Semi Report

Hidden corrosion detection in materials by using ultrasonic guided waves
1.1INTRODUCTION
Corrosion of metallic structures is an industry and government wide maintenance

problem that has been rapidly spreading due to the increased amount of infrastructure and
military assets that are aging. However, even in the case of newer systems and components,
corrosion can be a significant problem because of the harsh operational environments
encountered. Recognition of the severity and the resulting economic impact of the corrosion
problem by various industries and government agencies have led to significant effort over the
past 50 years to prevent and control corrosion. Non destructive evaluation (NDE) plays an
important role in this effort, mostly by enabling the detection of early signs of corrosion so that
corrective action can be taken before the damage becomes severe.
In the case of aging aircraft, the main structural problems are directly related to
corrosion detection. However, for aircraft with a number minimum life-cycle hours, structural
defects can be manifested as: Surface cracks; Fatigue cracks and corrosion in the fasteners; Skin
disbands and corrosion (in multilayered structures). Surface cracks are usually located on the
open surface of the skin structure. Big surface cracks can be detected visually if they are located
on the visible side. However, hidden surface cracks are not visible and can be detected by using
ultrasonic pulse-echo, eddy current or guided and surface wave inspection techniques. Detection
of fatigue cracks and corrosion around the fasteners of aircraft structures is a major problem for
both civil and military aircraft fleets. In some cases, the fatigue cracks initiating under the
fasteners are smaller than the countersink width of the rivet. It is important, therefore, to inspect
the flaw region using ultrasonic angle beam pulse-echo technique or guided waves. Aircraft skin
structure requires maintaining good bond or sealing integrity.
Under this work, Tektrend has been developing and extending the capabilities of its
PANDA scanning system for combining inspection techniques and their results to detect
common defects especially disbond, exfoliation and hidden corrosion in airframe structures.
Our objective is to develop a multi-purpose inspection system to selectively choose the required
inspection procedure and at the same time having the ability to combine inspection techniques
(by applying data fusion) to optimize the cost-effectiveness of the system.
ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

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1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW
Nondestructive inspection (NDI) methods used for this purpose [1] include, among
others, visual examination, eddy current inspection, x-ray and ultrasonic inspection, and more
recently, neutron radiography. Although each of these inspection methods can successfully
detect subsurface corrosion and cracks, they all have limitations.
Conventional visual examinations can detect large surface-breaking cracks or extensive
Corrosion induced "bulging" or "pillowing" of visible surfaces. However, this method generally
cannot detect small surface-breaking cracks or tiny surface displacements associated with
subsurface cracks or areas of corrosion where no pillowing occurs. Furthermore, even in areas
of significant pillowing, other reliable easy-to-use NDI methods must still be used to verify the
existence of corrosion.
Conventional eddy current and ultrasonic methods are essentially point-contact
inspection methods, which significantly limits inspection speed and makes these methods very
tedious. Through-transmission x-ray and neutron radiography inspections have limited
applicability because the source and receiver of radiation must be on opposite sides of the
inspection surface. A notable exception to this constraint is the successful, but relatively
expensive, x-ray backscatter technique. Detection of flaws before they propagate to the point of
causing failure, as occurred in the Aloha Air-lines incident in 1986 (Hendricks, 1991), is
essential. However, detailed visual inspection of aircraft is extremely time-consuming and
expensive, as it requires removal of the aircraft skin. Aircraft inspection costs currently exceed
$1billion per year. Considering the aging of the military and commercial aircraft. An urgent
need exists to develop rapid and effective non-destructive inspection (NDI) technologies to
detect flaws, such as hidden and inaccessible corrosion, cracks, disbanding, and voids in
aircraft.
Several NDI techniques are being pursued, including the following:
Eddy current and other electromagnetic techniques, such as magneto-optic imaging (e.g.
Thome et al.,1996) and magneto resistive sensing (e.g. Boltz et al.,1999)acoustic emission and
ultrasonics (e.g. Chahbaz etal., 1999)thermography (e.g. Davis, 1996)electrochemical methods
(e.g. Davis et al., 1999) and X-ray techniques, including transmission radiography (e.g. Birt et
al., 1994), and the limited-scan backscatter approach (Yacout et al., 1997).Advantages of the

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limited-scan technique include the facts that it is capable of detecting flaws under multiple skin
layers (at least as deep as 0.635 cm, or 0.250in., in aluminum), it can be applied on composite
skins (where electromagnetic techniques fail), it does not require surface preparations (such as
application of acoustic coupling compounds required in Ultrasonic techniques), it reduces to a
single-figure-of-merit (unlike more subjective imaging techniques, such as thermography), and
it requires access toonly one surface (unlike transmission radiography and some electrochemical
techniques).[1]
Marvin Lasser et al.[2007] studied NDE of hidden flaws in aging aircraft structures using
obliquely backscattered ultrasonic signals in that technique Backscattering is induced by
discontinuities, which are present along the path of a traveling wave, with surface normal to the
direction of the incident wave. This technique has been investigated for various wave
interactions with discontinuities, including surface roughness, inclusions and various internal
flaws.
William L. Dunn, Abdelfatah M. Yacout [2000] studied Corrosion detection in aircraft by X-
ray backscatter methods in that method Corrosion leads to chemical (oxidation) and density
changes, both of which affect X-ray scatter and absorption. Thus, the backscattered response
from a collimated X-ray source scanning in discrete steps across a portion of the surface of an
aircraft.
R. P. Dalton et al. [2000] studied the potential of guided waves for monitoring large areas of
metallic aircraft fuselage structure in that where sealant layers are greater than about 1mmthick,
all modes have attenuation greater than 40dB / m. The work presented has also demonstrated
the problem of frequency-thickness sensitivity when transmitting guided waves across aircraft
skin joints, owing to the generation and interference of twinned carrier modes.
D. Tuzzeo et al. [2004] studied noncontact air-coupled guided wave ultrasonic for detection of
thinning defects in aluminum plates the inspection system is based on a pair of gas (air)-coupled
transducers for the generation and the detection of plate guided waves. The dispersive behavior
of such waves is utilized to detect plate thinning simulating hidden corrosion. By controlling the
signal frequency and phase velocity, those propagating modes most effective for the inspection
can be selected. Mode cutoff, frequency shifts, group velocity changes, and time-of-flight

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changes are examined as features of the wave dispersive behavior that are sensitive to plate
thinning. In particular, it is shown that mode cutoff provides qualitative detection of the defects,
while peak frequency tracking allows quantification of thinning depth. Similarly, the group
velocity of certain plate modes excited in sensitive ranges is highly dependent on thinning depth
and can be used for its quantification. Finally, wave time-of-flight measurements are shown to
be sensitive to thinning length.
1.2.1 Literature Summary

1. Limited-scan Backscatter technique is used to find out corrosion in aircraft equipment.
2. Hidden flaws in aging aircraft structures detected using obliquely backscattered
ultrasonic signals.
3. Corrosion detection in aircraft by X-ray backscatter methods.
4. Noncontact air-coupled guided wave ultrasonics for detection of thinning defects in
aluminium plates are used.
1.3 Problem Definition

There are several methods for corrosion detection in materials based on structural health
monitoring. So this study is mainly focused on corrosion detection which is based on the
ultrasonic guided wave is presented combined with a BEM numerical simulation.
1.4 Objectives
The objectives of study are
i. To study corrosion detection in materials by using ultra Sonics guided wave .
ii. To find causes of corrosion in different materials.
iii. To find remedial action against corrosion in different materials
1.5HIDDEN CORROSION

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Hidden corrosion is a type of electro-chemical material degradation that is not readily or

directly detectable visually, or by any other surface measurement technique. [1] It can often bed
etected and quantified in terms of reduction of wall thickness or structural discontinuities such
as pits, flaws and voids. When attempting to detect material degradation due to electro-chemical
processes, the corrosion products (e.g., iron oxides, aluminum oxides, etc.) must be identified so
that an appropriate energy source can be selected for detection. In order to perform an
inspection for hidden corrosion, the detection energy source must be capable of penetrating the
material in which the corrosion is hidden.[1] If the appropriate source is selected, then the
returned signal will contain an evaluation of the entire material, including the physical geometry
of the component or system, which may indicate its structural integrity, and any hidden
corrosion. Thus, the inherent technical challenges are to select the most appropriate
interrogation energy source and to recover the signal that identifies the existence of corrosion.
Recovering the desired corrosion data is a mathematical inversion problem. Depending on the
energy source used, the characteristics of materials, and the corrosion hidden in structural
systems, an exact solution of the inversion problem may not be feasible. Therefore, data
analysis and information processing, such as the use of neuro-nets, have become key enablers in
developing NDE techniques for hidden corrosion. The military is considered the primary driver
for the development of corrosion detection technology, while the nuclear, chemical, petroleum,
and oil and gas pipeline industries are secondary drivers of this technology.
This is due in part to the fact that military systems are typically fielded longer, have
higher operational cycle rates and operate in more corrosive environments than commercial
systems.[1] Aging DoD assets have exacerbated the problem of corrosion and have increased
the need for prevention, hidden corrosion detection, and repair. The corrosion battle extends to
essentially the entire spectrum of DoD systems, including surface ships, submarines, carrier and
land-based aircraft, land vehicles, and amphibious landing craft. As systems age, corrosion
becomes one of the largest cost drivers in life cycle costs of weapon systems. An example of
this problem is the cables that are used for elevators on aircraft carriers (Figure 1). These cables
are outside the carrier hull and are exposed to the extremely harsh corrosive environment. Due
to the unavailability of NDE detection technology, these elevator cables are replaced on a time-
based schedule every several years at a cost of hundreds of thousands of dollars per elevator.
1.6 PRIMARY NDE METHODS FOR DETECTING HIDDEN CORROSION

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1.6.1 Ultrasonic
Ultrasonic NDE offers the potential for a cost effective methodology for inspection of
hidden corrosion in large and sometimes difficult to access areas, such as insulated piping. The
field of guided waves has reached some degree of maturity, but unfortunately the number of
practical applications compared to the number of research papers is rather small. Guided waves
can be used in three regimes, depending on inspection distance:
Short range (<< 1 m)
Medium range (up to about 5 m)
Long range (up to around 100 m)
The short range methods include high frequency surface wave scanning with Rayleigh waves,
leaky lamb waves, and acoustic microscopy in which a leaky surface wave is generated by the
lens. The medium range methods typically use frequencies in the 250 kHz to 1 MHz range and
are applicable to plate, tube and pipe testing. The long range method generally uses long range
frequencies below 100 kHz, and the primary advantage is that it allows a large area to be tested
from a single transducer location without tedious scanning. Long range testing, which has the
greatest potential utility in field-testing, is usually carried out in the pulse echo mode.All of the
successful applications of long range guided wave testing to date have been on structures within
low feature density. This means that the coherent noise produced by multiple reflections
between different features is modest. However, it would be valuable to be able to test more
complex structures, such as aircraft fuselages, where the spacing between stiffeners is typically
less than 300 mm. Some initial work has been done on propagation in this type of complex
structure. [1]
Figure 1. Experimental setup: oblique incidence and reception in through-transmission scheme.
1.6.2 Acoustic emission and ultrasonics

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Confidence in ultrasonic inspection to detect and quantify corrosion in field applications

has often required the disassembly of systems and testing in water baths. Results of various tests
have shown that the detection of hidden corrosion on various aluminum alloys of varying
thickness was useful above 10% metal loss, but the technique was not applicable for metal loss
below 10%.To improve the ability for detecting hidden corrosion, there have been continued
efforts to apply the drip less bubbler ultrasonic scanner, which is an ultrasonic technique that
does not require a water bath and disassembly.[1] This technique was selected as a primary
candidate by the Air Force Logistics Center in Oklahoma City (OCALC)for the detection and
quantification of intergranular corrosion prior to the onset of exfoliation around wing skin
fasteners. This is a major inspection problem for aging aircraft. Figure 2 shows the results of
tests for corrosion detection around wing-skin fasteners. In a similar NDE study, a novel
ultrasonic pulse echo technique was developed to detect intergranular corrosion around fastener
holes in aluminum wing skins before the exfoliation stage.[1] In this case, a focused transducer
with a special fixture was used to overcome the typical problems: not enough couplant,
transducer not perpendicular to the part, and varying transducer pressure. In general, there was
good agreement between the ultrasonic results and the results from the mechanical rework of
the wing skin and dissection of the fastener hole.
Ultrasonic can also be applied without a water bath by using laser ultra-Sonics. [1] Laser
ultra-Sonic has been applied for the inspection of painted metal skin, aircraft lap joints. When
lap joint corrosion reaches a specific level, normally 10% of the nominal skin thickness, the
section of the lap joint must be replaced. Visual inspection of the pillowing of the surface has
been used to detect this type of corrosion, but it cannot supply quantitative information. By
using spectral prior to the onset of exfoliation around wing skin fasteners. This is a major
inspection problem for aging aircraft. Figure 4 shows the results of tests for corrosion detection
around wing-skin fasteners. In a similar NDE study, a novel ultrasonic pulse echo technique was
developed to detect intergranular corrosion around fastener holes in aluminum wing skins
before the exfoliation stage. [1] In this case, a focused transducer with a special fixture was used
to overcome the typical problems: not enough couplant, transducer not perpendicular to the part,
and varying transducer pressure. In general, there was good agreement between the ultrasonic
results and the results from the mechanical rework of the wing skin and dissection of the
fastener hole.

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Figure 2. Corrosion Detection around Wing-Skin Fasteners Chemically Induced

Intergranular Corrosion Trial Results
Comparison of the laser-ultrasonic measurements to X-ray images showed that the laser-
ultra Sonics has the same accuracy as the X-ray imaging (metal loss below 1%).However, laser-
ultra Sonics as compared to X-ray imaging does not require disassembly of the structure, and
the inspection could be carried out during routine maintenance. Other ultrasonic approaches for
detecting hidden corrosion involve ultrasonic imaging using dry-coupled probes.[1] In addition,
a commercial instrument that essentially operates as an ultrasonic camcorder can produce C
-scan images from ultrasound signals, which are introduced into the sample with a large,
unfocused commercial transducer.[1] The implementation can be either in transmission or
reflection. A water squirter or ultrasonic couplant on the surface is required for the application
of this technique. By combining obliquely backscattered ultrasonic signals with the sensor array
real-time charge-coupled imaging system used in the ultrasonic camcorder, a rapid technique for
detecting corrosion in aircraft skins without the need for paint removal has been developed. [1]
The system can produce 30 frames a second and the unit can be programmed to examine time-
of-flight bounds and thus produce 3Dimages of material slices.
1.6.3 Eddy Current

Eddy current NDE is a prime method for detecting hidden corrosion in electrically
conducting materials. The method is based on generating a localized alternating current field in
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the sample using a probe coil. The same probe coil or another detector then measures the
materials response to the induced eddy currents. Defects cause a perturbation in the eddy
currents, and this can be detected by a change in impedance or phase variation in the detecting
circuit. In the past, eddy current NDE was limited in detecting hidden corrosion to very shallow
depths by the lack of penetrating capability of the eddy currents. However, over the last several
years there have been several notable advances in eddy current NDE stemming from research to
detect hidden corrosion and other types of defects. When combined with magneto resistive
sensors, eddy currents can be used to detect corrosion in second and third layers in aircraft lap
joints.[1] High performance magneto resistive sensors are much more sensitive than standard
pick up coils used in conventional eddy current NDE, and they operate at much lower
frequencies. Their low frequency range and linear response to frequency allows for much
greater depth of inspection than with conventional eddy current NDE that operate at higher
frequencies.
Fig.3. A Schematic View of the Wave field in aPainted 2-Layer Structure.[1]

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Fig. 4. Two Energy Coupling Paths in a Remote Field Eddy Current Probe for Pipe
Testing.
1.6.4 X-ray backscatter technique

Corrosion leads to chemical (oxidation) and density changes, both of which affect X-ray
scatter and absorption. Thus, the backscattered response from a collimated X-ray source
scanning in discrete steps across a portion of the surface of an aircraft will be different for a
sample that contains a flaw in the cover or substrate than for an identical unflawed sample. In
aircraft inspection, the cover is the top one or more layers of skin and the substrate can be a skin
layer, a structural member, or a fastener, such as a rivet or bolt.) The backscattered response
matrix, R, obtained from scanning an unknown sample in either a linear or a raster pattern is
compared to a standard template, S, which is typical of an unflawed sample. The template can
be obtained experimentally or simulated from design specifications. The presence of a flaw will
cause R to differ from S. We use a proprietary method (Dunn, 1999) to compare R and S,
yielding a figure-of-merit, z, as a function of position on the sample surface. The value of z is
always above 0 but never above 100; has a value between 100 and a cut-off value, z0 < 100,
indicated a healthy or unflawed sample, while a value below z0 indicates a flawed sample. The
lower the value of z, the more severe the flaw is likely to be. Thus, flaw detection reduces to
determining over what regions the value of z is below z0: The value of z0 can be chosen to
adjust the probability of detection (POD), and hence, the false-positive rate. Here, we suggest
and use a valuez0.95 as a workable cut-off for most applications. Lowering z0 will increase the
POD for significant flaws but may allow some less significant flaws to go undetected.[5]
1.6.5 Magneto-optic imaging

MOI has been used to monitor defects in aircraft skin. Boeing and McDonnell Douglas
have published procedures for use of MOI in 1992. Other companies such as Lockheed have
also followed [3]. In aircraft inspection, time varying magnetic fields associated with the AC
current passing through a planar induction foil induces a sheet of eddy current in the aircraft
skin according to Faradays law of electromagnetic induction. The operating frequency of MOI
applications typically ranges from few hundred Hertz up to 100 kHz. The presence of rivets or

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defects diverts the eddy current from its uniform flow, and hence generates a normal magnetic
field component, which can be measured using Faradays magneto-optic effect. A magneto-optic
sensor, placed parallel to the eddy current induction foil, is excited by a linearly polarized light.
The plane of polarization undergoes rotation by an angle that depends on the local magnetic
field intensity, and the specific Faraday rotation of sensor material. Perturbations in the
magnetic field are monitored by analyzing rotation in light polarization. Commercially available
system [4] was first developed by Physical Research Inc. PRI, before purchasing the MOI
technology, recently, by Quest Integrated, Inc [1]. The system included CCD video camera
mounted on the imager, and the signal is directed to head-mounted display such that the
inspector would monitor, on-line, defects inside the metal. Sample of MOI inspection images of
a crack-free site, and a rivet with cracks in its site. [1]
1.6.6 Magneto-Optic Sensors

Exploration of materials for magneto-optical applications has primarily dealt with two
different systems, the ferromagnetic garnets and the amorphous rare earth-transition metal films.
Careful studies of the effects of substituents (notably Bi and Pb) showed an increase in
magneto-optic rotation while other substituents (such as Ca) were found to improve
transparency [1]. Current sensors are made of a single crystal gadolinium gallium garnet (GGG)
with an epitaxial thin film of bismuth-doped iron garnet. The substrate is typically 3-inch in
diameter, and 0.02 inch-thick. Bismuth doped iron garnets give very large specific Faraday
rotation.
1.6.7Thermography
Passive thermography is a well-known and accepted technique for the detection of
defect working parts in the electronic industry or for the discovering of heat losses of houses [1-
3].The specific of passive thermography is the measurement of the heat distribution on the
surface without any active impact of additional heat. The infrared-camera (IR-camera) observes
during the passive measurement the radiation heat of the surface under inspection. The incident
radiation will be converted by the detector into electronic signals and can be displayed as an IR-

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image on a monitor or can be stored for further image processing on a computer. Using modern
highly sensitive IR-cameras, temperature differences of a few hundred degrees (about 0,015 C)
can be observed and measured.
1.7 GUIDED ULTRASONIC WAVES

Ultra-Sonics [1] refers to any study or application of sound waves higher in frequency
than the human audible range. Music and common sounds that are considered pleasant are
typically 12 kHz or less, while some humans can hear frequencies up to 20 kHz. Ultrasonic
waves consist of frequencies greater than 20 kHz and exist in excess of 25 MHz they are used in
many applications including plastic welding, medicine, jewelry cleaning and nondestructive
test. Within nondestructive test, ultrasonic waves give you the ability to see through
solid/opaque material and detect surface or internal flaws without affecting the material
adversely. Ultrasonic testing [1, 5] is a type of nondestructive testing commonly used to find
flaws in materials and to measure the thickness of objects. Frequencies of 2 to 10 MHz are
common but for special purposes other frequencies are used. Inspection may be manual or
automated and is an essential part of modern manufacturing processes. Most metals can be
inspected as well as plastics and aerospace composites. Lower frequency ultrasound (50500
kHz) can also be used to inspect less dense materials such as wood, concrete and cement.
Ultrasonic wavelengths are on the same order of magnitude as visible light, giving them many
of the same properties of light. For example, ultrasonic wavelength scan be focused, reflected
and refracted. Ultrasonic waves are transmitted through air, water, and solids such as steel by
high-frequency particle vibrations. These waves are transmitted in homogenous solid objects
much like pointing a flashlight around a room with various objects that reflect light. The
directed energy in an ultrasonic wave is reflected by boundaries between materials regardless of
whether the material is gas, liquid, or solid. Ultrasonic waves are also reflected by any cracks or
voids in solid materials. These reflected waves, which are caused by internal defects, can be
compared to the reflected waves from the external surfaces, enabling the size and severity of
internal defects to be identified. Generating and detecting ultrasonic waves requires an
ultrasonic transducer. Piezoelectric ceramics within ultrasonic transducers are struck similar
to the way tuning forks are struck to generate an audible note with electricity, typically

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between 50 and 1000 V to produce the ultrasonic wave. The figure below depicts the
ultrasonic wave, carried from the transducer to the unit under test (UUT) by a couplant
typically water, oil, or gel and is reflected back to the transducer by both external surfaces and
internal defects. Generating and detecting ultrasonic waves requires an ultrasonic transducer.
Piezoelectric ceramics within ultrasonic transducers are struck similar to the way tuning
forks are struck to generate an audible note with electricity, typically between 50 and 1000 V
to produce the ultrasonic wave. The figure below depicts the ultrasonic wave, carried from the
transducer to the unit under test (UUT) by a couplant typically water, oil, or gel and is
reflected back to the transducer by both external surfaces and internal defects. [5]
When operating in pulse-echo mode, ultrasonic transducers act as both emitters and
receivers. The reflected ultrasonic waves vibrate the piezoelectric crystal within the ultrasonic
transducer and generate voltages that are measurable by data acquisition hardware. When
operating in through-transmission mode, two ultrasonic transducer are used; one transducer
generates the wave and the other receives the wave. In a typical application, the ultrasonic
transducer is struck with a high-voltage pulse, which lasts to the order of 5s and then the
system listens for the echoes. The system listens to the order of 10 to 15s. Even in the most
advanced systems, the transducers are pulsed every 500s.The most primitive method to
analyze the reflected ultrasonic signals is time-of-flight (TOF) display, or A-scan.
Discontinuities that are closer to the ultrasonic transducer are received sooner than those further
away from the transducer. The graph depicts the TOF display from the previous example. The x-
axis on the A-scan is not typically units of time but is converted to distance. This conversion is
accomplished by measuring, or looking up, the speed of sound through the material that the
ultrasonic wave is traveling through and performing the conversion. Although there area few
exceptions, the speed of sound through a material is governed largely by the density and
elasticity of the material. For most materials, the speed of sound within homogenous material is
easy to research and find. Most ultrasonic nondestructive test applications range from 400 kHz
to 25 MHz the frequency of the ultrasonic sensor is chosen based on several factors including
detectable flaw size, depth of penetration and grain size of the material. Materials made of fine-
grained material, such as metals, permit deep penetration by ultrasonic waves of all frequencies.
However, coarse grained material, including many plastics, scatter high-frequency ultrasonic

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waves. The higher the frequency, the smaller the flaws the system detects, but the depth of
penetration decreases. [5]
1.8 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY AND SPECIMENS

The proposed inspection system is based on a pair of gas (air)-coupled transducers
positioned on the same side of the test plates as shown in Fig. 5. The two transducers act as the
generator and detector of the acoustic signals, respectively. Same-side inspection is an absolute
requirement for field testing, where access to both sides of the component is often denied. The
defects are at the opposite side of the plate, which is the usual position of hidden corrosion. The
transducers are micro machined capacitive devices that operate efficiently over a frequency
range of 100 kHz to nearly 2 MHz [6]. A schematic of the experimental setup is shown in Fig.
5.A highly tunable, radiofrequency (RF) ultrasound generation and detection system (RITEC
RAM-10000) was used in conjunction with the capacitive transducers. The system comprises a
high-power tone burst generator (250 kHz17.5 MHz up to 1.5 kW),a broad-band receiver
amplifier, and a tunable tracking super heterodyne receiver with quadrature phase sensitive
detection and analog gated integrators. High power generation is necessary to overcome the
large acoustic impedance mismatch between aluminum and air (the reflection factor for normal
incidence at the air/aluminum interface can be as high as 99.99%). The generating transducer is
driven by an AC signal (up to 300 V peak to-peak) superimposed to a 200-V DC bias for tone
burst generation. In reception, the amplified output of the detecting transducer is fed to the
RITEC unit for signal processing. This unit is interfaced to a personal computer which controls
the tone burst generation parameters (frequency, number of cycles, amplitude) and acquires the
processed signals detected by the receiving transducer. Amplitude and phase values of the
received RF tone bursts as a function of frequency are obtained by analog heterodyning and
integrating circuitry in the RITEC unit. Two phase-sensitive signals are first obtained from the
receiving transducer at 0 phase and at 90 phase with respect to an internal CW reference. The
resulting signals are then windowed about the first arrivals via the user-defined integrator gate,
before being integrated by analog circuitry. The amplitude and phase of the original RF
waveform as a function of frequency are finally reconstructed from the integrator levels by a
dedicated computer program. As shown in Fig. 5, a digital oscilloscope was also used to

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monitor the high-power voltage to the transmitter and the position of the user-defined integrator
windowing gate.
Two types of aluminum corrosion specimens have been used in the guided wave
experimental work. The in-plane dimensions of the plates were 250 mm 250 mm. The
thickness was equal to 1.524 mm (0.06 in.) for the first plate and 2.286 mm (0.09 in.) for the
second one. Three thickness recesses simulating corrosion at different depths were engineered
in both plates by machine cutting. The in-plane dimensions of the defects were 40 mm 40 mm
with depths equal to 5%, 10%, and 20% of the plate thickness. Figure 6 shows the overall
dimensions and the positions of the defects along with a picture of one of the test plates. Two
additional 20% thinning defects with in-plane dimensions 10 mm 40 mm and 25 mm40 mm
were engineered in the 1.524-mm-thick plate. These two defects were created to study the effect
of thinning length
Fig.5.Experimental Setup for Gas (Air) Coupled UltrasonicGuided Wave Detection of

Thinning Defects in Aluminum Plates

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Fig. 6. Dimensions and locations of simulated 5%, 10%, and 20% hidden corrosion defects
the test aluminum plates.
1.9CASE STUDY
Because of the frequency-thickness dependence of guided wave modes, there is a
possibility of detecting corrosion or erosion thinning of structures with guided waves. In
particular, at least three types of features can be considered in the testing: the wave mode cutoff
phenomena; time delay and group velocity changes; and transmission and reflection amplitudes.
All of these methods offer the potential to inspect corrosion-induced thinning in structures, such
as aircraft skin, chemical tanks, piping, ship hulls, and any other plate- or shell-like structure.
For different problems, there are different advantages or disadvantages of the guided wave
approaches. It is therefore wise to compare the different methods and to select the best features
for a specific problem.
Two types of aluminum corrosion specimens have been used in the guided wave experimental
work:
Plates with simulation corrosion prepared by machine cutting, as shown in Fig. 7: The corroded
zone surfaces are smooth and the depths are made at 5%, lo%, and 20% of the plate thickness,
respectively. Two sheets with different thicknesses, I .62mm and 2.16mm, were used.
Real corrosion plates prepared by controlling an electrochemical procedure, as shown in Fig. 8:
Artificial seawater (ASTM Standard DI 12) was applied, and the specimens were subjected to
static over potentials for 12 h at a current density of 1.4 pA/cm2. The corrosion depths were

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randomly distributed from 0.02 to 0.1 mm in the corrosion zone with an average depth
measured being around 4%of the thickness. A non-uniform corrosion zone was also
deliberately made on the similar aluminum sheet, and the average depth changes were from 0.02
to 0.27 mm along the transverse direction of the sheet. Generally, the corroded zones have
rough surfaces.
Fig. 7. Corrosion simulation specimens: (a) 1.62 mm and (b) 2.16 mm.

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Fig. 8. Real corrosion specimens with random corrosion depths.
1.10 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR HIDDEN SURFACE CORROSION

Experiments for hidden surface corrosion detection were carried out on both the
simulation and real corrosion specimens. Various wave modes were subsequently generated on
These specimens to examine the implications of thinning on mode cutoff, group velocity, and
transmission and reflection amplitudes
1.10.1Result for corrosion simulation specimen

In the phase velocity dispersion curves, each high-order mode (above SO and AO) has a
vertical asymptotical line to its curve. When the mode fd product is higher than the
Asymptotical value of the curve, this mode can exist or can be excited; otherwise, the mode
cannot exist or will be cut off. The first set of experiments was performed by shock excitation
with angle beam broadband transducers. A broadband source can produce more guided wave
modes in the corroded plates than a single frequency source and hence can provide greater
opportunities for finding suitable modes in one measurement Figures 9 and 10 show the
transmission RF signals and their FFTs for 5% thinning in the 0.62- and 2.16-mm aluminum
plates, respectively.

18
Fig.9. Zone in the 1.62-mm plates at a 2.25-hlHz pulse excitation and 15" incidence.
Guided wave transmission RFs and FFh for both without (a,b) and with (c,d) the 5%
corrosion
It can be seen from the received signal spectrum distributions that some wave modes
were cut off as waves traversed the corrosion zone. To accurately locate the cutoff frequencies,
we used a tone-burst system sweeping the frequency to generate the modes to be cut off by the
corrosion. Figures 11. And12show the time domain results for such waveforms at a frequency
below the cutoff values for the machined segments in both1.62- and 2.16-mm specimens. From
the phase and group velocity dispersion curves, the modes in the former specimen can be

19
identified as A3 and S5. and the modes in the latter specimen as S3 and S4, respectively.
Fig.10.zone in the 2.16-mm plates at a 5.0-MHz pulse excitation and 15" incidence.Guided
wave transmission RFs and FFTs for both without (a,b) and with (c,d) the 5% corrosion
Fig.11. Transmission RFs of A3 (a,c) and S5 (b,d) modes at 25" incidence and 4.39 and
6.37hlHz,respectively, for the 1.62-mm plates without and with the 5% corrosion zone .
With this method, almost all mode cutoff phenomena in a certain range of interesting fd
values were observed, except for the SO and A0 modes. Similar results have also been obtained
for the 10 and 20% corrosion simulation specimens and are omitted here for abbreviation. The

20
cutoff fd values for Lamb waves can be determined analytically from the Rayleigh-Lamb
equation by simply setting the wave number to be zero. For symmetric modes it gives:
fd= CL/2,3CL/2,5CL/2,. . .
Where CL are the longitudinal and shear wave velocities of the material
Fig.12. Transmission RFs of S3 (a,c) and S4 (b,d) modes at 15" incidence and 2.9 and 4.32
kHz,respectively, for the 2.16-mm plates without and with the 5% corrosion zone.

21
1.10.2 Group velocity change

From the received through-transmission RF, we can also tell the differences on the time
of-flight between the signals with and without the corrosion zone. This is related to a group
velocity change. This effect can be explained by examining the dispersion curves. The corrosion
thinning causes the fd product to decrease, and further causes the group velocity changes as
shown in Fig.13 b. In fact, both phase and group velocities change when the fill product varies.
However, with oblique incidence and reception, it is difficult to measure accurately the phase
velocity changes of the guided waves. Other approaches, such as pin probes with a cone
cylinder guiding the waves between transducers and specimens could be applied to deal with
this problem. To measure group velocity, one can simply change the distance between the
sender and receiver and measure the time-delay between the two centers of the received
waveforms before and after changing the distance, as is shown in Fig. 9 for the SO mode.
Typical experimental results for the1.62-mm specimens with corrosion simulation are shown in
Tables 1 and 2.It should be noted that the group velocity for the same mode may increase or
decrease, depending on the point from which the fd begins decreasing, whereas phase velocities
for all modes except A0 keep increasing when the fill product decreases. A bigger change in
group velocity can be observed in the region of the dispersion curve, where a larger slope
occurs.

22
Fig.13.RF of the SO mode at 1.75 MHz for the 10% corrosion simulation specimen
showing the group velocity measurement by changing the spacing (AS = 60 mm) of the
sender and receiver, measuring the time delay AT of the received waveforms.
1.10.2 Result for real specimen corrosion

Following the procedure used for the corrosion simulation specimens, we first applied
shock excitation with angle beam transducers to the real corroded aluminum plates. The
transmission RF signals and their FFTs for the non-uniform corrosion specimen, in which the
corrosion depth varied from 0.02 to 0.27 mm along the transverse direction of the 1.62-mm
plate, are shown in Fig. 10.Even though real corrosion leads to more noise in the transmission
spectrum, compared to the results for the machined corrosion, we can still modes around 2.4
MHz that gradually decrease in amplitude with increasing corrosion depth. After sweeping a
frequency range around 2.4 MHz by using a tone burst system, a mode at 2.23 MHz was found
and identified to be the S2 mode, which shows a noteworthy change when it passes through
different corrosion zones with different depths. Figure 12 shows the time domain results of
transmission and reflection for this mode in the 1.62-mm specimens. The transmitted wave
amplitude decreases as the corrosion depth increases, whereas the reflected wave amplitude
increases as predicted. Transmission RFs for non-corrosion and reflection RFs from a free edge
are also plotted in Fig. 12 for reference some other modes (e.g., A2) were also found to have the
same cutoff property as theS2 mode on the real corrosion specimens. In addition, from both
machined corrosion and real corrosion experiments, it was found that higher order modes were

23
suitable for the shallow corrosion in thin plates, and at different phase velocities the same mode
shows different sensitivity and feasibility to corrosion detection.
Fig.14.Transmission RFs and FFTs of the guided waves through a corrosion zone with
depth changed from 0.02 to 0.27 mm in the I .62-mm plate at a 2.25-MHz pulse excitation
and 15" incidence. Note the different scales in the FITS.
1.10.3 BEM Simulation Results

In the though-transmission measurement of mode cutoff, there is a possibility that the
incident mode may be converted into other modes when interacting with the corrosion zone, and
those converted modes may pass through the thinned plate, but they could not be detected by
the receiver because the wedge transducer has mode selectivity. Therefore, it should be verified
that the mode's disappearance from the received signals was not because of mode conversion
but because of mode reflection when a cutoff condition was met. This can be achieved by a

24
numerical simulation for different modes under different conditions or by experiments with
different receivers. We prefer the former method, because we believe that it is more general and
leads as well to improvements in saving time and cost.
Fig.15. Transmission and reflection of wave modes by corrosions of different depths at

2.23-MHzsingle frequency and 15" degree incidence.
An effective hybrid BEM program was developed for studying the scattering phenomena
when guided waves propagate through plates with defects. In the hybrid BEM formulation, we
considered the whole infinite plate consisting of three segments: the left semi-infinite plate, the
middle finite plate containing the defects, and the right semi-infinite plate. A constant-element
BEM discrete scheme was applied to the middle plate. In both of the semi-infinite plates, the
scattered far-field stresses and displacements were expressed by all of the possible propagating
modes at a given frequency. Then, these normal expansions of stress and displacements were
matched to those calculated by the BEM in the middle plate at the connecting cross sections.
25
Here we neglected all of the evanescent modes because the connecting cross sections between
the left and middle segments and between the middle and right segments were selected far away
from the defects compared to the guided wave length. The BE simulation also provides
information on how the transmission and reflection amplitudes vary with the corrosion depth as
well as the frequency used. It should be pointed out that the BEM calculation did not include the
guided mode generation and reception procedures(the procedure of ultrasonic waves from the
transducer to the wedge and from the wedge to the plate, or vice versa), so we will not match
here the BEM results to the experimental results that were obtained with the wedge transducers.
1.10 CONCLUSIONS

26
Many features can be used to evaluate the hidden corrosion-caused thinning in structures
with guided waves. However, for different problems, specific selection and optimization should
be made to obtain the most sensitive and feasible features. Generally, higher order modes at
high phase velocities show better sensitivity over lower order modes, but they are only applied
to short distances and require strict contact conditions. For the group velocity method, to
decrease the measurement errors due to the waveform spreading in the time domain, modes
should be excited at the relative no dispersive points on the mode dispersion curve. When using
the mode cutoff and frequency compensation method, it should be remembered that the received
waveforms will not just depend on the thickness frequency product, but also on the thickness as
well as the frequency independently. This means that one can recover the mode by increasing
the frequency, which is close to its original shape but not exactly the same.
The transmission and reflection amplitudes will also serve as good features for estimating
the corrosion depths if an accurate standard calibration can be made by a simple experiment or
by an effective numerical method such as the hybrid BEM used in this work. The effects of the
corrosion zone length on the received guided waves are important for the corrosion length
estimation, but they will not discuss here. In general, compared to the bulk wave methods,
guided wave methods are more global in nature and may provide a broad possibility for mode
control and feature selection. The features developed hereon mode cutoff, group velocity, and
reflection and transmission factors could be used to establish a robust feature vector for use in
pattern recognition analyses if required in certain situations.
REFERENCE

27
[1] George A. Matzkanin 1,H Thomas Yolken 2,Non-destructive evaluation technique for
corrosion detection
[2] R. P. Dalton 1, P. Cawley 2, and M. J. S. Lowe 3,The Potential of Guided Waves for
Monitoring Large Areas of Metallic Aircraft Fuselage Structure Journal of Nondestructive
Evaluation, Vol. 20, No. 1, 2001.
[3] D. Tuzzeo and F. Lanza di Scalea, Noncontact Air-Coupled Guided Wave Ultrasonics for
Detection of Thinning Defects in Aluminum Plates, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation,
Vol. 13, No. 2, 2001, pp. 61-77
[4] Y. Bar-Cohen, A.K. Mal and M. Lasser, NDE of Hidden Flaws in Aging Aircraft Structures
Using Obliquely Backscattered Ultrasonic Signals (OBUS), The SPIE Conference on
Nondestructive Evaluation of Aging Aircraft, Airports, and Aerospace Hardware III, Vol. 3586,
1999, pp. 347-353
[5] Sudhanshu Shekhar, Online Non Destructive Evaluation of Large Pipe Lines and
Cylindrical Structures using Guided Ultrasonic Waves
[6] W. Zhu, J. L. Rose , J. N. Barshinger & V. S. Agarwal (1998) Ultrasonic Guided Wave NDT
for Hidden Corrosion Detection, Research in Nondestructive Evaluation,10:4, 205-225
[7] I.N. Komsky, Ultrasonic Imaging of Hidden Defects Using Dry-coupled Ultrasonic
Probes, Health Monitoring and Smart Nondestructive Evaluation of Structural and Biological
Systems V, edited by Tribikram Kundu, Proc. of SPIE,Vol. 61770M, 2006
[8] Meftah Hrairi and Nurul Farahana Zuhudi. Ultrasonic Techniques for Detection of
Thinning Defects in Metal Plates 3rd Engineering Conference on Advancement in Mechanical
and Manufacturing for Sustainable Environment April 14-16, 2010, Kuching, Sarawak,
Malaysia

28

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Hidden corrosion detection in materials by using ultrasonic guided waves

Corrosion of metallic structures is an industry and government wide maintenance

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

1.2.1 Literature Summary

1.3 Problem Definition

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

Hidden corrosion is a type of electro-chemical material degradation that is not readily or

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

Figure 1. Experimental setup: oblique incidence and reception in through-transmission scheme.

1.6.2 Acoustic emission and ultrasonics

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

Confidence in ultrasonic inspection to detect and quantify corrosion in field applications

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

Figure 2. Corrosion Detection around Wing-Skin Fasteners Chemically Induced

1.6.3 Eddy Current

Fig.3. A Schematic View of the Wave field in aPainted 2-Layer Structure.[1]

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

1.6.4 X-ray backscatter technique

1.6.5 Magneto-optic imaging

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

1.6.6 Magneto-Optic Sensors

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

1.7 GUIDED ULTRASONIC WAVES

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

1.8 EXPERIMENTAL METHODOLOGY AND SPECIMENS

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

Fig.5.Experimental Setup for Gas (Air) Coupled UltrasonicGuided Wave Detection of

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

Fig. 8. Real corrosion specimens with random corrosion depths.

1.10 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS FOR HIDDEN SURFACE CORROSION

1.10.1Result for corrosion simulation specimen

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

1.10.2 Group velocity change

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

1.10.2 Result for real specimen corrosion

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

1.10.3 BEM Simulation Results

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Fig.15. Transmission and reflection of wave modes by corrosions of different depths at

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

ME Mechanical (Design Engineering) P.R.E.C. LONI

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