later constituted a separate administrative district of Gandhinagar.
CONCEPT - The city is planned on the western bank of the river. Owing to constant military confrontation
with Pakistan, whose borders are close to
the city, a large military presence was
required. The land acquired on the eastern
bank, adjacent to national highway no.8,
was therefore allotted to the border security
force and a military cantonment.
Considering the mostly south-west to
north-east wind direction, the land to the
north of the city was allotted for the then
biggest thermal power station and the
adjacent areas were zoned for industrial
use. This area was distanced from the
township by a 2,000ft wide green strip of
thick vegetation.
THE DESIGN - Being planned as the
administrative capital of the state, current
and future population employed in state
government offices was distributed in 30
residential sectors around the State
Assembly-Secretariat complex. In each
residential sector some 50 per cent of the
working population would be government-
employed. Plots on the periphery of each
sector were designated for private and
supporting population and made up the
other 50 per cent.
The city was planned for a population of
150,000 but can accommodate double that
figure with increases in the floor space ratio
from one to two in the areas reserved for
private development in all residential sectors. The river being the border on the east, and the industrial area
to the north, the most logical future physical expansion of the city was envisaged towards the north-west. To
retain the identity of the city as a new town and capital, the planners had provided for its growth away from
the city of Ahmedabad, which is to the south. Hence as a rational extension of the grid to the north-west the
original planners had envisaged 30 additional residential sectors that could accommodate a population of
450,000.

FOCUS The emphasis was on working out the 'mix' of populace from different income groups and
governmental hierarchy in a single sector which has both government and private housing and has at least 3
types of hierarchical housing mixed together. The housing clusters follow the "street" concept of the Gujarat
cities leading to a far greater social cohesion than ever in Chandigarh.
It is deeply rooted in the planning tradition of Gujarat. After having planned the government housing
clusters on the basis of the "Pole" (narrow street) pattern of old Gujarat towns Apte had conducted a social
survey of neighbourhood and community relationships in these clusters and it was gratifying to find from the
results that the feeling of neighbourliness and interpersonal relationships was much better than in the
western concept of grouping houses around a square open space which was followed in Chandigarh.
Chandigarh Residential Sector plan is a Regimented Grouping of plots/houses around central open spaces
while Gandhinagar Residential Sector Plan is Informal street pattern of houses typical of Gujarat towns.
Informal 'streets of houses' is typical of Gujarat heritage.
People of Gujarat take pride in Mahatma Gandhijis origins. Aconscious effort to build into the fabric of the
city his principles of equality and conscious interaction between people from all strata-economic, social,
religious and professions was attempted. The planning of each Sector where at least three hierarchical
categories of plots for general public or government employees were "mixed" together is an example. But to
be however practical and try and "mix" social and economic categories that could get along with each other
and not be idealistic by trying to put together the highest and the lowest. But this is a distinctive character of
the city as against the "Ghetto" like clusters created by Le Corbusier.
In terms of ideas, the architects and planners tried to follow Indiantraditions, cultural heritage and the
teachings of Gandhi. But at the same time, they adopted the state of the art building materials and
technology. One can find concrete pyramidal roof over classrooms in the design of primary schools (long
before Architect Charles Correa used it for his museum in the Sabarmati Ashram of Gandhi near
Ahmedabad) because traditionally the beginning of education was in the home of "Guru" staying in a hut
with pyramidal roof of bamboo and straw. There are many such examples where the designers have
combined the Indian thought but interpreted it in the language of modern materials, construction systems
and functionality of design. Every building in Gandhinagar is highly "functional" specifically and
deliberately designed to fulfill the function for its existence. These are not masterpieces that carry the
personal "stamp" of the architect.

TEMPLE
TOWNS
Understanding
Spaces
1. Madurai
2. Srirangam
CONCEPT TEMPLE TOWNS
1. Concentric Planning
2. Cardinal Directions
3. Community Hierarchy / Occupation and Class
TEMPLE TOWN Madurai
1. Settlement Pattern
2. Centre and concentricity
 TEMPLE TOWN Madurai
1. Tradition and Design Crux

TEMPLE TOWN Madurai

1. Street Network
2. Defensive Edge Boundary

TEMPLE TOWN Madurai

1. Spatial Hierarchy
Temples were laid in concentric form and the settlements too grew in concentric layers. Madurai and
Chidambaram are classic examples. Srirangam on the other hand is a settlement within a temple, than a
settlement around a temple. The eight enclosures well defined by huge prakara walls, punctuated by
gopurams and centered around the reclining form of Vishnu has a distinctive temple appearance. The inner
five enclosures make the temple and the outer three function as a settlement.
TEMPLE TOWN SRIRANGAM
Concentric Enclosures
A. SRIVATHSANA. Article in THE HINDU : TOWN WITHIN ATEMPLE
An island formed by the Cauvery and its tributary, Srirangam, is unique in many aspects.
Palm trees and temple towers make a typical skyline of many a historic town in Tamil Nadu. Most of these
towns are concentrically arranged around the temple and you can see the towering gopurams or entrance
towers even from a distance.Tamil Nadu is a land of temple towns and Srirangam is unique among them.
We know of temples within towns, but only in Srirangam an entire town is located within a temple.The
geography of Srirangam is also unique. It is an island formed by the Cauvery and its tributary Kollidam. The
temple town is located in the centre of this 18 km island and is on higher ground.There are eight concentric
rectangles around the sanctum. The inner five make the temple and the outer three the town. Each of these
prakaras or enclosures are defined by tall walls and punctuated by gopurams or entrance towers. In all there
are 21 gopurams in Srirangam. In 1996, the outermost southern gopuram was completed and it is the tallest
in Asia.

Exclusive
The eight enclosures were open space till the 15th Century and were used to temporarily rehabilitate people
affected by the floods. It is bereft of any sacred function. Hence, the town is also known as saptha-prakara
kshetra or place with seven enclosures. It is believed that each street is named after the king who built it.
However, research does not
completely support this.Srirangam was an exclusive religious town. The temple was wealthy, employed
many hundreds of people, patronised art and was wealthy enough to lend money to adjacent villages. There
was a library or Saraswathi Bandaram and a hospital inside the temple. There were festivals round the year
and pilgrims flocked to this place to worship.In the 20th Century, Srirangam became a municipality and the
town started to grow outside the fortified enclosure walls. Today it is spread all across the island.The
ecologically sensitive and beautiful landscape of Srirangam once inspired many poets, but now it is fast
deteriorating. Many beautiful groves and gardens are giving way to dense building blocks. The quaint
riverbanks are buzzing with building activity. Old buildings are being demolished rapidly. The ecology of
the island and the life within the town needs to be protected and sensitively planned for.

MEDEIVAL India - JAIPUR

The historic city of Ahmadabad is constituted out of residential settlements 'Pol' and has a specific scale of
its community based settlement grouping. Several of such settlements combined together
forms a 'Pur' neighborhood and the historic city has several 'Pur' neighborhoods forming the entire fortified
historic city.

POL AND PUR

These various 'Pur' have its own urban structure which is self sufficient for the communities, where each
'Pol' once again is a self sufficient unit. In as much as the individual 'Pol' is an entity by itself, the 'Pur' also
is an entity at a larger scale and so the progression goes further and makes the city comprising of such
entities giving it a homogeneous urban form which is characterized by the 'Pur' the 'Pol' and by a house. This
intrinsically emergent character is the key to the identity and associations that play an important role in a
socially defined urban form which is a living historic cultural heritage.
Ahmadabad has a rich heritage of settlement patterns in its historic old town, which was populated by a
large merchant community in various community settlements following different religions. Ahmadabad's
multicultural communities lend a distinct character to its settlement patterns and its built environment which
always had the religious institutions as its core around which the settlement patterns grew.

SETTLEMENT PATTERN

The house form, the grouping of houses and the hierarchy of its access ways formed an extremely secure
and homogeneous settlement pattern, which even today provides an excellent example of community living
and urbanity based on cultural identity and sense of collective agreement in its formation.

CULTURAL MANIFESTATION

The communities advocated a living in tune with religious practices and sharing as the basis for their welfare
and at the level of the house form this was amply expressed by the treatment of the
facade and entrance areas which provided a gradual transition space which allowed the occupants to
socialize with outside and also create a distinct zone of spaces for the houses to distinguish between the
public and private areas of family living. This attitude provided a very important facade expression which
resulted into the elaborate wooden architecture of the town. The attitude to embellish the wooden
architecture with intricate carvings and symbolism akin to the religious buildings gave rise to a very
important expression of domestic architecture in western India, which has also established a very important
phase of characteristic architecture in western India. The house form was designed as a corollary to temples
as house was also seen as a temple in their belief to emulate spirituality in daily life. In many cases, the
houses also became places of worship depending upon the benevolence of the owners. Architecture of
religious institutions assumes important significance in built environment in any culture as representative of
the sum total of its cultural identity and image. The places of worship are conceptualized with highest
imaginative skills to represent the associative and built with the best available skills employing long lasting
materials and techniques and building skills. This form of architecture then becomes a source of inspiration
in all its meanings to inspire the people and influence their own built environment.
 UNIT 3

THEORISING AND READING URBAN SPACE

PIONEERS IN URBAN DESIGN

Urban design views were basically classified under

1.Senses 2. Socialistic 3. Technological

Senses No art that is one man deep is worth much; it should be thousand men deep
- Designers like Camiellio Sitte he was concerned with the elements of composition
which would produce harmonious effects and a livable environment. Ex. Gordon
Cullen, Kevin Lynch

Socialistic A major group which is concerned primarily with the reformation of the
society ex. Robert Owns Village of Co operation accomdates 300 2000 family
units. Ex. Jane Jacobs

Technology This group was primarily motivated by the Technological innovations and
difficulties in building up a city form. Ex Walking city Ron Heron ( city as a organism),
Space city Arata Isozaki, Arcosanti Paolo Soleri, city as a machine Yona Friedman,
One town world- Buck minister fuller.

KEVIN LYNCH:

Kevin Lynch (1960) pioneered a scientific approach to urban design studying and analysed the
components of urban design parameters and human evaluation. He put forth the image of the city
as a concept which can be perceived, evaluated and changed. His seminal work lay in identifying
basic elements of an image of a city and in introducing a technique of image analysis as the basis
of a plan for a future visual form of the city. His work was based on American cities. In his words,
the image analysis may differ with other cultures or other races. Later work in architectural
research, landscape architecture, environmental psychology has dealt with specific studies in
perception studies and cognitive maps in America and Central America.
Ideas of lynch
He was concerned by the look of the cities and whether this look is of any importance , or whether
this look can be changed.
He introduced the theory of urban form.
An urban environment is a complex system of interactions between people (users) and various
surrounding objects
Lynch described two things important for a subsequent explanation of the whole theory: first,
physical elements of the city and second, the psychological, mental image of the city.
Wrote 7 books:
The image of the city.
City sense and city design.
Good city form.
Site planning

The Image of the City

Lynch's most famous work, The Image of the City (1960), is the result of a five-year study on how
observers take in information of the city. Using three American cities as examples (Boston, Jersey
City and Los Angeles), Lynch reported that users understood their surroundings in consistent and
predictable ways, forming mental maps with five elements:

paths, the streets, sidewalks, trails, and other channels in which people travel;
edges, perceived boundaries such as walls, buildings, and shorelines;
districts, relatively large sections of the city distinguished by some identity or character;
nodes, focal points, intersections or loci;
landmarks, readily identifiable objects which serve as external reference points.

In the same book, Lynch also coined the words "imageability" and "wayfinding". Image of the
City has had important and durable influence in the fields of urban planning and environmental
psychology.

IMAGEABILITY

Kevin Lynchs book, The Image of the City, is a detailed study of the way we structure our cities
psychologically. For Lynch, the imageability of a city is directly related to the success of its urban
plan. Lynch argues that the ease in which one can recognize the patterns and meanings of their
environment, the more pleasure and utility they will extract from it.

Lynchs book is an attempt to connect legibility of a citys composition to its success as a place.
Without legibility, confusion sets in. This, for Lynch, is the ultimate failure of an urban environment.
Confusion robs us of our emotional security and puts us at odds with the outside world. A strongly
structured image of the city, however, establishes a harmonious relationship between city and
user. Imageability, therefore, is a gauge of success in the design of cities.

Imageability in a city may be said to be more a perceptual concept than a physical or visual entity.
It is the interpretation of various layers of a citys images - its form, profile and experiences over a
period of time. Imageability refers to the probability that an environment will evoke a strong image
from observers. Imageability is probably the single most important factor in the identity of a place
(Lynch, 1960)..

Kevin Lynch found that there are five basic elements which peopleuse to construt their mental
image of a city
Pathways
Districts
Edges
Landmarks
Nodes
CULLEN

Gordon Cullen studied architecture at the Royal Polytechnic Institution, but never qualified as an
architect. He started his career working as a draughtsman in various architectural practices before
spending a couple of years in Barbados. He then returned to Britain and joined the Architectural
Review as Assistant Editor in 1946. He later became a writer on planning policy and contributed
numerous editorials and case studies in urban and rural planning.

Townscape

His major contribution to the field of urban design is his 1961 Townscape. Like most of Cullens
work, this book deals with the art of relationship between the various components of the urban
landscape. The purpose of this art is to take all the elements that go to create the built
environment: buildings, trees, nature, water, traffic, advertisements, and so on, and to weave them
in such a way that drama is released. (Cullen, 1961, p.9)

Cullens approach to urban design is therefore primarily visual, but it is also based on the physical
relationship between movement and the environment: the scenery of towns is often revealed in a
series of jerks or revelations. (Cullen, 1961, p.9)

It is for this reason that Cullen developed the concept of serial vision. This method of
representation can be used as a tool for surveying, analyzing and designing. A serial vision is a
series of sketches that represent the changes and constrasts in the character of the built
environment that one experiences when moving around the city. The sketches should be shown
along with a map identifying the journey and the viewpoints from which the sketches are drawn.
In Cullens own words, the even progress of travel is illuminated by a series of sudden contrasts
and so an impact is made on the eye, bringing the plan to life. (Cullen, 1961, p.17). As you will
see in Unit 1.3., this is close to Fleming's idea of the town as narrative.

The concept of serial vision and, generally speaking, Cullens approach, can be applied to design
as much as it can serve survey and analysis : if [] we design our towns from the point of view of
the moving person (pedestrian or car-borne) it is easy to see how the whole city becomes a plastic
experience, a journey through pressures and vacuums, a sequence ofexposures and enclosures,
of constraint and relief. (Cullen, 1961, p.10)

But design does not solely rely on visual methods. Cullens book is a fine example of the
importance of using specific vocabulary when describing the built environment:

Shade, shelter, amenity and convenience are the usual causes of possession.
Occupied
[] The furniture of possession includes floorscape, posts, canopies, enclaves,
territory
focal points and enclosures . (Cullen, 1971, p.23)

Where there is a mixture of static possession and possession in movement, we

Viscosity find what may be termed viscosity : the formation of groups chatting, of slow
window-shoppers, people selling newspapers and so on. (Cullen, 1971, p.24)

The enclave or interior open to the exterior and having free and direct access
Enclave from one to the other is seen here as an accessible place or room out of the
main directional stream []. (Cullen, 1971, p.25)

It is the basic unit of the precinctual pattern ; outside, the noise and speed of
impersonal communication which comes and goes but is not of any place.
Enclosure
Inside, he quietness and human scale of the square, quad or courtyard .
(Cullen, 1971, p.25)

Coupled with enclosure (the hollow object) [] is the focal point, the vertical
symbol of congregation. In the fertile streets and market places of town and
Focal point
village it is the focal point (be it column or cross) which crystallizes the situation,
which confirms this is the spot. Stop looking, it is here . Cullen, 1971, p .26)

Gordon Cullens work reflects the Townscape and Picturesque Movement of the mid-twentieth
century. In England, this type of design was also advocated by urban planner Thomas Sharp
whose work focused on village design. Nikolaus Pevnser, a German-born scholar who specialized
in the history or art and architecture, said that Nearly everything that encloses space on a scale
sufficient for a human being to move in is a building; the term architecture applies only to buildings
designed with a view to aesthetic appeal .

Imeagibity

Imageability is related to sense of place. Gorden Cullen (1961, p. 152) elaborates on the concept
of sense of place, asserting that a characteristic visual theme will contribute to a cohesive sense of
place and will inspire people to enter and rest in the space. Jan Gehl (1987, p. 183) explains this
phenomenon using the example of famous Italian city squares, where life in the space, the
climate, and the architectural quality support and complement each other to create an
unforgettable total impression. When all factors manage to work together to such pleasing ends, a
feeling of physical and psychological well-being results: the feeling that a space is a thoroughly
pleasant place in which to be.

Imageability is influenced by many other urban design qualitiesenclosure, human scale,

transparency, complexity, coherence, legibility, and linkageand is in some way the net effect of
these qualities. Places that rate high on these qualities are likely to rate high on imageability as
wellthe neighborhoods of Paris or San Francisco, for example. However, places that rate low on
these qualities may also evoke strong images, though ones that people may prefer to forget, such
as boring industrial parks or strips of faceless shopping centers. Urban designers focus on the
strength of positive images in discussing imageability and sense of place. The urban design panel
most often mentioned vernacular architecture as a contributor to imageability. Other influences
mentioned were landmarks, striking views, unusual topography, and marquee signage.

JANE JACOB:

Jane Jacobs (1961), one of the most serious critics of modernist planning, defended traditional
neighborhoods, lively street life and crowded pedestrian sidewalks. She emphasized the need to
understand cities in terms of combinations or mixtures of uses rather than separate land uses. She
stressed on diversity as a measure of urban vitality and put forth some indispensable conditions to
generate diversity in urban space.
JEAN JACOB'S FOUR CONDITIONS
1. The need for mixed primary uses

2. The need for small blocks

3. The need for aged buildings

4. The need for concentration

The concept of Genius Loci

Architecture is a thing of art, a phenomenon of the emotions, lying outside questions of

construction and beyond them. The purpose of construction is to make things hold together; of
architecture to move us. Architectural emotion exists when the work rings within us in tune with a
universe whose laws we obey, recognize and respect. When certain harmonies have been
attained, the work captures us. Architecture is a mater of harmonies, it is a pure creation of the
spirit.
Le Corbusier, Versune architecture .Human culture is very strongly linked to places. Indeed, the
inseparableness of the human being and the world, at least from the human beings point of view,
has been one of the main discussions of philosophy. We are and we take place. In Being and
Time, Heidegger (1962) argued that, in conventional philosophy and psychology, the relationship
between person and world has been reduced to either an idealist or realist perspective. In an
idealist view, the world is a function of a person who acts on the world through consciousness and,
therefore, actively knows and shapes his or her world. In contrast, a realist view sees the person
as a function of the world in that the world acts on the person and he or she reacts. Heidegger
claimed that both perspectives are out of touch with the nature of human life because they assume
a separation and directional relationship between person and world that does not exist in the world
of actual lived experience.
Instead, Heidegger argued that people do not exist apart from the world but, rather, are intimately
caught up in and immersed. There is, in other words, an unsolvable unity between people and the
world. This situation always given, never escapable is what Heidegger calledDasein, or being-
in-the-world. It is impossible to ask whether person makes world or world makes person because
both exist always together and can only be correctly interpreted in terms of the holistic
relationship, being-in-world. On a less philosophical level, our relationship and direct exchange
with the environment is even more apparent. Our metabolism has a daily input and output of
about 5kg mass, consisting of food, water and oxygen (Reed & Coulter, 1999). An average
human being is
thus processing about 140 tons of world during a life time.
Eliade(1961) is pointing out, that in all cultures, places have had a deeply mythological meaning.
The foundation of a house, a settlement or a town has been a religious act, which is still
reminiscence today. Architecture has an eminent role as a key interface and definition of our
being-in-the-world. Where natural environment is more and more lost, architecture takes a key
role in creating places and in the best case a genius loci. In Roman mythology a genius loci was
the protective spirit of a place. It was often depicted as a snake. With the dawn of rationalism, this
spiritual meaning of a place has been more and more negated. The modern movement in
architecture tried to analyse the site based on scientific parameters and their optimization like sun
angles and circulation distances. The fast growth of cities in the last century, which is still
continuing today, and the application of the modern formula quickly resulted in sterile and
faceless neighbourhoods. First social problems resulted in high-density poor city quarters, but in
fact, also the fast growth of the.single family houses in the agglomeration results in places with no
identity. The genius loci, which was found in medieval and renaissance cities has been lost!
In contemporary usage, "genius loci" usually refers to a location's distinctive atmosphere, or a
"spirit of place", rather than necessarily a guardian spirit. It has been Norberg-Schulz
(1982) who re-introduced this topic in the modern context, but the attempts of the postmodernists
to reintroduce it into actually built architecture, did not go beyond a naive an formalistic repetition
of long surpassed historic concepts. History can never be revived, it can only be understood and
be taken as a base of knowledge for future developments.Most people are charmed by the
specific atmosphere of places, which developed over centuries or have been very well planned
and seem to convey a unity, a rightness and an atmosphere. A harmony with Human culture and
nature. These places cannot be reproduced, since their making was a complex cultural process.

URBAN ARTIFACTS:ROSSI:

In the 1960s the architectural movement Tendenza emerged in northern Italy. Tendenza was
critical of the modern movement and its maxim of form follows function. Instead, it wanted to
redefi ne architecture on its own terms; to set up architecture itself as the measure of
architecture. The key postulate of the movement, in other words, was that architecture could be
defined as an autonomous phenomenon (Turan, 1998). One of the most prominent theoretical
works in this tradition is Aldo Rossis TheArchitecture of the City (1982). Despite a rather abstruse
style of writing, the book became a bestseller, and was translated into several languages. But
although it is often referred to as such, it is not a theory of urban design in any conventional sense
of the notion. Rossi sees the city as total architecture as a gigantic man-made object and to
deal with the city, for Rossi, is therefore to deal with the architecture of the city. The architecture of
the city is constituted by two categories of urban artifacts. One is the study areas a term
borrowed from the Chicago school of sociology which signifies urban districts, or the
neighborhoods of the city which, in their totality, constitute the bulk of the architecture of the city.
The other is the more distinct manifestations of architecture, in the form of monumental buildings,
or monuments, and so-called primary elements. Because the architecture of the city constitutes
the city as a physical reality, to Rossi, the essence of the city lme de la cit or its quality, is
embodied in its architecture. And as the architecture of the city, is the carrier of transient values,
which constitute the city as a collective fact, the monuments play a special role because [as]
the city is preeminently a collective fact it is defined by and exists in those works that are of an
essentially collective nature Rossis seeming enterprise is to defi ne what constitutes the urban
artifacts. Mostof his attention is paid to the monuments, and, in his opposition to modernism, he
argues that what constitutes a building as a monument is not its function as over time,
monumental buildings may serve different functions than those originally intended but solely its
form. To view the various parts of the city merely as embodiments of functions is therefore
dismissed as ideological, and an expression of nave functionalism which is suppressing the
most important values implicit in the structure of urban artifacts and prevents an analysis of
what is realIn order to develop a scientifi c theory of architectural form, he turns to the french
architectural treatise writers of the enlightenment. They, like Rossi, wanted to developthe
principles of architecture from logical bases, and from them he draws the concept of the
architectural type. Typology is a formal way of categorizing architecture, which presents itself as
the study of types of elements that cannot be further reduced, elements of a city as well as of an
architecture (ibid., p. 41). Typology, in other words, is seen as a constant which constitutes form;
the very idea of architecture, that which is closest to its essence (ibid., p. 41). In terms of the
study area, or urban district, Rossi makes two a priori statements. Due to the way the city is
created, it cannot be reduced to a single idea a masterplan. On the contrary, the city is made up
of numerous different moments of formation, andit is the unity of these moments which
constitutes the city as a whole. Furthermore,urban intervention should operate only on a limited
part of the city, because it is themost realistic approach in terms of the citys program and the
knowledge whichwe have of it.
Hence his focus on the districts, which although he uses a variety of sociologicalcategories
study area, dwelling area, or residential area are not socially defined.Rossi sees an important
relation between the monument, or primary element, and thedistrict in relation to the dynamic of
urban development. By reference to a selectionof historical examples, he argues that some
primary elements function as nuclei, asa sort of grains of condensation, which spark the urban
development around them,just as the relationship between them is responsible for
configurating [the] city ina specifi c way.Despite conceptual references to the Chicago School of
sociology, his rejection ofany functional criteria is also a rejection of social criteria. Although he
acknowledgesthe role of power and economics in the formation of the city, his social
considerationsremain oddly detached from his theorizations. Not even his recognition that
technological development, first through industrialization and later through individual
transportation, which increasingly questions the traditional notion of a city as a distinct,spatially
defined entity, is capable of shaking his strictly formal view:
[W]e want to contest that this new scale can change the substance of an urban artifact. It is
conceivable that a change in scale modifies an urban artifact in some way; but it does not change
its quality.

William H. Whyte

William H. (Holly) Whyte (1917-1999) is the mentor of Project for Public Spaces because of his
seminal work in the study of human behavior in urban settings. While working with the New York
City Planning Commission in 1969, Whyte began to wonder how newly planned city spaces were
actually working out something that no one had previously researched. This curiosity led to the
Street Life Project, a pioneering study of pedestrian behavior and city dynamics.
Whyte's design principles for public spaces
It was observed that the amount of "sittable" space (places where people can sit) is directly related
to how much a public space is used. The location of the space is also important - it should be in
the heart of the downtown area, preferably on a major corner, as people need to be able to walk to
it easily. At least 80% of users are likely to come from a radius of three blocks. Other points the
team noted were that the shape of the space is not crucial (one of the most popular spaces in New
York was a long narrow indentation in a building) and that the supply of spaces creates demand.
A good new space induces people to use it and creates new habits in them - eating outdoors,
walking etc. Interestingly, it was observed that people like to position themselves in well defined
spaces - near steps or the border of a pool. The finding that people rarely choose the middle of a
large space also supports Sitte's principle that irregular shaped public plazas work best. Finally,
the relationship of the location of the space and the street is important - if the space is physically
close and visually accessible to the public street it becomes almost instinctive that people enter it.
Where the street functions as part of the plaza or public space, the social life of both spaces flows
back and forth.
Whyte's principles for streets and other aspects of the city
As with Sitte and Jane Jacobs, the importance of the street and streetscape is considered
paramount by Whyte and his team. Current development practice promotes overhead skyways
and underground concourses in areas of high land value - which takes shoppers and pedestrians
off the streets - yet the greatest urban spaces (where people stop for conversations) were
observed to be street corners. A further observation is that the bulk of the right of way is given to
vehicles and the least to pedestrians - which is in inverse relationship to the need.
Megastructures (self contained multipurpose complexes including hotel, office, retail and parking
space) are criticised as having no sense of place - in them, people are disoriented and unable to
see outside. They could be at an airport or shopping centre, or in any country in the world - they
are all the same universal controlled environment. Whyte demonstrates numerous before and after
examples of megacentres which borrow their sense of place from surrounding older buildings.
Later when the older buildings are redeveloped, the space in and around the megacentres
becomes sterile and deserted. In addition, Whyte simply notes that big buildings cast big shadows
and bigger buildings cast even bigger shadows. The trend towards megacentres has also led to
the dominant feature of the townscape (at least in the USA) becoming the blank wall.
Along with Jane Jacobs, Christopher Alexander and Allan Jacobs, Whyte also applauds citizen
involvement in planning issues. One example he cites involved a downzoning decision in the
Upper East Side, New York. Such a decision looked impossible as funding for a back up study of
some 200 blocks was unavailable. However, a community group concerned that the moderate
scale of the side streets should be given protection, organised volunteers to do the study
themselves. They carefully recorded the height, current use and other details of existing buildings.
As a result, the planning commission downzoned the midblocks of most of the side streets in this
area. Future buildings could be no higher than the width of the right of way - or sixty feet - the
same proportion the French laid down for Paris avenues in the 1600s.
 UNIT 4

ISSUES OF URBAN SPACE

PLACE MAKING:

Place making is a people-centred approach to the planning, design and management of

public spaces. It involves looking at, listening to, and asking questions of the people who
live, work and play in a particular space, to discover needs and aspirations. This information
is then used to create a common vision for that place. The vision can evolve quickly into an
implementation strategy, beginning with small-scale, do-able improvements that can
immediately bring benefits to public spaces and the people who use them.

Place making is a multi-faceted approach to the planning, design and management of

public spaces. Place making capitalizes on a local communitys assets, inspiration, and
potential, ultimately creating good public spaces that promote peoples health, happiness,
and wellbeing. Place making is both a process and a philosophy.

The concepts behind Place making originated in the 1960s, when writers like Jane
Jacobs and William H. Whyte offered ground-breaking ideas about designing cities that
catered to people, not just to cars and shopping centers. Their work focused on the
importance of lively neighbourhoods and inviting public spaces. Jane Jacobs advocated
citizen ownership of streets through the now-famous idea of eyes on the street. William H.
Whyte emphasized essential elements for creating social life in public spaces.

Place making is a term that began to be used in the 1970s by architects and planners to
describe the process of creating squares, plazas, parks, streets and waterfronts that will
attract people because they are pleasurable or interesting. Landscape often plays an
important role in the design process.

Place making can be used to improve all of the spaces that comprise the gathering places
within a communityits streets, sidewalks, parks, buildings, and other public spaces

Place making is not just the act of building or fixing up a space; it is a process that fosters
the creation of vital public destinations. It refers to the kind of places where people feel a
strong stake in their communities and commitment to making things better.

Place making capitalizes on a local communitys assets, inspiration and potential, creating
good public spaces that pro mote peoples health, happiness, and economic well-being.

IDENTITY AND PLACE:

Place identity refers to a cluster of ideas about place and identity in the fields of geography,
urban planning, urban design, landscape architecture, environmental psychology, and
urban sociology/ecological sociology. It concerns the meaning and significance of places for
their inhabitants and users.

Methodologies for understanding place identity primarily involve qualitative techniques,

such as interviewing, participant observation, discourse analysis and mapping a range of
physical elements. Some urban planners, urban designers and landscape architects use
forms of deliberative planning, design Charette and participatory design with local
 communities as a way of working with place identity to transform existing places as well as
create new ones. This kind of planning and design process is sometimes referred to as
place making.

Place identity is sometimes called urban character, neighbourhood character or local

character.

Place identity has become a significant issue in the last 25 years in urban planning and
design. Related to the worldwide movement to protect places with heritage significance,
concerns have arisen about the loss of individuality and distinctiveness between different
places as an effect of cultural globalisation.

COLLECTIVE MEMORY, IDENTITY AND PLACE MAKING SOME THEORETICAL

CONSIDERATIONS

The paper is based on the theoretical linkage of the concepts of collective memory, identity and
place making. The appreciation of collective memory is a central aspect of urban planning practice
and is of central importance to the constitution of identity. In addition, it carries implications for
place making and the built fabric of the city. Thus, architecture and urban planning form a strong
part in shaping the identity of a city.

The definition of urbanity has become a new focus for the definition of personal and collective
identities. In the past few years, a growing body of literature has emerged on the relation between
architecture and the issues of collective memory and national identity (Halbwachs, 1992; Gillis,
1994; Koshar, 1994/2000; Delanty/Jones, 2002). Maurice Halbwachs (1992), one of the most
influential philosophers on collective memory, stated that monuments and other topographical
features are central in the formation of a collective memory and identity in the modern world.
Identity has always been related to physical space; the German word for being alive, Dasein
(Heidegger) for example, literally meaning being there The common view is that cultural or
collective memory is produced through and reflected in objects, images and representations. It is
perceived to be located in specific places or objects, and is therefore a major significance for
urban planning. Yet, this process Nof cultural or collective memory is bound in complex political
stakes and meanings.Here, the theoretical premise is that the building-architectural and the
political decision-making elite create a particular identity, which will maintain and stabilise its
position. The use of buildings to articulate control and power is not a new phenomenon. It has
been used throughout history to indicate who is in control and what facets of group or national
identity the ones in power want to project. This points to a dialectic relationship between the
creation of the self, meaning and identity formation, and the construction of the city. According to
Bounds (2004), this dialectic relationship between the form and the experience of the form is
mobilised in the selling of the city

The concept of constructing and selling the image of a city or region has become essential in
new urban politics and marketing strategies in many post-industrial cities. Harvey characterizes
this development of city marketing and place making, which is often accompanied by a turn to
post-modern styles of architecture and urban design, as the new urban entrepreneurialism.
According to him the active production of places with special qualities becomes an important
stake in spatial competition between localities, regions, and nations

The consequences on the people, the populace, however, remain somewhat unclear. What effect
on the formation of identity have the changes associated with such marketing strategies? Will
they integrate the population or alienate parts from it through cultural or social biases? Which
identity is seen fit for a whole city? Which segments of the inhabitants are represented? In an
environment of contested meanings and identities can all the citys inhabitants identify with their
city while at the same time an attractive image is presented to potential tourists and investors? In
particular, how long can a tension between re-invented urban culture and city history promoted
by city development professionals, investors and even politicians, and the various local cultures
and memories that shape the city be maintained?

A perfect example of this conflict is Berlin. It is a city in constant redefinition of its identity and its
image. After reunification, Berlin faces a new challenge in bringing together East and West in one
city space. Furthermore, the new old capital of Germany had to face an even greater challenge
and responsibility in serving as a symbol for a divided society to (re-) shape a German national
identity. Another challenge for Berlin was that it had to reposition itself on the national and global
scale.

URBAN MORPHOLOGY:

Urban morphology is the study of the form of human settlements and the process of their
formation and transformation. The study seeks to understand the spatial structure and
character of a metropolitan area, city, town or village by examining the patterns of its
component parts and the process of its development.

This can involve the analysis of physical structures at different scales as well as patterns of
movement, land use, ownership or control and occupation. Typically, analysis of physical
form focuses on street pattern, lot (or, in the UK, plot) pattern and building pattern,
sometimes referred to collectively as urban grain. Analysis of specific settlements is usually
undertaken using cartographic sources and the process of development is deduced from
comparison of historic maps.
Special attention is given to how the physical form of a city changes over time and to how
different cities compare to each other. Another significant part of this subfield deals with the
study of the social forms which are expressed in the physical layout of a city, and,
conversely, how physical form produces or reproduces various social forms.

The essence of the idea of morphology was initially expressed in the writings of the great
poet and philosopher Goethe (1790); the term as such was first used in bioscience.
Recently it is being increasingly used in geography, geology, philology and other subjects.
In American geography, urban morphology as a particular field of study owes its origins to
Lewis Mumford, James Vance and Sam Bass Warner. Peter Hall of the UK is also a central
figure.

Urban morphology is also considered as the study of urban tissue, or fabric, as a means of
discerning the underlying structure of the built landscape. This approach challenges the
common perception of unplanned environments as chaotic or vaguely organic through
understanding the structures and processes embedded in urbanisation.

The tool for analysing the Urban Morphology has some theories such as Space syntax,
Figure and Ground cities
Three Theories of Urban Spatial Design:
(i) Figure and Ground
(ii) Linkage theory
(iii) Place Theory

URBAN SPRAWL:

Urban sprawl is defined as the unplanned, uncontrolled spreading of urban development into
areas adjoining the edge of a city.
It is also characterised by the spreading of urban developments (as houses and shopping centers)
on undeveloped land near a city.

The term sprawl, as used by land developers, planners and governmental institutions, refers to the
change in trends of land usage, and the change in demographics across given geographies.

Sprawl is generally defined as the increased development of land in suburban and rural areas
outside of their respective urban centers. This increased development of real estate in the
outskirts of towns, villages and metropolitan areas is quite often accompanied by a lack of
development, redevelopment or reuse of land within the urban centers themselves.

This trend is often referred to as both urban sprawl and rural sprawl. Although these two terms
might sound contradictory, they are ironically referring to the same phenomenonthat is, the
movement of development from urban areas, to rural areas.

Framed in other terms, sprawl refers to the slow decentralization of human occupancy. That is,
communities are requiring more land and space to supply the same given population with homes,
workplaces, shopping locations and recreation spaces.

3. GENERIC FORM & GENERIC CITY

As the world becomes more globalized and information exchanges are so fast, many cities in the
world are trying to position themselves apart from other cities to attract different resources such as
investment or manpower. One of the strategy that city uses is to create its own identity/branding to
separate from others. Rem Koolhaas formulates different ideas how city could position itself better
as Generic City. His theory is based on his own critical observations of many global cities he
experiences and what characterizes them.

First, he despises the identity of the city and believes identity actually choke the city itself to death.
He said Identity is like a mousetrap in which more and more mice have to share the original
bait,, The stronger identity, the more it imprisons, the more it resists expansion, interpretation,
renewal, contradiction. Also, The insistence on the center as the core of value and meaning, font
of all significance, is doubly destructive. He celebrates and believes generic city is liberated from
the straightjacket of identity.

Second, Koolhaas thinks the airport is the most important elements to understand the
contemporary city. He stresses the architectural and spatial aspects of the airport could provide as
well as the performance and autonomy of the airport could offer. That is why he called the airport
is the most singular, characteristic elements of the Generic City and the airport will replace the
city in the future.

In contrast to the view of current urban planing, he embraces the fact of motorways and bridges
over pedestrians networks that generic city has to offer. He affirms that is the free style of
generic city and the generic city is immoral and pragmatic. Also, the Generic City grows so fast
that city planning becomes redundant. That is the advantage of the Generic City.

In architecture of generic city, Koolhaas emphasizes on the use of the postmodern language as a
method, not a historical language. And, He believes generic city employs this architectural style
that does not need a strong theoretical framework helps the development of the generic city.

PRIVATIZATIZATION OF PUBLIC REALM:

Public realm or the public sphere is an area in social life where individuals can come together to
freely discuss and identify societal problems, and through that discussion influence political action.
It is "a discursive space in which individuals and groups congregate to discuss matters of mutual
interest and, where possible, to reach a common judgment. The public sphere can be seen as "a
theatre in modern societies in which political participation is enacted through the medium of talk"
and "a realm/domain of social life in which public opinion can be formed

Traditionally public spaces were funded with public money and built by the local government. With
a commitment to public service and less emphasis on returns on investment, design decisions
could be made for the greater good. Lack of Community Cohesion is the primary issue. The gated
communities produce privatized open space, especially in housing developments, leads people to
become less inclined to spend time in truly urbanized open spaces, such as city parks.

The privatized open spaces such as those ones of the public Apartment and condo building has
open space open only for its residents and they can only access ; which leads to people
socializing with people like themselves. This will allow us to get to know only our neighbours; it can
discourage us from mingling with people in our local community. When people keep to
themselves, social inclusion and community cohesion can suffer. In other words, the privatization
of public space is an attempt to diminish the democratic dreams of ordinary citizens.

URBAN DESIGN TRANSPORTATION:

The combination of urban design and transportation objectives produces urban environments in
which people can live, work, learn, play and recreate; all within a short walk or a transit ride. This
is an antidote to the large lots of single-family homes that are a car drive away from everything,
and that have come to characterize urban sprawl. It is also characterised by the spreading of
urban developments (as houses and shopping centers) on undeveloped land near a city

URBAN DESIGN AND TRANSPORTATION:

The combination of urban design and transportation objectives produces urban environments in
which people can live, work, learn, play and recreate; all within a short walk or a transit ride. This
is an antidote [A remedy that stops or controls the effects of a problem] to the large lots of single-
family homes that are a car drive away from everything, and that have come to characterize urban
sprawl.

ZONING

Zoning is subject to modification if required to protect the public health ,safety or welfare .
Legislative bodies make judgement based upon the data.
The careful analysis is done and decisions are made based on sound planing and the
zoning principles.
It will lessen congestion on streets,secure greater safety from fire,panic and similar danger
,promote health by requiring adequate light and air
prevent overcrowding of land , avoid undue concentrations of population,facilitate the
provision of adequate transportation, water supply , sewage disposal
Other basic necessities such as schools,parks,play grounds ,civic and clutural amenities
Blight ,obsolescence and slums are dicouraged the city retains the good character and
appearance .

GLOBALIZATION AND URBAN ISSUES:

The urban form of cities has witnessed a large shift as a result of the industrial revolution.
Globalization has affected peoples relation through the way they communicate in between
 in addition to their linkage to places. As a result of the industrial revolution the meaning of
time has changed, space and distance have been reduced, physical boundaries demolished,
and the speed and type of movement is different.

Furthermore, such meaning was more catalysed by the digital revolution; globalization and
telematics have defused place, distance and time making the latter unreal in a way. It is what
Manuel Castells (2002) calls the timeless time. The shrinkage of distances and the speed of
movement that characterize the current period find one of its most extreme forms in
electronically based communities of individuals or organizations throughout the whole world.

Enlarging 'spaces of democracy', including civic spaces, is crucial for encouraging citizens'
involvement in the governance of cities and regions. However, global trends in urban
development have intensified the use of land and the built environment for economic activities
at the expense of civic spaces, and urban spaces are increasingly being transformed into
spaces for consumption rather than for social and civic life. Inadequacy in the provision of
civic spaces is of concern because of its effects on the political efficacy and well-being of city
inhabitants.

GLOBALISATION AND THE URBAN SPACE:

McGee and Watters have identified two features of the present version of globalisation
increased integration of the national economies with the global systems of production,
consumption, and distribution; and space-time contraction that is the effect of technological
advances in transport, communication, and computer technology.

And, cities are the primary spatial framework within which capital, goods, people, and
information are concentrated; therefore, globalisation has influenced urban space formation in
India. However, shaping of spatial structures of Indian cities by global forces has been little
discussed in globalisation debates.

Before the British came, Indian cities were monocentric located around central market
places (eg, Delhi's Chandini Chowk, Abid/Koti in Hyderabad). To the market centre the British
ad ..

After Independence state housing boards and urban development authorities, to accomplish
certain explicit and defined goals, added contrived centres to Indian cities, which led to the
emergence of government-driven polycentric cities. Market-driven polycentric cities have, in
contrast, developed during the late 1990s and show three spatial patterns leapfrog
development, fractured cities, and divided cities.

Revenues generated to meet external demands have provided funds to support productionof
locally-consumed goods and services in Indian cities. The market demand for retail products
and housing has led to construction of malls, retail outlets, and apartment complexes, which
has transformed the urban space within the monocentric city.

As a matter of fact, tall buildings, shopping malls, corporate headquarters, prestige hotels,
and hospitals were overlaid on the earlier built environment by a process of creative
destruction, for instance road widening often left buildings unfit fo . for use and developers
would purchase a group of buildings to construct high-rise structures. Consequently, the core
city space has become randomly marked with glass and steel structures as if development
has leapfrogged from one location to another.

At the same time, several economic centres have developed in the periphery leading to
polycentric cities. In the west these nuclei of economic activity are known by various names
"technoburbs" (Robert Fishman), "urban villages" (Kenneth Jackson) .. "middle landscape"
 (Peter Rowe), and "edge cities" (Joel Garreau). In India global capital in search for the
cheapest available land honed-in on the periurban space surrounding cities.

Periurban areas in India are the rural-urban interface and a landing ground for rural residents
migrating to cities. Polynucleation of periurban areas is spatially manifested in the form of
office parks, malls, and apartments and single-family homes.
Moreover, the core and periphery of Indian cities are now separated as if by a fault line and
construction of expressways, ring-roads, bypasses has accentuated the fracture. State
governments, by their excessive reliance on public health inspired zoning based on abstract
pattern of standard streets, lots, and set backs, and commercial strips, have also contributed
to the process of fracturing of Indian cities.

Indian cities have been divided by the desire of different types of people to live s .separately
from other socio-economic groups leading to distance in urban space. This was observed by
the Chicago School in the US and called "spatial polarisation". Divided cities have arisen due
to the "exclusionary aspirations rooted in fear and protection of privilege and the values of
civic responsibility...and the dangers of making outsiders of fellow citizens".

Spatially, this has led to the construction of "gated communities" to wall out uncertainty,
reduce different types of physical risk (e.g. personal safety) and social interactions (eg
unwanted social exchanges). At the same time job creation in cities due to multiplier effects of
external injections has attracted different types of people leading to diverse and plural cities,
called "mongrel cities" by Leonie Sandercock.

How to plan to enrich human life in fractured, divided, and mongrel cities Planning has two
components the hard component (built environment) and the soft component. In turn,
planning for the built environment is possible at two scales. At the macro-level regional level
planning for transport, water supply, sewage disposal, and environment management is
required. Simultaneously micro-level planning by using tools, such as neo-traditional models,
is a practical possibility to retro-fit neighbourhoods.

In contrast to conventional development, neo-traditional development models aim to recreate

the classic small town with its walkable streets, mix of land uses, and blend of buildings and
open space. Orlando City in Florida has combined neo-traditional planning principles and
public-private partnership frameworks to develop compact and walkable neighborhoods,
villages, and town centres with a jobs/housing balance; and clustered open spaces occupying
more than 40% of the land.
Noteworthy is the integration of principles of architecture, urban design, and planning at the
neighbourhood level and planning looks at the built form (eg footprints of all structures), land
use patterns (eg location and density of retail, office spaces), public open space (eg parks,
plazas), street design (eg circulation systems), and pedestrian access (eg one-quarter mile
access from shops).

The soft component is the management of the emerging new urban condition in which
difference and otherness prevail. Establishing social consensus requires managing diversity
by developing skills of listening, consensus-building, facilitation, negotiation, and securing
effective public involvement, as opposed to mere consultation.

The much-acclaimed municipal participatory budgeting in the Brazilian city of Porte Alegre is
one example. Even though finances were scarce, people were involved in the budgeting
process. The outcomes have demonstrated that ordinary citizens have the capacity to debate
among themselves and to establish spending priorities and upscale their neighbourhood-level
experiences.
URBAN DESIGN AND SUSTAINABILITY:

Urban design creates green, sustainable places

Compact, walkable places are the most sustainable form of living. The combination of
human scale urbanism, with a mix of uses and services, a range of housing options,
extensive train systems, and the ability to walk and bicycle as part of daily life all make for
sustainable, green living. Add safe, clean, renewable energy, and true sustainability
results.

In the era of gradually decreasing oil supplies and rising energy costs, the need for low
energy lifestyles has never been greater. Urban design principles and practices bring
together the ideas and plans to create enjoyable places to live, work and play while greatly
reducing energy use.

Designing away the need for cars is the most important step in creating sustainable places.
This has the triple effect of lowering our energy use (especially imported oil), reducing
global warming emissions, and raising our quality of life in cities by increasing mobility and
convenience.

IDEAS OF SUSTAINABILITY:

Sustainable design (also called environmental design, environmentally sustainable design,

environmentally conscious design, etc.) is the philosophy of designing physical objects, the built
environment, and services to comply with the principles of social, economic,
and ecological sustainability.
The intention of sustainable design is to "eliminate negative environmental impact completely
through skillful, sensitive design".[1] Manifestations of sustainable design require no non-renewable
resources, impact the environment minimally, and connect people with the natural environment.
Beyond the "elimination of negative environmental impact", sustainable design must create
projects that are meaningful innovations that can shift behaviour. A dynamic balance between
economy and society, intended to generate long-term relationships between user and
object/service and finally to be respectful and mindful of the environmental and social differences
Conceptual problems

Diminishing returns
The principle that all directions of progress run out, ending with diminishing returns, is evident in
the typical 'S' curve of the technology life cycle and in the useful life of any system as discussed
inindustrial ecology and life cycle assessment. Diminishing returns are the result of reaching
natural limits. Common business management practice is to read diminishing returns in any
direction of effort as an indication of diminishing opportunity, the potential for accelerating decline
and a signal to seek new opportunities elsewhere. [citation needed] (see also: law of diminishing
returns,marginal utility and Jevons paradox.)

Unsustainable Investment
A problem arises when the limits of a resource are hard to see, so increasing investment in
response to diminishing returns may seem profitable as in the Tragedy of the Commons, but may
lead to a collapse. This problem of increasing investment in diminishing resources has also been
studied in relation to the causes of civilization collapse by Joseph Tainter among others.[3] This
natural error in investment policy contributed to the collapse of both the Roman and Mayan,
among others. Relieving over-stressed resources requires reducing pressure on them, not
continually increasing it whether more efficiently or not[4]

Waste prevention
Plans for Floriade 2012 in Venlo, the Netherlands: "The Greenest Building in the Netherlands - no
external fuel, electricity, water or sewage."

Negative Effects of Waste

About 80 million tonnes of waste in total are generated in the U.K. alone, for example, each
year.[5] And with reference to only household waste, between 1991/92 and 2007/08, each person
in England generated an average of 1.35 pounds of waste per day. [6]
Experience has now shown that there is no completely safe method of waste disposal. All forms of
disposal have negative impacts on the environment, public health, and local economies. Landfills
have contaminated drinking water. Garbage burned in incinerators has poisoned air, soil, and
water. The majority of water treatment systems change the local ecology. Attempts to control or
manage wastes after they are produced fail to eliminate environmental impacts.
The toxic components of household products pose serious health risks and aggravate the trash
problem. In the U.S., about eight pounds in every ton of household garbage contains toxic
materials, such as heavy metals like nickel, lead, cadmium, and mercury from batteries,
and organic compoundsfound in pesticides and consumer products, such as air freshener sprays,
nail polish, cleaners, and other products.[7] When burned or buried, toxic materials also pose a
serious threat to public health and the environment.
The only way to avoid environmental harm from waste is to prevent its generation. Pollution
prevention means changing the way activities are conducted and eliminating the source of the
problem. It does not mean doing without, but doing differently. For example, preventing waste
pollution from litter caused by disposable beverage containers does not mean doing without
beverages; it just means using refillable bottles.
Waste prevention strategies In planning for facilities, a comprehensive design strategy is
needed for preventing generation of solid waste. A good garbage prevention strategy would
require that everything brought into a facility be recycled for reuse or recycled back into the
environment throughbiodegradation. This would mean a greater reliance on natural materials or
products that are compatible with the environment.
Any resource-related development is going to have two basic sources of solid waste materials
purchased and used by the facility and those brought into the facility by visitors. The following
waste prevention strategies apply to both, although different approaches will be needed for
implementation:[8]

use products that minimize waste and are nontoxic

compost or anaerobically digest biodegradable wastes
reuse materials onsite or collect suitable materials for offsite recycling

Sustainable design principles

The California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco, California. It's a sustainable building
designed by Renzo Piano, and opened on September 27, 2008
While the practical application varies among disciplines, some common principles are as follows:
 Low-impact materials: choose non-toxic, sustainably produced or recycled materials which
require little energy to process
Energy efficiency: use manufacturing processes and produce products which require less
energy
Emotionally Durable Design: reducing consumption and waste of resources by increasing the
durability of relationships between people and products, through design
Design for reuse and recycling: "Products, processes, and systems should be designed for
performance in a commercial 'afterlife'."[9]
Design impact measures for total carbon footprint and life-cycle assessment for any resource
used are increasingly required and available.^ [10] Many are complex, but some give quick and
accurate whole-earth estimates of impacts. One measure estimates any spending as
consuming an average economic share of global energy use of 8,000 BTU (8,400 kJ) per
dollar and producing CO2 at the average rate of 0.57 kg of CO2 per dollar (1995 dollars US)
from DOE figures.[11]
Sustainable design standards and project design guides are also increasingly available and
are vigorously being developed by a wide array of private organizations and individuals. There
is also a large body of new methods emerging from the rapid development of what has
become known as 'sustainability science' promoted by a wide variety of educational and
governmental institutions.
Biomimicry: "redesigning industrial systems on biological lines ... enabling the constant reuse
of materials in continuous closed cycles..."[12]
Service substitution: shifting the mode of consumption from personal ownership of products to
provision of services which provide similar functions, e.g., from a private automobile to
acarsharing service. Such a system promotes minimal resource use per unit of consumption
(e.g., per trip driven).[13]
Renewability: materials should come from nearby (local or bioregional), sustainably managed
renewable sources that can be composted when their usefulness has been exhausted.
Robust eco-design: robust design principles are applied to the design of a pollution sources

SUSTAINABLE URBANISM - Sustainable Urbanism, as a defined term, is application of

sustainability and resilient principles to the design, planning, and administration/operation of cities.
There are a range of organizations promoting and researching sustainable urbanism practices
including governmental agencies, non-governmental organizations, professional associations, and
professional enterprises around the world. Related to sustainable urbanism is the Ecocity
movement (also known as Ecological Urbanism) which specifically is looking to make cities based
on ecological principles, and the Resilient Cities movement addresses depleting resources by
creating distributed local resources to replace global supply chain in case of major disruption.
Green urbanism is another common term for sustainable urbanism. Sustainable development is a
general term for both making both urban and economic growth more sustainable, but isn't
specifically a mode of urbanism.

Sustainable urbanism aims to close the loop by eliminating environmental impact of urban
development by providing all resources locally. It looks at the full life cycle of the products to make
sure that everything is made sustainably, and sustainable urbanism also brings things like
electricity and food production into the city. This means that literally everything that the town or city
needs is right there making it truly self-sufficient and sustainable.

The architect and urban planner Doug Farr discusses making cities walkable, along with
combining elements of ecological urbanism, sustainable urban infrastructure, and new urbanism,
and goes beyond them to close the loop on resource use and bring everything into the city or
town. It is about increasing the quality of life by bringing more resources within a short distance
and also increasing the quality of products that are offered.
Defining Elements of Sustainable Urbanism
Compactness

Compactness, or density, plays an important role in sustainable urban development because it

supports reductions in per-capita resource use and benefits public transit developments. The
density of new development across the U.S. averages roughly two dwelling unit per acre, which is
too low to support efficient transit and walk-to destinations. Such low-density development is a
characteristic of urban sprawl, which is the major cause of high dependence on private
automobiles, inefficient infrastructure, increased obesity, loss of farmlands and natural
habitats,pollution, and so on.[4] For these reasons, sustainable urbanism requires minimum
development densities roughly four times higher than two dwelling units per acre.

Overall, compact development generates less pollutants to the natural world. Research has shown
that low-density development can exacerbate non-point source pollutant loadings by consuming
absorbent open space and increasing impervious surface area relative to compact
development.[5] While increasing densities regionally can better protect water resources at a
regional level, higher-density development can create more impervious cover, which increases
water quality problems in nearby or adjacent water bodies.

Increasing neighborhood population density also supports improved public transit service.
Concentrating development density in and around transit stops and corridors maximizes people's
willingness to walk and thus reduces car ownership and use. Sustainable urbanism seeks to
integrate infrastructure design increase with density, because a concentrated mixed-use
development required less per capita infrastructure usage compared to detached single-family
housing.[6]

Biophilia
The concept of Biophilia hypothesis was introduced by E. O. Wilson. It refers to the connection
between humans and other living systems. Within this concept, humans are biologically
predisposed to caring for nature. In Douglass Farrs book, Sustainable Urbanism: Urban Design
with Nature, he links open spaces such as parks and recreational areas, sustainable food
production and agricultural land use practices with humans concern and relationship with natural
systems. Therefore, biophilia is a crucial underlying component of sustainable urbanism.[7][8]

Sustainable Corridors

Sustainable corridors are similar to a wildlife corridor in that they connect one area to another
efficiently, cheaply, and safely. They allow people to pass from their immediate proximity to
another without relying on cars or other wasteful and inefficient products. It also relys on
accessibility to all people in the community so that the mode of transportation is the most
convenient and easiest to use for everyone. Sustainable Corridors also include biodiversity
corridors to allow animals to move around communities so that they may still live in and around
cities.[9]

High Performance Buildings

High performance buildings are designed and constructed to maximize operational energy savings
and minimize environmental impacts of the construction and operation of the buildings. Building
construction and operation generates a great deal of externalized costs such as material waste,
energy inefficiencies and pollution. High performance buildings aim to minimize these and make
the process much more efficient and less harmful. New York City Department of Design &
Construction put out a set of guidelines in April 1999 on High performance buildings that have
broad application to sustainable urbanism as a whole worldwide.[10]

The amount of energy use of a building is determined by two types of heating/cooling loads or in
other words the amount of heating or cooling needed to keep the interior at a reasonable
temperature. Internal loads: the lighting, people, equipment, and ventilation system used inside the
building, and external loads: the construction of the walls, roofs, and windows and how that
influences energy flow.[11]
By incorporating environmentally sound materials and systems, improving indoor air quality and
using natural or high efficiency lighting, it minimizes a building impact on its natural surroundings;
additionally, those who work or live in these buildings directly benefit from these differences. Some
building owners have even reported increased worker productivity as a result of the improved
conditions.

However, because these other benefits are more difficult to quantify than direct energy savings,
the real value of high performance buildings can easily be underestimated by traditional
accounting methods that do not recognize external municipal and regional costs and benefits.
The cost evaluations of high performance building should account for the economic, social, and
environmental benefits that accompany green buildings.[12]

URBAN RENEWAL

Urban Renewal is a continuous up-gradation process by which large areas of town / city, gradually
change their character by slowly renewing themselves to fit in with the needs of contemporary
society.
A combination of circumstances like
Expansion of town without proper planning,
new modes of living or shopping,
changing attitudes towards environment also lead to such schemes.
Urban Renewal can be said as a collective programme to alter or correct the above stated
troubles.
It includes
redevelopment,
conservation and
rehabilitation.
NEED:
In Urban areas, urban agglomeration and the resulting population congestion leads to unbearable
living conditions, which is the root cause of planning a renewal programme.
The need for urban development mainly arises due to
1. Bad living conditions of urban people
2. Physical and Functional obsolescence.
3. Traffic congestions due to improper planning.
4. Economic/Social imbalance
5. Inadequacy of infrastructural facilities.
AIMS AND GOALS

1. Identification of areas for different schemes i.e., conserrvation, rehabilitation,

redevelopment etc.
2. Provision of required housing, commercial and industrial facilities.
3. Improvement of slums and blighted area
4. Strengthening and Provision of infrastructual facilities viz schools, hospitals etc and
amenities like water supply, drainage
5. Deciding the traffic circulation pattern by strengthening and widening of existing roads and
provision of links.
URBAN RENEWAL STRATIGIES

1. REDEVELOPMENT
2. REHABILITATION
3. CLEARANCE
4. URBAN DECENTRALISATION
5. CONSERVATION
6. REPRODUCTION
7. REVITALISATION

1. REDEVELOPMENT ( CLEARING AND RE-USE OF LAND)

Redevelopment is taken to mean the process which involves clearance of property and the
building of new structures according to a definite pre-conceived plan with the layout different
from that of area before redevelopment was undertaken.

BASIC APPROACH TO REDEVELOPMENT:

7. REVITALISATION
Helps to discard negative imagery of a city .
Ex: Old industrial centres are frequently defined in the media by severe economic and social
deprivation, homelessness, high levels of crime, vandalism, public disorder, pollution and a
lack of civic amenities. As a consequence, they have increasingly needed to reposition
themselves as centres of leisure and amenity rather than of production and heavy industry.
URBAN CATALYST:

Urban catalysts are new redevelopment strategies comprised of a series of projects that
drive and guide urban development. Redevelopment efforts in the past, such as urban
renewal and large-scale redevelopment projects, have often jeopardized the vitality of
downtowns. The difference between the urban catalyst and these redevelopment strategies
is that catalytic redevelopment is a holistic approach, not a clean-slate approach, to
revitalizing the urban fabric.

Many cities have considered urban catalysts as a means for revitalization. Among the most
noted catalytic projects are sports stadiums and arenas: however not all catalytic projects
have to be designed at such a grand scale, nor do all cities possess a threshold of support
to successfully sustain such developments.

The urban catalyst theory says design can be linked to place through the study of
contextual factors in urban design. These factors include: morphological, social, functional,
perceptual, visual, and temporal. For the urban catalyst to respond to its setting it also must
possess a strong sense of place and authenticity. Each component of my research
supports my position that each city has unique attributes that can serve as basic models or
seeds for urban redevelopment
 .

TRANSIT METROPOLIS:

A Transit metropolis is an urbanized region with high-quality public transportation services and
settlement patterns that are conducive to riding public transit. While Transit villages and Transit-
oriented developments (TODs) focus on creating compact, mixed-use neighbourhoods around rail
stations, transit metropolises represent a regional constellation of TODs that benefit from having
both trip origins and destinations oriented to public transport stations. In an effort to reduce
mounting traffic congestion problems and improve environmental conditions, a number of Chinese
mega-cities, including Beijing and Shenzhen, have embraced the transit metropolis model for
guiding urban growth and public-transport investment decisions.
COMMUNITY/ PUBLIC PARTICIPATION AND URBAN DESIGN:

Public participation is the involvement of people in the creation and management of their
builtand natural enviroments.Its strength is that it cuts across tradition professional
boundaries and cultures.

The activity of community particiaption is based on the prinicple that the built and
naturalenviromnets work better if citizens are active and involved in its creation and
managementinstead of being treated as passive concumers.The main purposes of
participation are;To involve citizens in planning and design decision making processes and,
as a result, make itmore likely they will work within established systems when seeking
solutions to problems.

To provide citizens with a voice in planning and decision making in order to improve
plans,decisions, service delivery, and overal quality of the enviroment.

To promote a sense of community by bringing together people who share common

goals.Participation should be active and directed, those who become involved should
experience asense of achievement.

Traditional planning procedures should be rexamined to ensure that participation achieves

morethan a simple affirmation of the designers or planners intentions.

The Importance of Participation: The planning system is meant to reflect the general wishes
of the local community and there is a need on the local authority to consult widely during
the formulation of a Local Plan and in the operation of the development.
 UNIT V

BEST PRACTICE IN URBAN DESIGN

Contemporary case studies from developing and developed economies that offer design guidelines and
solutions to address various issues/ aspects of urban space.

URBAN DESIGN THEORIES

Accepted current urban design principles

It is Council policy to ensure that development is designed to a high qualitative standard and promotes the
creation of good places. The Council will apply the guidance set out in the Urban Design Manual A Best
Practice Guide (2008), and will seek to ensure that development proposals are cognisant of the need for
proper consideration of context, connectivity, inclusivity, variety, efficiency, distinctiveness, layout, public
realm, adaptability, privacy and amenity, parking, and detailed design. Current urban design principles
emphasise design criteria summarised well by Bentley et al (1985) in their design manual Responsive
Environments. They suggest qualities such as permeability, legibility, varied or mixed uses and visual
appropriateness are of foremost importance in urban design.

Permeability or accessibility refers to the number of choices people have for routes that can be taken to
travel through an area. Both visual and physical permeability is considered important for well designed
areas. A successful place is easy to get to and move through. Places should connect to their surroundings. A
successful place gives people the maximum amount of choice of how to make a journey and takes into
account all forms of movement (foot, cycle, public transport and car). Where possible connections should
emphasise sustainable forms of transport over individual car use. A successful place also makes clear
connections from new development areas to existing roads and facilities. This will give users more choices
of route when making their journeys. Permeability must be considered early in any planning or development
process because streets are the most permanent element of any built environment

Legibility is the quality which helps people read and understands where things are in an area. In
traditional cities, the biggest buildings were the most important buildings and had the biggest spaces
reserved around them. It was easy to distinguish the major public buildings from the less relevant private
buildings. In modern cities, there is often little difference between important public facilities such as public
administration buildings and even railway stations, from private office buildings. A successful and legible
development is a place that has a clear image and is easy to understand. Five features, which create this kind
of place, have been identified:
Paths the routes of movement such as alleys, streets and railways
Nodes focal places such as market squares which connect the paths and roads.
 Landmarks buildings or places that provide local character and act as reference points.
Districts areas of the County with distinct or recognisable characteristics such as the business district.
Edges linear elements not used as routes like busy roads, walls of buildings and railway lines.

Vitality Places that are vibrant, active, safe, comfortable and varied are said to have vitality. Places are
more active when they have windows and doors connected to the street. Inactive edges are blank walls,
badly placed entrances, tunnels, places where you dont feel safe, which are not overlooked. Places feel safer
with buildings overlooking them.

Variety/Diversity A successful place also offers a mix of activities to the widest range of possible users.
The most connected streets usually have a wider variety of uses because they are easier to get to and more
people go there. Variety is desirable because it provides a choice of activities for a wider range of people,
things to do and places to go, making the place more exciting. In commercial areas, a variety of uses will
also attract larger numbers of consumers to the area and therefore make it more economically successful. It
is important to get the right mix of uses. A successful mix is achieved when uses create a balanced
community with a range of services without increasing the need for the car.

The most prominent sites are no longer reserved for the most important public buildings, but are awarded
to the highest bidder. Skyscrapers dominate the landscape and look the same regardless of whether they are
publicly relevant buildings or office buildings owned by either private or institutional interests.

Kevin Lynch (1960: cited by Le Gates and Stout (1996)) pioneered studies in legible urban layouts. He
suggested features such as nodes, paths, edges, landmarks and districts all contribute to legibility in an area.
While visual appropriateness is a more specialised design issue, it encompasses aspects such as infill
developments respecting and continuing or complementing existing patterns in the surrounding built
environment. Variety or the concept of mixed uses to create activity and reduce the need for mobility (ie the
car) is a further concept that is becoming well accepted in contributing to well designed and successful
urban areas.

Robustness This refers to a places ability to be used for many different purposes by different people, or
its potential for change and adaptation for different uses over time. A robust place, whether outdoors or
indoors, has many possible uses. A robust buildings function can change over time. The whole building can
take on a new use, or function, an industrial warehouse, for example, can become new office space. Or a
small space within a building can change use, such as a garage into a sitting room. A robust place takes
advantage of climatic conditions such as daylight, sunlight and wind, by, for example, placing solar panels
on south facing buildings.
 Road Layout Shared Spaces One of the legacies of residential layout design in the recent past has
been that design considerations have often been dominated by provision for motor vehicles. A key challenge
of urban design is to successfully promote the other functions of streets including providing a sense of
place, facilitating social interaction and encouraging walking and cycling. Road alignments should
discourage speed and give priority to the safety and convenience of pedestrians and cyclists. Road widths in
general should be sufficient to accommodate two vehicles passing, but not so generous as to encourage
speeding or excessive on-street/kerbside parking. The concept is essentially traffic calming interweaved with
urban design in residential and town/ village areas, so that cars do not dominate in terms of street use and are
required to manoeuvre at lower speeds.

In terms of translating these concepts into a design methodology, the Urban Design Manual - A Best
Practice Guide sets out 12 criteria to cover the range of design considerations for residential development.
The criteria are subdivided into three groups reflecting the sequence of the design process:
Neighbourhood:
1. Context: How does the development respond to its surroundings?
2. Connections: How well connected is the new neighbourhood?
3. Inclusivity: How easily can people use and access the development? 4. Variety: How does the
development promote a good mix of activities?
Site:
1. Efficiency: How does the development make appropriate use of resources, including land?
2. Distinctiveness: How do the proposals create a sense of place?
3. Layout: How does the proposal create people friendly streets and spaces?
4. Public Realm: How safe, secure and enjoyable are the public areas?
Home:
1. Adaptability: How will the buildings cope with change?
2. Privacy and Amenity: How does the scheme provide a decent standard of amenity?
3. Parking: How will the parking be secure and attractive?
4. Detailed Design: How well thought through is the building and landscape design?

CASE STUDIES
Garden city
The garden city movement is a method of urban planning that was initiated in 1898 by Sir Ebenezer
Howard in the United Kingdom. Garden cities were intended to be planned, self-contained communities
surrounded by "greenbelts", containing proportionate areas of residences, industry, and agriculture.
His idealised garden city would house 32,000 people on a site of 6,000 acres (2,400 ha), planned on
a concentric pattern with open spaces, public parks and six radial boulevards, 120 ft (37 m) wide, extending
from the centre.
 The garden city would be self-sufficient and when it reached full population, another garden city would
be developed nearby. Howard envisaged a cluster of several garden cities as satellites of a central city of
250,000 people, linked by road and rail.
three magnets
- town (high wages, opportunity, and amusement)
-country (natural beauty, low rents, fresh air)
-town-country (combination of both)
-separated from central city by greenbelt

Ebenezer Howard recognised that a Garden City should be carefully designed in relation to the site it
occupies, and he gave an indication of how a cluster of towns (Garden Cities) would operate. Howard set out
a vision for a Garden City that would reach an ideal population of around 32,000 people (applying todays
average household size of 2.4 people, this figure would mean somewhere between 10,000 and 15,000
homes). Once this planned limit had been reached, a new city would be started a short distance away,
followed by another, and another, until a network of such places was created, with each city providing a
range of jobs and services, but each connected to the others via a rapid transport system, providing all the
benefits of a much larger city but with each resident having easy access to the countryside. Howard called
this network of connected settlements the Social City
UTOPIAN MODEL:

Contemporary City- Le Corbusier is considered one of the utopias which have been partially
realized.
He compared the medieval town planning in Europe to Pack Donkey way , the meandering streets,
high density low rise built fabric, the squares and plazas were a limiting factor to further growth of
cities in Europe according to Le Corbusier.
He saw death as the only solution to the cities which were full of capillaries and no arteries.

an ideal, self-contained community of predetermined area and population surrounded by a greenbelt

was intended to bring together the economic and cultural advantages of both city and country life
while at the same time discouraging metropolitan sprawl and industrial centralization
land ownership would be vested in the community (socialist element)
The garden city was foreshadowed in the writings of Robert Owen, Charles Fourier, and James Silk
Buckingham, and in the planned industrial communities of Saltaire (1851), Bournville (1879), and
Port Sunlight (1887) in England
Howard organized the Garden-City Association (1899) in England and secured backing for the
establishment of Letchworth and Welwyn
Neither community was an entirely self-contained garden city

Fundamental Principles:

The site should be level, this would aid smooth traffic Flow
River should be away from the city.
Population would consist of ; City Dwellers, Suburban Dwellers and Garden City Dwellers.
Increase the density at the center of the city.
Increase the open spaces and reduce the travel time, hence construct vertically.
The transport and service lines shall not be buried beneath the road but exposed.
Three sets of roads should be constructed: One for heavy traffic at the ground or one level below,
ground level traffic should access all ground floors of buildings, and the major arterial roads are at a
higher level crisscrossing the city.
There would be only one station, in the center of the city, this would be a hub for multi modal public
transport.
The city would consist of 24 sky scrapers housing 50,000 employees, this would be the center of the
city.
Corridor Streets, with abutting internal court houses should be completely banned.
Residential block shall be divided into two sections; large vertical blocks and garden cities away
from city. The garden cities are accessible through rapid transit metro lines.
 Population Density; Business District = 1200 per acre, Residence 1= 120 per acre and Residence 2 =
120 per acre
Open space; BD= 95 %, RD1= 85% and RD 2= 48%.
Industrial zone should be away from the entire city. Educational and other civic amenities should be
one corner.
Geometry, standardization and mechanization should be the governing frame work .
Derivations
The vertical neighborhoods, not in the center but at the periphery
Central business districts with sky scrapers.
Suburbs with subsidized housing which are typical in form and geometry. These suburbs connected
by rapid transit system.
Planning of Chandigarh, Brasilia and other smaller capitals.

Walking City by Ron Herron:

The city was supposed to be self propelling and change location as the need be the city would be
divided functionally among the many mega capsules with connecting tubes, the entire structure would
walk. The city could walk on water.
Plug In City:
The city consisted of large support structures which could support individual plug in dwelling
components. Cranes would be mounted at the apex of support towers to lift and place the modules in
place. Hover crafts with elaborate built structures (which are essential self functioning barges) would
move from place to place.
Cities in Buildings
Number of theoretical proposals has been postulated to the house considerable number of people within
a building, with work-home-recreation built at various levels. Although none of the schemes have been
implemented, the offshoot of such theory has been the multi use skyscrapers prevalent in number of
cities.
Cities of Sweat Equity
Cities which are built by people; by squatting, by cooperation, by community action or as a result of a
common belief, are called as cities of sweat equity.
Cities of sweat equity have taken many forms;
Squatter settlements which were a small part of the city became autonomous self governed entities.
Small self help communities based on the concepts of sustainable present and future.
The cities of sweat equity grow on the need based affordability of its inhabitants.
They are normally a collection of smaller groups of settlements which reflect the cultural roots of the
group. Advocacy Planning, Community Architecture, and Citizen Participation have been the result
of early cities of sweat equity.