Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A CITATION (sometimes called a "reference") gives credit in writing to the author of an idea. A
writer who uses (repeats) the ideas and/or the words of another author will cite that author twice:
once in an abbreviated form in the body of the paper, and once completely at the end of the
paper, on a separate page titled References (or Bibliography, or Works Cited).
Many styles of citation exist (see "Discipline-Specific Citation Styles" on p. 168, 323, and
325). But regardless of the citation style (format) you use, the same information is included to
enable any reader to locate the cited material in a library or on the Internet. * Figure 1 displays
the general information that is essential in all citations, and some specific information that is
essential in different kinds of materials.
Magazines
. volume number
. issue number
Internet/WWW
. complete date of WWW placement
. number of pages in the material
. WWW address
. complete date of material retrieval
In the past, some academic writing used footnotes (a number in the text that referred to the complete
reference at the bottom of that page) or, in longer material, end-of-chapter notes. Most academic citation styles
no longer use footnotes. Informational footnotes, like this one--those that explain something additional in the
text--are often used in academic writing.
Writers must cite a source for any fact or information that is not general knowledge. For
example, a writer might know in general that freedom of the press allows newspaper reporters to
print facts about a public official's abuse of power, but she or he might not know the source of
that freedom, the legal differences between freedom of speech and libel, or the extent to which a
reporter may keep his sources secret. When that writer locates the information, she or he will
need to cite the source(s), to give credit to the author(s) of the material she or he discovers.
Note: Not citing sources can result in plagiarism, a serious offense in U.S. academic writing that
can result in the writer failing the course or, worse, expulsion from his or her college/university.
In addition to the legal and ethical reasons for using citations in U.S. academic prose, there
are several practical reasons:
1. to give credit to the author who wrote 1. to help the reader find the material quickly
the material and easily
2. to lend credibility to the paper 2. to demonstrate to the reader the breadth,
(i.e., to use an expert as evidence) depth, and currency of the writer's research
In fact, while writers will not cite their own ideas, if they know some of the answers to their
questions, they might cite a source they find in order to strengthen their credibility in the eyes of
their audience.
1. If the ideas of another author are used in a sentence, and the author's last name is not
identified in the sentence, the in-text citation includes the last name of the author and the year
of publication. The citation can occur within the sentence OR at the end of the sentence.
When the message from the foot is received, deposits of wastes in that part of the body
will break up and allow oxygen to he sent to that area (Kunz, 1997).
The combination of chemicals in a firecracker work together to cause the color, the
design, and the explosion (Allen & Pope, 1997).
. article has two authors; ampersand [&] between last names
. authors + year of publication in parentheses
2. If the ideas of another author are used in a sentence, and the author's last name is identified
in the sentence (e.g., According to Scott Burrell,), cite just the year of publication
immediately after the ideas.
In one chapter in Body Talk (1994), Desmond Morris describes six different gestures
used by people in cultures around the world to indicate "Hello!"
When I took Rebecca Oxford's Style Analysis Survey (SAS) (1992), I discovered that I
was a visual learner.
. author's name used in the sentence, so include only the year in parentheses
. comma follows the first part of the sentence (DC, IC) after the citation, but a comma does
not come before the citation
. abbreviation of the survey name put in parentheses immediately following the complete title
of the survey
3. The ideas and words of another author are used in a sentence. Use direct quotation marks
(" . . . "). Then give the citation immediately following the quotation, as explained above, and
give the page number where you found the quotation.
According to Mary Ann Christison, "When students learn about MI, they become more
confident learners" (1997, p. 13).
. because the name of the author is identified in the sentence, only the year and the page
numbers appear in parentheses
. ellipsis indicates omitted words
. additional information added in brackets [ ]
4. A direct quotation of more than 40 words (about three lines) must (a) be separated from the
main text, (b) be indented 5 spaces, (c) have no quotation marks, and (d) have the citation
follow the final punctuation.
In his recent study on solar electricity, Jose Espinoza, an undergraduate electrical engineering
major from Colombia at Colorado State University, gave a brief historical summary of solar
electricity.
The phenomenon of solar electricity was first noticed at the end of the 19th century. It was
known that an electrical current was produced when light was shone on an electrical cell.
However, no one knew why this current was produced. Albert Einstein gave the answer in
1920. He explained the photoelectric effect, which paved the road for the discovery of the
photovoltaic effect. (1997, p. 12)
1. For books: general format for a book written by one or more authors:
Last name of author, First initial. (year of publication). Title of the book. Place of
publication: Publisher. [Note multiple authors]
Sulloway, E (1996). Birth order, family dynamics, and creative lives. New York:
Pantheon Books.
. first line indented five spaces (one tab length); subsequent lines at margin
. only the first letter of the first word in the title and all proper names capitalized
. the publication information for a book on the back of the title page
. state omitted from place of publication because city is easily recognized
. colon after place of publication
2. For periodicals (magazines and journals): An article in a magazine or journal has the
following general format:
Last name of author, First initial(s), Last name of next author, First initial(s). (Year of
publication). Title of article. Title of magazine, volume number (issue), inclusive page
numbers.
. author includes both first and middle name (so two initials)
. title of article capitalized only at the beginning of the title and the first letter of the first
word after the colon
. period at the end of the article's title, then two spaces
. title of journal italicized (or it could be underlined)
. volume number included (found on the cover page of the magazine or at the bottom of the
Table of Contents)
. comma between title of magazine and volume number
Kammeyer K (1967). Birth order as a research variable. Social Forces, 46 (6), 71-80.
. indentation of first line, but all other lines begin at the margin
. double-spaced throughout
. title of journal: all main words capitalized (but not and, the, a. of etc.)
. no issue number given because pages are sequentially numbered throughout each year
. issues individually paginated, so issue number is necessary
. numbers for inclusive pages (but do not use "p." or "pp.")
Newman, L. S., Higgins, E. T., & Vookles, J. (1992). Self-guide strength and emotional
vulnerability: Birth order as a moderator of self-affect relations. Personality and Social
Psychology Bulletin, 18, 402-41l.
3. For chapters in edited books or articles in edited anthologies, use an end-of-text citation
that is similar to the format for magazines/journals. An article or chapter in a book/ anthology
edited by another person has this general format:
. book title has only first word and first word after colon capitalized
. article appears In + E Last (not Last, E)
. title of book is preceded by a comma
. 3rd ed.: this book has been revised twice
. inclusive page numbers of article follow title of book in parentheses
. initials of state given after the name of the city (NJ) with no punctuation
For in-text citations from the www, use the same APA form used for other sources.The
examples and notes below demonstrate the in-text citation forWWW sources.
. writer is using the ideas, but not the words, of the author
. author is not identified in text; use (Last, year)
The whistles, clicks, and barks of dolphins, according to Zihlman and Lowenstein, "have a
number of potential functions" (1998, p. 2).
. writer is using the ideas and the words of the authors in a direct quotation
. quotation is integrated into the sentence
. two authors are identified in the sentence, so the citation does not contain their names
. citation includes the year and the page number of the direct quotation
In contrast, end-of-text citations on the WWW are both similar to and differ from other
secondary source materials. Similarities include:
For materials published in other sources (e.g., in a newspaper or magazine) and then loaded
onto the www, the end-of-text citation will include some information about the published data as
well as the additional WWW data: the title of the magazine/journal (italicized or underlined) and
the month and year of publication. In addition, the WWW citation will include the necessary
information to enable the reader to access that article on the www, such as the date the material
was placed on the WWW and the URL (Universal Resource Locator): the WWW address.
The overall format for a WWW citation includes the following:
Last, E (Year, Month Day of Publication or Placement of the Materials) on the www. Title
of document. [Type of document described]. Retrieved Month Day, Year you accessed the
material: complete URL
Eastman, M. (1994, May 2). Sumo rituals. [Online article]. Retrieved October 12, 1997,
from the World Wide Web: http://wwvv.Japansumosociety.org
. double-spaced
. URL (WWW address): note capitalization and punctuation carefully
- general beginning (for most URLs): http;//www.
- individualized address must have capitalization and punctuation correct
- last piece of address shows the kind of group (and maybe the country):
> .com = commercial > .org = organization > .hu = from hungary
> .mx = from Mexico
. bracketed [ ] information is a brief description of the material for the reader
. period after the brackets
Edelson, S. B. (1997, October 23). Allergies. [Online article]. Retrieved June 15, 1998,
from the World Wide Web: http://www.ephca.com/allergy/html
Zihlman, A. L. & Lowenstein, J. M. (1998, July 26). Dolphins sapiens: How human are
dolphins? Oceans, July, 1997. [Journal article posted on the World Wide Web]. Retrieved April
20, 1999, from the World Wide Web: http://www.dolphins.sdsu.edu
Unfortunately, many WWW sources are incomplete. If the 2.uthor's last name and first initial
(Last, F.) are not available, use the first significant words of the title for the in-text citation; do
not use insignificant first words such as a, an, the, of, or. Below are examples of (a) in-text
citations and (b) end-of-text citations from incomplete WW'N information.
In-text Children should always ride in the back seat of the car (Airbags, 1996).
. use of the first significant word of the title (see full titles below) because
the author is unknown
. comma follows title
End-of-Text Airbags a danger to small children. (1996, December 11). [Online article].
Retrieved on June 15, 1997, from the World Wide Web: http://www. mayohealth.
org/mayo/9611/htm/ airbags/htm
. use article title because the author is unknown
. brief description of the article in brackets
Note: To insert these end-of-text citations into the Reference page at the end of a paper, use the
first significant word in the title of the article as a last name, and insert the citation alphabetically
in the reference list.
References
Journal article Allen, L. & Pope, G. (1997). Give me an "A.": July 4th displays get an
explosive new look: Fireworks you can read. Science World, 53 (2), 14-16.
Online article, Boulet, J., Jr. (1997, June 15). Pro and con-English pro. [Online article].
WWW Retrieved October 22, 1997, from the World Wide Web: http://www.online. com/
procon/htm/ englishino.html
Newspaper Chinoy, L (1997, January 3). In presidential race, TV ads were biggest '96
article on the cost by far. The Washington Post, B6. [Newspaper ~cle on the World Wide Web].
WWW
Retrieved February 11, 1998, from the World Wide Web: http://ads.
washingtonpost.com/wp-srv/national/longterm/ campfin/stories/ cf033197.htm
[Newspaper Clair, R. (1997, March 20). Let there be light Translucent door opens the
article] foyer. St. Louis Post-Dispatch, D2.
[Magazine Emerson, H. & Monmaney, T. (1988, September 26). The risk from radon.
article] Newsweek, 112, 69.
[Edited book] Glantz, M. H. (Ed.). (1994). Drought follows the plow: Cultivating
marginal areas. New York: Cambridge.
Journal article Holmes, S. E., Drutz, J. E., Buffone, G. J., & Rice, T. D. (1997). Blood lead
levels in a continuity clinic population. Journal of Toxicology: Clinical
ToxiCology, 35,181-186.
Online article, Know what you're handling. (1998, August 5). [Online artide for Pyro
WWW,"no website]. Retrieved October 8, 1998, from the World Wide Web: http://php.
author
indiana.edu/-flinn/What -every-pyro.html
Journal article Krishnamurti, T. N., Correa-Torres, R., Latif, M., & Daughenbaugh, G.
(1998). The impact of current and possibly future sea surface temperaiUre
anomalies on the frequency of Atlantic hurricanes. Tellus: A Dynamic
Meteorology and Oceanography, 50A (2), 186-210.
Undergraduate college/university classes will often ask you to use APA format. However, for
some course assignments, students may be required" to use another Citation Styles such as
MLA (Modem Language Association) or CBE (Council of Biology Editors).
Usually the instructor will give specific written directions concerning the reference style; if not,
ask your instructor (a) which citation format to use and (b) for an example of that format.
Students in major fields must learn the citation format common to that field. Ask an academic
advisor, another instructor, or the secretary in the department (a) what citation style is generally
used and (b) where to find examples of that reference style.
Study the citation style carefully. As you analyze the format, consider the following:
All Citations
. Order of information: What comes first? Then what? And after that?
. Available information: What doesn't exist? What to do about it?
In-Text Citations
. Placement: Where to place the citation in the sentence?
. In-sentence use of author's name: What to put in parentheses of citation?
End-of-Text Citations
. Position on the page: What's indented? What's not?
. Spacing: Single or double (or something else, or a combination) for each citation? between
citations?
Note: Within a single major field of study, there may be differences in citation styles. For
example, your department may require one reference style, a respected journal in the field
another, and a single instructor still another. It is therefore important for you to be aware of the
requirements and to analyze different reference formats.
Below are examples of several citation styles. Remember that although these in-text citations
and reference lists have come from student papers in various fields, the styles may not exactly
represent the reference styles required by your department. Instead, they serve as possible
examples for analysis. You must then investigate and analyze the formats in your department
yourself.
English In-text
department According to Roger Axtell (1990), "Cite your own personal experiences, or, if
[Page number at
end} possible, of a mutually respected third party" (33).
References
Book; last, Axtell, Roger E. Do's and taboos of hosting international visitors. New York:
complete first John E. Wiley and Sons, 1990.
name; year at
end
Journal article; Kimball, Geoffrey. "Men's and women's speech in Koasati: Are-appraisal."
quotation International Journal of American Linguistics 53 (1997): 30-38.
marks, italics,
(year), colon
Book;2nd McFarlane, Evelyn and James Saywell. If. . . (Questions for the game of life).
author's name New York: Random House, 1995.
reversed
[Edited book} Oe, Kenzaburo, Ed. The crazy iris and other stories of the atomic aftermath.
New York: Grove Press, 1985.
Hydrology In-text
Et al. = several This cost analysis is based on the partial data obtained by Murphy et al. (1996a,
authors; a, b =
two different b) on the solar pilot plants in Florida.
articles by the
same authors]
[Textbook] References
Howe, D. (1998). Solar desalination of water: An introduction. New York: A.G.
Smith.
[Journal article; Kettani, M. A. (1997). "Solar desalination with latent heat recovery," Solar
note capitals] Energy 12, 79-102.
[First of 2 Murphy, J., J. R Irwin, and J. A. Eibling. (1996a). "Efficiency of solar
articles, same distillation still," Energy Engineering, 21, 5,112-116.
authors, year]
Economics In-text
Dornbush (1) states the gross national product (GNP) is one of the most
important indicators in measuring economic progress.
References
Book; note (1) Dornbush, R, and S. Fischer. Macro-Economies. McGraw-Hill, New York,
number 1994.
,sequence
Federal (2) Economic Report of the President. Transmitted to the Congr8ss, January
government 1999. United States Government Printing Office, Washington, 1989.
document; note
capitalization
Doctoral thesis (3) Jensen, E. R The Sources of Aggregate Demand Disturbances: An
Empirical Analysis. Unpublished thesis, University of Michigan, 1998.
Magazine, no (4) "Investments Today," Money, Vol. 15, May, 1996,50-52.
author
Chemistry In-text
Use of number
in brackets for Many kinds of aromatic hydrocarbons can't be polymerized because the
citation monomer is very stable [1, 2, 4].
Bibliography
Journal article; 1. Ran, RC., J. S. Han, and S. H, Polymer-supported Lewis acid catalysts:
note order of Cationic polymerization, J. Mol. Catal, 1993,21,203-210.
authors, year
Book; note 2. Fraze, A. H., High temperature resistant polyiners. WIley, New York, 1994.
commas
Abbreviation of 3. Stille, J. K., Supported chiral catalysts in asyrp.metric synthesis. J.
journal, Macromal. Sci. Chern, 1994, 121 (13-14), 1689-93.
boldfaced
volume
Article in edited 4. Corey, L. S., P. Hodge, and D. C. Sherrington, Synthesis and characterization
book; note of polymers. In Polymer-supported reactions inorganic synthesis (A. Recca,
punctuation,
sequence Ed.), Wiley, New York, 1995,249-255.
Fluid In-text
Mechanics The inflow forecasting model carries out two distinct operations, the first being
[And, not &; the creation of a series of natural runoff simulations from which can be extracted
comma] the second (Baines and Davies, 1990).
Book; notice Works Cited
capitalization, Baines, P. G. Topographic Effects in Stratified Flows. Cambridge University
no place of
publication Press, 1995, 209 pp.
1. Cite any information (electronic, audio, or print) that you did not know before you began writing.
2. When in doubt, cite it.
3. Even when paraphrasing or summarizing, if the idea(s) belong to another author, use a citation.
4. Unless you did the counting yourself, cite others' statistics and numbers.
5. In general, use quotation marks when three or more major words of another author are used
consecutively (do not count articles, prepositions, or conjunctions).
6. If you quote two or three sentences, use only one set of quotation marks (at the beginning of
the first sentence and at the end of the last).
7. Direct quotations must be exact.
. If you omit words in a direct quotation, use an ellipsis (three dots, separated by a space: . . .).
. If you add words to a direct quotation, use brackets for those words [ ].
8. If a direct quotation is more than 40 words (about three typed lines), separate that quotation
from the rest of the text:
. begin the quotation on a new line
. indent the direct quotation
. do not use quotation marks
. end the direct quotation with a period
. add the citation after the period, in parentheses
9. It is not necessary to use a citation if the information is a fact that is known by most of your readers.
USING CITATIONS
In U.S. academic prose, instructors prefer that student writers investigate the ideas of several authoritative
sources rather than depend on just one or two sources. In other words, quantity is nearly as important as
quality. Therefore, try to use more than one authoritative source in each paragraph; do not simply quote or
cite the same author again and again.
In general, try not to use too many direct quotations; often, instructors prefer students' own words that
are supported with the ideas (but not necessarily the direct quotations) of authoritative sources. In
addition, instructors prefer that you summarize and synthesize your authoritative sources rather than list
quotation after quotation. The reasons:
. If you cite the ideas of several authors, you indicate to your audience that you have read
broadly as well as deeply about the topic.
. If you paraphrase, synthesize, and/ or summarize the evidence from several
authoritative sources, your ideas are substantially strengthened.
When you first use a direct quotation, and often when you use a source, introduce the author and/ or
the context of the quotation. Then follow the direct quotation by explaining exactly how the quotation fits
into your specific argument and appeals to your specific audience. That is, in the same way you (a)
introduce and (b) interpret non-text materials, you should introduce and. demonstrate the relevance of
your sources.
You may decide to use a direct quotation if the author's words are memorable or unique, or if the
direct quotation will emphasize a very important point. If you decide to use a direct quotation, try to use a
piece of the quotation in your own sentence. Use only the best pieces of the author's words; paraphrase
(and cite) the rest in your own words for clarity and continuity.
Finally, remember that you do not have to make every decision about citation alone. You may consult
a style manual, your instructor, the writing center on your campus, or a knowledgeable friend. With time
and practice in the citation format and style of your major field, you will become more comfortable with
the guidelines for citation.