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Acrossculturalanalysisofthemothertonguebasedmultilingual
educationpoliciesandimplementationindevelopingcountries:
ThecaseofAsiaandAfrica

HoldenKennethG.Alcazaren 1,2andEmeraldR.Rafanan 1,3


1 DeLaSalleUniversity
2 UniversityofPerpetualHelpSystemDalta
3 ColegioSanAgustin

Abstract:Allovertheworld,therearearound7,000languagesspokenbutonly300
widespreadlanguagesarespokenbymajorityofthepeople.Ineducation,languageis
anessentialfactorbecausethisisthemediumofcommunicationformostlearning
activities.Thus,thevitalrolethatlanguageplaysintheclassroomhassparked
debatesastowhatlanguageistobebestused.Manynationshaveattemptedto
createdifferentlanguageineducationpoliciesthatwouldcaternotonlytotheneeds
ofthelearnersbutalsothedemandsofpreservingcountrysnativelanguages.Thus,
theemergenceofmothertongueeducationhascreatednumerousandrecentresearch
thatsuggestthebenefitsofusingalearnersmothertongue.Theseissueshaveled
thispresentpapertoinvestigatemothertonguebasedmultilingualeducation.The
paperexamined30differentresearcharticlesandjournalsfromdevelopingcountries
ofAsiaandAfricawiththepurposeofprovidinganindepthunderstandingofthe
differentlanguageineducationpoliciesandmothertonguebasedinstructionof
selectedcountries.Thestudyalsoexploredthedifferentchallengesandpedagogical
implicationsofmothertonguebasedinstructiontosynthesizeemergingissuesand
insights.Asaresult,sociopoliticalandpedagogicalissueswerefound,namelythe
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1/18/2017 Acrossculturalanalysisofthemothertonguebasedmultilingualeducationpoliciesandimplementationindevelopingcountries:

devaluationofanationsmothertongueduetoitspeoplesnegativeperspectiveand
thepoorpolicyplanningthatwaspointedoutbydifferentauthors.Itwasalso
notablethatmostofthesedevelopingcommunitiesunderstandtheimportanceof
Englishasalanguageofglobalization.Becauseoftheseissues,incorporatingboth
theimportanceofestablishingmothertongueeducationandstrengtheningthe
Englishlanguageintheeducationalsystemwouldbetwoimportantconsiderations
inpolicyplanning.

KeyWords:mothertonguebasededucationlanguageineducationpolicymother
tonguemultilingualism

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1.INTRODUCTION researcharticlesandjournalsfromdeveloping
countriesofAsiaandAfricawiththepurposeof
providinganindepthunderstandingofthedifferent
Theyear2015marksthe15thanniversaryof languageineducationpoliciesandmothertongue
InternationalMotherLanguageDay.Accordingto basedinstructionofselectedcountries.Thestudy
theUnitedNationsEducational,Scientificand alsoexploresthedifferentchallengesand
CulturalOrganization(UNESCO),aroundtheworld, pedagogicalimplicationsofmothertonguebased
thereareapproximately7,000languagesspokenbut instructiontosynthesizeemergingissuesand
only300widespreadlanguageswerespokenby insights.
majorityofthepeople(2003).Whilesomeofthe
countriessuchasIcelandarelinguistically
2.SELECTIONOFSTUDIES
homogenous,mostcountriessuchasIndonesiashow
anabundanceoflinguisticdiversity,withover700
Thismetaanalysisaimstopresenta
languages,andPapuaNewGuineawithover800
selectionofrelevantstudiesonmothertonguebased
languages.Additionally,UNESCOstronglybelieves
educationpoliciesinAsiaandAfricaforthepastten
thatlanguageisafundamentalattributeofcultural
years(20042014).Thirtyresearchpaperswere
identityandempowerment,bothfortheindividual
selectedbasedonthefollowing:(1)discussionofa
andthegroup.
developingcountryslanguageineducationpolicy
Ineducation,languageisanessentialfactor
withspecificfocusonitsinstructionusingmother
becausethisisthemediumofcommunicationfor
tongue,and(2)reflectiononemergingissuesin
mostlearningactivities.Thus,thevitalrolethat
implementation.Journalarticleswereselectedfrom
languageplaysintheclassroomhassparkeddebates
variouspublications.
astowhatlanguageistobebestused.Thesepast
years,mostscholars(Dumatog&Dekker,2003
Kirkpatrick,2013Malone,2007)havewell 3.RESULTSANDDISCUSSION
documentedthebenefitsofusingmothertongue
education.Inthislanguageineducationpolicy,
studentsusetheirmothertongue,otherwisecalledas Rwanda 3
firstlanguage.Thisisthelanguagetheylearned
Brunei 15
first,identifywith,andknowbest.
Cambodia 23
However,evenwithgreatsupportforquality
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1/18/2017 Acrossculturalanalysisofthemothertonguebasedmultilingualeducationpoliciesandimplementationindevelopingcountries:
education,therearestilldifferenteducational Botswana 28
problemsfacedbystudents,especiallyfromethno SouthAfrica 32
linguisticcommunities.First,somehavenoaccessto Uganda 41
educationatall.Second,thosewhodohaveaccess
Kenya 68
witheducationcannotspeaktheofficiallanguage
Thailand 74
whentheyenterthesystem.AccordingtoUNESCO
(2003),studentswhospeaktheirmothertongues, Tanzania 127
whicharenotthesameastheofficiallanguage,find Malaysia 140
theirlanguage,knowledgeandexperienceasa Philippines 186
disadvantage.Malone(2007)hasenumerated
consequencesformanystudentsthathavebeen 0 50 100 150 200
examinedinnumerousstudies,suchaslossof
confidence,inabilitytolearn,droppingoutofschool
andalienationfromheritageandculture.Withthese Fig.1.Estimatednumberoflanguagesspokenper
challengesinmultilingualeducationalsystems, country
mothertonguebasedmultilingualeducationhas
beencoinedasthebestmeansforensuringquality Figure1aboveshowsanestimateofthe
educationfortheethnolinguisticcommunitieswho languagesspokeninselecteddevelopingcountriesin
speaknondominantlanguages. AsiaandAfrica.Itisthereforeinterestingtoexamine
Theseissueshaveledtheresearchersto howthesecountriesacknowledgethislinguistic
investigatemothertonguebasedmultilingual heterogeneityintheformulationoflanguagein
education.Thepresentpaperexaminesdifferent

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educationpolicies,specificallytheimplementationof 3.2SOCIOPOLITICALAND
themothertonguebasedmultilingualeducation. PEDAGOGICALIMPLICATIONS

3.1. LANGUAGE POLICIES OF 3.2.1.MOTHERTONGUEDEVALUATION


DEVELOPINGCOUNTRIES Forthepastyears,therehasbeenashiftin
Basedonthefindings,itisevidentthat educationsystemswiththeemergenceofEnglish
majorityofthecountries,withtheexceptionof imperialism(Canagarajah,1999inWaMbaleka,
Thailand,includeEnglishasoneoftheirprincipal 2015).Scholarshavebeencriticalthat
languages.AccordingtoPrapasapong(2009), Englishizationoflanguageineducationcouldbea
standardThaiisconsideredtheirofficialandlegal threattotheindigenouslanguages.Inthestudyof
language.Thismightalsobeattributedtothe NoorAzam(2005,inJones,2009),itwasnotedto
historicalfactthatThailandistheonlySoutheast havingMalayEnglishbilingualBruneians.This
Asiannationthatwasnotdirectlycolonized,which couldbeduetoitscountryshistoricalassociation
couldhavepossiblybroughtforeignlanguagesinto withBritain.BruneisMinistryofEducationbelieved
thecountry.Thisisincontrasttotheothercountries thatindigenouslanguagescannotperformthe
whichwerecolonizedbyWesternpowers,bringing formalandofficialfunctionasalanguageof
withthemforeignlanguageswhichwerelearnedby education,comparedtoMalayandEnglish.These
thelocals.ThiswasalsothecasewithRwanda,a findingscorrelatewithsimilarfindingsofPoseland
Frenchcolony,whichusedFrenchasaprincipal Casale(2011)thathavefoundoutthatEnglishwas
languageuntil2008whenitwasdiscardedduetothe preferredbySouthAfricanparentsand
negativehistoryassociatedwiththelanguage administratorsduetoitspromisedeconomicand
(Samuelson&Freedman,2010). socialbenefits.Similarly,Rwandangovernmenthas
Followingthese,itisnotsurprisingtonote justifiedinswitchingEnglishastheirmediumof

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1/18/2017 Acrossculturalanalysisofthemothertonguebasedmultilingualeducationpoliciesandimplementationindevelopingcountries:
thenthatEnglishislikewiseusedasamediumof instructionastheleadinglanguageofscience,
instructioninmostofthesecountries.Thistraitis commerceandeconomicgrowth.
notobservableinCambodiaandThailand.Underthe Thereisalsoadiscrepancywhenitcomesto
newEducationLawinCambodia,Khmerlanguage theprioritizationofthenondominantlanguages.For
shouldbethelanguageofinstructioninorderto instance,thePhilippineshasmorethan180
strengthenthelocalknowledge,cultures,and languagesandMalaysiahasapproximately140
languagesofethnicminorities(Sun,2009).Other languagesbutthereareonlyverylimited
thanEnglish,10ofthesecountriesstillusealocal orthographiesprovided.Thesamecasewasnotedby
languageintheclassroomexceptforRwandawhich Nkosana(2011)thatsomelocallanguagesin
interestinglyhasadoptedEnglishastheirsole Botswanastilldonothaveorthographies.
mediumofinstructionasstipulatedintheirNew
LanguagePolicy(Samuelson&Freedman,2010). 3.2.2.POORPOLICYPLANNING
Lastly,whenitcomestothelanguagein
Someofthechallengesthathavebeen
educationpolicy,itmaybeobservedthatthe pointedoutbyscholarswithregardstothe
countrieswhichhavebeennotedearliertouseboth implementationofMTBMLEweremainlycausedby
Englishandalocallanguageineducation,likewise thenationspoor,orlackof,policyplanning.Someof
sharesimilarfeaturesinmothertonguebased
thesedrawbacksareunavailabilityofinstructional
educationimplementation.Oneofthesesimilarities
materials,lackofteachertraining,andthe
istheuseofL1intheformativeyearsofschooling perceptionthatlocallanguagesmaynotbeimportant
suchasinthePhilippines,Kenya,andUganda forformallanguageandadisadvantagetofuture
whereL1isutilizeduntilthe3 rdgrade.Afterwhich, employability.
theyaretouseEnglishasmediumofinstruction.In
InthepaperofWaMbaleka(2014),hefound
contrarytothis,Tanzaniaistheonlycountrylisted
outthatFilipinoteacherswerenotpreparedwith
whichusesmothertonguethroughoutprimaryschool propertrainingsandresourcesinteachingusing
andonlyusesEnglishstartingsecondaryschool
mothertongue.Thisisincorrelationwiththe
whileinMalaysia,mothertongueisstudiedasa
findingsofGacheche(2010)thatsomeKenyan
separatesubject. teacherslacktheabilitytoteachthemothertongue.

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Inadditiontothis,similarchallengeshave alanguagethatcanbeescapedandtakenawayfrom
beenexperiencedinSouthAfrica.Inthestudyof thepeople.Lookingatthecollectionofarticles
PoselandCasale(2011),itwasobservedthatschools consideredinthisstudy,itisalsonotabletosaythat
werestillunderresourcedandovercrowded. mostofthesedevelopingcommunitiesstillconsider
Thesedrawbacksmighthavebeen thelinguisticcapitalEnglishoffersthem,aconcept
preventedifthepolicymakersmadesurefirstofthe introducedbyPierreBourdieu.
preparednessofeveryelementoftheprogram. TheRwandangovernmentlooksatthisfrom
Instructionalmaterialsshouldhavebeengivenatop alenswhichconsidersEnglishastheleading
priorityfortheseresourcesguideboththestudents languageofscience,commerceandeconomic
andtheteachersinusingmothertongueinlearning development(Samuelson&Freedman,2010).
thedifferentsubjects.Additionally,teachersmust AnotherexampleofthisisinBotswanawhere
havepropertrainingnotjustwiththecontentof parentsalsopreferthattheirchildrenlearnand
theirsubjectsbutalsothebackgroundknowledgein speakinEnglishforitssocialandeconomicbenefits
teachingthecontentusingthelearnersmother (Nkosana,2011).Pennycook(1994)wasalsocitedby
tongue.Teachersshouldhavespecializedtrainings Nkosanawithhisworksintheglobalinfluenceof
onpedagogicalstrategiesutilizingtheMTBMLE. Englishthatwouldmakeitdifficult,ifnot
Lastly,thereshouldbecommunalunityand impossible,toprioritizeKiswahilioverEnglishin
participationtosuccessfullyimplementan Tanzania.

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1/18/2017 Acrossculturalanalysisofthemothertonguebasedmultilingualeducationpoliciesandimplementationindevelopingcountries:
educationalpolicy Consideringalltheseinsights,boththe
importanceofestablishingmothertongueeducation,
3.3.EMERGINGINSIGHTS andtheconceptoflinguisticcapitalassociatedwith
theEnglishlanguage,asolutionofincorporating
TheSummerInstituteofLinguistics(SIL),
themintheeducationalsystemwouldbethewayto
ascitedbyGacheche(2010),regardsmother
go.
languageasavitalneedofchildrenintheir
formativeyears.Onepossiblewayofrespondingto
thelackofpriorityoftheuseofmothertongueisthe 4.CONCLUSIONS
useofaparadigmcalledadditivemultilingualism.
SamuelsonandFreedman(2010)proposedthispolicy Thismetaanalysishasprovideda
forRwanda.InsteadofEnglishasthesolemediumof synthesizedoverviewofdifferentlanguagein
instruction,theysaidthereismuchpotentialfor educationpoliciesofrepresentativedeveloping
successifthelocallanguageKinyarwandawouldbe countriesfromAsiaandAfrica.Thepaperalso
usedaslanguageofinstructioninprimaryschooland presentedissuesintotwomainframes:the
maintainedasstudentscontinuetolearnandbe devaluationofmothertongueandpoorpolicy
proficientinotherlanguages. planning.Itwasrecommendedtohaveareviewof
Thepresentpaperhashighlightedthefirst thepoliciestopossesssomedrawbacksbothon
sociopoliticalissueofmothertonguedevaluation.If paperandinactualpractice.Consideringthe
some,ifnotmost,residentsofacountrythinkthat limitationsofthispaper,itisalsosuggestedthat
theirmothertonguelackssocialandeconomic furtherstudiesbeconductedontheprogressofthe
importance,abruptlytakingoutandworse, implementationoftheprogramsseveralyearsafter
prohibitionofitsusewillnotmaketheirmother theyhavebeencarriedout.Withallthefindings
tongueseemmoreimportantatall.Thesestudents andinsightsgainedinthismetaanalysis,itwas
willcontinuetothinkthattheirmothertonguedoes concludedthattheimportanceofimprovingmother
nothavetheabilitytoaidinsocialandeconomic tongueeducationshouldalwaysbeatoppriorityas
mobility.Therefore,theperceptionthatacountryis itwillprovidethescaffoldstolearningother
betterofflearninginEnglishafterafewyearsof languagessuchasEnglish.Afterall,multilingual
usingmothertonguedoesnotonlycreate nationsshouldlookattheirethnolinguistic
linguisticallyincompetentlearnersbutalso diversityasanassetandnotasaliability.
ethnolinguisticallyapatheticcitizens.
However,itshouldnotbemisunderstood 5.ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
thatadvocatingtheuseofmothertongueeducation
inthiscontextimmediatelyacknowledgesEnglishas
WewouldliketoacknowledgeDr.Paolo

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Valdezforhisinsightfulcommentsregardingour instruction:Policiesandexperiencesin
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