Original Article

J Strain Analysis
49(1) 1926
IMechE 2013
Low-cycle fatigue life estimation of Reprints and permissions:
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steam turbine rotor steels at high DOI: 10.1177/0309324713498738
sdj.sagepub.com

temperature

Fangming Lv, Kun Wang and Shuhong Huang

Abstract
Nine methods currently available for estimation of fatigue properties from simple tensile data are discussed in detail.
The estimation accuracies of these methods were compared according to the test data of nine types of steam turbine
rotor steels. The results showed that the values calculated using the nine methods resulted in unacceptable values. In
double logarithmic coordinates, the nine method functions were linearly modified, where the predicted lives were all less
than quadruple the observed lives, except for the mixed method. A new method that takes the temperature influence
into account is presented, which is suitable for fatigue life estimation of steam turbine rotor steels at high temperature
(400 C600 C). The estimation results show that the new method can provide acceptable accuracy.

Keywords
Fatigue properties, estimation methods, steam turbine, rotor steel, high temperature

Date received: 20 March 2013; accepted: 26 June 2013

Introduction uniform material law. Nie and Qiao7 presented a

Fatigue properties of materials are essential for the
strength design and life assessment of mechanical struc-
tures and components. Fatigue properties, such as
strainlife (eN), are typically determined by perform-
ing fatigue tests on material specimens. However, fati-
gue tests require a great amount of time, funds and
materials. Therefore, researchers and engineers have
attempted to estimate fatigue properties using tensile
data, which consist of the ultimate tensile strength su ,
modulus of elasticity E, reduction in area RA, true frac-
ture stress sf and so on.
Many methods have been presented that estimate
fatigue properties from uniaxial tension tests. Manson1
proposed two methods to estimate the strainlife curve
using only tensile test data, which are the four-point
correlation method and the universal slopes method.
Muralidharan and Manson2 improved Mansons uni-
versal slopes methods and proposed a new method, the
modified universal slopes (MUS) method. Ong3 pre-
sented a modified four-point correlation method to
improve Mansons method. Yao4 proposed a method
based on the ultimate tensile strength for estimating the
CoffinManson parameters. Mitchell et al.5 presented a
new method for steels, which considered the hardness.
Baumel and Seeger6 presented another method, the
method, the mixed method, based on the four-point
correlation method and the universal slopes method.
Roessle and Fatemi8 proposed a simple method that
requires only the hardness and modulus of elasticity to
estimate the strainlife curve. Meggiolaro and Castro9
proposed a new estimation method, which uses the
medians of individual parameters of 845 materials.
However, the majority of the fatigue tests in the
aforementioned literature were performed at room tem-
perature (RT) to estimate fatigue properties. In this
article, fatigue properties of nine types of steam turbine
rotor steels are estimated with the nine aforementioned
methods and compared with the fatigue test data.
Finally, a new method is proposed that can estimate
the fatigue parameters of steam turbine rotor steels at
high temperature.
Institute of Thermal Power and Automation, School of Energy and Power
Engineering, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan,
China
Corresponding author:
Kun Wang, School of Energy and Power Engineering, Huazhong University
of Science and Technology, 1037 Luoyu Road, Wuhan 430074, China.
E-mail: hust_wk@hust.edu.cn
20 Journal of Strain Analysis 49(1)

Estimation methods of fatigue properties correlation method and the universal slopes method
are not universal methods that can estimate fatigue
The relationship between the total strain range Det and
properties.
its fatigue life Nf is typically given by the classical
CoffinManson equation
Det s9f  b  c MuralidharanMansons method
= 2Nf + e9f 2Nf 1
2 E Muralidharan and Manson2 proposed a MUS equation
where Det =2 is the total strain amplitude; 2Nf is rever- to estimate fatigue properties based on 47 materials
sals to failure; s9f and b are the fatigue strength coeffi- studied at RT. The modified slopes equation was deter-
cient and its exponent, respectively; and e9f and c are mined by
the fatigue ductility coefficient and its exponent, respec- s 0:53 s 0:832
u u
tively. These four constants define the basic fatigue De = 0:0266e0:155
f Nf0:56 + 1:17 N0:09
f
E E
properties of a material and can be estimated based on
monotonic tensile test data. Next, the main nine estima- 4
tion methods proposed in the literatures are discussed.
Compared with the universal slopes equation, the
MUS equation provides predictions that agree more
Mansons method closely with the measured fatigue properties over the
entire life range.
Manson1 studied 29 materials in axial low-cycle fatigue
In this study, the authors proposed a new equation
tests, and these materials cover a large range of vari-
for cryogenic fatigue application. The equation is
ables that might affect fatigue behavior, such as the
reduction in area, which ranged from 1% to 94%, ten- s 0:845
u
sile strength, which ranged from 16,000 to more than De = 0:547e0:43
f N0:5
f + 1:613 N0:099
f 5
E
400,000 lbf/in2, cyclic hardening, softening characteris-
tics and so on. Two methods for estimation of fatigue However, the results showed that the universal slopes
properties were proposed in the following. equation is better at predicting the fatigue behavior of
materials in the cryogenic temperature range compared
Four-point correlation method. This method is referred to with predictions using equation (5).
as the four-point correlation method because the elastic
line and the plastic line are straight lines in logarithmic
coordinates and obtained by locating two points on Ongs method
each. The two points on the elastic line are
Ong3 introduced an improved method, the modified
(0:25, (2:5sf =E)) and (105 , (0:9su =E)), and (10, 0:25e0:75
f )
four-point correlation method, which is extremely simi-
and (104 , ((0:0132  Dee  )=1:91)) are the other two
lar to the original four-point correlation method pro-
points on the plastic line. Dee is the elastic strain range
posed by Manson. The fatigue strength coefficient s9f
at 104 cycles and can be defined as
is approximated to be equal to the true fracture stress
    2:5sf sf ; the fatigue ductility coefficient is approximated by
log Dee = b log 43104 + log 2 the logarithmic ductility ef , where ef = ln1=(1  RA)
E
and RA is the reduction in area. The slopes for the elas-
tic line and plastic line are given as
Method of universal slopes. This method assumes that the  
slopes of the elastic and plastic lines are the same for 1 s 0:81  s 
u f
b= log 0:16  log 6
all materials. According to the test results on 29 materi- 6 E E
als, the universal slope for the elastic line is 20.12 and

that for the plastic line is 20.6, where the two points 1 0:00737  De =_2 1
c = log  log ef 7
are (1, 3:5su =E) and (1, e0:6
f ), respectively. The equa- 4 2:074 4
tion for the total strain then becomes
where De =2 is the plastic strain amplitudes at 104 rever-
Det 1:9018su  0:12 0:6
 0:6 sals to failure, and the ordinate is observed to be equal
= 2Nf + 0:7579ef 2Nf
2 E to
3
De sf h 23flog0:16(su =E)0:81 log (su =E)g i
Manson compared the experimental axial life with = 10 8
2 E
that predicted using the two proposed methods. The
results show that 90% of the data points fall within a Compared with the four-point correlation method pro-
life factor of 5. However, the agreement between the posed by Manson on 49 steels, the modified four-point
experiments and the predictions was not good, particu- correlation method gives better life and strain
larly for AM 350 annealed and beryllium. The four-point predictions.
Lv et al. 21

Yaos method In Park and Song,10 extensive experimental strain

Yao4 proposed a new method to estimate fatigue prop-
erties by single tensile properties. In his article, this new
method provided better approximations of the strain
life curve and has a certain practical engineering value.
The method can be defined as
life curve data on 116 steels, 16 aluminum alloys and 6
titanium alloys were used to discuss several methods
that estimate fatigue properties. The results showed
that the universal material law method gives good life
predictions.

De 5:663s0:8  0:12
= u
2Nf + Mixed method
2 E
1 h s i 0:62 Nie and Qiao7 presented a new method for estimating
u
310^ 5:6484 + 0:0004su  209 2Nf fatigue properties, called the mixed method, where the
E E
cyclic hardening and softening characteristics of metal-
9
lic materials are considered. Comparing the experimen-
It must be pointed out that formula (9) is derived from tal results of five typical metallic materials, including
Yaos method and is slightly different from the formula LY12-CZ, LC4-CS, LC9-CgS3, 30CrMnSiA and
in Yao.4 30CrMnSiNi2A, the mixed method is better than the
The empirical formulas from the five aforemen- universal slopes method, the four-point correlation
tioned methods are obtained by roughly fitting a method and the modified four-point correlation
copious amount of experimental data. These research- method. The equations for hardening and softening
ers attempted to find universal methods for any type of metallic materials are defined as follows
metal. However, metals were not classified in their
For hardening metallic materials :
work. Therefore, the estimation accuracy of these
  0:893
methods is not satisfactory. De 1:17su sf su  0:913
= 2Nf
2 E
q
Mitchells method 3   0:179  0:636
+ 0:642ef 1  81:8su =_E sf _su 2Nf
In the report by Mitchell et al.,5 the fatigue strength
coefficient s9f is approximately equal to the true 12
fracture stress sf corrected for necking and for steels to For softening metallic materials :
approximately 500 Brinell hardness s9f = su +   0:893
345, MPa. The fatigue strength exponent b varies from De 1:19su sf su  0:913
= 2Nf
20.05 to 20.12 for most metals and is a function of 2 E
q
su . The fatigue ductility coefficient e9f is approximated 3   0:179  0:609
+ 0:630ef 1  81:8su =E sf su 2Nf
to be equal to the true fracture ductility ef . The fatigue
ductility exponent c is not as well defined as the other 13
parameters and is assumed to be equal to 20.6 for
fairly ductile materials (ef 1) and equal to 20.5 for
strong metals (ef 0:5). The Brinell hardness is used in
RoessleFatemis method
this method and is reasonable for estimating fatigue
properties. Roessle and Fatemi8 proposed a simple method requir-
ing only the Brinell hardness and modulus of elasticity
to estimate the strainlife curve. This method is defined
BaumelSeegers method as
The method proposed by Baumel and Seeger6 is
De 4:253HB + 225 MPa  0:09
referred to as the universal material law method. There = 2Nf
are two equations used for unalloyed and low-alloy 2 E
steels and for aluminum and titanium alloys that can 0:32HB2  487HB + 1:913105 MPa  0:56
+ 2Nf
be defined as follows E
14
For unalloyed and low  alloy steels :
De su  0:087  0:58 The prediction capability of this method was evalu-
= 1:5 2Nf + 0:59c 2Nf 10 ated for steels with hardnesses between 150 and 700
2 E
HB and was compared with the MUS methods. The
where (su =E)40:003, c = 1; (su =E) . 0:003 and proposed method provides good approximations of the
c = 1:375  125:0(su =E). strainlife curve, as shown in Table 1.
Several metal characteristics, such as the Brinell
For aluminum and titanium alloys :
hardness, hardening or softening and alloy category,
De su  0:095  0:69 are considered in the four aforementioned methods.
= 1:67 2Nf + 0:35 2Nf 11
2 E The distinct formulas are suitable for different types of
22 Journal of Strain Analysis 49(1)

Table 1. Prediction of the total strain amplitude and fatigue life (data within scatter bands, %).

Strain factor 1.1 1.2 1.5 2.0 Life factor 2 3 5 10

MUS method 41 70 96 100 MUS method 76 89 93 98

Proposed method 50 80 98 100 Proposed method 81 94 97 100

MUS: modified universal slopes.

Table 2. Chemical composition of test materials (%).

Name C Si Mn P S Cr Mo V Ni W

10Cr (E-type) 0.10 0.07 0.46 0.008 0.002 10.32 1.08 0.2 0.76 0.94
10Cr (F-type) 0.11 \0.05 0.53 0.005 0.002 10.40 1.21 0.17 0.63 0.33
10Cr (refined) 0.10 0.07 0.39 0.006 0.002 10.48 0.99 0.19
X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-111 0.122 0.393 10.035 1.088 0.181 0.796 1.02
30Cr2MoV12 0.295 0.36 0.66 0.016 0.016 1.64 0.66 0.23 0.11
30Cr1Mo1V (I)12 0.3 0.25 0.78 \0.01 0.01 1.18 1.18 0.25 0.42
30Cr1Mo1V (II)13 0.28 0.22 0.73 0.023 40.005 1.1 1.13 0.24 0.4
28CrMoNiV12 0.31 0.34 0.6 0.017 0.011 1.11 0.95 0.23 0.5
20Cr3MoWV12 0.2 0.27 0.5 40.025 40.025 2.8 0.4 0.8 40.3 0.45

metal. These classification ideas are beneficial to esti- Materials and tests
mate accuracy.
Three types of 10Cr steels that are commonly used for
supercritical steam turbine rotors are used in this arti-
MeggiolaroCastros method cle. The properties of 10Cr steels are excellent at ele-
vated temperature compared with common CrMoV
Meggiolaro and Castro9 presented an extensive statisti-
steels. To evaluate the existing procedures for estimat-
cal evaluation of several existing CoffinManson para-
ing fatigue lives of steam turbine rotor steels at high
meter estimates based on monotonic tensile and
temperature, these three types of 10Cr steels were com-
uniaxial fatigue properties of 724 steels, 81 aluminum
bined with the tensile and fatigue properties of other six
alloys and 15 titanium alloys. From their evaluation,
types of steam turbine rotor steels from the literatures.
the authors believe that the best estimation methods
The chemical compositions of the rotor steels used in
are all based on constant values of the exponents b and
our research are given in Table 2.
c, and in general, s9f is well estimated as a linear func-
Total strain-controlled fatigue tests of 10Cr steels
tion of the ultimate strength su . Also, assuming e9f is a
were performed on a servo-controlled hydraulic test
constant result in better predictions.
system (MTS810; MTS Systems Corporation, USA)
From a statistical point of view, they proposed a
equipped with a high-temperature furnace according to
new estimation method that uses the medians of the
the Chinese National Standard (GB/T 15248-2008).14
individual parameters of the 845 materials, called the
median method, in which s9f =su , e9f , b and c are esti- The test materials were machined to cylindrical
mated as constants equal to their medians for each alloy specimens with a uniform gauge section, as shown in
family Figure 1. Specimens were fatigued in the total strain
amplitude (Det =2) values ranging from 0.25% to 0.7%
De su  0:09  0:59 at 540 C and 593 C, respectively. We selected sym-
= 1:5 2Nf + 0:45 2Nf metric tensioncompression triangular waves at a strain
2 E
(from 724 steels) 15
De su  0:11  0:66
= 1:9 2Nf + 0:28 2Nf
2 E
(from 81 aluminum alloys) 16

The median method causes the experimental data

dispersion on the life estimation to decrease greatly,
and thus, the formulas are universal. The authors
pointed out that all the presented estimates should
never be used in design. For whatever reason, even the
best methods may result in life prediction errors of an
order of magnitude for several materials. Figure 1. Diagram of the specimen size (unit: mm).
Lv et al. 23

Table 3. Monotonic tensile properties of 10Cr steels.

Types Temperature (C) E (MPa) R0.2 (MPa) Rm (MPa) RA (%) s9f (MPa) e9f b c

10Cr (E-type) 540 171,177 533 580 69.57 806 0.273 20.09 20.59
593 140,093 412 427 87.62 579 0.2315 20.09 20.59
10Cr (F-type) 540 173,758 536 580 71.41 767 0.1973 20.09 20.59
593 147,163 454 473 87.12 622 0.1908 20.09 20.59
10Cr (refined) 540 160,590 653 710 75.71 954 0.2188 20.09 20.59
593 155,815 532 561 84.98 763 0.2367 20.09 20.59
X12CrMoWVNbN10-1-1 Room 213,420 765 878 62.5 1044.2 2.3338 20.0532 20.8387
temperature
30Cr2MoV 20 207,000 535.4 723.7 58.2 965 0.2819 20.0731 20.5588
450 190,000 417.8 526.7 64.3 880 1.0982 20.0979 20.7985
500 189,000 373.6 454.1 73 849 1.7341 20.1047 20.8841
550 185,000 347.2 421.7 81.7 611 0.8241 20.0708 20.7703
30Cr1Mo1V (I) 25 214,000 641.6 800 59.56 1008 0.6284 20.0804 20.825
510 179,370 489.7 557 77.55 680 0.3884 20.0856 20.716
538 177,046 470.2 524 82.03 588 0.6264 20.0697 20.755
30Cr1Mo1V (II) 540 172,800 465 520 88.5 593.2 0.7211 20.06667 20.7363
565 171,200 447 484 85.9 536.9 2.043 20.05346 20.926
28CrMoNiV 500 178,000 434 487 86 747 0.2755 20.09 20.59
20Cr3MoWV 20 211,000 653.4 791 61.6 1129 0.3241 20.09 20.59
350 193,500 579.6 711 52.2 960 0.2261 20.09 20.59
450 185,000 557.2 627 60.6 797 0.1525 20.09 20.59
550 174,000 534.8 543 69.1 686 0.146 20.09 20.59

rate of 0.008 s21. Specimens were loaded continuously
until failure occurred in the monotonic tensile tests at
540 C and 593 C. Specimens were exposed to 540 C
and 593 C air environments for 40 min at the begin-
ning of both tests.
Results and discussion
The monotonic tensile properties and CoffinManson
parameters of steam turbine rotor steels are shown in
Table 3. The fatigue lives of these steam turbine rotor
steels were evaluated with the nine methods introduced
above according to the monotonic tensile test results.
Figure 2 presents the overall comparisons between the
experiments and the predictions (graphical symbol )
analyzed using each of the nine methods.
It can be seen that all the predicted values are higher
than those from the experiments. The prediction accu-
racy of the median method is better, where all of the
data fall within a life factor band of 10 for this method.
The results predicted by the mixed method are the
worst compared with the experiment data, which have
a life factor greater than 100.
The strainlife formulas for the nine methods mostly
fit the fatigue tests data at RT. The properties of mate-
rials degenerate more rapidly at higher temperatures
than in RT fatigue tests. Therefore, it is necessary to
find a new method that can be used in fatigue life pre-
diction at high temperature.
As can be seen from Figure 2, the trend lines of the
scatter diagram for the nine methods are almost all in
parallel with the 45 line, which suggests that the pre-
dicted life is linear when corrected in a loglog coordi-
nate system to match the experimental life as much as
possible. The predicted life diagrams after being linearly
corrected for the nine methods are shown in Figure 2
(graphical symbol s). It can be seen that all the scatters
fall within the life factor band of 2, except for the mixed
method, in which the scatters are inside the life factor
band of 10.
Table 4 shows the original and linear corrected pre-
dicted life reversals within the scatter bands. As we can
see, after being linear corrected, Mitchells method and
Ongs method are best and the other methods are all
better, except for the mixed method.
It is believed that better life predictions are obtained
simply using constant estimates of the parameters b, c,
s9f =E and e9f .9 However, according to the above dis-
cussion, it is clear that the operating temperature signif-
icantly impacts on the fatigue life of steels. Using the
median method, the predicted life of 20Cr3MoV steel
and 30Cr1Mo1V (I) steel at RT and 500 C is shown in
Figure 3. As can be seen, the predicted lives at RT are
better than that of 500 C. Therefore, the operating
temperature cannot be ignored when estimating strain
life curves at high temperature. Thus, it is extremely
important to find a method that estimates strainlife
curves that consider the operating temperature.
We can assume that the slopes of the elastic and
plastic lines are the same for steam turbine rotor steels
according to the method of universal slopes. In addi-
tion, the median method gives e9f as constant 0.45 for
steels. Therefore, the influence of operating tempera-
ture on the parameters e9f , b and c can be ignored.
Then, we can propose a modified factor named A,
which is a function of operating temperature T and
radio s9f =E, as shown in formula (17)
s9f
A;f T, 17
E
24 Journal of Strain Analysis 49(1)

Figure 2. Comparison of the predicted and experimental life reversals by the nine methods: (a) four-point correlation method, (b)
method of universal slopes, (c) Mitchells method, (d) modified universal slopes method, (e) Ongs method, (f) universal material law
method, (g) mixed method, (h) median method and (i) Yaos method.

We found that the relationship between factors A s9f

A = 5:243105 T  38:97 + 3:847 18
and T and s9f =E are approximately linear according to E
the test data (at high temperature) of rotor steels
employed in this article. Therefore, we propose that the Based on the median method, a new method can be
factor A can be defined as given as
Lv et al. 25

Table 4. Prediction of fatigue life (data within scatter bands, %).

Original prediction Linear correction

Life factor 4 10 20 30 1.5 2 2.5 4

Four-point correlation method 14.01 67.52 98.09 100 92.99 98.73 100 100
Method of universal slopes 16.56 60.51 99.36 100 96.18 98.73 100 100
Mitchells method 5.73 22.93 45.22 71.34 97.45 98.73 100 100
Modified universal slopes method 26.75 85.99 99.36 100 93.63 98.73 98.73 100
Universal material law method 23.57 84.71 99.36 100 96.82 98.73 100 100
Mixed method 8.28 26.75 43.31 54.78 59.24 78.98 89.17 98.73
Ongs method 22.29 85.99 100 100 97.45 98.73 100 100
Median method 66.88 99.36 100 100 95.54 98.73 100 100
Yaos method 32.48 96.18 100 100 92.99 100 100 100

Figure 3. Comparison of predicted life at RT and 500 C: (a) 20Cr3MoV and (b) 30Cr1Mo1V (I).
RT: room temperature.

in detail in further work to improve the estimation

Figure 4. Predicted life at high temperature.
accuracy.
It must be noted that scatter in fatigue test data can-
not be avoided due to defects and processing techniques
of the specimens, operation and measurement error;
however, the methods discussed in this article still have
the extensive applicability and practical significance.
RoessleFatemis method is not applied in this arti-
cle due to lack of hardness data of rotor steels and will
be discussed in further work. The modified plastic
strain energy formula was calculated according to low-
cycle fatigue tests of nickel-based casting superalloy
K435 at 900 C15 and will be helpful for our further
work.


 Conclusion
Det 1:5su 2Nf 0:09 2Nf 0:59
= + 0:45 19
2 E A A Nine methods that estimate strainlife were discussed,
and the strainlife was calculated based on monotonic
To examine this new method, the fatigue lives of all
tensile and uniaxial fatigue properties of nine types of
rotor steels employed in this article are estimated. The
steam turbine rotor steels. Based on this analysis, the
comparison of predicted and experimental life is given
following conclusions can be drawn.
in Figure 4. As we can see that most of the scatters fall
within the factor of life band 2. It suggests that this
new method can be used to estimate fatigue properties  At high operating temperature, the predicted life
parameters of steam turbine rotor steels at high tem- reversals of the nine methods were all greater than
perature. We will investigate the relationship between that of the experimental life. The accuracy of the
operating temperature and CoffinManson parameters median method was extremely high compared with
26
the other eight methods, and the accuracy of the
mixed method was the worst.
 The predicted life after being linearly corrected in
loglog coordinate system for the eight methods
matches the experimental life well, except for the
mixed method. This linear correction method can
be used to fit the strainlife curve of rotor steels at
high temperature.
 The low-cycle fatigue of metal is complex in a high-
temperature environment, and the fatigue proper-
ties degenerate much more rapidly due to several
factors, such as oxidation, than at RT. The fatigue
life expenditure might increase if metals are exposed
to high-temperature and high-pressure water vapor,
such as steam turbine. Therefore, it is necessary for
estimation of fatigue properties to perform low-
cycle fatigue tests in harsh environments.
 The influence of the operating temperature on fati-
gue life cannot be ignored. A new method that takes
the influence of operating temperature into account
is presented, which can provide acceptable accuracy
of estimation life for steam turbine rotor steels.
Acknowledgements
The authors are extremely grateful to professor Lixun
Cai, associate professor Yujie Liu and engineer Yafang
Sun for their help on the tests.
Declaration of conflicting interests
The authors declare that there is no conflict of interest.
Funding
This work was sponsored by the National High-tech
R&D Program (863 Program) (No. 2008AA04Z404)
and the National Natural Science Foundation of China
(No. 50505013).
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