2/9/2017 Coherence(physics)Wikipedia

Coherence(physics)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Inphysics,twowavesourcesareperfectlycoherentiftheyhaveaconstantphasedifferenceandthesame
frequency.Itisanidealpropertyofwavesthatenablesstationary(i.e.temporallyandspatiallyconstant)
interference.Itcontainsseveraldistinctconcepts,whicharelimitingcasesthatneverquiteoccurinrealitybut
allowanunderstandingofthephysicsofwaves,andhasbecomeaveryimportantconceptinquantumphysics.
Moregenerally,coherencedescribesallpropertiesofthecorrelationbetweenphysicalquantitiesofasinglewave,
orbetweenseveralwavesorwavepackets.

Interferenceisnothingmorethantheaddition,inthemathematicalsense,ofwavefunctions.Asinglewavecan
interferewithitself,butthisisstillanadditionoftwowaves(seeYoung'sslitsexperiment).Constructiveor
destructiveinterferencesarelimitcases,andtwowavesalwaysinterfere,eveniftheresultoftheadditionis
complicatedornotremarkable.

Wheninterfering,twowavescanaddtogethertocreateawaveofgreateramplitudethaneitherone(constructive
interference)orsubtractfromeachothertocreateawaveoflesseramplitudethaneitherone(destructive
interference),dependingontheirrelativephase.Twowavesaresaidtobecoherentiftheyhaveaconstantrelative
phase.Theamountofcoherencecanreadilybemeasuredbytheinterferencevisibility,whichlooksatthesizeof
theinterferencefringesrelativetotheinputwaves(asthephaseoffsetisvaried)aprecisemathematicaldefinition
ofthedegreeofcoherenceisgivenbymeansofcorrelationfunctions.

Spatialcoherencedescribesthecorrelation(orpredictablerelationship)betweenwavesatdifferentpointsinspace,
eitherlateralorlongitudinal.[1]Temporalcoherencedescribesthecorrelationbetweenwavesobservedatdifferent
momentsintime.BothareobservedintheMichelsonMorleyexperimentandYoung'sinterferenceexperiment.
OncethefringesareobtainedintheMichelsoninterferometer,whenoneofthemirrorsismovedawaygradually,
thetimeforthebeamtotravelincreasesandthefringesbecomedullandfinallyarelost,showingtemporal
coherence.Similarly,ifinadoubleslitexperiment,thespacebetweenthetwoslitsisincreased,thecoherencedies
graduallyandfinallythefringesdisappear,showingspatialcoherence.Inbothcases,thefringeamplitudeslowly
disappears,asthepathdifferenceincreasespastthecoherencelength.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Mathematicaldefinition
3 Coherenceandcorrelation
4 Examplesofwavelikestates
5 Temporalcoherence
5.1 Therelationshipbetweencoherencetimeandbandwidth
5.2 Examplesoftemporalcoherence
5.3 Measurementoftemporalcoherence
6 Spatialcoherence
6.1 Examplesofspatialcoherence
7 Spectralcoherence
7.1 Measurementofspectralcoherence
8 Polarizationandcoherence
9 Applications
9.1 Holography
9.2 Nonopticalwavefields

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10 Quantumcoherence
11 Seealso
12 References
13 Externallinks

Introduction
CoherencewasoriginallyconceivedinconnectionwithThomasYoung'sdoubleslitexperimentinopticsbutis
nowusedinanyfieldthatinvolveswaves,suchasacoustics,electricalengineering,neuroscience,andquantum
mechanics.Thepropertyofcoherenceisthebasisforcommercialapplicationssuchasholography,theSagnac
gyroscope,radioantennaarrays,opticalcoherencetomographyandtelescopeinterferometers(astronomicaloptical
interferometersandradiotelescopes).

Mathematicaldefinition
Aprecisedefinitionisgivenatdegreeofcoherence.

Thecoherencefunctionbetweentwosignals and isdefinedas[2]

where isthecrossspectraldensityofthesignaland and arethepowerspectraldensity

functionsof and ,respectively.Thecrossspectraldensityandthepowerspectraldensityaredefinedas
theFouriertransformsofthecrosscorrelationandtheautocorrelationsignals,respectively.Forinstance,ifthe
signalsarefunctionsoftime,thecrosscorrelationisameasureofthesimilarityofthetwosignalsasafunctionof
thetimelagrelativetoeachotherandtheautocorrelationisameasureofthesimilarityofeachsignalwithitselfin
differentinstantsoftime.Inthiscasethecoherenceisafunctionoffrequency.Analogously,if and are
functionsofspace,thecrosscorrelationmeasuresthesimilarityoftwosignalsindifferentpointsinspaceandthe
autocorrelationsthesimilarityofthesignalrelativetoitselfforacertainseparationdistance.Inthatcase,
coherenceisafunctionofwavenumber(spatialfrequency).

Thecoherencevariesintheinterval .If itmeansthatthesignalsareperfectly

correlatedorlinearlyrelatedandif theyaretotallyuncorrelated.Ifalinearsystemisbeingmeasured,
beingtheinputand theoutput,thecoherencefunctionwillbeunitaryalloverthespectrum.However,if
nonlinearitiesarepresentinthesystemthecoherencewillvaryinthelimitgivenabove.

Coherenceandcorrelation
Thecoherenceoftwowavesexpresseshowwellcorrelatedthewavesareasquantifiedbythecrosscorrelation
function.[3][4][5][6][7]Thecrosscorrelationquantifiestheabilitytopredictthephaseofthesecondwaveby
knowingthephaseofthefirst.Asanexample,considertwowavesperfectlycorrelatedforalltimes.Atanytime,
phasedifferencewillbeconstant.If,whencombined,theyexhibitperfectconstructiveinterference,perfect
destructiveinterference,orsomethinginbetweenbutwithconstantphasedifference,thenitfollowsthattheyare
perfectlycoherent.Aswillbediscussedbelow,thesecondwaveneednotbeaseparateentity.Itcouldbethefirst
waveatadifferenttimeorposition.Inthiscase,themeasureofcorrelationistheautocorrelationfunction
(sometimescalledselfcoherence).Degreeofcorrelationinvolvescorrelationfunctions.[8]:545550
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Examplesofwavelikestates
Thesestatesareunifiedbythefactthattheirbehaviorisdescribedbyawaveequationorsomegeneralization
thereof.

Wavesinarope(upanddown)orslinky(compressionandexpansion)
Surfacewavesinaliquid
Electromagneticsignals(fields)intransmissionlines
Sound
RadiowavesandMicrowaves
Lightwaves(optics)
Electrons,atomsandanyotherobject(suchasabaseball),asdescribedbyquantumphysics

Inmostofthesesystems,onecanmeasurethewavedirectly.Consequently,itscorrelationwithanotherwavecan
simplybecalculated.However,inopticsonecannotmeasuretheelectricfielddirectlyasitoscillatesmuchfaster
thananydetector'stimeresolution.[9]Instead,wemeasuretheintensityofthelight.Mostoftheconceptsinvolving
coherencewhichwillbeintroducedbelowweredevelopedinthefieldofopticsandthenusedinotherfields.
Therefore,manyofthestandardmeasurementsofcoherenceareindirectmeasurements,eveninfieldswherethe
wavecanbemeasureddirectly.

Temporalcoherence
Temporalcoherenceisthemeasureof
theaveragecorrelationbetweenthe
valueofawaveanditselfdelayedby,
atanypairoftimes.Temporal
coherencetellsushowmonochromatic
asourceis.Inotherwords,it
Figure1:Theamplitudeofasinglefrequencywaveasafunctionoftimet
characterizeshowwellawavecan
(red)andacopyofthesamewavedelayedby(blue).Thecoherencetimeof
interferewithitselfatadifferenttime.
thewaveisinfinitesinceitisperfectlycorrelatedwithitselfforalldelays
Thedelayoverwhichthephaseor
amplitudewandersbyasignificant . [10]:118
amount(andhencethecorrelation
decreasesbysignificantamount)is
definedasthecoherencetimec.Ata
delayof=0thedegreeofcoherenceis
perfect,whereasitdropssignificantly
asthedelaypasses=c.Thecoherence
lengthLcisdefinedasthedistancethe
wavetravelsintimec.[8]:560,571573
Figure2:Theamplitudeofawavewhosephasedriftssignificantlyintimec
Oneshouldbecarefulnottoconfuse
asafunctionoftimet(red)andacopyofthesamewavedelayedby
thecoherencetimewiththetime
2c(green).Atanyparticulartimetthewavecaninterfereperfectlywithits
durationofthesignal,northe
coherencelengthwiththecoherence delayedcopy.But,sincehalfthetimetheredandgreenwavesareinphase
area(seebelow). andhalfthetimeoutofphase,whenaveragedovertanyinterference
disappearsatthisdelay.
Therelationshipbetween
coherencetimeandbandwidth
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Itcanbeshownthatthelargertherangeoffrequenciesfawavecontains,thefasterthewavedecorrelates(and
hencethesmallercis).Thusthereisatradeoff:[8]:358359,560

Formally,thisfollowsfromtheconvolutiontheoreminmathematics,whichrelatestheFouriertransformofthe
powerspectrum(theintensityofeachfrequency)toitsautocorrelation.[8]:572

Examplesoftemporalcoherence

Weconsiderfourexamplesoftemporalcoherence.

Awavecontainingonlyasinglefrequency(monochromatic)isperfectlycorrelatedwithitselfatalltime
delays,inaccordancewiththeaboverelation.(SeeFigure1)
Conversely,awavewhosephasedriftsquicklywillhaveashortcoherencetime.(SeeFigure2)
Similarly,pulses(wavepackets)ofwaves,whichnaturallyhaveabroadrangeoffrequencies,alsohavea
shortcoherencetimesincetheamplitudeofthewavechangesquickly.(SeeFigure3)
Finally,whitelight,whichhasaverybroadrangeoffrequencies,isawavewhichvariesquicklyinboth
amplitudeandphase.Sinceitconsequentlyhasaveryshortcoherencetime(just10periodsorso),itisoften
calledincoherent.

Monochromaticsourcesareusuallylaserssuchhighmonochromaticityimplieslongcoherencelengths(upto
hundredsofmeters).Forexample,astabilizedandmonomodeheliumneonlasercaneasilyproducelightwith
coherencelengthsof300m.[11]Notalllasersaremonochromatic,however(e.g.foramodelockedTisapphire
laser,2nm70nm).LEDsarecharacterizedby50nm,andtungstenfilamentlightsexhibit
600nm,sothesesourceshaveshortercoherencetimesthanthemostmonochromaticlasers.

Holographyrequireslightwithalongcoherencetime.Incontrast,opticalcoherencetomographyuseslightwitha
shortcoherencetime.

Measurementoftemporalcoherence

Inoptics,temporalcoherenceismeasuredinan
interferometersuchastheMichelson
interferometerorMachZehnder
interferometer.Inthesedevices,awaveis
combinedwithacopyofitselfthatisdelayed
bytime.Adetectormeasuresthetime
averagedintensityofthelightexitingthe
interferometer.Theresultinginterference
visibility(e.g.seeFigure4)givesthetemporal
Figure3:Theamplitudeofawavepacketwhoseamplitudechanges
coherenceatdelay.Sinceformostnatural
significantlyintimec(red)andacopyofthesamewavedelayedby
lightsources,thecoherencetimeismuch
shorterthanthetimeresolutionofanydetector, 2c(green)plottedasafunctionoftimet.Atanyparticulartimethe
thedetectoritselfdoesthetimeaveraging. redandgreenwavesareuncorrelatedoneoscillateswhiletheotheris
ConsidertheexampleshowninFigure3.Ata constantandsotherewillbenointerferenceatthisdelay.Another
fixeddelay,here2c,aninfinitelyfastdetector wayoflookingatthisisthewavepacketsarenotoverlappedintime
wouldmeasureanintensitythatfluctuates andsoatanyparticulartimethereisonlyonenonzerofieldsono
interferencecanoccur.

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significantlyoveratimetequaltoc.Inthis
case,tofindthetemporalcoherenceat2c,one
wouldmanuallytimeaveragetheintensity.

Figure4:Thetimeaveragedintensity(blue)detectedattheoutput
ofaninterferometerplottedasafunctionofdelayfortheexample
wavesinFigures2and3.Asthedelayischangedbyhalfaperiod,
theinterferenceswitchesbetweenconstructiveanddestructive.The
blacklinesindicatetheinterferenceenvelope,whichgivesthe
degreeofcoherence.AlthoughthewavesinFigures2and3have
differenttimedurations,theyhavethesamecoherencetime.

Spatialcoherence
Insomesystems,suchaswaterwavesoroptics,wavelikestatescanextendoveroneortwodimensions.Spatial
coherencedescribestheabilityfortwopointsinspace,x1andx2,intheextentofawavetointerfere,when
averagedovertime.Moreprecisely,thespatialcoherenceisthecrosscorrelationbetweentwopointsinawavefor
alltimes.Ifawavehasonly1valueofamplitudeoveraninfinitelength,itisperfectlyspatiallycoherent.The
rangeofseparationbetweenthetwopointsoverwhichthereissignificantinterferencedefinesthediameterofthe
coherencearea,Ac[12](Coherencelength,oftenafeatureofasource,isusuallyanindustrialtermrelatedtothe
coherencetimeofthesource,notthecoherenceareainthemedium.)Acistherelevanttypeofcoherenceforthe
Young'sdoubleslitinterferometer.Itisalsousedinopticalimagingsystemsandparticularlyinvarioustypesof
astronomytelescopes.Sometimespeoplealsouse"spatialcoherence"torefertothevisibilitywhenawavelike
stateiscombinedwithaspatiallyshiftedcopyofitself.

Examplesofspatialcoherence

Spatialcoherence

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Figure5:Aplanewavewith Figure6:Awavewitha Figure7:Awavewitha Figure8:Awavewithfinite

aninfinitecoherencelength.
varyingprofile(wavefront) varyingprofile(wavefront)
andinfinitecoherence
length.
coherenceareaisincident
andfinitecoherencelength.
onapinhole(small
aperture).Thewavewill
diffractoutofthepinhole.
Farfromthepinholethe
emergingspherical
wavefrontsare
approximatelyflat.The
coherenceareaisnow
infinitewhilethecoherence
lengthisunchanged.

Figure9:Awavewith
infinitecoherenceareais
combinedwithaspatially
shiftedcopyofitself.Some
sectionsinthewave
interfereconstructivelyand
somewillinterfere
destructively.Averaging
overthesesections,a
detectorwithlengthDwill
measurereduced
interferencevisibility.For
example,amisaligned
MachZehnder
interferometerwilldothis.

Consideratungstenlightbulbfilament.Differentpointsinthefilamentemitlightindependentlyandhavenofixed
phaserelationship.Indetail,atanypointintimetheprofileoftheemittedlightisgoingtobedistorted.Theprofile
willchangerandomlyoverthecoherencetime .Sinceforawhitelightsourcesuchasalightbulb issmall,
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thefilamentisconsideredaspatiallyincoherentsource.Incontrast,aradioantennaarray,haslargespatial
coherencebecauseantennasatoppositeendsofthearrayemitwithafixedphaserelationship.Lightwaves
producedbyalaseroftenhavehightemporalandspatialcoherence(thoughthedegreeofcoherencedepends
stronglyontheexactpropertiesofthelaser).Spatialcoherenceoflaserbeamsalsomanifestsitselfasspeckle
patternsanddiffractionfringesseenattheedgesofshadow.

Holographyrequirestemporallyandspatiallycoherentlight.Itsinventor,DennisGabor,producedsuccessful
hologramsmorethantenyearsbeforelaserswereinvented.Toproducecoherentlighthepassedthe
monochromaticlightfromanemissionlineofamercuryvaporlampthroughapinholespatialfilter.

InFebruary2011itwasreportedthatheliumatoms,cooledtonearabsolutezero/BoseEinsteincondensatestate,
canbemadetoflowandbehaveasacoherentbeamasoccursinalaser.[13][14]

Spectralcoherence
Wavesofdifferentfrequencies(inlighttheseare
differentcolours)caninterferetoformapulseifthey
haveafixedrelativephaserelationship(seeFourier
transform).Conversely,ifwavesofdifferent
frequenciesarenotcoherent,then,whencombined,
theycreateawavethatiscontinuousintime(e.g.white
lightorwhitenoise).Thetemporaldurationofthe
pulse islimitedbythespectralbandwidthofthe
light accordingto:

whichfollowsfromthepropertiesoftheFourier
transformandresultsinKpfmller'suncertainty
principle(forquantumparticlesitalsoresultsinthe
Heisenberguncertaintyprinciple). Figure10:Wavesofdifferentfrequenciesinterferetoforma
localizedpulseiftheyarecoherent.
Ifthephasedependslinearlyonthefrequency(i.e.
)thenthepulsewillhavetheminimumtime
durationforitsbandwidth(atransformlimitedpulse),otherwiseitischirped(seedispersion).

Measurementofspectralcoherence

Measurementofthespectralcoherenceoflightrequiresanonlinearopticalinterferometer,suchasanintensity
opticalcorrelator,frequencyresolvedopticalgating(FROG),orspectralphaseinterferometryfordirectelectric
fieldreconstruction(SPIDER).

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Figure11:Spectrallyincoherentlightinterferestoform
continuouslightwitharandomlyvaryingphaseand
amplitude

Polarizationandcoherence
Lightalsohasapolarization,whichisthedirectioninwhichtheelectricfieldoscillates.Unpolarizedlightis
composedofincoherentlightwaveswithrandompolarizationangles.Theelectricfieldoftheunpolarizedlight
wandersineverydirectionandchangesinphaseoverthecoherencetimeofthetwolightwaves.Anabsorbing
polarizerrotatedtoanyanglewillalwaystransmithalftheincidentintensitywhenaveragedovertime.

Iftheelectricfieldwandersbyasmalleramountthelightwillbepartiallypolarizedsothatatsomeangle,the
polarizerwilltransmitmorethanhalftheintensity.Ifawaveiscombinedwithanorthogonallypolarizedcopyof
itselfdelayedbylessthanthecoherencetime,partiallypolarizedlightiscreated.

ThepolarizationofalightbeamisrepresentedbyavectorinthePoincarsphere.Forpolarizedlighttheendofthe
vectorliesonthesurfaceofthesphere,whereasthevectorhaszerolengthforunpolarizedlight.Thevectorfor
partiallypolarizedlightlieswithinthesphere

Applications
Holography

Coherentsuperpositionsofopticalwavefieldsincludeholography.Holographicobjectsareusedfrequentlyin
dailylifeinbanknotesandcreditcards.

Nonopticalwavefields

Furtherapplicationsconcernthecoherentsuperpositionofnonopticalwavefields.Inquantummechanicsfor
exampleoneconsidersaprobabilityfield,whichisrelatedtothewavefunction (interpretation:densityofthe
probabilityamplitude).Heretheapplicationsconcern,amongothers,thefuturetechnologiesofquantum
computingandthealreadyavailabletechnologyofquantumcryptography.Additionallytheproblemsofthe
followingsubchapteraretreated.
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Quantumcoherence
Inquantummechanics,allobjectshavewavelikeproperties(seedeBrogliewaves).Forinstance,inYoung's
doubleslitexperimentelectronscanbeusedintheplaceoflightwaves.Eachelectron'swavefunctiongoes
throughbothslits,andhencehastwoseparatesplitbeamsthatcontributetotheintensitypatternonascreen.
Accordingtostandardwavetheory[15]thesetwocontributionsgiverisetoanintensitypatternofbrightbandsdue
toconstructiveinterference,interlacedwithdarkbandsduetodestructiveinterference,onadownstreamscreen.
Thisabilitytointerfereanddiffractisrelatedtocoherence(classicalorquantum)ofthewavesproducedatboth
slits.Theassociationofanelectronwithawaveisuniquetoquantumtheory.

Whentheincidentbeamisrepresentedbyaquantumpurestate,thesplitbeamsdownstreamofthetwoslitsare
representedasasuperpositionofthepurestatesrepresentingeachsplitbeam.Thequantumdescriptionof
imperfectlycoherentpathsiscalledamixedstate.Aperfectlycoherentstatehasadensitymatrix(alsocalledthe
"statisticaloperator")thatisaprojectionontothepurecoherentstateandisequivalenttoawavefunction,whilea
mixedstateisdescribedbyaclassicalprobabilitydistributionforthepurestatesthatmakeupthemixture.

Macroscopicscalequantumcoherenceleadstonovelphenomena,thesocalledmacroscopicquantumphenomena.
Forinstance,thelaser,superconductivityandsuperfluidityareexamplesofhighlycoherentquantumsystems
whoseeffectsareevidentatthemacroscopicscale.Themacroscopicquantumcoherence(OffDiagonalLong
RangeOrder,ODLRO)[16][17]forsuperfluidity,andlaserlight,isrelatedtofirstorder(1body)
coherence/ODLRO,whilesuperconductivityisrelatedtosecondordercoherence/ODLRO.(Forfermions,suchas
electrons,onlyevenordersofcoherence/ODLROarepossible.)Forbosons,aBoseEinsteincondensateisan
exampleofasystemexhibitingmacroscopicquantumcoherencethroughamultipleoccupiedsingleparticlestate.

Regardingtheoccurrenceofquantumcoherenceatamacroscopiclevel,itisinterestingtonotethattheclassical
electromagneticfieldexhibitsmacroscopicquantumcoherence.Themostobviousexampleisthecarriersignalfor
radioandTV.TheysatisfyGlauber'squantumdescriptionofcoherence.

RecentlyM.B.PlenioandcoworkersconstructedanoperationalformulationofQuantumcoherenceasaresource
theory.Theyintroducedcoherencemonotonesanalogoustotheentanglementmonotones.[18]

Seealso
Atomiccoherence
Coherencelength WikimediaCommonshas
mediarelatedtoCoherence.
Coherentstate
Laserlinewidth
Measurementinquantummechanics
Measurementproblem
Opticalheterodynedetection
QuantumZenoeffect
Wavesuperposition

References
1.Hecht(1998).Optics(3rded.).AddisonWesleyLongman.pp.554574.ISBN0201838877.
2.Shin.K,Hammond.J.Fundamentalsofsignalprocessingforsoundandvibrationengineers.JohnWiley&Sons,2008.
3.RolfG.WinterAephraimM.Steinberg(2008)."Coherence".AccessScience.McGrawHill.
4.M.BornE.Wolf(1999).PrinciplesofOptics(7thed.).CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521642224.
5.Loudon,Rodney(2000).TheQuantumTheoryofLight.OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN0198501773.

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6.LeonardMandelEmilWolf(1995).OpticalCoherenceandQuantumOptics.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN0521
417112.
7.ArvindMarathay(1982).ElementsofOpticalCoherenceTheory.JohnWiley&Sons.ISBN0471567892.
8.Hecht,Eugene(2002),Optics(4thed.),UnitedStatesofAmerica:AddisonWesley,ISBN0805385665
9.Peng,J.L.Liu,T.A.Shu,R.H.(2008)."Opticalfrequencycounterbasedontwomodelockedfiberlasercombs".
AppliedPhysicsB.92(4):513.Bibcode:2008ApPhB..92..513P.doi:10.1007/s0034000831116.
10.ChristopherGerryPeterKnight(2005).IntroductoryQuantumOptics.CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521
527354.
11.Saleh,Teich.FundamentalsofPhotonics.Wiley.
12.Goodman(1985).StatisticalOptics(1sted.).WileyInterscience.pp.210,221.ISBN0471015024.
13.Hodgman,S.S.Dall,R.G.Manning,A.G.Baldwin,K.G.H.Truscott,A.G.(2011)."DirectMeasurementofLong
RangeThirdOrderCoherenceinBoseEinsteinCondensates".Science.331(6020):10461049.
Bibcode:2011Sci...331.1046H.doi:10.1126/science.1198481.PMID21350171.
14.Pincock,S.(25February2011)."Coollasermakesatomsmarchintime".ABCScience.ABCNewsOnline.Retrieved
20110302.
15.A.P.French(2003).VibrationsandWaves.Norton.ISBN0393099369.
16.Penrose,O.Onsager,L.(1956)."BoseEinsteinCondensationandLiquidHelium".Phys.Rev.104:576.
17.Yang,C.N.(1962)."ConceptofOffDiagonalLongRangeOrderandtheQuantumPhasesofLiquidHeandof
Superconductors".Rev.Mod.Phys.34:694.
18.Baumgratz,T.Cramer,M.Plenio,M.B.(2014)."QuantifyingCoherence".Phys.Rev.Lett.113:140401.

Externallinks
"Dr.SkySkull"."Opticsbasics:Coherence".SkullsintheStars.

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