CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO RESEARCH

Define research. What are the main characteristics of research?

Research is defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena which

includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that
lines an individuals speculation with reality.
CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH

1. Scientific Method: Research uses Scientific methods to find facts and

provide solutions. There is a set of systematic procedures that have
been tested and followed over a period of time and are thus suitable
for use in research.
2. Objective and Logical: The research is objective and logical in
nature. Research is based on valid procedures and principles. The
researchers need to collect relevant, accurate and objective data to
investigate their research problem. The data needs to be then
systematically processed, analysed and interpreted to arrive at
logical conclusions.
3. Applied and Basic Research: Research can be broadly classified into
two groups, namely Applied and Basic research. Applied research is
designed to solve practical problems. Its main goal is to improve the
human condition. Basic research on the other hand, is driven by the
interest of curiosity of the researcher. The main goal is to expand
the knowledge.
4. Empirical Nature: Research can be based on direct experience or
observation. Empirical research is based on observations,
experiments and surveys. Under Empirical research, the researcher
develops a hypothesis and then collects data to prove or disapprove
it.
5. Generalization: Research findings can be applied to a larger
population. The researcher conducts a research on a sample of the
respondents that are selected systematically so that they properly
represent the whole population.
6. Controlled Nature of Basic Research: There are many factors that
affect the outcome of a research. A single event maybe the result of
several factors, some factors are taken as controlled factors. All
variables except those that are tested are kept under a constant.
7. Development of Principles and Theories: A systematic research
helps to develop new principles and theories. The general theories
developed through research enable us to make reliable prediction of
events.
 8. Multipurpose Activity: Research is a multipurpose activity. It helps to
develop new facts or verify already existing ones. It establishes
causal relationship between variables.
9. Quantitative and Qualitative Research: Research that is undertaken
to measure quantity or amount is called quantitative research.
Whereas, research that is undertaken to find out the quality of a
particular situation or phenomenon, is called qualitative research.
Qualitative research is especially important in behavioural sciences.

Explain the need of Research in Business and Social Science.

A business research program is preferred by businesses to train and

educate their managers and other staff members in a vast array of
different fields. Business research can relate to economics, business
strategy, ethics, etc. Undertaking research in business management is
important since it aids a business plan for the future, based on what may
have occurred in earlier times. If performed effectively it can help an
organization to make plans on how to become more viable in its field.

IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

1. Testing of new products. Business research tests the possible

success of fresh products. Businesses need to know what kinds of
services and products consumers want before they produce them.
Research will reduce risk Research can help design a new product
or service, figuring out what is needed and ensure that the
development of a product is highly targeted towards demand.
2. Guaranteeing adequate distribution. Businesses can also use
research to guarantee sufficient distribution of their products. For
instance, a consumer products company might want to speak with
merchants about the various brands they offer. The outcomes of the
business research can help managers decide where they need to
increase their product distribution.
3. In-house research is required for professional and self-development
of the workers through training and mentoring. Organizational
research and analysis would also be needed for assessment of
performance management, process re-engineering, departmental
assessment and well-being of staff members.
4. Undertaking research can help a company avoid future failure.
Carrying out research can also help a business determine whether
now is the right time to expand into another town or whether it
needs to apply for a new loan. It may also help a small business
 decide if a process should be altered or if more needs to be done to
meet the requirements of the customer base.
5. Studying the competition. Businesses frequently make use of
research to study key rivals in their markets. Businesses will often
begin with secondary research information or information which is
currently accessible. Research is important for any organization to
remain competitive in the market. The top function of research is to
supply a business with an outlet to correctly determine its
customers. With the help of surveys, an organization can analyse
the preferences of its target consumers. Furthermore, these studies
could also provide a business the chance to examine its competitors
in the industry and analyse and emulate key strategies which could
help in its operations.
6. Recruitment of employees. Its through proper research that human
resource managers are able to determine and recruit qualified
manpower. Recruitment of workers with the right skills and attitudes
aids the company to improve its productivity levels. Research for the
right staff members can be done via the internet, consultancy firms
and institutions of higher learning. A proper knowledge of the
employees and healthy conversation would be important factors for
a manager to boost performance of the individuals in the team. A
good approach, winning attitude and behaviour of the manager with
proper systems set up would certainly call for sound research to
understand and improve the system.

NEED OF RESEARCH IN SOCIAL SCIENCE

Social sciences refer to business, commerce, demography, psychology,
sociology, etc. Social sciences directly involve people. Research in social
sciences arena deals with the behaviour of people in their different roles,
such consumers, competitors, producers, executives, salespersons,
leaders, workers, followers, teachers, students, opinion-makers,
etc. Research in social sciences deals with the systematic method of
discovering new facts or of verifying old facts, their sequence, inter-
relationship, causal explanations and the natural laws which cover them.
The importance that social science research wields today is immeasurable
and enlarging. As social, business and economic problems abound, the
significance of social research gets enhanced as it provides workable
solutions.
The following points bring out the significance of research in social
sciences.
1. Problems solving is the thrust of most researches. Social problems
are felt directly by people and that research by offering solutions to
 such problems ameliorates the conditions of people at large. Hence
the significance of social research.
2. Social research thrusts on societal behaviour which is studied
analysed and steps needed to modify the same to achieve certain
broad goals. All our social problems could be attributed to certain
societal behaviour. So, by modifying the same in the right lines,
social good is achieved.
3. Development of methodology to deal with social issues is one of the
contributions of social research. Executive stress, worker ethics,
leadership style, child labour women illiteracy, drug
addiction, labour absenteeism, etc. are social issues related to
organizations, labour units, and, such other social groups. To deal
with these issues appropriate methodology is needed. Social
research provides the same.
4. Social research contributes to societal development. The research
develops scientific temper. Creativity and innovation are developed
Basic and applied new knowledge is developed. All this adds to up-
gradation of society. Knowledge is power. And that power is powered
by research.
5. Formulation of new theories and re-evaluation of already accepted
theories are attempted by social research. There are several
theories on leadership, motivation, human attitude
and behaviour and so on. All these theories help designing suitable
packages for societal behavioural upliftment.
6. Social research is a tool for social planning, prediction and control.
Any constructive action need to be planned, outcome predicted and
deviation of actual from the desirable predicted outcome need to be
controlled. Social research aids in designing appropriate models of
social planning, prediction and control.
7. Social research contributes to social welfare. Social research is
generally normative emphasizing what is good for the society. By
stating, what is and what is not good for the economy, for the
industry, for the consumers, for the students, for the stock-market
and the like, social research helps to contribute to social welfare.
8. Social research catches the dynamics of social institutions and
phenomena. Social institutions and phenomena are never static.
These keep changing. To gauge the change research is needed and
such research helps in dynamically responding to social institutions
and phenomena.

Types of Research
Research is defined as the scientific investigation of phenomena which
includes collection, presentation, analysis and interpretation of facts that
lines an individuals speculation with reality.
The research activity can be classified into different categories. The types
of research are as follows:

1. Basic Research: Basic research is also called as pure or fundamental

research. It is undertaken to develop a theory or a body of
knowledge. The main goal of basic research is to expand mans
knowledge. There is no commercial angle. Pure research is mainly
carried out by universities and institutes financed by the
government. Basic research advances fundamental knowledge about
the world. Pure research is the source of the most new scientific
ideas and ways of thinking about the world. It can be exploratory,
descriptive, and explanatory. It generates new ideas, principles and
theories which may not be immediately utilized.
2. Applied Research: Applied research aims at finding a solution for an
immediate problem facing a society or an industrial/business
organization. It is a scientific study design to solve practical
problems, rather than merely acquiring knowledge. It is used to find
solutions to everyday problems, and develop innovative
technologies. The goal of applied research is to improve the human
condition. It is generally used to handle a particular problem. It can
be undertaken by business organization as well.
3. Descriptive research: Descriptive research or statistical research
provides data above the population or universe being studied. It is
used when the objective is to provide a systematic description that is
as factual and accurate as possible. It provides the number of times
something occurs or frequency of occurrence. The two most
commonly types of descriptive research methods include observation
method and the survey method. One of the major limitations is that
it cannot help determine what causes a specific behaviour,
motivation or occurrence. It cannot establish a cause-effect
relationship between variables. It provides facts of a particular event
or situation.
4. Analytical Research: Analytical research is undertaken to collect
facts or data, or the facts or data may be readily available. The
researcher attempts to critically evaluate such facts and data so as
to arrive at conclusions. It may establish the cause and effect
relationship. The researcher may provide necessary
recommendations to improve or solve the problem or to handle
certain situation or event. The analytical research helps to
understand the cause-effect relationship between variables. It also
 helps to focus on those variables that have greater positive effect,
and to eliminate certain variables that have negative effect on the
situation.
5. Empirical Research: Empirical Research can be defined as research
based on experimentation or observation. It is a way of gaining
knowledge by means of direct and indirect observation or experience
or experiment. Such research conducted to test a hypothesis. The
word empirical means information gained by experience,
observation, or experiment. Empirical evidence can be analysed
quantitatively or qualitatively. Many researchers combine qualitative
and quantitative forms analysis to better answer questions which
cannot be studied in laboratory settings, particularly in the social
sciences.
6. Qualitative Research: Qualitative research, on the other hand, is
concerned with qualitative phenomena, i.e., phenomena relating to
or involving quality or kind. Qualitative research is a method of
inquiry employed in many disciplines, especially in the social
sciences. It aims to gather an in-depth understanding of human
behaviour and the reasons that govern such behaviour. The
qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making,
not just what, where, and when. Smaller but focused samples are
more often used than large samples. The motivational research is
important type of qualitative research. It is especially important in
the behavioural sciences where the main aim is to find out the
underlying motives of human behaviour.
7. Quantitative Research: Quantitative research is based on the
measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to phenomena
that can be expressed in terms of quantity. Quantitative research is
explaining phenomena by collecting numerical data that are
analysed using mathematically based methods. The objective of
quantitative research is to develop and employ mathematical
models, theories and hypotheses pertaining to phenomena. The
process of measurement is central to quantitative research because
it provides the fundamental connection between empirical
observation and mathematical expression of quantitative
relationships. The researcher analyses the data with the help of
statistics. The analysed data may provide unbiased result that can be
generalized to some larger population. Quantitative research is
widely used in social sciences such as psychology, economics,
sociology, marketing, community health, health & human
development, gender and political science, and less frequently in
anthropology and history.
 8. Other Types Of Research: Research can be classified into various
other types :
Historical research is that which utilizes historical sources like
documents, remains, etc. to study events or ideas of the past,
including the philosophy of persons and groups at any remote point
of time.
Conclusion oriented research, a researcher is free to pick up a
problem, redesign the enquiry as he proceeds and is prepared to
conceptualize as he wishes.
Decision-oriented research is always for the need of a decision
maker and the researcher in this case is not free to embark upon
research according to his own inclination.

Objectives of Research

i. To find Solutions to problems: R can be undertaken to find solutions

to problems. The Research enables us to find appropriate solutions
to specific problems which in turn help us improve the quality of
performance in various org and institutes.
ii. To verify and test existing laws and theories: Helps improve
knowledge and ability to handle situations and events. When
existing theories may not be sufficient or relevant to the situation,
improvements or modifications can be made through research.
iii. To obtain information: R helps find info which may not be easily
obtained during the normal course of events EG: Product research
to bring out improvements in current product
iv. To extend knowledge: R is undertaken to extend existing knowledge
in physical science (maths, physics, chemistry) as well as social
sciences (sociology, management etc.)
v. To establish generalizations and general laws: R can be undertaken
to establish generalizations and make general laws. IOW,
Statements of generality can be stated through research. EG: Law of
demand and Supply, law of gravitation, The AIDA (attention,
interest, desire and action) model have been developed through
observation, experimentation and other methods of research.
vi. To predict events: R can predict future course of events, indicate
possible impact and make concerned authorities take appropriate
measures.
vii. To analyse inter-relationships: B/w variables as to derive a casual
explanations, which in turn enables us to have a better
understanding. This is usually done by development of hypothesis.
viii. To develop new tools and concepts: For a better study of unknown
phenomenon. For this purpose, exploratory research is undertaken
to achieve new insights.
ix. To develop new principles and theories: Can be useful for several
org to manage and deal with ppl. General laws and Theories help us
make reliable predictions of events.
x. To develop innovative ideas: R is undertaken to generate new ideas
for welfare of mankind. Can be w.r.t. New and improved products,
better technology, improved org structure.

Issues and Problems in Research:

Accuracy: Human behaviour cannot be predicted with accuracy. Human

behaviour is subject to change, depending on situation, nature of the
person, etc. TF, Scientific method in social sciences may or may not
predict accurate human behaviour.

Uniformity: H.B is not uniform; people dont react in the same manner to
similar situations. Also 1 person may behave differently to same situation
at different time. TF, there is a problem of uniformity

Bias: R maybe affected by the problem of bias on part of the researcher.

They may draw conclusion subjectively depending on their likes, dislikes,
feelings and emotions.

Sampling: for social sciences, R uses particular sample of respondents to

understand the human behaviour. However, Respondents may not
represent the universe properly and this may not bring objective results.

Respondents: In Social Sciences, Scientific method may not provide

objective responses from the respondents. Some respondents may
deliberately give wrong answers to please the researcher or get done with
the interview quickly.

Verification: It is difficult to verify the conclusions drawn from social

sciences.

Lab Experiments: It is difficult to perform controlled lab experiments in

social sciences as compared to physical sciences.

Segregating Cause-Effect Relationship: Difficult to segregate to know

which is the cause and which is effect in some cases. Eg: Poverty the
cause of low skills? Or vice-versa.

Issues relating to practical significance: Sometimes Research is taken up

for namesake or just purpose of recognition. Eg: Academic research
undertaken for M.Phil. or PhD degree which may hardly serve any practical
significance. Plagiarism: Plagiarism is the copying of someones published
work as ones own without proper permission or consent from the initial
author. Plagiarism can even refer to images, graphs, ideas etc.
CHAPTER 2: RESEARCH METHODLOGY
What is Research Methodology? What are the requisite of good Scientific
Methods?

Research Methodology is a way to find out the result of a given problem

on a specific matter or problem that is also referred as research problem.
In Methodology, researcher uses different criteria for solving/searching the
given research problem. Different sources use different type of methods
for solving the problem.

REQUISITE FOR GOOD SCIENTIFIC METHODS

1. Careful and Logical Analysis: The research task given in hand must
be analysed carefully ensuring that every aspect makes logical
sense.
2. Unequivocal definition of terms and concepts: The definitions must
be clear and undeniable. There should be no scope for confusion or
mistakes
3. Data pertinent to the problem: The data collected by the researcher
should be pertinent to the problem at hand. Unnecessary and extra
data shouldnt be given any importance.
4. Classification of data must be done properly: The data must be
classified properly, so as to make it clear and understandable for the
persons analysing it.
5. Expression of Data in quantitative term: When data is expressed in
numerically using mathematical methods, it is easier for people to
understand. The process of measurement is central to quantitative
research as it provides a fundamental connection between empirical
observations and mathematical expressions.
6. Rigorous experiments are conducted:
7. Sound and Logical reasoning: The reasons given by the researcher
must be sound and logical. The reasons must be pertinent to the
given research.
8. Exact conclusion: The final conclusion derived by the researcher
must be precise and exact. It cannot be a vague assumption.
9. Complete elimination of personal equation: While conducting a
research, the researcher must be professional and mustn't let
personal bias or feelings get in the way.
10. Comprehensive report: A comprehensive report is to be made
at the end of the research. It should be clear and understandable to
the reader with all aspects of the research properly mentioned.
Explain the steps or process in Scientific Research

Scientific research involves a systematic process that focuses on being

objective and gathering a multitude of information for analysis so that the
researcher can come to a conclusion. This process is used in all research
and evaluation projects, regardless of the research method. Any research
done without documenting the study so that others can review the
process and results is not an investigation using the scientific research
process. The scientific research process is a multiple-step process where
the steps are interlinked with the other steps in the process. If changes
are made in one step of the process, the researcher must review all the
other steps to ensure that the changes are reflected throughout the
process. Following are the steps of the research process and provides an
example of each step for a sample research study.

1. Selecting the Research Topic: It is the first and most important step
of research process. Before formulating the research problem, one
must select a proper research problem that needs to be dealt with.
Researching something that has already been done before may be
an attempt in vain and waste of time, effort and labour.
2. Definition of Research Problem: it is the explanation and formulation
of the research problem, the researcher must always note the
following points
1. What is the problem?
2. Why is it a problem?
3. Who faces the problem?
Precise definition of problem helps the researcher to collect
relevant data for solving the problem.
3. Deciding the Objective of the research: The objective of the research
helps the researcher plan and
3. Developing Hypothesis: The researcher should formulate hypothesis.
Hypothesis is an assumption made to test the logical or empirical
consequences. The hypothesis should be formulated on the basis of
insight and knowledge about the problem.
3. Review of Literature: The researcher should take extensive literature
survey relating to the problem. He may consider various
publications such as journals, books, research reports and other
published matter.
3. Deciding Research Design: The researcher must prepare a research
design. It is a logical and systematic plan prepared for conducting a
research study. It is considered a blueprint for collection,
measurement and analysis of data. The research design provides
 guidelines regarding the time period, type of data and the area and
respondents from which the data is to be collected.
3. Deciding Sample Design: Since it is not possible to collect data from
every area of research, the researcher must select a sample of
respondents that represent the population.
3. Data Collection: Problem solving so essentially a process of
collecting information. The data can be collected from various
sources, Primary and secondary.
3. Execution of project: The data that is collected is mostly raw and
needs to be processed properly. The steps taken to process the data
involve editing out unwanted and irrelevant data, classification of
data under different categories such as age, gender, area etc. The
final step is to tabulate the data so that it facilitates the analysis and
interpretation of data.
3. Data Analysis: This step involves the interpretation of data to
establish the relationship between information and problem. It
enables to link findings to the problems and arrive at logical
conclusions.
3. Hypothesis Testing: After analysis the researcher should be able to
prove whether or not the research findings support the hypothesis
the claimed earlier or whether they are contrary.
3. Preparation of Report: The research findings and conclusions are
presented with the help of research report. The research report is
divided into 3 parts
a. Preliminary content - It includes title, Letter of authorization,
letter of transmittal and table of contents
b. Main Body - It includes Introduction, findings, limitations,
conclusions and recommendations
c. Conclusion - It includes bibliography and appendix

Write a note on Review of literature.

Review of literature is an important stage in research activity. It refers to

the extensive review of findings relating to the problem which the
researcher intends to undertake. The researcher reads and reviews
previous research studies, relevant reference books, journals, and other
published sources. The older research studies help the researcher
evaluate the conclusions drawn and analyse the impact of the research
findings made by the other researchers.
Following are the purposes of Review of Literature
To get background knowledge of research topic
To formulate hypothesis
 To get familiar with the methodology adapted by researchers in a
particular field.
To prepare research design to undertake the research problem.
To prepare sample design including the decisions on sample size.
To get familiar with data collection sources and techniques
To understand findings of other researchers which are relevant to
the problem.
To get familiar with the data analysis technique which are adapted
by other researchers.
To evaluate the conclusions drawn by the other researchers
To compile bibliography
To understand latest developments in the area of research problem.
The Steps to Review a Literature are as follows
Identify and select research problem
Determine the sources of literature relevant to the research.
Read and understand the relevant literature.
Note and record relevant information
Analyse the relevant information
Take required permission from the source to use the literature in
research project.
Use the relevant information in research project and cite the sources
of literature wherever applicable.

Features of Research Methodology

1) Systematic Process: of analysing and selecting best method to conduct

research. Main stages are as follows
a) Identify R Problem
b) Formulate R Design
c) Design Sample
d) Collect Data
e) Process Data
f) Analysis & Interpretation
g) Draw conclusions & Provide Recco
h) Prepare R Project
2) Purpose of RM: to select the best method to conduct research. (add
above stages) This helps solve the R Problem in a systematic manner.
3) Reliance on Empirical evidence: Solution not found on basis of intuition
or imagination. It involves survey, observation and experiments.
Conclusion based on Empirical Evidence
4) Commitment to Objectivity: RM is objective in nature as it uses
scientific methods. Objectivity involves forming judgement based on
accurate facts. Conclusions dont vary from 1 person to another.
5) Verifiability: RM ensures conclusions drawn are verifiable by the
researcher and he can justify them. TF, R must expose methods and
conclusions to critical scrutiny.
6) Ethical Neutrality: RM aims at making correct statements about facts.
R shouldnt be biased or distort facts. Distortion may aggravate r
problem in case of commercial r.
7) Development of Principles or Theories: Systematic RM helps develop
new principles and theories that may be universally applicable. Helps
make reliable predictions.
8) Multipurpose activity: which helps discover new facts/verify old facts.
Reliable predict
9) Use of induction and deduction: to arrive at logical conclusion.
a) Induction method follows logical reasoning process where the
researcher arrives at universal generalization from particular facts.
Conclusions are drawn from tentative (experimental) inferences and
are subjective in nature
b) Deduction method is a reasoning process of applying generally
accepted principles to a specific individual case. It establishes a
logical relationship between variables to arrive at a conclusion.
10) Limitations: Limitations are everywhereBlah blah
a) Social science deals with human beings, they are not predictable.
b) Problem of bias of researcher and respondents.
c) Small size may not represent the entire universe.

Sources of Research Problem

Id and selection of research problem is an important stage in research

process. Precise definition will enable researcher to collect relevant data.
Research problem can be identified through the following sources.

1) Research guide: In academic research, the research guide , may

suggest the research problem to the research scholar. Generally the
Research guide has a rich experience in identifying the research
problem, but the research scholar may not be interested in the topic
himself. TF, he needs to find topic and get it approved by r guide.
2) Reading: R scholar needs to do extensive reading and some pertinent
questions may arise in his mind. He needs to read through the existing
areas and find out where there is need for further research.
3) Academic Session: Academic sessions such as lectures, group
discussions, seminars may indicate to various problems which may be
taken up as research projects.
4) Brainstorming sessions: Research scholar may take up brainstorming
sessions with a group of interested people who may help him identify
the research problem and have an intensified discussion on the same.
5) Consultations and discussions: Researcher may consult or hold
discussions with experts, researchers, government officials,
academicians, etc. to arrive at a research problem.
6) Experiences: Personal experience can be a good source of identifying
the research problem. Day to day experiences may enable the research
oriented people to identify and select a research problem so as to
overcome uncomfortable situations.
7) Funding Agencies: who provide financial assistance to study specific
research problems. They can be government or non-government
agencies and the problems can be either of social relevance or
commercial relevance.
8) Field Situations: can arrive at R problems during field visits, internship
training and extension work.
9) Existing Research: on certain problems may enable researcher to
identify new problems. Eg. Existing problem on poor working conditions
in a factory may show researcher new problems that can be dealt with
through researching their cause and solution.
10) Intuition: R can write down problems, discuss with other R and see
if it is significant for taking up a research on.

Hypothesis

Formulation is an important step in formulation of research problem.

Hypothesis is a tentative proposition (experimental assumption)
formulated to determine its validity.
It is an example of the organized scepticism of science, the refusal
to accept any statement without empirical verification.
Goode and Hatt define Hypothesis as, a proposition, which can be
put to a test to determine its validity.

Characteristics

1) Empirically Testable: Hypothesis shout be E.T. it should be so stated

that it is possible to deduce certain inferences from it logically, which
can be tested by field observation.
2) Conceptual clarity: H must be conceptually clear. Concepts must be
clearly defined. Ambiguous hypothesis with is poorly defined cannot be
tested as there is no standard for knowing what facts should constitute
its test
3) Specific: H must be specific and explain the expected relationship
between variables and the conditions under which these relationships
hold valid.
4) Related to available techniques: Researcher who doesnt know what
techniques are available to test the H will find it difficult to frame useful
questions, which further makes it impossible to research.
5) Theoretical Research: H should be related to a body of theory or some
theoretical orientation. There should be some theoretical gains of
testing the hypothesis.
6) Consistency: Logically consistent. Two or more H logically derived from
the same theory must not be mutually contradictory.
7) Objectivity: H must be free from bias of the researcher. Feelings have
no place in framing the hypothesis.
8) Consider all pertinent areas of the problem: to frame a good H.

Significance:

Provide a definite focus: H provides definite focus to R problem. G.A.

Lundberg The only difference bw gathering data without a hypothesis
and gathering them with one is that in the latter case, we deliberately
recognize the limitations of our senses and attempt to reduce their
fallibility by limiting our field of investing so as to prevent greater
concentration of attention on particular aspects. Which past
experience leads us to believe are insignificant for our purpose.

Specifies Sources of data: H does this, tf we consider only relevant sources

of data which in turn speed up the research activity.

Determine Data needs: Without H, much useless data would be collected

hoping to find something relevant is found and nothing is omitted.

Suggests the type of research: The hypothesis suggests which type of

research is likely to be most apt in solving research problem.

Technique of Analysis: H indicates most apt technique of analysis, which in

turn helps researcher (blah blah)

Development of theory: H makes an attempt to link theory and

investigation. H can be deduced from theory and if found valid makes a
part of theory.

Types

1. On the Basis of abstraction:

a. Common sense hypothesis:
b. Complex Hypothesis
c. Analytical hypothesis
2. On the Basis of Function:
a. Descriptive Hypothesis
b. Relational Hypothesis
c. Casual Hypothesis
 3. On the Basis of Nature of Hypothesis
a. Woking Hypothesis
b. Null Hypothesis
c. Statistical Hypothesis

Sources of Hypothesis

1. Intuition: Mental Ideas bluff. Newtons apple example

2. Previous Research studies: R on one prob can help create h to solve
another problem. R studies conducted earlier can be a source of
prob, and can give researcher ideas to develop ideas based on
earlier faced R problems.
3. Consultations: Sources of RM P5
4. Theory: A hypothesis can be derived from a logical body of theory,
which may leaf by way of logical deduction. If the theory is possible,
then the H can be valid.
5. Observation: H ca be through either direct or indirect observation.
For eg, one can observe a general pattern of consumer behaviour
and develop a hypothesis, such as more people prefer cashless
payment in the urban cities, as compared to cash.
6. Analogies: facilitate H development. Provide valuable insight, blah
blah shit
7. Culture: involves knowledge, beliefs, morals, laws, traditions, etc.
Cultural norms are passed from generation to generation and often
reflect the population of our country. However, younger generations
are getting influenced by western culture.
8. Continuity of Research: in a particular field can facilitate the
development of new hypothesis.

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH DESIGN AND SAMPLE DESIGN

What is Research Design? Explain its essentials.

According to Philips Bernard, research design is defined as A logical

and systematic plan prepared for directing a research study. It specifies
the objectives of the study; the methodology and techniques to be
adopted for achieving these objectives.
The research design is a ground plan for conducting the research
investigation. It provides guidelines to the researcher to help him to keep
a right track of his actions and for him to know that hes moving in the
right direction in collecting data.

ESSENTIALS OF RESEARCH DESIGN

1. Focus on objectives: The Research design must focus on the
research objectives. The objectives must be very clear to the
 researcher as well as the research staff. The research objectives
differ depending on the type of research.
2. Flexibility: The research design shouldnt be rigid. It must be flexible
depending on the situation. For instance, the research design may
set a particular timeframe for the research staff; however, they may
not be able to collect relevant data within the same. If the design is
flexible, the timeframe may be increased.
3. Pilot Study: it is always advisable for conducting a pilot study before
finalizing the research design. It is a research activity undertaken on
a small segment of the research universe. The pilot study is
conducted to find out whether or not the researcher is in a position
to collect relevant data from the area or sources selected, and
whether or the collected data will be relevant to solve the problem.
If the pilot study generates a favourable response, the researcher
may go ahead with the study,
4. Acceptance: The research design must be acceptable to the persons
concerned.
In case of an academic research, the research design must be
acceptable to the research guide, as he needs to approve the design
before the research activity starts.
5. Suitability: The research design must be suitable to achieve research
objectives. Certain factors need to be considered while finalizing the
research design such as:
a. The availability of funds.
b. The availability of time
c. The availability of manpower
d. The methods of data collection and analysis
6. Simplicity: The research design must be simple to understand. The
language must be clear and the research design must be supported
by footnotes wherever required. Technical jargons must be avoided
as use of simple language would enable the authorities to approve
and accordingly sanction the research
7. Cost-Effective: The research must be cost effective. In case of a
commercial research, the research work based on the research
design must bring benefits to the organization. It should enable
proper collection and analysis of the data to facilitate proper
decision making.
8. Ease in Implementation: The research design should facilitate proper
implementation of the research design. As far as possible, the
Research design must avoid complicated procedures and techniques
which may be difficult to adapt to.
9. Training the Research Staff: Proper training must be given to
research staff. Training helps improve knowledge, attitude, skills and
social behaviour.
 10. Selection of right Techniques: There are various methods of
collecting data such as interviews, observation and
experimentation. Depending on the type of research, the researcher
should select appropriate methods for data collection and analysis.

Significance of Research Design

R.D. is vital as it enables to collect right data. Imp is as follows

1. Guidelines to researcher: wrt
a. When to start/complete research work
b. What data to collect
c. Where the data is to be collected from
d. How to collect the data
2. Organizing resources: for collecting Data. The resources include:
a. Funds
b. Equipment and instruments in case of physical sciences
c. Manpower to collect the data
i. R.D. enables researcher to make proper arrangement of
resources which in turn help R conduct R efficiently
3. Directions to the research staff: R.D. provides necessary directions
to the research staff this is because R.D. provides guidelines wrt
a. sources of data
b. techniques of collecting data
c. area where R is to be conducted
d. resources to be utilized
e. time frame for Research work
4. Selection of techniques: R.D. helps select apt techniques both for
data collection and data analysis. There are various methods of data
colletion such as :
a. Survey
b. Observation
c. Experimentation
Data Analysis can be done in the following methods:
Measures of Central tendency (mean, median, mode)
Time series (Simple moving Avg, Weighted moving avg)
5. Collection of Relevant Data: R.D. helps collect relevant data within
certain time frame such as area of research, universe of research,
sample size, etc.
6. Objective of research: R.D. helps achieve R.O. coz, R will collect right
data in given time and from the right source. This also helps with
proper analysis of data
7. Monitoring the Expenditure: R.D. Provides guidelines about amount
of resources or funds to be utilized for Research activity. Eg. In
Commercial research, the R get funds approved by an authority
 8. Execution of research work: R.D. indicates start time and completion
time to indicate timely execution of Research work. If not, write
consequences.
9. Motivation to staff: A systematic r.d. motivates staff to collect the
right data from the right source Also, sometimes staff are motivated
by giving them rewards of monetary or non monetary benefit on the
timely completion of research work.
10. Improvement in decision making: Systematic R.D. helps
everything go systematic which yields early and clear results which
help R to arrive at proper decisions regarding research.

Steps in Research Design

Define the problem: The researcher must clearly define the
problem. Clarity helps R decide on Objectives. Eg to find out reason of
decline in sales, the obj may be as To increase the sales.
Sources of data: Can be primary or secondary. Explain both
Technique of Data collection: R must decide, depends on Nature
of problem, resources available, time frame etc. There are various
methods such as interview method, observation method, etc.
Decision on universe: universe = population from which research
info is collected. Add eg
Sample Size: depends on factors such as time frame, funds
available, nature of problem etc.
Area of Data collection: R must state areas, they depend on
location, time of research, type of problem. Etc.
Method of Data analysis: select depending on type of R. various
mathods such as measures of central tendency, time series method.
Decision on Resources: The most imp decision is wrt to resources
needed during research. Resources include Physical resources, man
power and money. Researcher should make proper arrangements so
that research is conducted efficiently and effectively
Period of Research: Time frame depends on certain factors such
as availability of funds, manpower, type of research etc.
Preparation of Research design: After completing the above
steps, the R must prepare a R.D. which should include the following
aspects:
o Statement of Research Problem
o Obj of R
o Sources of data
o Time frame of R
o Universe of R
o Sample Size of R
o Area of Data collection
o Resources reqd
 o Technique used to analyse data
Approval of R.D. : Finally, R gets R.D. approved from concerned
authorities
o Commercial = Top Mgt
o Academic = Research guide
o Social = Sponsoring Agency

Explain different types of Research Design.

The research design refers to the overall strategy that you choose to
integrate the different components of the study in a coherent and logical
way, thereby, ensuring you will effectively address the research problem;
it constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement, and analysis
of data.
Research Design can be broadly classified into 2 groups.
Exploratory Research
Conclusive Research

EXPLORATORY RESEARCH
It is conducted to explore information about the nature or causes of
the research problem. It is conducted when the causes of the research
problem arent known to the researcher. There may be a possibility of a
few different causes of the problem, and the researcher may not know the
exact cause. In such a situation, an exploratory research may be
conducted to find out the most likely causes.
Exploratory research is done to for the following purposes:
To define the problem
To develop a hypothesis
To identify alternate courses of action
To isolate key variable and develop relationships among the variable
for further examination.
To establish priorities for further research

CONCLUSIVE RESEARCH
Conclusive Research is further divided into two subcategories.
1. Descriptive Research
Descriptive research is done to obtain information about certain
aspects of the problem. It may be undertaken for commercial
purposes. A marketer may ask questions such as
Who his customers are?
What do they buy?
Where do they buy it?
 When they buy it?
How they buy it?
How do they use the products?

2. Casual Research
Casual Research investigates cause-effect relationship between two
or more variables. It is done for the following reasons
To understand the cause-effect relationship
To focus on the variables or elements those have a greater positive
effect.
To eliminate certain variables or elements having negative effect.
To develop action plans

9. What is sampling? Explain the essentials of a good Sampling.

According to Good and Hatt, A sample as the name implies, is a smaller

representation of a larger whole.
Sampling design is a plan designed to select the appropriate sample in
order to collect the right data so as to achieve research objectives.
A sample is a part of the universe that can be used as respondents to a
survey or for the purpose of experimentation, in order to collect relevant
information to solve a particular system/.

ESSENTIALS OF AN IDEAL SAMPLE

1. Homogeneity: The units included in sample must be as likeness with

other units.
2. Adequacy: A sample having 10% of the whole data is adequate.
3. Independence: Every unit should be free to be included in the
sample.
4. Representativeness; An ideal sample must be such that it represents
the whole data adequately.
5. Sample Number: In the number of units included in a sample should
be sufficient to enable derivation of conclusions applicable to the
whole data. Too less may not be able to help the researcher come to
proper conclusions
6. Economical: In terms of time and money. the sampling should be
economical and shouldnt cost the researcher more than he can
afford.
7. Reliability: There must be a high level of reliability on the sample.
 10. Explain different methods and techniques of Sampling.

Sampling Design is a plan designed to select the appropriate sample

in order to collect the right data so as to achieve research objectives.
Methods of sampling can be broadly divided into 2 categories
METHODS OF SAMPLING

Probability Method Non-Probability Method

Simple Random Sampling Convenience Sampling

Systematic Sampling Accidental Sampling
Cluster Sampling Judgemental Sampling
Stratified Sampling Quota Sampling

1. Probability Method
Probability Sampling is also known as random sampling. Probability
means possible chance. Therefore, each element of the population
has a known chance or opportunity of being selected or included in
the sample
1. Simple Random Sampling: It is the most popular method
normally followed to collect research data. It provides every
element or unit an equal chance of being selected. It is
suitable for selecting a small homogenous group. It is further
sub categorized into lottery method and Random Tables.
2. Systematic Sampling: It is a variation of the simple random
method, but the technique is superior. In this method, a
sampling fraction is calculated, a certain number is selected at
random and process continues to select sample size.
Formula: Skip Interval = Population Size / Sample
Size

c. Cluster Sampling: Also known as Area Sampling, the

researcher divides the population into groups or clusters and
accordingly selects samples

d. Stratified Sampling: The population is divided into various

strata or segments based on income, occupation, age,
religion, gender etc. After this division, certain number of
sample members is selected from each stratum or segment.
 2. Non- Probability Method
a. Convenience Sampling: Sample is selected as per the
convenience of the researcher. Under this, every element of
the population doesnt get a chance of being selected.
b. Accidental Sampling: The researcher may select the sample
by chance without following a systematic process. Every
element of the universe doesnt get a chance. This method is
normally followed when the sample size is very small.
c. Judgement Sampling: The sample is selected based on the
judgement of the researcher or some other person assisting or
advising him.
d. Quota Sampling: Under this method, the researcher allocates
certain quota to certain groups under the study. The quota
may differ from each area depending on certain factors such
as age, occupation, income, etc.

Stages in Sampling Design

o Define R Obj.
o Decide Universe
o Select Sampling frame: where you get your samples from,
Telephone directory, reg of members. Must check for validity
o Decision on sampling unit:
o Decision on Sample Size: Depends on time, Funds, Manpower,
nature of R
o Selection of sampling method: Probability or Non probability.
o Prepare Sample plan:
o Sample Selection: Actual selection process to get right ppl as per
Sample plan
o Collection of data

Sampling Errors:
CHAPTER 4: METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF DATA COLLECTION

PRIMARY DATA

Meaning: It is first hand info collected by r to solve a specific problem

Advantages:
i. Provides first hand info: Info comes directly from respondents.
Collected through Survey, observation and experimentation method.
ii. In depth info: R can collect in depth info relating to R problem. R
can get detailed info with the help of projective techniques. R can
cross question respondents for in depth info.
iii. Reliable info: P.D. is reliable, as it is collected first hand. The R can
check reliability of data, unlike in case of S.D.
iv. Accurate data: Data from Primary sources is more accurate as R
cant check accuracy of S.D.
v. Specific Data: R collects specific data relating to the problems. In
case of S.D. there may be general data that he will have to go
through and put extra efforts to get what he needs.
vi. Supplements Secondary data: when S.D. is not sufficient, R may
use P.D. as main source.
vii. Enhances quality of Research work: as it is more accurate and
reliable.
viii. Helps in formation of H: Use of documentary sources helps in
formation of hypothesis. When an investigator has more than 1 H,
then P.D. helps accept proper H.
ix. Flexibility: P.D. allows flexibility in Data collection as interviewer
can restructure and modify the questions as per situation.
x. Helps overcome resistance: of respondents to respond during
the interview. R may use persuasive skills.

Disadvantages:
Paperwork: P.D. method involves a lot of paperwork. Eg. Survey includes
data collection with the help of questionnaire and processing of data
involves editing, coding, classification etc.
Expensive: PD. Collection methods are expensive as compared to
secondary methods. Eg. Survey method is exp as you need field staff to
go collect data. Salary and perks need to be paid to research staff.
Sampling Errors: it is diff to select proper sample when uni is large.
Sampling errors are more when small sample is selected as it may not
represent properly.
Time consuming: lot of time and effort needed for collection process
such as planning, getting appointments and then conducting interview.
Respondent Bias: Respondents may not give proper answers, may
withhold certain data or give fake data wrt certain aspects such as salary,
taxes, investments.
Interview Bias: possibility, as interviewer may edit questionnaire to fit
his expected responses.
Processing of data: Problems in editing, error in coding, classifications
etc. which affect the quality of research
Problem of Quick decision Making: P.D. may affect quick decision
making esp. when the sample size is large and it takes time to process the
data

SECONDARY DATA

Meaning: Secondary data refers to second hand information gathered

from existing sources. It is readily available data from published and
printed sources. This data has already been collected and analysed by
another researcher. Secondary data is generally used in case of academic
research and social research.

Features:
Recorded Data: is already a recorded and published paper source. Data
has already been collected for another research other than the current
one.
Easy to collect: Readily available in the most economic way.
Quantitative Data: S.D. is called it because it can be used for
substantiating the primary data.
Comprehensive: S.D. is available on every subject even those where
collection of P.D> is difficult. TF, we call it comprehensive in nature.
Sources: S.D. may be collected from Primary Sources or Secondary
Sources.
Relevance: S.D. is readymade info which is meant of general purpose. R
must evaluate the S.D. with reference to accuracy, relevancy and
reliability.
Availability: S.D. is available internally from companys records or
externally from books, magazine and other published works etc.
Less Time Consuming & Less Expensive: S.D. requires less time to
collect the data as compared to primary. Also its less expensive.

Significance:
Less Expensive: no need to prepare & print questionnaire, and no need
of field staff.
Less Time Consuming: coz no need to conduct interviews
Less Processing of Data: is already available in processed form.
Quick Decision: readily available so can be quick.
Supplements Primary data: If needed be, researcher may use S.D.
along with primary data to arrive at decisions.
Less paper work: data is readily available.
Less volume of data: R gets obtain large volume of ready data from
various publication houses around the world.
No Sampling Errors: No question coz already done.

Disadvantages:
1. Problem of Accuracy: One cannot be certain of the genuineness of
the secondary data as it isnt collected first-hand. The data may be
out-dated and may not serve the purpose of the current research
work.
2. Problem of Reliability: Secondary data lacks reliability, Data
accessible over the internet may have various sources and may be
vastly different.
3. Problem of Adequacy: At times the secondary data may be accurate
and reliable, but it may not be sufficient to solve the current
research problems. Researcher cannot depend on secondary data to
solve the problems
4. Lack of In-depth Information: Secondary data may not provide in
depth info to be able to solve a problem.
5. Problem in quality decision making: If the data is inaccurate,
insufficient or unreliable, the secondary data may cause problems in
the process of decision making. Decision making usually takes place
in businesses, and it is always better to take primary data in such a
case to analyse the problems properly
6. Problem of specific data: Secondary data may be more general in
nature than specific. All the data may not be applicable to the
researchers problem as researchers need specific data to solve
specific problems.
7. Unsuitability: Secondary data may not be suitable in all cases. It
maybe of less use in case of commercial research. For business
related problems, researchers need more primary data than
secondary.
8. Problem of Biased information: There may be a possibility of bias in
the secondary data as researchers dont have any control over the
quality of the data. The bias maybe on behalf of the respondents or
that of the researcher.
Methods of collecting Primary Data.

Primary data is the data that is collected fresh for the first time and
happens to be original in character. The method of collecting the data is
usually decided depending on the type of problem that the researcher is
working at. There are mainly 3 types of data:
1. Survey/Interview Method
2. Observation Method
3. Experimentation Method

1. SURVEY/INTERVIEW METHOD
The survey can be a census survey or a sample survey. The entire
population is required to accomplish a census survey. Under the
survey method, data is collected through various types of first hand
interviews.
1. Personal Interview: It is a face to face interaction between the
interviewer and the respondent. The interviewer asks
questions and the respondents answer accordingly. There are
various types of Personal interviews.
1. Formal and Informal: Such type of interviews may or
may not require the interviewer to follow some
formalities such as a prior appointment.
2. Structured and Unstructured: In a structured interview,
the interviewer asks certain questions designed well in
advance. In an unstructured interview, no specific
questionnaire is followed.
3. Individual and Group: In an individual interview, only
one person is interviewed at a time. In case of group
interviews, the questions are asked to a group of
respondents at the same time.
4. General or Specific: In a general interview, the questions
asked maybe general in nature where as in specific
interviews, specific questions relating to certain topics
are asked.
5. Directive and Nondirective: In a directive interview, the
interviewer gives directions to the interviewee to
respond to certain questions. In a nondirective
interview, the respondents can are given freedom to
respond to a certain topic without much questioning on
the interviewer's side.
2. Telephone Interview: under this method, Interviews are
conducted over telephonic conversations. The questions are
asked on the phone and answers are recorded.
 3. Mail Survey: A questionnaire is prepared and mailed to the
respondent through post, explaining the purpose of the
questionnaire and a request to complete and return it. The
certainty of response is not guaranteed under this method.

2. OBSERVATION METHOD
The researcher obtains information of the subjects under the study
with the help of observation rather than by asking or interviewing them.
This method needs the researcher to personally observe the behaviour
and study his subjects.

3. EXPERIMENTATION METHOD
The experimentation method is mostly used in the case of scientific
research study; it is done with the help of experimentation to prove the
cause-effect relationship between 2 or more variables.

Methods of Collecting Secondary Data

Internal Sources:
An org can use certain data from its own records to take certain
decision. Eg: Promotion of employees cab be based on performance
appraisal reports. The internal S.D. is collected from internal records such
as
Purchases and Sales records
Debtors and Cr records
Division/Unit wise production or operations records.

Uses of Internal Sources

o Product Analysis
o Customer Analysis
o Analysis of Sales Territories
o Sales Frequency Analysis
o Financial Analysis
o Stock Turnover Analysis

External Sources
S.D. can be collected from external sources such as books,
magazines, newspapers, internet and other reports. It can be used for
product designing, pricing, promotion distribution etc . there are various
external sources such as,
 i) Government Publications: Central, State and local bodies
produce and publish vast amt of data that can be used for
marketing and research purpose.
(1)Census report: Population report conducted every 10 years
by Registrar general of India. Gives basic demographic of
gender, age, education etc.
(2)Statistics of National Income: published every year by The
Central Statistical Organization. Gives info on Agriculture,
industry, trade, savings, consumptions etc
(3)Industrial Statistics: Published by The Central Statistical
Org and provides info on workers employed, total production
in some industries etc.
(4)Price statistics: Wholesale price index for commodities like
food grain, fuel, power etc.
(5)Other Publications: Includes RBI, Ministry of Finance,
Ministry of Food and Agriculture, Indian Labour bureau,
Planning commission, etc.
ii) Syndicated sources: Private org like Advert agencies, research
firms etc, do regular mkt research. Such data is collected,
analysed and tabulated periodically and sent to subscribers,
sometimes the data is given to non-members against a payment
of fees. These data collection projects are done on contract
basis.
iii) General Publications: includes newspapers, magazines, trade
and professional journals, Professional directories published by
professional bodies like the industrial directory of India ,
publications from United Nations, Specialized libraries, research
projects, etc

Distinguish Points:
Meaning
Methods/Sources
Accuracy
Reliability
Time Factor
Cost Factor
Paperwork
Specific/General
In depth Info
Need for Sample
Respondent Bias
Quality of Decision making
Factors Influencing Data Collection methods:
Time
Cost
Quality of Decision making
Type of research work: Certain type requires primary data, such as
survey or chemical analysis.
Nature of researcher: If R is casual then hell stick to S.D.
Obj of research
Availability of respondents
Availability of research staff

Questionnaire
A set of questions, which acts as an instrument to collect data from
the respondents to a survey or an interview.

Importance:
Relevant data must be collected with help of a proper Q.
Convenience to the respondents aka no time pressure.
Structured and unstructured responses. S.R. main tick karo,
U.R. main write freely.
Qualitative or Quantitative Data: the research can collect both types
of data. Qualitative by unstructured questions. Quantity is possible with
large number of respondents.
Large Coverage: questionnaire enables the researcher to cover a large
area.
Proper Processing: Q can be given code to properly process. Makes
tabulation easy
Easy to alter: If Q are ambiguous or irrelevant, they can be altered.
Sensitive info: can be collected by R through survey

Limitations:
Suitability: works only with literate respondents who have proper
educational bg.
Rate of Response: Incase of mail Questionnaire is low. Unless incentive
isnt offered, many people dont want to participate.
Quality of Data: maynot be reliable and needs critical evaluation;
sometimes respondents dont understand q and answer bullcrap.
Rigid and restricted response: direct answers in questionnaire. Cant
answer properly.
Attitude of Respondents: Casual attitude and lack of responsibility
towards research
Personal touch: Q is inapt where obj of survey needs a good deal of
explanation.
Verification of facts: Answers cant be verified again.

Types of Questionnaire
i) Structured Q: Which is regimented and designed to elicit
detailed and accurate info under given titles. Answers are given
with high precision without any vagueness or ambiguity. S.Q. is
classified into:
(1)Close form questions: Pick one alternative types. Yes or no
types.
(2)Open ended: Respondent can write as much and as detailed
as he likes expressing his opinion.
ii) Unstructured Q: Simple Q, without segmentation or subdivision
it is more flexible and more info can be collected.
iii) Codified Questionnaire: Expected answers are given in code
numbers. Respondent has to tick or circle answer. Convenient for
processing and easy understanding.
iv) Uncodified Q: Simple Q, without any codes, direct Q.
v) Pictorial questionnaire: Answers are given in pictorial form.
Better for understanding of the illiterate.

Essentials in a Questionnaire
Relevant Q
Clarity
Type of Q: close form or open ended.
Logical Sequence
Physical Appearance
Pretesting of Questionnaire.