Tutorial 29 october

what is lanthanide contraction and what are its consequences?

Lanthanide contraction is the steady decrease in size along the 14 Lanthanide metals between La and Lu.The contraction is attributed to the imperfect
shielding of one 4f electron by another 4f electron. Since the shielding of one 4f electron by another is less than the d-electron shielding, as the nuclear
charge increases from La to Lu there is a fairly regular decrease in the size of the 4f n sub-shell.

(i) What is characteristic about the coordination numbers of lanthanide ions?

Lanthanide large size means that high coordination numbers >6 are common. The splitting of the degenerate set of f-
sub-orbitals in crystal fields is small (oct=1kJmol-1) crystal field stabilization considerations are of minor importance in
lanthanide ions. Preference between different coordination numbers and geometries tend to be controlled by steric
effects

(b) Predict results for the following equations

(i) TiF4 +2 HF conc [TiF6]-3 [2]

(ii) TiCl4+ 2HClconc [TiCI6]-3 [2 ]

(c) What are doped semiconductors? [2 marks]

These are extrinsic semiconductors that have been doped, that is, into which a doping agent has been introduced, giving it different electrical
properties than the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor. This doping involves adding dopant atoms to an intrinsic semiconductor, which changes the
electron and hole carrier concentrations of the semiconductor at thermal equilibrium the temperature at which two adjacent substances
exchange no heat energy. Dominant carrier concentrations in an extrinsic semiconductor classify it as either an n-type or p-type
semiconductor. The electrical properties of extrinsic semiconductors make them essential components of many electronic devices.

Define zeolites

Zeolites are hydrated aluminosilicate minerals made from interlinked tetrahedra of alumina (AlO4) and silica (SiO4).

In simpler words, they're solids with a relatively open, three-dimensional crystal structure built from the elements aluminum, oxygen, and silicon, with
alkali or alkaline-Earth metals (such as sodium, potassium, and magnesium) plus water molecules trapped in the gaps between them.

Zeolites form with many different crystalline structures, which have large open pores (sometimes referred to as cavities) in a very regular arrangement
and roughly the same size as small molecules.

Application of zeolites

One of the biggest everyday uses for zeolites is in water softeners and water filters. In ion-exchange water softeners, for example, hard water (rich in calcium and magnesium ions) is piped
through a column filled with sodium-containing zeolites.

The zeolites trap the calcium and magnesium ions and release sodium ions in their place, so the water becomes softer but richer in sodium.

Many everyday laundry and dishwasher detergents contain zeolites to remove calcium and magnesium and soften water so they work more effectively.
Two other very common, everyday uses of zeolites are in odor control and pet litter; in both, the porous crystalline structure of the zeolites helps by trapping unwanted liquids and odor
molecules.

zeolites have proved extremely effective at removing radioactive particles from nuclear waste and cleaning up soils contaminated with toxic heavy metals.

Another important use for zeolites is as catalysts in drug (pharmaceutical) production and in the petrochemical industry, where they're used in catalytic crackers to break large hydrocarbon
molecules into gasoline, diesel, kerosene, waxes and all kinds of other byproducts of petroleum.

Describe two methods of solid preparation.

Ceramic method

Consists of heating two non-volatile solids which react to form the required
product.
The solid-state method can be used to prepare a whole range of materials
including mixed metal oxides, sulfides, nitrides, aluminosilicates, etc.
ZrO2 (s) + SiO2(s) ZrSiO4 (s) heat to 1300C
The method can be used to prepare an extremely large number of compounds.
Disadvantages
High temperatures are generally required (500-2000C), because it takes a
significant amount of energy to overcome the lattice energy so a cation or anion
can diffuse into a different site.
The desired compound may decompose at high temperatures.
The reaction may proceed very slowly, but increasing the temperature speeds up
the reaction since it increases the diffusion rate.
Generally, solids are not raised to their melting point, so reactions take place in in solid state

Combustion method

Combustion synthesis is a self-propagating high temperature synthetic

Combustion synthesis uses highly exothermic (H < -170 kJ/mol) and

even explosive reactions to maintain a self-propagating high reaction
temperature.
The method has been used to prepare many refractory materials including
borides, nitrides, oxides, silicides, intermetallics, and ceramics.
Reactants are mixed to together, formed into a pellet, and ignited (laser,
electric arc, heating coil) at high temperature.
Once ignited, the reaction propagates as a synthesis wave, the reaction
must lose less heat than it generates, or it will quench.
Temperatures up to 3000 K are maintained during the fast reaction.
Self ignition can sometimes be achieved by ball milling.
In some cases, the presence of a magnetic field will make the reaction
proceed faster and with a higher temperature wave.

Describe the manufacture of glass

Raw materials

1.sand

2.lime,dolomite

Sodium carbonate,aluminum silicates,boric acid ,boron minerals,cullet from plants itself

Melting

The process can be divided into

Fusing,fining,homogenization,temperature adjustment before forming

forming