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DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONIC & ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

EE312 INSTRUMENTATION & MICROCONTROLLERS

LECTURE 5:
MODELLING OF ENGINEERING SYSTEMS
Existing and many modern engineering systems are
becoming more complex in their features and overall
system architecture.

When beginning to explain their operation, discuss their


architecture and share information on their design, it is
often convenient to illustrate the system fundamental
operation through a high-level description.

The question often is asked on how best to represent


these complex systems?

One prominent and well-established method is to break


down the full system into simpler sub-blocks:

System block diagrams can provide high and low level


detail dependent on the desired application/audience.

Such block diagrams are intended to represent the flow


and conversion of measurable parameters within a
system and not specific system components.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 1 of 28


MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
EXTERNAL INTERACTIONS OF MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM

Input is the measurand

some relevant property of environment


usually physical or mechanical
can be measured and denoted with appropriate
units.

Output is the signal

carries information in symbolic format


usually electrical
can be measured and denoted with appropriate
units.

Measurand
MEASUREMENT Signal
SYSTEM
PHYSICAL ELECTRICAL
(ENVIRONMENT) (INFORMATION)

Measurement system
is a conversion from input measurand parameter to
output signal.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 2 of 28


For example:

System block diagram representation of a resistor:

Input Output
Resistor

voltage (V) = current (A)

Note Units Note Note Units


Conversion

System block diagram representation of electric radiant


heater:

Note:

System block diagrams can feature many correct but


different solutions, dependent on detail level.

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FUNCTION OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Function of measurement system is to infer from


observed value of output signal the best possible
estimate of value of measurand.

Measurand will vary with time (unpredictably).

In order to perform this function, measurement system


must incorporate adequate model of its own expected
behaviour.

Therefore performance relates primarily to accuracy with


which this estimate of measurand can be derived.

Errors will arise of there is any deviation between actual


and assumed behaviour of measurement system.

No aspect of environment can be controlled with any


greater ability than it can be measured.

System modelling is consequently an essential aspect of


design and use of measurement systems.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 4 of 28


ENVIRONMENTAL INFLUENCES

In practice, behaviour of measurement system is


affected not only by chosen measurand but also by other
aspects of real world known as environmental
influences.

Environmental influences

Measurand
MEASUREMENT Signal
SYSTEM
PHYSICAL ELECTRICAL
(ENVIRONMENT) (INFORMATION)

Environmental influences act as additional inputs.

Uncontrolled effect of environmental influences causes


changes in output signal which are not result of variation
in measurand.

Therefore interpretation of output signal in terms of


measurand is subject to error.

Effect of each environmental influence is described


quantitatively by associated value of cross-sensitivity.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 5 of 28


CONTROL SYSTEM

EXTERNAL INTERACTIONS OF CONTROL SYSTEM

Input is the demand signal

carries information in symbolic format


usually electrical

Output is the controlled quantity

some relevant property of environment


usually physical or mechanical

Demand CONTROL Controlled


signal SYSTEM quantity

ELECTRICAL PHYSICAL
(INFORMATION) (ENVIRONMENT)

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 6 of 28


FUNCTION OF CONTROL SYSTEM

Function of control system is to ensure that controlled


quantity in environment corresponds as closely as
possible to value represented by demand signal.

Demand signal may vary with time.

In order to perform this function, control system must


incorporate adequate model of associated process.

Therefore performance relates primarily to accuracy and


speed with which controlled quantity can be
manipulated.

Errors will arise of there is any deviation between actual


and assumed behaviour of measurement system.

No aspect of environment can be controlled with any


greater ability than it can be measured.

System modelling is consequently an essential aspect of


design and use of control systems.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 7 of 28


DISTURBANCES

In practice, behaviour of control system is affected not


only by demand signal but also by other aspects of real
world known as disturbances.

Disturbances

Demand CONTROL Controlled


signal SYSTEM quantity

ELECTRICAL PHYSICAL
(INFORMATION) (ENVIRONMENT)

Disturbances act as additional inputs.

Uncontrolled effect of disturbances causes changes in


controlled quantity which are not result of variation in
demand signal.

Therefore adequacy of control is subject to error.

Feedback architecture can alleviate these difficulties and


will be considered later.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 8 of 28


SYSTEM BEHAVIOUR

Characteristic equation of any system describes how


output quantity varies as function of input quantity.

Description of system behaviour also uses alternative


terminology:

system response
transfer function
mathematical model

May describe only static (steady-state) behaviour.

Often must be expanded to incorporate also dynamic


behaviour.

Model may be based on analysis or experimental


measurements.

Measurement and control both employ system models


for special purposes.

Models are employed for top-down design and analysis:


each system comprises a set of appropriate subsystems
with functional interconnections.

Graphical representation is structured block diagram:


lines indicate variable quantities transferred from output
of one subsystem to input of another.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 9 of 28


SINGLE-INPUT SINGLE-OUTPUT SYSTEM

Initial discussion will be restricted primarily to


single-input single-output systems.

Input Output
quantity SYSTEM quantity
X RESPONSE Y

Y=F{X}
Block Diagrams

Each block should represent one function only


Each block represents a transfer function whereby
an input variable is transformed into an output
variable
Each interconnection describes a variable quantity

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 10 of 28


MULTIPLE-INPUT MULTIPLE-OUTPUT SYSTEM

However more complex systems may have multiple


inputs and/or multiple outputs

Input Output
quantities quantities
X1 SYSTEM Y1
X2 RESPONSE Y2
Y1 = F1 { X1, X2 }
Y2 = F2 { X1, X2 }

Each output from system then depends on all of the


separate independent inputs to the same system.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 11 of 28


SYSTEM MODELLING IN ENGINEERING

INPUT SYSTEM OUTPUT System description

INPUT SYSTEM ? Analysis

Design (from specification)


INPUT ? OUTPUT Identification (of function)
Calibration (of parameters)

? SYSTEM OUTPUT Measurement

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 12 of 28


STATIC BEHAVIOUR

Static characteristic considers only steady-state


behaviour in equilibrium.

Input Output
quantity STATIC quantity
X RESPONSE Y

Y=F{X}

ALGEBRA ONLY

matrices required for multiple-input multiple-


output systems

These notes are concerned primarily with static


characteristic and associated errors.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 13 of 28


DYNAMIC BEHAVIOUR

Dynamic analysis considers additional aspects of


behaviour which occur when input quantity changes
relatively fast (compared with characteristic response
time of system itself).

Input Output
quantity DYNAMIC quantity
X(t) RESPONSE Y(t)

Y(t) = F { X(t) }

CALCULUS REQUIRED

complex quantities (phasors) describe magnitude


and phase for sinusoidal waveforms.
Laplace transform for transient response in time
domain.
Fourier series for arbitrary periodic waveforms.
Fourier transform for analysis in frequency
domain.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 14 of 28


LINEAR SYSTEMS

There are many reasons why engineers want to study


and design systems which demonstrate linear behaviour
(or at least approximately so).

SIMPLE PHYSICAL BEHAVIOUR

Superposition

Sinusoidal excitation results in change of magnitude and


phase only at output (no new frequencies).

SIMPLE MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS

Steady-state behaviour: linear algebraic equation.

Dynamic behaviour: linear differential equations, hence


Laplace transforms.

SIMPLE IMPLEMENTATION OF MEASUREMENT

Constant sensitivity.

Only two values required for calibration (typically zero


and full-scale).

Easy transformation from output signal to corresponding


value of measurand (linear interpolation).

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 15 of 28


LINEAR SYSTEMS

Equation of straight line:

= +
Zero
input
Y
OUTPUT: amplitude of signal

Output offset
Y0 Zero
output

Input offset
X0

INPUT: value of measurand X

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 16 of 28


MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS

ARCHITECTURE OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Block diagram on next page illustrates structure and


functions which are common to most measurement
systems.

Measurement involves conversion between three


different types of information from environment:

Physical measurand
Electrical (or pneumatic) signal
Quantitative information

Feedback control involves conversion between two


different types of energy to environment:

Electrical (or hydraulic, pneumatic)


Physical

Frequently, processing and interpretation of information


takes place at location which is geographically remote
from that of measurand and transducer consequently
communication is required.

Information processing and data communication often


employ computer hardware and software
measurement signal must then be converted from
analogue to digital.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 17 of 28


ARCHITECTURE REPRESENTED BY GENERAL-PURPOSE BLOCK DIAGRAM

MEASURAND SIGNAL INFORMATION


Physical Electrical (or Pneumatic) Quantitative

Primary Secondary SIGNAL SIGNAL SIGNAL INFORMATION DATA OBSERVATION


DISPLAY
TRANSDUCER TRANSDUCERS CONDITIONING TRANSMISSION PROCESSING PROCESSING COMMUNICATION Human
Analogue-digital
ENVIRONMENT

conversion INTERPRETATION
RECORDING
Human
LOCAL REMOTE
DECISION
ALARM
Automatic or Human

CONTROL
Automatic or Human

ENERGY ENERGY
Physical Electrical (or Hydraulic, Pneumatic)

ACTUATOR

FEEDBACK

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 18 of 28


EXAMPLE OF MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

Illustrated on next page is complex electromechanical


system which measures mass of liquid within a tank.

Volume and level of liquid are derived quantities which


occur as variables within block diagram.

Output signal is reading on voltmeter (analogue or


digital) as displayed to human observer.

This example is used extensively to illustrate modelling


and errors.

Therefore physical processes and electrical circuit


should be revised from set book and elsewhere.

This block diagram is deliberately incomplete. More


information will be made available (in tutorials) after you
have considered the system yourself.

LIQUID CONTENTS OF TANK: MEASUREMENT


SYSTEM

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 19 of 28


Base figure: mechanical layout, electrical schematic and block diagram only

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Annotated with description of variables [dark red]

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Annotated also with description of each block as subsystem [dark blue]

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Environmental influence shown as additional input [dark green]

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Annotated also with symbolic notation for variables [red]

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Annotated also with symbolic notation for constant parameters

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PROCEDURE FOR ANALYSIS

EXTERNAL INTERACTIONS

Recognise measurand and output signal.

Describe any unwanted interaction between


measurement system and environment (loading).

Recognise environmental influences.

INTERNAL CONFIGURATION

Identify internal subsystems and their functional


interconnections; hence draw block diagram.

Identify relevant physical parameters (and specify


notation).

Identify internal variables (and specify notation).

DEVELOP PHYSICAL MODEL

Describe necessary simplifications and assumptions.

Use physical principles to establish adequate model for


each subsystem.

Combine mathematically to establish functional


relationship between measurand and output signal.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 26 of 28


DESCRIBE MATHEMATICAL MODEL

Simplify mathematical expressions to reveal important


aspects of behaviour.

Establish nature of relationship: linear or nonlinear?

ASSESS ERRORS

Evaluate cross-sensitivity to environmental influences:


interfering and modifying inputs.

Identify and evaluate other sources of error.

Investigate validity of simplifications and assumptions.

CALCULATE QUANTITATIVE (NUMERICAL) VALUES

Evaluate sensitivity and offset.

Consider typical or full-scale amplitude of output signal.

Estimate magnitude of worst-case errors.

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 27 of 28


IMPLEMENT AND ENHANCE DESIGN

Identify any need for additional transducers (primary or


secondary).

Suggest signal conditioning and processing

Suggest other improvements


geometric configuration
self-compensation for cross-sensitivity
feedback architecture

Consider need for computer hardware and software to


enhance functionality:
process information
improve performance
user interface

CONCLUDE

Identify advantages, disadvantages

Define suitable applications

Confirm suitable for intended purpose

Class EE312: L5 - Engineering systems Dr M Zagnoni, Dr C.N. MacLeod 2016-17 Page 28 of 28

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