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Graham Brown, Stephanie Fairfax, Nidhi Sarao, and S. Anonymous

Homo habilis

Homo habilis is the earliest known species in the human lineage. Named in 1964 by Richard Leakey, the
term habilis refers to being handy. This name was suggested because the hand and foot remains of this
species were of special interest to the anthropologists studying locomotion.

Locomotion
Our hands and feet enable us to perform a variety of functions, such as digging soil, grasping objects, and
even hanging from the stems of trees. More specifically, feet enable walking, crawling, running, and
juqqnsm,e9sNNXZnZMuududuuyrqmping. Unexpectedly, a fossil belonging to this species, dating from
approximately 1.75 MYA, was found in Tanzania. This Olduvai foot (Durant 1989:23) was reconstructed in
1960 and allowed scientists to conclude a few points about this species. The fossil was complete except that
the back of the heel and terminal bones of the toes were missing.

Interestingly, this fossil displays a modern human characteristic: the stout basal bone of the big toe is
aligned with the other toes (Isaac & Leakey 1969). In apes and monkeys, the big toe is quite robust and
diverges from the other toes (Isaac & Leakey 1960). The aligned toes indicate true bipedalism. The fossil
also shows that H. habilis had the ability to force debris through it in a nonprehensile way (Durant 1989:24).
In addition, certain features of the wrist and the hand are suggestive that H. habilis had the ability to grasp
objects and make stone-tools. This evidence allows researchers to conclude that H. habilis, a species that
existed in Eastern Africa over a million years ago, exhibited a mode of locomotion very similar to that of
modern humans.

Dentition
Little is known about the teeth of Homo habilis. Relethford (1994) states that the teeth of Homo habilis are
thought to be larger than those of modern humans. In addition, the shape of the premolars of this species
were more elongated than were those of their ancestors and, thus, much more similar in appearance to
those of modern humans.

Brain
Most Homo habilis fossils derive from Olduvai Gorge, Africa (Isaac & Leakey 1960). Several fragmentary
specimens indicate that this species possessed an enlarged brain (Durant 1989). Among the fossils found in
this area, the smallest brain had a cranial capacity of 550 cc. The brains of two other fossils were measured
to be 650 cc and 687 cc. An additional cranium fossil was found at Koobi Fora, KNM-ER 1470 and KNM-ER
1813. Unfortunately, little is known about this fossil. Moreover, anthropologists date that H.
habilis originated between 2 and 1.9 million MYA, followed by Homo erectus, which dates to approximately
1.7 MYA. As a result, H. habilis was the first species that possessed the characteristic enlarged brain. This
enlarged brain is also closely associated with the ability of using stones for tool-making.

Location
A significant question about human evolution revolves around the kind of environment members in this
lineage resided in. The site of the fossils found at Olduvai Gorge indicates that this species inhabited open
grasslands near the edge of a lake. Other animals that also resided in this area include elephants, giraffes,
wild pigs, various species of antelope, rabbits, baboons, hyenas, lizards, tortoises, and birds. Among these
animals, early members in the human lineage preyed on lizards, tortoises, pigs, rabbits, young antelope and
fish from the nearby lake. In addition, they probably depended on carion left by larger predators, like lions.

The sites where the fossils were found provide confirmatory evidence that Homo habilis inhabited shelters,
dated to be as long as 2 MYA. One site contained different types of stone tools and rocks assembled in a
semicircle, as if they formed some sort of a windbreaker. Another site contained special stones, quartz, and
lava, which researchers assume to have been carried from another location that was approximately five km
away. These stones could have been used in defense, to be thrown at other animals or even as raw-
material for carving weapons. Yet another site covered an area of approximately 316 square metres, over
which different tools and bones were scattered. Lastly, researchers assume that fire had yet to be
harnessed, because there was no sign of a hearth in the ground. This hints that members in this species
were not yet cave-dwellers, as they would have required fire to scare away other animals that resided in
caves.

Culture
As the lifestyle of Homo habilis largely involved hunting, possessing intelligence and, thus, a larger brain
would have been beneficial. A larger brain would have allowed for better tool-making skills, language, and
co-operation with other members of the species. As a result, females would have required larger pelvis to
account for the large brain size of their offspring. This would have hindered adult female mobility and
created a division-of-labor between the genders. While males would travel large distances seeking food to
nourish their family, females would stay at the home-base and rear young. Perhaps the females engaged in
gathering small fruits and herbs that were proximal to the home-base. Consequently, the first human family
unit formed, together with the couple-bond and a strong association between mothers and their infants.
Social integration between other members also would have been enhanced, as the males would collaborate
together in searching and hunting for prey.

Too l s
Sites for Homo habilis revealed at least 11 different kinds of tools, which range in size from a tennis-ball to a
walnut and are known collectively as the Olduvan industry. These tools were used for hunting, self-
defense, and food preparation. They include certain types of choppers, notched tools, flakes, chisels,
scrapers, and gouging and engraving tools. In addition, these tools were adequate for activities such as
skinning animals, such as antelope. The Olduvan tools also would have been useful for making wooden or
bone clubs and even to protect prey; other uses include digging through soil to search for tubers, bulbs,
edible roots, and insect larvae. Even though these hominids consumed a diet of vegetables and meat, food
still was relatively scarce, allowing individuals to maintain low population densities over large territories.
Here, bipedalism would have offered a big advantage, because it definitely would have facilitated
transporting materials, tool-making, tool gathering, and hunting.

Language
Scientists postulate that this species possessed a language to enable communication, considering they had
large brains, which enabled them to design tools. Since the brains of these hominids allowed them to
construct tools, they should have been capable of forming basic language. Also, some form of
communication would have been essential in raising the young, sharing and preparing food, and signaling
for danger. Hunting for prey also would have been more successful if it was somehow planned in advance.
Moreover, it would have been beneficial if certain taboos were communicated to other members of the unit,
to ensure safety and protection. Lastly, language would facilitate co-operation, by providing signs of
appreciation and thankfulness to be communicated to other members. This lifestyle could represent the
early, primordial way of human culture.

Homo ergaster

The name Homo ergaster means working man. This name was chosen to document the discovery of a
variety of tools, such as hand-axes and cleavers, near the fossil remains. Currently, controversy surrounds
whether H. ergaster or the later, Asian,H. erectus is more closely related to modern humans.
Homo ergaster is one of the more-problematic species in the human lineage because there is no clear
distinction between H. ergaster and H. erectus; generally most H. ergaster and early H.erectus fossils
geographically are confined to Africa. Sometimes, H. ergaster has been categorized as a subspecies of H.
erectus, but most researchers consider that too few differences exist to separate them as species. In fact,
some researchers deny any validity to the species H. ergaster at all.

There also are a number of fossils that are considered as representing H. ergaster and H. erectus. The most-
notable specimen of this type is the nearly complete skeleton of a young boy found near Lake Turkana,
known as "Nariokotome boy". These remains will be discussed under the section describing H. erectus, as
the specimen is most commonly classified as such.
Locomotion
The use of more-complex tools than were used by the earlier H. habilis shows that H. ergaster also was
bipedal, a characteristic of all later Homo species. Relying on their feet for support and locomotion freed
their hands to use Acheulean axes and other tools.

Dentition
C. Groves and V. Mazak first described the taxon ergaster in 1975, after recovering an isolated mandible
(specimen ER 992). The dentition of H. ergaster is comparable to that of H. erectus, which is discussed
below.

Brain
H. ergaster shows an increase in cranial capacity (700-900 cc) from that of H. habilis. The skull bones are
thinner and lack an obvious depression, or sulcus, on the surface, which may be the most-distinguishing
characteristic between H. ergaster and H. erectus skulls. Also, the face of H. ergaster is less robust (more
gracile) than is that of H. erectus.

H. ergaster skulls also display increased cranial breadth across the parietal bones, as well as an increase in
the length of the occipital bone. A broadening in the nasal bones and nasal openings also can be seen. H.
ergaster skulls also show a shorter cranial base and greater development of the mandibular symphysis.

Location
H. ergaster lived throughout eastern and southern Africa between 1.9 and 1.4 MYA. Fossils attributed to this
species sometimes are considered early H. erectus confined to Africa, as H. erectus has been dated as far
back as 1.8 MYA. Remains of H. ergaster have been found in Tanzania, Ethiopia, Kenya, and South Africa.
The most-complete H. ergaster skeleton was found at Lake Turkana, but, as mentioned previously, whether
it is a late H. ergaster or an early H. erectus finding is debated. This fossil is named 'Turkana boy' or
'Nariokotome boy.'

Too l s
H. ergaster used tools of the Acheulean industry, which are more-advanced than the Oldewan tools used
by H. habilis. Several different kinds of tools are associated with the Acheulean industry, the most important
being the hand-axe. Hand-axes often were bifacial, having two distinct sides, and made by hammering
flakes off stones to make the axe, with the remnant flakes being used as cutting tools. Hammer stones and
cleavers also were used by H. ergaster,and had characteristic perpendicular edges. H. ergaster first began
using these tools 1.6 MYA.

Language
Remains of H. ergaster have a mandibular symphysis, which shows strong markings for the digastric muscle
(important for swallowing and vocalization). Some people have interpreted this characteristic as proof that
language had developed by this time. Further analysis conducted on H. erectus, discussed subsequently,
reveals that the presence of vocalization rather than effective speech was likely the case.

Homo erectus

Locomotion
H. erectus is thought to be the first migratory Homo species, albeit contentiously. Several theories
concerning the dispersal of early humans have been developed. The 'Multiregional' or 'Regional Continuity'
hypothesis involves parallel evolution, foumulated on the basis of fossil evidence. The other models, which
were formulated on the basis of fossils, archaeology, and genetics, involve an African origin for human
evolution, the most well-known among them being the 'Out of Africa' hypothesis. This hypothesis comprises
continuous evolution, with individuals originating in Africa and migrating to Europe and Asia. Some
variations among the many African origin hypotheses involve gene transfer between lineages, which will not
be discussed here.
The genetic evidence used as the basis for many of these hypotheses involves mitochondrial DNA, which is
inherited through maternal lineages only. Wilson and Cann (1992) used DNA evidence to trace human
origins to an African woman that lived 200000 years ago.

Dentition
The dentition of Homo erectus is similar to that of H. sapiens. The earlier species, H. erectus, exhibited
somewhat larger teeth than did H. sapiens; however, H. erectus shows some dental reduction when
compared to earlier Homo species. The interesting feature of H. erectus teeth is located on the backside of
the incisors. These teeth are scooped in appearance and referred to as shovel-shaped. Researchers have
suggested that such teeth constitute an adaptation for hunter-gatherers to process food.

Brain
Compared to the early Homo species, Homo erectus shows considerable brain enlargement, with a cranial
capacity between 600 and 1250 cc. The lower range comes from evidence from the Dmanisi site, which
could be late H. erectus or early Homosapiens. Although H. erectus exhibits significant increase in cranial
capacity, this species also exhibits increased body size. When H. erectus is compared with larger,
early Homo fossils, relative brain size was about the same.

The cranium of H. erectus has a highly distinctive shape, partly as a result of increased brain size but more
related to increased body size. Most notably, in Asian specimens, H. erectus had a thick cranial bone, large
brow ridges (suborbital tori) in the front of the skull, and a projecting nuchal torus at the rear of the skull.
The nuchal torus, the attachment site for neck muscles, is used to hold the head up.
The Homo erectus cranium also has a distinct shape with a long, low vault receding back from the brow
ridges with little forehead development. The cranium of Homo erectus is wider at the base when compared
with early Homo species and modern Homo sapiens. The maximum breadth is below the ear openings,
giving it a pentagonal shape when viewed from behind. Early Homo and H. sapiens have more-vertical sides
to their crania, with the maximum breadth occurring above the ear openings.

Location
The oldest remains of H. erectus are dated to approximately 1.8-1.6 MYA; however, the older findings are
indistinct and still could be considered early Homo sapiens or H. ergaster. The most-recent remains have
been dated to 10000 years. If this were accurate, then Homo erectus was more than likely the first
continental migrants, migrating out of Africa, where earlyHomo remains are located. Many of the older
findings were located in Africa, where H. erectus is hypothesized to have appeared first. In 1994, a hominid
tibia was recovered in Southern England from the Boxgrove site, dated to be 500000 years old. The best
evidence of H. erectus in Europe comes from the Ceprano site in central Italy, where findings including a
cranium suggest a date of 700000 years ago or greater. In 1984, an almost-complete skeleton was
uncovered in Nariokotome on the west side of Lake Turkana in Kenya.

Culture
Due to effective tools, larger body size, and metabolic demands of the brain associated with H. erectus,
most researchers postulate that, by the time H. erectus had evolved, meat constituted an important part of
the human diet. Hunting habits in H. erectus still are unclear; researchers think that individuals in the
species still were scavenging but, also, caught small animals and fish. Some sites, such as in Torralba and
Ambrona in Spain, show evidence of large-game hunting by controlling stampedes. These sites reveal
evidence that a stampede of large, elephant-like animals was forced off a cliff. Hunting like this produced
large amounts of meat that could be shared by many members of the group. An abundance of Acheulean
tools littering in the sites shows that butchering of animals was performed on site and smaller, more
manageable pieces of meat and bones or other animal materials were carried away.

Too l s
The Zhoukoudian site in Beijing is one of the sites of the longest habitation by humans, according to the
Chinese. Many cultural remains have been found at this site, including many Acheulean tools divided into
cultural stages. Tools in the earliest stage (460000-420000 years ago) are large, weighing approximately a
half kilo, and made of soft stone, like sandstone. Tools in middle stage (370000-350000 years ago) are
smaller than are those in the earliest stage and weigh under a half kilo. In the final stage (300000-230000
years ago), tools remained small, and the quality of the tool materials has improved. Quartz, which is
coarse, used in earlier periods, was replaced by finer quartz in the final stage. The tools made of sandstone
almost disappeared, while the frequency of flint tools increased by approximately 30%. The earlier tools
lacked shape and were crude. Tools became more refined over time.

There is, however, a problem with the fossil record of Acheulean tools: Tools were absent from China and
Southeast Asia. This could be because these areas harbor no stones suitable for making tools. The lack of
tool remains could be explained ifH. erectus in these areas used materials for tools that could not be
preserved as fossils, such as bamboo.

Language
H. erectus probably lacked the ability to communicate using speech. Three reasons for this conclusion have
been suggested. First, analyses of the different areas of the brain show that H. erectus was incapable of
speech. Examinations of Brocas area, the area responsible for hierarchical organization of grammar and
manual manipulation of objects, shows that it was well-developed. This is consistent with H. erectuss use
of complex tools and could show the capacity for language; however, analyses of Wernickes area, the part
of the part of the cerebral cortex responsible for production and comprehension of meaningful speech,
showed uncertain development. Although these findings are inconclusive, H. erectus probably lacked the
capacity for meaningful communication through speech. Secondly, H. erectus, as observed from
Nariokotome boy, the thoracic vertebrae are much smaller than are those of modern humans, suggesting a
much smaller spinal nerve canal. The fine-tuned control of breathing that is necessary for successful
vocalization is made possible by the extra nerves in the thoracic spine in modern humans.

Homo heidelbergensis

Fossils classified as Homo heidelbergensis have been dated from 400000 to 100000 years ago and
discovered at locations in Europe, Africa, and Asia. The fossils have an average height of 1.8m , and
individuals possessed a broad nose and face, a large cranial volume, as well as some plesiomorphic dental
features.

Locomotion
Although a fossil with intact feet bones has yet to be discovered, three tracks of footprints thought to be
from Homo heidelbergensis were found on the slopes of Mount Roccamonfina, Italy in 2003. These
footprints were made in ash, which later fossilized, and have been dated from 385000 to 325000 years ago
using radiometric techniques. The footprints are approximately 20 cm long and 10 cm wide. Using the
average foot-length-to-height ratio of 15 per cent, this suggests the individuals who made the tracks were
only approximately 135 cm tall, much smaller than the fossilized remains of Homo
heidelbergensis previously discovered, leading to the assumption that the footprints were made by children
or adolescents. From the footprints, researchers suggest that Homo heidelbergensis had identical bone
structures (in the feet) and gait to those of modern humans (Mietto et al. 2003).

Brain
Homo heidelbergensis possessed a cranial volume, which ranged from 1100 to 1400 cc, approximately 93%
the size of the average Homo sapiens cranial capacity (Conroy et al. 2000).

A skull known as Arago XXI is the most-complete Homo heidelbergensis cranial fossil discovered, lacking
only occipital bones; this specimen has revealed that the Broca's cap and other speech areas were well-
developed, evidence of an extensive right parietal association area, presence of marked parietal boss,
presence of an angular torus, lacking frontal boss, a deep supraorbital sulcus, and a shift from the widest
part of the brain case from the cranial base to the parietal regions (de Lumley & de Lumley 1974).

Dentition
A complete Homo heidelbergensis jaw, known as the Mauer Jaw, was discovered in 1907 and included such
traits as a sloping symphysis that contains two mandibular tori on its inner side (a plesiomorphic dental
feature), an especially broad ramus and robust mandible (plesiomorphic), an M2 molar that is larger than
the M1 molar (plesiomorphic), taurodont molars (an apomorphic dental feature in the Homo genus), a
reduced M3 molar (apomorphic), and dramatic buccal cusp dominance in the P3 premolar (apomorphic).
General dental traits characterizing Homo heidelbergensis are a large jaw, heavy bones, and smaller teeth in
comparison to Homo sapiens. (Schoetensack 1908).

Culture
A great deal of evidence supports the hypothesis that Homo heidelbergensis hunted large game animals.
This is supported by cut marks found on wild deer, elephants, rhinos, and horses from the same era. Some
of these animals weighed as much as 700 kilos or more. Tools used include types of bi-facial stone in the
Acheulean style.

Location
Homo heidelbergensis fossils have been discovered at sites ranging from Southern and Eastern Africa and
much of Southern and Western Europe, and even a few sites throughout Asia. Some of the more-significant
sites include Mauer, near Heidelberg, Germany, and Arago, France.

Homo neanderthalensis

Fossils classified as Homo neanderthalensis have been dated from 23000029000 years ago, a time period
known as the Middle Paleolithic. Neanderthals, as they are colloquially referred to, are characterized by
robust bodies, projecting noses, receding chins, prominent browridges (supraorbital tori), large, round finger
tips, a barrel-shaped rib cage, and large kneecaps. Males are, on average, 1.65m tall, and females are
1.55m (or 51) tall. Neanderthals also possess long collar bones, short, bowed shoulder blades, thick,
bowed shafts of the thigh bones, short shinbones and calf bones, long, gracile pelvic pubi, and stout larynx.

Locomotion
Homo neanderthalensis did not possess any defining features that would distinguish its bipedal locomotion
from that of Homo sapiens.

Brain
Neanderthal crania are characterized by a suprainiac fossa (a groove above the inion), an occipital bun, a
projecting mid-face, a globe-shaped rear of skull , a low, flat elongated skull, and 1200-1750 cc volume
(10% greater than modern humans).

Dentition
Homo neanderthalensis possessed extremely similar dental patterns to Homo sapiens, with the few
exceptions being that they have no groove on canine teeth and a space behind their last molars.

Culture
Homo neanderthalensis possessed stone tools (of the Mousterian culture), which included weapons,
although it is unknown whether this included projectiles as well. Evidence of ceremonial burials has been
discovered, which opens up the possibility that there could have been a complex belief-structure in place for
Neanderthals as well. Graves containing bison and auroch bones have been uncovered, the pigment ochre,
flowers, and tools were buried alongside the bodies. Neanderthals also constructed structures, controlled
fire, skinned animals, and appeared to live in tribal settings.

Location
Neanderthal fossils have been uncovered in locations around most of Europe and the Middle East. Most
anthropologists agree that Homo neanderthalensis are closely related to Homo heidelbergensis, without
having migrated out of Africa like many of the other members of the Homo genus.

Homo sapiens

Locomotion
Homo sapiens, like most of their relatives, are bipedal, which means they have an upright posture and walk
with only their legs. Although bipedalism incurs disadvantages, these are far outweighed by advantages.
The most important advantage is that upright posture is energy efficient and allows the hands to be used for
other important tasks, such as carrying or building things with tools. The disadvantages of bipedalism
include slow speed and strain placed on a body that was not intentionally designed to walk upright. Many of
the problems arise from the fact that the weight of the body puts an incredible strain on anything below it,
which means that organs and bones that normally had very little strain put on them now had to carry the
weight of everything above it. The heart, for example, which normally rested on the posterior mediastinum,
a structure in the chest, came to push against the diaphragm. To deal with this problem, the pericardium
attached itself to the diaphragm, which allowed the heart to move with the diaphragm, as opposed to being
pushed by it. The body has adapted to deal with many other mechanical issues, but it is not perfect, and,
with aging, the effects of weight strain take their toll. The upright posture, which is maintained by muscle
contractions and ligaments, uses a surprisingly small amount of energy, which allows the body to remain
standing for many hours, whereas non-bipedal animals can rest on all four legs for only short periods of
time. Walking upright is not the only form of transportation used by Homo sapiens. Developments in
science and technology, which could have been achieved only by well-developed brains and freed hands,
have allowed them to create mechanical forms of transportation. This includes bicycles, boats, automobiles
and airplanes, enabling Homo sapiens to travel faster and farther than any known species in the world.

Brain
The cranial capacity of the average Homo sapiens is approximately 1400 cc, which is a significant
improvement compared to their predecessors. Modern human brains are composed of many structures, each
of which performs a specific set of tasks. However, all of these structures can be categorized into three
parts, or evolutionary steps, of the brain. The first part is known as the reptilian brain, which is the portion
that we share with all the other vertebrates. This part of the brain controls instincts and all of the tasks
required to keep us alive, such as breathing and temperature regulation. The second part of the brain is
known as the mammalian brain, which, as the name suggests, is the portion of the brain that we share with
all other mammals. This part of the brain introduced three major structures, which are the hypothalamus,
the hippocampus, and the amygdala. The hypothalamus regulates fluid balance, internal body temperature,
food intake, and sexual drive; the hippocampus is involved in forming new memories and creating mental
maps of surrounding environment; and the amygdala is responsible for the feeling and expression of fear
and anger. The third part of the brain is known as the human brain, which is the most-recent addition and
defines what it is to be human. This part of the brain introduced what is known as the cortex, which is a
coat of gray matter that covers the outer portions of the brain. The cortex accounts for approximately 85%
of brain mass and contains wrinkle-like folds all around to increase its surface area. The cortex is split into
four lobes, which are further divided into two hemispheres. The four lobes are known as the frontal, the
parietal, the occipital, and the temporal lobe. The frontal lobe is responsible for strategic planning and
organization; the parietal lobe is responsible for coordinating sensory information; the occipital lobe is
responsible for vision; and the temporal lobe is responsible for the analysis of sound. All of these lobes are
divided evenly into two hemispheres, known as the left and right hemisphere. The left hemisphere controls
the right side of the body and is better suited to the production and understanding of written and spoken
language. The right hemisphere, which controls the left side of the body, is better able to interpret music
and spatial information.

Dentition
The teeth of Homo sapiens are composed of dentin, which is covered by enamel in the exposed areas.
Enamel is a protective layer composed of calcium phosphate and calcium carbonate, making it the hardest
material in the body. The tooth has three main regions, which are the crown, root, and neck. The crown is
the visible upper layer of the tooth; the roots anchor the tooth into its respective socket located inside the
gums; and the neck simply connects the crown with the roots. Unlike many animals, H. sapiens have
differentiated teeth, each serving a different function. Incisors, which are located at the front, are used for
cutting food. Canines, which are located beside the incisors, are used for tearing and shredding food.
Beside the canines are the premolars and molars which are used for grinding and crushing food. During
their lifetime, H. sapiens will develop two sets of teeth. The first set, also known as baby teeth, develops
when the infant is 6 months old. This set contains 20 teeth, which comprise 8 incisors, 4 canines, and 8
molars. The baby teeth are replaced gradually by adult teeth, between the ages of 6 and 12. The adult set
contains 32 teeth, which comprise 8 incisors, 4 canines, 8 premolars, and 12 molars. The last teeth to
develop in the adult set are the wisdom teeth, which usually appear after 17 years of age. However,
evidence that supports atrophy of the wisdom teeth is mounting. Due to changes in diet and advances in
dental technology, the jaw has been reduced gradually in size to the point where it is difficult for it to find
space for the wisdom teeth. In some individuals, wisdom teeth develop with reduced size, and, in others,
they must be removed through surgery.

Culture
Culture, according to anthropologists, may be defined as the full range of learned human behaviour
patterns. These behaviour patterns include things such as art, literature, music, customs and religion.
Culture is difficult to study because it is not a tangible object but, rather, an abstract idea accepted by the
members of a society. It is possible to study culture by looking at the products produced by it, but they are
not always relevant or helpful to the study. All human culture is based on common themes and ideas that
are universal to all human beings. Carl Jung described this as the collective unconscious. One of the most-
interesting aspects of culture is religion, which is a system of beliefs that individuals use to give their lives
meaning. Common themes in religion include the existence of an afterlife and supernatural beings,
reincarnation, and accountability for worldly actions. Ceremonial burials often go hand-in-hand with religion.
They often are used to give closure to family and friends and to ensure that deceased individuals
experience smooth transitions into the afterlife of their respective religion. In our opinion, culture simply is
a byproduct of having larger and more powerful brains that are capable of dealing with abstract concepts.

Location
Currently, Homo sapiens are found in every part of the world, from the freezing temperatures of Antarctica,
to the blazing deserts of the Middle East. Despite the fact that they have a very narrow temperature range,
they are able to live in such varying climates because of their ability to use technology. We know that Homo
sapiens are found all over the world; but how they got there is the subject of much research. Two major
hypotheses address this issue: the Out of Africa Hypothesis and the Multiregional Hypothesis. The
Multiregional Hypothesis stipulates that Homo sapiens evolved independently all over the world from their
respective native populations, and that there was some gene flow between these independent populations
that prevented speciation from occurring. The Out of Africa Hypothesis states that Homo sapiens evolved in
Africa, then left the continent 50000 to 100000 years ago and replaced native populations in other parts of
the world. Evidence supports both theories, but, currently, consensus is emerging for the Out of Africa
Hypothesis. Genetic evidence shows that variation among individual humans is very small. If Homo
sapiens evolved independently, we would expect to see more genetic variation. Archeological evidence also
supports the Out of Africa Hypothesis because artifacts typical of Homo sapiens were found in Africa much
earlier than in other parts of the world. At archeological sites in Europe, a sudden change in artifacts was
observed at around the time Homo sapiens were believed to have left Africa. This sudden appearance of new
artifacts indicates that they did not evolve gradually from the native populations but, rather, that they came
from Africa and introduced themselves into the population.

Homo habilis

Until Jane Goodall's pioneering studies of chimpanzees most palaeoanthropologists believed that tool use
was a hallmark of humanity. Consequently, when Louis Leakey's team found very simple stone tools
closely associated with hominid remains, in Olduvai Gorge, he named the hominid Homo habilis. The
associated tools are assigned to theOldowan tool culture.

Homo habilis lived from 2.4 until 1.5 million years ago, and closely resembles the australopithecines. In
fact, recent papers have suggested that habilis would be more appropriately classified
in Australopithecus. The face still projects forwards but the facial angle is less than in A. africanus.
Average cranial capacity in habilis is about 650cc, and the range is 500 - 800cc - this overlaps both the
australopithecines (at the lower end) and H. erectus (at the upper limit). Analysis of wear patterns on the
teeth suggest that habilis was adding meat to its diet - probably as a scavenger as there is no evidence
that hunting was a common practice.
Postcranial remains are fragmentary, and in fact only one set of limb bones has been securely assigned
to habilis. This fragmentary skeletal material suggests that the average height of Homo habilis was
around 127cm, and they were probably about 45kg in weight. They were also obviously bipedal.

There is some argument about the taxonomic status of the habilis specimens. Recent papers have made
the suggestion that at least some should be reclassified with the australopithecines, on the basis of
features of the limbs. For example, the "dik-dik hominid" (OH 62) has arms that are considerably longer
than its legs, an australopithecine characteristic.

Homo erectus or Homo ergaster

Homo erectus lived between 1.8 million and 300,000 years ago, and was probably the first hominid
species to move out of Africa and colonise Europe and Asia. This significant event must have happened
early in the species' history, asfossils that may belong to erectus but which are dated at around 1.8 million
years ago have been found in Dmanisi, Georgia.

Note that some authors recognise two sister species: erectus is assigned to the Eurasian specimens
while Homo ergaster is reserved for those from Africa. Ergaster has a smaller cranial capacity, and the
two differ in some features of the skull, such as the shape of the brow ridges.

Erectus had a long, low skull, with little forehead and a cranial capacity of between 750 and 1225cc. The
smaller brain sizes are associated with older specimens. The face was prognathous, and the protruding
jaws supported large molar teeth but lacked a chin. This was the first hominid to have a projecting, rather
than a flattened, nose.

The post-cranial skeleton of Homo erectus was robust, suggesting they were stronger than modern
humans. Members of this species, at least in Africa, were tall; some estimates place them in the upper
quartile of the height range for H. sapiens. However, the few remains from China ("Peking man") are from
shorter individuals. This probably reflects adaptation to the local climate. Tall, slender individuals are well
adapted to lose heat in hot climates, as their bodies have a high surface area to volume ratio (SA:V).
Those living in colder regions need to conserve heat, and heat loss is reduced in short, stocky individuals
with a lower SA:V.

Studies of erectus pelvic bones, particularly those of the Turkana (Nariokotome) Boy, show that members
of this species had a narrower pelvis and pelvic canal than ours. This implies that their babies were
smaller-brained at birth; it also suggests that erectus may have been more efficient at walking
than sapiens.

Erectus was a competent toolmaker, and scientists have found large numbers of their tools, which are
classified in theAcheulean tool culture. There is good evidence, in the form of scratch marks on bones,
that these tools were used to butcher animal carcases; meat made up a significant portion of
the erectus diet. There is also evidence that this species was the first to use fire. The first support for this
hypothesis came from charcoal deposits from the Choukoutien caves near Beijing, where the fossils of
"Peking man" were found. At least one researcher now suggests that these "hearths" are natural deposits.
However, palaeontological and experimental evidence does support the idea of widespread use of fire
among African erectus populations.

Homo heidelbergensis

This is an alternative name for fossils that are also classified as "archaic Homo sapiens". Archaic H.
sapiens first appears in the fossil record about half a million years ago. These fossils appear intermediate
between Homo erectus and fully modern humans. Skulls attributed to archaic sapiens have an average
cranial capacity of 1200cc, which is larger than erectus but less than the average value for
modern sapiens. The vault of the skull is more rounded than in erectus, and many of the fossils have
large brow ridges, receding foreheads, and weak chins.

The Petralona, Steinheim, and Swanscombe remains are also regarded as "archaic" Homo sapiens.

Homo neanderthalensis

Neandertals (or Neanderthals) lived between 230,000 and 30,000 years ago, during the last Ice Age, and
were found only in Europe and the Middle East, where they coexisted with modern humans for the later
part of their existence. This species gets its name from the Neander valley, or Tal, in Germany, where the
type specimen was found in 1856.

All Neandertals are heavily built but those from Western Europe are particularly robust. Their heavy
physique was probably an adaptation to the extremely cold conditions in which they lived. Neandertal
men averaged only 168cm in height, but their bones are thick and heavy, and the scars of muscle
attachment indicate that they were very heavily muscled.

However, the key differences between Neandertals and modern humans lie in features of the skull. The
average cranial capacity is 1450cc, larger than the modern norm, although this may be a reflection of their
greater bodily bulk. The skullis notably longer than that of modern humans, with a lower vault and
an occipital bulge at the rear. The face was prognathous, with a receding forehead and weak chin. The
cheekbones are swept back and the midfacial area protrudes (as if someone had grabbed the nose &
pulled it forwards) - this feature may also be an adaptation to a cold environment as it is associated with a
markedly larger nasal volume than in either erectus or modern sapiens. Two different explanations have
been given for this large nose: it may have ensured that the cold air was warmed & moistened on its way
to the lungs; alternatively it could have acted as a radiator, to lose heat generated by exertion while
hunting.

Neandertals made a wider range of more complex tools - belonging to the Mousterian tool culture - than
those used byerectus although, like erectus, they do not appear to have been particularly innovative until
late in the species' existence, when Chatelperronian tools appear at some sites in France. Many
researchers believe that they buried their dead, with the oldest known burial dating to about 100,000
years ago. However, not all scientists agree with this interpretation.
Recently scientists have been able to extract mitochondrial DNA from Neandertal bones. This has allowed
them to compare DNA sequences from Neandertals and modern humans, an interesting experiment
considering that in the past Neandertals have been viewed as direct ancestors of modern sapiens.
The multiregional hypothesis of human origins also takes this stance. While there are problems with
this technique, the data appear to show that Neandertals were not closely related to modern humans, but
belonged to a separate species.

Homo sapiens (modern)

A recent find provides good evidence that the earliest known recognisably modern humans lived in Africa,
around 160,000 years ago. These fossils come from Herto, in the Middle Awash of Ethiopia, and "are
morphologically and chronologically intermediate between archaic African fossils and later anatomically
modern Late Pleistocene humans" (White et al. 2003). The fact that the Herto fossils are so old supports
the argument that fully modern humans first arose in Africa, later migrating into Europe & Asia to displace
the other hominid species already living there (the "out of Africa" hypothesis).

The average cranial capacity of modern humans is around 1350cc, with a range for normal individuals of
from 800 to close to 2000cc. The brain is enclosed in a high, vaulted skull with a high forehead, and brow
ridges are absent or, if present, very small. The relatively delicate jaw has small teeth and a prominent
chin, and the post-cranial skeleton is gracile.

We think of complex culture as a hallmark of humanity. However, art works, such as jewellery, carving,
and cave paintings do not appear in the record until 30-40,000 years ago. This follows the development of
the extremely sophisticated Aurignacian tool kits associated with Cro-Magnon culture. Some authors
suggest that the use of highly sophisticated language accompanied this flowering of culture. This is not to
say that earlier humans, and hominids, were not capable of speech.

Over the last 100,000 years there has been a continuation of the trend towards smaller molar teeth and a
more gracile skeleton, such that the Upper Palaeolithic humans of 30,000 years are described as being
20-30% more robust than present-day people. This demonstrable trend in tooth size is probably linked to
the use of food-processing techniques that reduce the need for prolonged chewing, and thus provides a
good example of the results of natural selection in human populations.
The Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Era)

The Old Stone Age (Paleolithic Era) -from the beginning of human existence until around 12,000 years ago

Why do we call this time in history the Stone Age?

During this time humans used stone to make tools and stone was used many times as part of the actual tool. Tools
are objects that make our lives easier. A computer or smart phone are examples of modern-day tools. Paleolithic is
a word that comes from the two Greek words palaios, meaning old, and lithos, meaning stone.

Using a hammer stone for flaking. Which stone do you think is harder, the object stone, or the hammer stone?
The first stone tools were used to meet people's three basic needs of food, shelter, and clothing. These were
difficult times; there were no stores to buy food, and people had to cooperate in small groups to make clothing and
shelter. To hunt for food, early humans formed spears, first by sharpening the ends of sticks, but later by attaching
a sharp stone spear-tip to wood using animal sinew. A tool made up of more than one material is called a
composite tool.

Flaking was one of the first uses of technology. Technologies are tools and also skills that make our lives easier.
Flaking is an example of a Stone Age technology skill. Flaking involves using a hammer stone to form sharp edges
on an object stone by striking it on its sides. By flaking early humans could sharpen spear and arrow tips to hunt
prey.
 Old Stone Age people hunt a sabre-toothed tiger; why are the spears considered composite tools?
How do we know the age of artifacts?

As far as we know today, people have only been writing about their experiences for about 7,000 years. When
people write about their existence, we call that history. But what about the time before writing, how can we tell the
age of an object?

There are three ways to determine the date of an artifact:

1. Extraction: digging down through layers of earth, the deeper the object, the older it is.

2. Typology: studying the type of object. If the object is more complex, it is usually more recent, simple
tools are usually older.

3. Carbon-14 Dating: this is the measure of the amount of a substance called carbon-14 present in an
object. This only works for living objects. When a living organism dies, it begins to lose carbon-14 in a
predictable way we can measure and then determine the time the object was alive. Objects with less
carbon-14 lived longer ago. Eventually a once-living object looses all of its carbon-14, so very old objects
can not be dated using this method.

These three methods are not fool-proof and only offer a reasonable guess as to the date of very old artifacts. These
are the tools of an archaeologist, one who studies objects from the past.
 Woolly Mammoth herd
Was the world different in the Old Stone Age from our modern world? The answer is yes. The earth's climate was
very different. The world was a much colder place to live on than our modern world. Wild herds of animals roamed
the land in search of food, which was scarce at that time. In order for Stone Age people to survive, they had to
move with these herds of animals.

Old Stone Age people were always on the move. A person who moves from place to place is called a nomad.
Because of their nomadic lifestyle, Old Stone Age people built temporary homes, rather than permanent homes.
People travelled in small groups, we think these groups could have been extended family groups. Old Stone Age
people had two ways ofobtaining food, by hunting and gathering. Gathering is finding wild berries and other plants
to eat. We sometimes call these people hunter-gatherers.

A Paleolithic settlement. Notice what materials are used for building temporary homes.
There were not many humans at this time, and they were spread out, rather than living close together. Experts
think there were no more than one million humans living during any time of the Paleolithic Era. That might sound
like a lot of people, but today there are about seven billion people, 7,000 times more people than in the Paleolithic
Era. Archaeological evidence points to humans beginning in the continent of Africa, and later migrating to other
continents.

Would you have liked to live in the Paleolithic Era? In the next chapter, we will look at four important sites that
show evidence of Paleolithic people.
 Palaeolithic, Mesolithic, and Neolithic Periods

The names for these periods all derive from the Greek word "lithos" - a stone - and refer
to the material used for tools. Effective ways of producing and working metal had not yet
been invented, so cutting, grinding, chopping all had to be done with stone, bone, or
wood implements. "Palaeo-" means "old", "Meso-" means "middle" or "between", "Neo-"
means "new".
Originally these were all thought of together as the "Stone Age", but it became apparent
that there were various developments during the periods which enable archaeologists to
classify and date a culture more precisely.

The Palaeolithic period is characterized by simple bands of hunters. They did not know
how to grow crops and raise livestock, not did they build houses. Shelters of skins laid
over bones may have been used, but mainly the people were cave-dwellers or wandering
groups of hunters.
The Palaeolithic period was also the time of the "Ice Ages" - times when the earth's
climate cooled, and glaciers spread over much of Europe. At such times the wandering
tribes moved southward, then moved back as the weather warmed up again, probably
over hundreds and thousands of years.
The "cultures" of this period are usually named for the places in which their remains were
first found. The cave paintings in France, and some carved pebble figures of what appear
to be pregnant women date to this period. Their implements included "hand axes" -
stones which had been chipped to give a rounded base suitable for holding in the hand,
then tapering to a point which could be used for pounding and chopping, also smaller
stone scrapers for skinning animals and preparing hides, and bone awls - pointed
needles without eyes which could punch holes in a hide so that it could be laced together
into some sort of garment. During this period, spearheads were made from chipped
stones, with grooves so that they could be fastened to a wooden shaft.
Some of the animals that were hunted during this period were larger and more powerful
than one hunter alone could have killed. So men had already learned to work together,
and societies were probably beginning to develop, in which different people had different
functions - hunters; flint, stone or bone workers; the artists who painted animal portraits
in caves, probably as part of a religious ritual; those who tended the fire and the children.

The Mesolithic period, roughly dated 10,000 BC to between 6,000 and 4,000 BC :
Towards the end of the Palaeolithic, the earth's climate gradually became warmer, the Ice
Ages ended, glaciers retreated and melted, and some of the cold-weather animals such
as the woolly mammoth died out. Some tribes of hunters followed the reindeer and
mammoth northwards, but others remained or moved into Europe and learned to hunt
the red deer and animals of the forests which grew with the warmer weather. Hunting in a
forest demands other skills than hunting in the tundra. Men developed tools and
weapons made of "microliths" - small chips and flakes of sharp stone or flint which could
be set into a piece of wood or bone to give a cutting implement, or which could be used
as arrow points.
 The Neolithic period is characterized by the development of agriculture, the
domestication of animals, settlements or semi-permanent dwellings, and eventually the
invention of pottery. Also, the stone tools were often made by grinding and polishing,
rather than by chipping flakes. These developments took place at different times in
different places.
In the Middle East, Neolithic cultures started to develop at around 8,000 BC. In Greece
and the Indus valley of India the earliest Neolithic cultures date from around 6,000 BC.
A key to the development of the Neolithic period is the harvesting and cultivation of plants
as crops - particularly grain, which could be stored, ground to flour, and cooked. The
forerunner of domesticated wheat appears to be "emmer" or "einkorn" - which still grows
wild in the Middle East. In order to grow a crop and harvest it, people must settle in a
region, at least long enough for the plants to grow and come to harvest.

Archaeological Sites

30,000-12,000 BC

Shanidar Cave, northern Iraq, near the border with Turkey - Palaeolithic layers, with older
Neaderthal remains
Zarzi cave, north-eastern Iraq - Palaeolithic layers
Wadi Natuf - Carmel Caves, Israel - mainly hunting and fishing, but also evidence for harvesting
grain with microlith sickles. The grain may have been cultivated, or the people may have been
cutting wild grain. The dead were buried under the floors of the caves where the people lived, and
they were buried with grave-goods such as necklaces of shell and bone. This culture was named
"Natufian"
M'lefaat, Iraq

Reconstruction of a Natufian Burial at El Wad - click on thumbnail for full-size photo

10,000 BC

Karim Shahir, Iraq - beginnings of cultivation of grain and baking of clay

Palegawra, in eastern Mesopotamia, on the Iraq-Iran border - cave with stone tools and microliths,
arrowheads, beads, bones from wild animals that had been hunted and eaten, but no evidence for
domesticated animals.

8,000 - 6,000 BC

Jericho is situated on the West bank of the Jordan river, commanding one of the east-west routes
across the river. It has a constant supply of fresh water from a spring which flows from the
mountains to the west, and which is still flowing even today. Jericho can claim to be probably the
first "city".
There is some evidence that Palaeolithic hunters camped by the spring (a Paleolithic hand-ax was
found amongst the Neolithic layers there).
A structure which may be the remains of a Mesolithic shrine contained three large stone blocks,
two of which had had holes bored through them; the floor of the building had a cleared clay floor.
Amongst the debris associated with the structure were typical Natufian objects, including a bone
harpoon head (Carmel is near the Mediterranean Sea, Jericho is not.) Kathleen Kenyon, who
excavated and reported these findings, concluded that this was a shrine used by hunter-gatherers
allied to the people of the Natufian culture of the Carmel caves. The "shrine" was destroyed by fire;
evidently it had had wood beams or branches as part of its construction, because the area was
covered by charcoal. Carbon dating of the charcoal gives a range of possible dates, from 7,800 BC
210 to 9,687 BC 103
Between bedrock and the Neolithic layers there was a layer, at one place 13 feet deep, of what Dr.
Kenyon identified as the floors of hut-like structures, built one on top of another for a considerable
length of time, probably by successive generations of nomadic hunter-gatherers who were starting
to experiment with agriculture.
The first identifiable house-structures were round, probably consisting of a pit or low wall with a
domed roof of branches, hide, or sod. This marks the transition from Palaeolithic to Neolithic, and a
more settled occupation of the site. Each "house" had a porch with steps or a slope down to the
house floor from the higher ground outside - the house floor was at a lower level than the outside.
The walls of the houses were built with hand-made bricks which were slightly curved on top like a
loaf of bread. These early Neolithic houses covered a much larger area of the site than the earlier
settlement of huts - evidently the town had began to grow and the population was increasing. This
level is characterized as PPNA - "Pre-Pottery Neolithic A"
The PPNA town must eventually have needed to buid defenses, and had someone who took
charge and gave orders which others obeyed. A stone wall 6 to 12 feet high was built around the
town, and a 30 foot high stone tower was built - just INSIDE the wall, not outside it. The tower was
not hollow, but was filled with dirt except for a set of steps inside it leading to an entrance onto the
top level of the tower. Some archaeologists describe this as a "defensive" tower, but I have my
doubts - it seems to me more like a tower for enacting religious rituals or making proclamations to
the city. It is inside the wall, so anyone trying to shoot arrows or throw rocks or atlatls from the top
of it would have to throw them across the city wall rather than directly at an enemy. It faces the high
cliffs to the west of the town, which are very difficult to climb; one would expect enemy armies to
come across the Jordan from the east, or north-south along the valley of the Jordan. Whatever the
tower was built for, it is a remarkable structure to have been built by people who did not read or
write, who had no metal implements, and who had not yet invented pottery.
The PPNA period at Jericho seems to have lasted for about 1,000 years. From plant and animal
remains, Dr. Kenyon concluded that food was produced by agriculture (varieties of grain) with meat
supplied by hunting (mainly gazelles and foxes) rather than from domesticated animals. Towards
the end of the PPNA period of occupation parts of the town wall collapsed and were not rebuilt. It is
not clear what happened - a series of famines, earthquake, invading enemies, or the collapse of
their system of irrigation - but something caused the PPNA inhabitants to abandon the site.
The next layer of habitation, characterized as PPNB, gave evidence of a completely different
culture - houses were rectilinear instead of round, and consisted of several rooms, surrounding a
courtyard where cooking was carried out. They used plaster to finish the floors and walls, and also
built plastered storage containers for rainwater. The flint and stone implements were different from
those of the PPNA people. The bricks they made were slightly oval, marked on top with a pattern of
thumbprints which gave a better key for the mortar when building a wall.
The diet of the PPNB people differed from that of the PPNA - they still cultivated, harvested, and
cooked grains (flint blades for sickles, stone querns, pestles) but their meat supply included sheep
and goats in addition to gazelles, so this was probably the beginning of the domestication of
animals.
The PPNB culture shows spiritual, magic, or religious developments - little clay figures of animals,
probable shrines, and the burials of plastered skulls under the floors of some houses.
The PPNB culture was destroyed abruptly. There were some mass burials, and an indeterminate
period of erosion and decay before a new group of people arrived - the Pottery Neolithic
A people, who initially lived in pit-dwellings rather than houses, but who had discovered how to
make pottery vessels. They used different flint and stone implements which were generally not so
well made as those of the preceding PPNB culture.
The site was then invaded or infiltrated by another group of people, the Pottery Neolithic B people
 who made much better pottery vessels than the PNA people, and who eventually started to build
rectangular houses of rounded bricks (no thumb-prints), and later another wall round the town.

PPNA round house at Jericho - click on PPNA Tower at Jericho - click on thumbnail for
thumbnail for full-size photo full-size photo

PPNB plastered skull from Jericho - click on Wall of PPNB bricks at Jericho - click on
thumbnail for full-size photo thumbnail for full-size photo

6,000 BC

Jarmo, in Northern Iraq - a large Neolithic village, covering probably 3 acres, on the edge of a
deep wadi. Square houses of touf (like adobe) with mud ovens, stone and bone tools, and pottery
in later levels. Some of the dried clay surfaces had the impress of woven reed matting, and there
were small baked clay figurines of animals and women. The dead were buried beneath the floors of
the houses.
Catal Huyuk, in Turkey - a large Neolithic village; their houses did not have doors, but were
entered by a ladder through a hole in the roof. There is evidence that they had a religion involving
bulls - there was a shrine decorated with skulls of cattle. There is also evidence for obsidian trade,
and eventually pottery.
Umm Dabaghiyah in Iraq, northern Mesopotamia - a settlement with storage rooms
Hassuna, in Iraq, northern Mesopotamia - a Neolithic village of rectangular houses. The houses
had rooms which showed evidence of specialization - some used for storage, or cooking, or
general living quarters. Traces of murals survived on some of the walls, and the pottery was
decorated with distinctive painted patterns. The dead were either buried in the corner of a room, or
in graves outside the houses, sometimes with grave goods - offerings which probably indicate a
belief in an afterlife existence. The Hassuna culture shows the first known evidence for a "stamp-
seal" - pressed into damp clay it left an impress of its pattern, probably to indicate ownership of an
object. Molded baked or sun-dried mud bricks were beginning to be used - another important step,
as this allowed larger and stronger houses to be built.

5,500 BC

Samarra, in northern Mesopotamia. The Samarra culture overlaps Halaf and Hassuna in time.
There were walled towns and large houses and the earliest known examples of irrigation
Tell es-Sawwan - Samarran site with large houses, protected by a defensive wall and a moat. The
culture developed pottery dishes with distinctive geometrical patterns of animal figures. Some of
the dead were buried with rich burial goods.
 Choga Mami - Samarran site with large irrigation canal
Halaf, in northern Mesopotamia - advanced Neolithic village culture, with beautifully decorated
pottery. The later strata belong to the Chalcolithic.

5,400-3,600 BC

Ubaid, in southern Mesopotamia - probably the earliest known settlement of southern

Mesopotamia. Irrigation channels were dug to carry water from the river to cultivated fields - the
rainfall in Southern Mesopotamia is not sufficient for growing crops without irrigation. Some toy
models of boats with holes for masts were discovered, so there must have been sail boats on the
rivers Tigris and Euphrates by this time. Bricks were used to build platforms, upon which temples
were erected. The temple buildings were small, not large enough to hold many worshippers, so
probably only religious leaders or priests were allowed inside, and the worshippers gathered
outside, below the platform.
Eridu, in southern Mesopotamia - an early Ubaid settlement with a succession of temples, and clay
figurines probably standing in for worshippers.

4,900-4,500 BC

Merimde, in Egypt - farming village in Lower Egypt, near the Nile delta

4,700-3,100 BC

Badarian, Amratian, and Gerzean cultures in Upper Egypt

4,000-3,000 BC

Neolithic farming communities of Europe - megalithic tombs, built with great stones; construction of
Stonehenge in England