ENVIRONMENTAL

SCIENCE

STUDY MATERIAL
 UNIT-1

ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

Environmental studies deals with the interactions among physical, chemical and biological
components of the environment.

It helps us to Know the ways to minimizes pollution, Reduces industrial hazards and Promotes
awareness to people

IMPORTANCE

World population is increasing at an alarming rate especially in developing countries.

The natural resources endowment in the earth is limited.

The methods and techniques of exploiting natural resources are advanced.

The resources are over-exploited and there is no foresight of leaving the resources to the future
generations.

The unplanned exploitation of natural resources lead to pollution of all types and at all levels.

The pollution and degraded environment seriously affect the health of all living things on earth ,
including man.

The people should take a combined responsibility for the deterioratking environment and begin to
take appropriate actions to space the earth.

Education and training are needed to save the biodiversity and species extinction.

The urban area, coupled with industries, is major sources of pollution.

The number and area extinct under protected area should be increased so that the wild life is
protected at least in these sites.

The study motivates students to get involved in community action, and to participate in various
environmental and management projects.

It is a high time to reorient educational systems and curricula towards these needs.

Environmental studies integrates different approaches of the humanities , social sciences,

biological sciences and physical sciences and applies these approaches to investigate
environmental concerns.
 Environmental study is a key instrument for bringing about the changes in the knowledge, values,
behaviors and lifestyles required to achieve sustainability and stability within and among
countries

SCOPE OF ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES

The study creates awareness among the people to know about various renewable and
nonrenewable resources of the region
It provides the knowledge about ecological systems.
It provides necessary information about biodiversity richness and the potential dangers to the
species of plants, animals and microorganisms in the environment.
The study enables one to understand the causes and consequences due to natural and main
induced disasters (flood, earthquake, landslide, cyclones etc.,) and pollutions and measures to
minimize the effects.
It enables one to evaluate alternative responses to environmental issues before deciding an
alternative course of action.
The study enables environmentally literate citizens to make appropriate judgments and decisions
for the protection and improvement of the earth.
The study exposes the problems of over population, health, hygiene, etc. and the role of arts,
science and technology in eliminating/ minimizing the evils from the society.
The study tries to identify and develop appropriate and indigenous eco-friendly skills and
technologies to various environmental issues.
It teaches the citizens the need for sustainable utilization of resources.
The study enables theoretical knowledge into practice and the multiple uses of environment.

PROPAGATING PUBLIC AWARENESS AND PARTICIPATION

Environmental education in schools and colleges

Through mass media such as newspapers magazines, radio, TV, etc

Through organizing seminars and conferences

Environmental awareness can also be propagated through folk songs, street plays, documentaries,
etc.

Science centers establishment in rural areas

Involvement of public figures and youth

Awareness raising campaigns

Through print , broadcast, and internet media

ECOSYSTEM & ECOLOGY

 Ecosystem is defined as a structural and functional unit of environment consisting of community
of living beings and the physical components both interacting and exchanging materials
between them.

Ecosystem also called Biosphere. The term 'ecosystem' was coined by A.G. Tansley. Contains
interdependent organisms (plants, animals and microbes)

Ecology is the study of the relationship of plants and animals to their physical and biological
environment.

COMPONENTS OF ECOSYSTEM

BIOTIC COMPONENTS

PRODUCERS:

Those which are capable of producing their own food

Plants are producers

CONSUMERS

These are organisms which depend on other organisms for food

Macro consumers:
Primary consumers eg: herbivores
Secondary consumers eg: carnivores
Tertiary consumers eg: Carnivores and Omnivores.
Micro consumers
It includes parasites, detritivores and decomposers.

DECOMPOSERS

These organisms decay the dead organic waste materials.

They help in cleaning the environment
Eg: Bacteria and Fungi

ABIOTIC COMPONENTS

Physical Components: Sunlight, Wind, Rainfall, Soil type, Water.

Chemical Components: Carbon, Nitrogen, Sodium, Potassium, Toxic Substances.

FUNCTIONS OF ECOSYSTEM

Regulates the flow of energy between different tropic levels

Helps in nutrient cycling

Maintains and regulates ecological balance

BIOGEOCHEMICAL CYCLE
 It is a pathway by which a chemical substance moves through both biotic and abiotic
compartments of Earth.

The circulation of chemical nutrients like carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, phosphorus, calcium, and
water etc. through the biological and physical world are known as biogeochemical cycles.

Two types: sedimentary cycle and gaseous cycle

In an Ecosystem biological cycling of materials is maintained by three groups viz. Producers,

consumers, and decomposers/recyclers.

The two ecological processes of energy flow and mineral cycling involving interaction between
the physico -chemical environment and the biotic communities is considered as the 'heart' of
ecosystem.

CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEM

TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEM

FOREST ECOSYSTEM

40% earth surface

Has abiotic and biotic factors

There are three major types of forests:

Tropical

Temperate

Artic.

Each of these major forest types have other groups of forests that are named because of the
weather and seasons they have.

Tropical forests cluster near the equator. It includes evergreen rain forest and deciduous forest.

Temperate forests include coniferous, Mediterranean and rain forests.

A forest ecosystem is a natural woodland unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-
organisms (Biotic components) in that area functioning together with all of the non-living
physical (abiotic) factors of the environment

COMPONENTS OF FOREST ECOSYSTEM

Producers:

The trees are of different kinds depending upon the kind of the forest formation developing in that
climate.
 They have several climbers, shrubs and a ground vegetation.

In tropical moist deciduous forest the producers, are Tectona grandis, Butea frondosa, Shorea
robusta and Anogeissus latifolia and Adina cordifolia.

temperate deciduous forests the dominant trees are Quercus, Acer, Betula

Temperate coniferous forests have Abies, Picea, Pinus, Cedrus, Juniperus and wide range of
flowering plants.

Consumers

(a) Primary consumers: ants, flies, beetles, leafhoppers, bugs and spiders, elephants, nilgai, deer,
moles, squirrels, shrews, flying foxes, fruit bats, mangooses etc.,

(b) Secondary consumers. These are the top carnivores like snakes, birds, lizards, fox etc..

(c) Tertiary consumers. These are the top carnivores like lion, tiger, etc.,

Decomposers

fungi (Aspergillus, Coprinus, Polyporus, Ganoderma, Fusarium, Alternariq, Trichoderma etc.)

bacteria (Bacillus, Clostridium, Pseudomonas, Angiococcus etc.,)

actinomycetes

DESERT ECOSYSTEM

17% earth surface

Terrestrial ecosystem

Rainfall less than 25 cm/ year

Extremely high temperature and water scarcity

Producers:

Shrubs, bushes, grasses and trees

Lichens and moss

Roots penetrate deeply into soil

Consumers:

Reptiles and insects

Nocturnal rodents and birds

 camel

Decomposers:

Thermophilic bacteria and fungi

AQUATIC ECOSYSTEM

Aquatic ecosystems dealing with water bodies and the biotic communities present in them.

Freshwater ecosystems are further another type

Lentic or still waters - ponds, lakes

lotic or flowing waters rivers, stream.

Freshwater ecosystems are varied because they are influenced not only by local climate, soil, but
also by the surrounding terrestrial ecosystems.

POND ECOSYSTEM

1. Producers:

(a) Macrophytes :

large rooted plants

partly or completely submerged or floating

The common plant species are Trapa, Typha, Sagittaria, Nymphara, Potamogeton, Chara,
Hydrilla, Vallisneria, Utricularia, Marselia, Eicchornia, Spirodella, Lemna etc also occur in the
pond.

(b) Phytoplankton:

filamentous algae such as Ulothrix, Spirogyra, Cladophora and Oedogonium

Consumers:

a. Primary consumers:

Benthic populations include fish, insect larvae, beetles, mites, molluscs, crustaceans etc.

mammals as cows, buffaloes, birds

Zooplankton: Brachionus, Asplancha Lecane

Protozoan: Euglena, Coleps, Dileptus

b. Secondary consumers:
 insects and fishes which feed on zooplankton.

c. Tertiary consumers:

large fishes, ducks, spoon bills

Decomposers:

Aspergillus, Cephalosporium, Pythium, Rhizopus, Penicillium

Help in nutrient recycling

MARINE ECOSYSTEM

Biotic components:

Producers:

Brown and red algae

Phytoplanktons (diatoms, micro algae and moss)

Sea weeds

Consumers:

a. Primary consumers: mollusks and fishes

b. Secondary consumers: herring, shad, mackerel

c. Tertiary consumers: cod, haddock

Decomposers:

bacteria and fungi

FOOD CHAIN

A food chain represents the transfer of energy through a series of organisms in a community. It
starts with producers and ends with top consumers.

Three types of food chain:

Grazing or terrestrial food chain

Detritus food chain

Parasitic food chain

FOOD WEB
 Food web is a network of food chains where different types of organisms are connected at
different trophic levels, so that there are a number of options of eating and being eaten at each
trophic level.

In ecosystems, some consumers feed on a single species, but most consumers have multiple food
sources.

In this way, linear individual food chains interconnect to form a food web.

ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

The graphical representation of trophic structure and function is called an ecological pyramid.

Energy passed from one level to the next becomes less. Energy is lost as heat at each trophic
level. Longer the food chain lesser is the energy available for the last levels

Three types of ecological pyramids:

Pyramids of numbers

Pyramids of energy

Pyramids of biomass

Sequence order

Producer- 1st trophic level

Primary consumer- 2nd trophic level

Secondary consumer- 3rd trophic level

Tertiary consumer- 4th trophic level

PYRAMID OF NUMBERS

Relationship among the number of organisms in each trophic levels

It may be upright (pond or grassland ecosystem) or inverted pyramid (parasite or forest

ecosystem) depending upon the type of ecosystem and food chain

PYRAMID OF BIOMASS

Biomass is the total weight of organic matter per unit area in an ecosystem.

Relationship of biomass in each trophic level.

It may be upright (forest) or inverted (pond)

PYRAMID OF ENERGY
 Total amount of energy used in each trophic level

At every successive trophic level, there is a huge loss of energy (about 90%) in the form of heat,
respiration etc.

It is always upright

BIODIVERSITY

The variability among all living organisms from all sources of ecosystem and the ecological complexes of
which they are a part.

TYPES OF BIODIVERSITY

GENETIC DIVERSITY

Genes are the basic units of heredity. Genetic diversity refers to the diversity or genetic variability
within species.

Genetic diversity serves as a way for populations to adapt to changing environments.

The huge variety of different gene sets also define an individual or a whole population's ability to
tolerate stress from any given environmental factor.

variations at the genetic level shows differences in color, size, shape, height etc...

SPECIES DIVERSITY

Species diversity is a measure of the diversity within an ecological community that incorporates
both species richness and the evenness of species abundances.

Changes in species diversity lead to changes in the environment, leading to adaptation of the
remaining species.

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY

This is the diversity of ecological complexity showing variations in ecological niches, trophic
structure, food-webs, nutrient cycling etc.

The ecosystems also show variations with respect to physical parameters like moisture,
temperature, altitude, precipitation etc.

There occurs tremendous diversity within the ecosystems, along these gradients.

The ecosystem diversity is of great value that must be kept intact.

This diversity has developed over millions of years of evolution.

If we destroy this diversity, it would disrupt the ecological balance.

VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY
 The value of biodiversity in terms of its commercial utility, ecological services, social and
aesthetic value is enormous.

We get benefits from other organisms in innumerable ways.

Sometimes we realize and appreciate the value of the organism only after it is lost from this earth.

The values of biodiversity are:

Environmental Value

Social Value

Ecosystem Services

Economic Value

Consumptive value

Productive Value

Ethical and Moral Value

Aesthetic Value.

CONSUMPTIVE VALUE

Plants: There are about 3000 species of food plants out of which only 150 species are commercialized.

Plant provide wide variety of food like maize, wheat, rice.

Animals: Man consume meat from mainly nine species of animal like cattle, ship, pig, goat, water
buffaloes, chickens, duck, geese and turkeys.

Fishes are now regarded as a domesticated animal because of development of aquaculture.

Curd, cheese milk is obtained from dairy farms.

Fuel: Our forests have been used since ages for fuel wood. The fossil fuels coal, petroleum and natural
gas are also products of fossilized biodiversity. Firewood collected by individuals is not normally
marketed, but are directly consumed by tribal and local villagers, hence falls under consumptive value.

Sources of Fats and Oil: Now a days most commonly used oil seed plant like mustard , ground nut, palm
oil. The other oil like soyabean, binola (cotton seed) , sunflower are becoming popular.

Fibers: The major fiber yielding varieties are cotton, flax, jute, sisal, coir, abaca.

New disease resistant varieties: Some commercial species of food plants are susceptible to certain
disease. These species can be made resistant to particular disease by cross bred. Eg. Potato has been made
resistant to late blight by deriving a resistant strain from solanum demissum.
Drug and Medicine: A number of herb has been used to cure various ailments. Various plant contain
valuable drugs. Eg. Rosy Periwinkle plant is used for treatment of cancer, Tulsi has the property of
antibacterial, Quinine is used for the treatment of malaria.

PRODUCTIVE VALUE

These are the commercially usable values where the product is marketed and sold.

It may include lumber or wild gene resources that can be traded for use by scientists for
introducing desirable traits in the crops and domesticated animals.

These may include the animal products like tusks of elephants, silk from silkworm, wool from
sheep, fur of many animals, all of which are traded in the market.

Many industries are dependent upon the productive use values of biodiversity e.g.- the paper and
pulp industry, Plywood industry, Railway sleeper industry, Silk industry, textile industry,
ivory-works, leather industry, pearl industry etc

Despite international ban on trade in products from endangered species, smuggling of fur, hide,
horns, tusks, live specimen etcworth millions of dollars are being sold every year.

AESTHETIC VALUE

Biodiversity provide lots of aesthetic and beautification value.

Human being is fond of maintaining garden, keeping pets, ecotourism.

We go to various hill station, national park, zoological garden , sanctuaries to watch scenic
beauties.

SOCIAL VALUES

These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and psycho-spiritual aspects
of the people.

Many of the plants are considered holy and sacred in our country like Tulsi (holy basil), Peepal,
Mango, Lotus, etc

The leaves, fruits or flowers of these plants are used in worship or the plant itself is worshipped.

The tribal people are very closely linked with the wild life in the forests.

Their social life, songs, dances and customs are closely woven around the wildlife.

Many animals like Cow, Snake, Bull, Peacock, Owl etc. also have significant place in our psycho-
spiritual arena and thus hold special social importance.

ETHICAL VALUES

It is also sometimes known as existence value.

 It involves ethical issues like All life must be preserved

It is based on the concept of Live and Let Live

If we want our human race to survive, then we must protect all biodiversity, because biodiversity
is valuable.

The ethical value means that we may or may not use a species, but knowing the very fact that this
species exists in nature gives us pleasure.

We are not deriving anything direct from Kangaroo, Zebra or Giraffe, but we all strongly feel that
these species should exist in nature.

This means, there is an ethical value or existence value attached to each species.

ENVIRONMENTAL VALUES

The environmental value of biodiversity can be found by examining each ecosystem process and
identifying the ecosystem services that result.

For instance, in wetlands the vegetation captures water-carried sediment and the soil organisms
break down a range of nutrients and pollutants washed into the area.

These processes provide the ecosystem service of purifying water.

Wetlands also act as spawning and nursery grounds for some fishes and provide a refuge for
animals in times of drought.

Dryland salinity has emerged as a problem following sustained clearance of deep rooted perennial
plants over wide areas.

Water tables have risen carrying dissolved salts which then concentrate in the soil.

We can conclude that where vegetation contains a significant proportion of deep rooted plants
such as trees, it provides the ecosystem service of moderating water table levels and so
contributes to soil fertility.

Similarly, the value of oxygen production is likely to be ignored while we have adequate
supplies.

ECOSYSTEM VALUES

the production of oxygen

the maintenance of fresh water quality

the production and maintenance of fertile soil

the provision of foods

 the provision of native species and genes used in industry research

pest control in agricultural land by beneficial native predators

flood mitigation by vegetation

breakdown of pollutants by micro-organisms in soil and aquatic ecosystems

greenhouse gas reduction

maintenance of habitats for native plants and animals

Maintenance of habitats that are attractive to humans for recreation, tourism and cultural
activities and that has spiritual importance.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution.

In the geologic period the earth has experienced mass extinctions.

During evolution, species have died out and have been replaced by others.

The rate of loss of species in geologic past has been a slow process. The process of extinction has
become particularly fast in the recent years of human civilization.

In this century, the human impact has been so severe that thousands of species and varieties are
becoming extinct annually.

If the present trend continues we would lose two third of our current biodiversity by the middle
of twenty first century.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

The enormous value of biodiversity due to their genetic, commercial, medical, aesthetic,
ecological and optional importance emphasizes the need to conserve biodiversity

Gradually people are coming to realize that wildlife is not just a game to be hunted, rather it is a
gift of nature. A number of measures are now being taken the world over to conserve biodiversity
including plants and wildlife.

In situ conservation (within habitat): This is achieved by protection of wild flora and fauna in
nature itself. e.g. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve Forests etc.

Ex situ conservation (outside habitats): This is done by establishment of gene banks, seed
banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections, etc

UNIT-2

NATURAL RESOURCES
DEFINITION:

Natural resources are materials and components that can be found within the environment.
They are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively natural form.
Inexhaustible resources- solar radiation, geothermal energy, and air

CLASSIFICATION

1. Basis of origin:

Biotic:
Obtained from the biosphere
Eg: Fossil fuels such as coal and petroleum
Abiotic:
Obtained from non-living or non-organic material.
Eg: land, fresh water, air and heavy metals (gold, iron, copper, silver)

2. Basis of Renewability

Renewable Resources
Resources have the ability to reappear or replenish themselves by recycling,
reproduction or replacement
Eg: Air, soil, water
Non-Renewable Resources
A non-renewable resource exists in a fixed amount that cannot be re-made, re-grown
or regenerated as fast as it is consumed and used up.
Eg: Gold, iron, copper, diamonds, and uranium, coal, fossil fuel, oil etc..

3.Based on the availability

Inexhaustible Resources
Present in unlimited quantities on earth
Eg: Solar energy

Exhaustible Resources
Present in limited quantities.
Eg: coal, petroleum

FOREST RESOURCES

Forest is an important renewable resource which includes predominantly trees, shrubs or any other woody
vegetation usually with a closed canopy.

The forest is a complex ecosystem consisting mainly of trees that buffer the earth and support a
myriad of life forms.
Forests are the most important resource of our globe.
The trees respire by taking in carbon-di-oxide and giving out Oxygen.
 Forest resources are most important resources of our country useful in maintaining ecological
balance, providing fire wood, providing raw materials to many industries, providing protection to
wild animals and to conserve the soils.

IMPORTANCE AND BENEFITS OF FORESTS

A. Forests serves as lungs of the world

B. It reduces global warming
C. It provides habitat for wildlife
D. It absorbs pollution
E. It has many productive values

The benefits from forests are:

a Conservation of Soil:
Forests prevent soil erosion
b Soil-improvement:
The fertility of the soil increases due to the humus which is formed by the decay
of forest litter.
c Reduction of Atmospheric Pollution:
forests reduce pollution and purify the environment.
d Control of Climate:
Transpiration of plants increases the atmospheric humidity and cools the
atmosphere.
e Control of Water flow:
In the forests, the thick layer of humus prevents run-off, thereby preventing flash-
floods.

OVER EXPLOITATION OF FORESTS

Many forest lands are used for mining, agriculture, grazing, and recreation and for development
of dams
Our forests contribute substantially to the national economy
The international timber trade alone is worth over US $ 40 billion per year
Excessive use of fuel wood and charcoal, expansion of urban, agricultural and industrial areas
and overgrazing have together led to over-exploitation of our forests leading to their rapid
degradation

DEFORESTATION

Deforestation is the process of removal of forest or trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-
forest use.
Since the beginning of civilization, people have been clearing land for agriculture to meet the
food needs of the ever-growing population.
Forest clearing can change the rainfall pattern of a region.
Drought kills more vegetation, forest fires become more numerous and extensive
Forests are also being converted to permanent settlements.
But the ever increasing population can severely deplete the valuable forest resources within a
short time.
Causes of deforestation

1 Population Explosion
2 Forest Fires
3 Grazing Animals
4 Pest Attack
5 Natural Forces
6 Shifting cultivation

Effects of Deforestation

a Habitat destruction of wild animals

b Increased soil erosion
c Reduction in the oxygen
d Increase in pollution
e Decrease in availability of forest products.
f Loss of cultural diversity
g Loss of Biodiversity
h Scarcity of fuel wood
i Lowering of the water table due to more run-off
j Rise in Carbon dioxide level

CONSERVATION OF FORESTS

Anti-deforestation policy should be practised

Minimise paper wastage
Reforestation should be done
Shifting to the use of renewable energy resources
Create awareness among people
Recycling the waste

ENERGY RESOURCES

The substances used to generate power or energy are called as energy resources.
Coal , oil, gas , and water constitute the main source of energy in our country.
Commercial consumption of energy is mostly from coal (56%) petroleum(32%) , and other
sources, nuclear ,gas and water.
Approximately 80% of the worlds energy is produced by fossil fuels.
Two important fuels: coal and oil consumed globally.
Energy is required for heating, transportation, television, refrigeration, industrial production,
consumption and luxuries.

RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

Renewable energy is generally defined as energy that comes from resources which are naturally
replenished on a human timescale such as sunlight, wind, rain, tides, waves and geothermal heat.
WIND ENERGY

Wind energy or "wind power" describe the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical
power or electricity.
Airflows can be used to run wind turbines.
As wind speed increases, power output increases up to the maximum output for the particular
turbine
Turbines are placed on offshore and high altitude sites.

HYDRO ENERGY

Flowing water creates energy that can be captured and turned into electricity.
This is called hydroelectric power or hydropower.
The dam or a river is used to store water as reservoir.
Water released from the reservoir flows through a turbine, spinning it, which in turn activates a
generator to produce electricity.

BIOMASS ENERGY

Biomass is sustainable and renewable energy source.

Organic material, such as crops, agricultural and forest residues and waste are easily obtained and
available for energy production.
Organic material is made of carbohydrates (C,H and O).
In the process of combustion, they go back to carbon dioxide and water while releasing energy.
Sugar cane, sugar beet, wheat and corn are used for the production of bioethanol.
Soybean, rapeseed, sunflower seeds, canola, palm oil are used for biodiesel production.

BIOGAS ENERGY

Biogas typically refers to a mixture of different gases produced by the breakdown of organic matter in the
absence of oxygen.
Biogas can be produced from raw materials such as agricultural waste, manure, municipal waste,
plant material, sewage, green waste or food waste.
It is a renewable energy source
Biogas is primarily methane and carbon dioxide
it can be used for any heating purpose, such as cooking.
It can also be used to generate electricity.
Biogas can be compressed and used to power motor vehicles.

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

Geothermal energy is the heat from the Earth.

It's clean and sustainable.
Resources of geothermal energy range from the shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found a
few miles beneath the Earth's surface.
Temperature of the hot springs ranges from 35 C to as much as 98 C.
NON RENEWABLE ENERGY RESOURCES

A non-renewable resource (also called a finite resource) is a resource that does not renew itself at a
sufficient rate for sustainable economic extraction in meaningful human time-frames.

FOSSIL FUELS

Fossil fuels are derived from organic matter which has been trapped between layers of sediments within
the Earth for millions of years.
The organic matter have decomposed and compressed over time to form fossil fuel deposits.
These deposits are highly combustible, making them an ideal energy source.
They are difficult to obtain as they are typically retrieved through drilling or mining, but fossil
fuels are worth the effort for the sheer amount of energy they produce.
Today the world's energy resources have reached critical stage.

DEPLETION OF FOSSILS

Fossil fuels lasts only for few centuries.

Fossil fuels (e.g., Coal, Oil and Gas) were the fuels of choice during the last half of the 20th
century.
Fossil fuels are the dominant energy source in the modern global economy.
Energy in the form of oil, coal, gas and electricity is used predominantly about 88% in three
sectors: industry, households and transport.
Increase in human population and use of energy for new activities to improve life styles has
depleted many energy sources.

CRUDE PETROLEUM

Crude oil is a non-renewable resource that builds up in liquid form between the layers of the Earths crust.
It is retrieved by drilling deep into the ground and pumping the liquid out.
The liquid is then refined and used to create many different products.
Crude oil is a very versatile fuel and is used to produce heating oil, petrol, diesel, jet fuel, and
propane.
The top three oil-producing countries are Russia, Saudi Arabia, and the United States.

COAL

Coal is the last of the major fossil fuels.

It is created by compressed organic matter, it is solid like rock and is obtained via mining
China produces the most coal used i.e. 48.3%
India is the third-largest producer of coal in the world.
Coal is used for cooking, generation of electricity, industries and in thermal power plants.
The coal resources are limited and may last few decades.

ALTERNATE ENERGY RESOURCES

Alternative energy is any energy source that is an alternative to fossil fuel. It is produced or recovered
without the undesirable consequences inherent in fossil fuel use, particularly high carbon dioxide
emissions, an important factor in global warming. Example: Hydro energy, Wind energy, Tidal energy,
Geothermal energy, biomass energy, Solar energy etc
CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

Energy needs to be conserved to protect our environment from drastic changes, to save the depleting
resources for our future generations.

We can start saving the energy from our home

just by turning off the lights during day hours
washing clothes in cold water
using public transport instead of using our own vehicle
Insulation can reduce wastage of energy

MINERAL RESOURCE

INTRODUCTION

A mineral is a pure inorganic substance that occurs naturally in the earths crust.

These are the natural resources which are non-renewable.

The calcium, phosphorous, sodium, chlorine and sulphur are the major minerals in the animals.
The minor minerals in the animals are iron, copper, cobalt, zinc, fluorine and selenium.
The minerals in the plants are divided into the macro and micro nutrients.
The macro nutrients are calcium, magnesium, sulphur and iron. The micro nutrients are
manganese, cobalt, zinc and chlorine.
India is rich in coal, manganese, iron, chromites and mica.
It is deficient in silver, nickel etc

PROPERTIES

Naturally occurring
Stable at room temperature
Represented by a chemical formula
Usually abiogenic
Ordered atomic arrangement

TYPES OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Based on their nature:

Metallic minerals: aluminum, tin, iron, chromium

Non metallic Minerals: Graphite, Diamond, Quartz

Based on Uses:

Fuel Minerals: Coal, oil and natural gas

 Precious minerals: Gold, Silver, Platinum
Ferro-alloy metallic minerals: Manganese, Molybdenum, Tungsten, Cobalt, Nickel
Non ferrous metals: Copper, Zinc, lead
Building material and stone: Limestone, marble, sandstone etc.

USES OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Used in construction of buildings, bridges and housing settlement.

Development of industries and machinery.
Used for generation of energy mainly Coal, petroleum and natural gas.
Used for development of defense equipment.
Used in the field of communication like telephone, wires, cables, electronic devices
Formation of alloys for various purposes.
Used for making ornaments
Used for synthesis of fertilizers, fungicides

OVER EXPLOITATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Mining is hazardous occupation:

1. This occupation involves several health risk
2. Extraction of some toxic or radioactive minerals leads to life threatening hazards.
3. Dynamite explosion during mining produce fumes that are extremely poisonous.
4. Underground mining is dangerous as there are more chances if accidents like roof falls, flooding
and inadequate ventilation etc.

Rapid depletion of high grade minerals:

Increasing demand for high grade minerals has resulted in excess mining of those minerals which
results in depletion.

Wastage of upper soil layer and vegetation:

Surface mining results in the complete destruction of upper soil layer and vegetation. After extraction,
the wastes are dumped in an area which destroys the total surface and vegetation.

CONSERVATION OF MINERAL RESOURCES

Following sustainable methods for conservation

Using alternate sources of energy
Using minerals effectively and efficiently
Avoid over exploitation
Create awareness
Recycle and reuse of minerals should be practiced

WATER RESOURCES

Water serves as the basic need for life on Earth. It is essential for various purposes. Though water covers
71% of the earth's surface the demand for fresh water is increasing due to the increase in growing
population. 97 % of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water. slightly over
two thirds of this is frozen in glaciers and ice caps. The remaining unfrozen freshwater is found mainly as
groundwater.

Water resources are broadly classified into two types: Surface water and Ground water. Surface water is
water in a river, lake or fresh water wetland. Surface water is naturally replenished by precipitation and
naturally lost through discharge to oceans, evaporation, transpiration and ground recharge. Groundwater
is fresh water located in the subsurface pore space of soil and rocks. It is also water that is flowing within
aquifers below the water table
USES OF WATER RESOURCES

Industrial purposes
Agricultural activities
Household needs
Shelters for Aquatic life
Transportation
Energy generation
Recreation

THREATS TO WATER RESOURCES

Population explosion
Pollution
Rapid expansion of industries
Climatic change
Depletion of aquifers
Conflicts over water
Waste discharge into water bodies
Oil spills

CONSERVATION OF WATER RESOURCES

Rain water harvesting

Water management system
Recycling and reusing water
Public awareness
Drip irrigation
Sprinklers for irrigation
Proper usage of water

LAND RESOURCES

20% of our earth surface is covered with land. In India the land is distributed as plains (43%)
mountains (30%) and plateaus (27%)

USES OF LAND RESOURCES

Forest lands: Agriculture, habitat for wildlife, reserve for endangered species
 Barren lands: dump sites
Plains: Agriculture, industries, residential purposes
Grazing lands: cattle feeds
Mountains: Cultivation, recreation

THREATS TO LAND RESOURCES

Deforestation and desertification

Over grazing
Decreased soil fertility
Soil erosion
Water logging
Salinity
Industrial effluent discharge
Heavy metal pollution
Construction
Improper waste disposal

CONSERVATION OF LAND RESOURCES

Organic farming
Proper waste management
Afforestation
Terrace farming, contour planting
Cover crops and wind breaks
Soil restoration using manure or compost
Crop rotation
UNIT - 3

Definition: Environmental Pollution is defined as undesirable change in physical, chemical or

biological characteristics of air, water and land that may or will harmfully affect human life. Pollution is
mostly man-made, but it can also be natural.

Pollutants: Pollutants are materials or factors which cause adverse effect on natural quality of any
component of the environment. Pollutants are waste products or by-products of materials we make use or
throw away. For eg) smoke from industries and automobiles, chemicals from factories, radioactive
substance from nuclear plants etc., However all pollutants are not waste materials, Nitrogen and
Phosphorus are used to increase soil fertility, but their excess amount may cause water pollution.

Classification:

1) According to the form in which they persist after release to the environment.

a) Primary pollutants: These persist in the form in which they are added to the environment. Eg) DDT,
Plastic.

b) Secondary Pollutants: These are formed by interaction among primary pollutants. Eg) Peroxy Nitrate is
formed by reaction of two primary pollutants, namely hydrogen peroxide and hydrocarbons.

2) According to existence in nature:

a) Quantitative Pollutants: These are substances which occur in nature but become pollutant when their
concentration reaches beyond threshold value in the environment. Eg) carbon dioxide, Nitrogen oxide.

b) Qualitative Pollutants: These are substances that do not occur in the environment but are passed into it
through human activity. Eg) fungicides, herbicides etc.,

3) According to their Natural disposal:

a) Bio-degradable pollutants: These are actually waste products which are slowly degraded by microbial
action.

b)Non-biodegradable Pollutants: These are pollutants which are not decomposed or decomposed very
slowly. Eg) Plastics, polyethylene bags etc.,
4) In terms of origin:

a) Natural : Volcanic eruptions add tons of toxic gases and particulate matter to the environment.

b) Anthropogenic: It is man-made pollution such as industrial pollution, agricultural pollution etc.,

AIR POLLUTION

DEFINITION: It is an atmospheric condition in which certain substances can cause undesirable effects
on man and his environment.

Eg) Gaseous Pollutants (oxides of sulphur, oxides of nitrogen carbon monoxide, volatile organic
compounds), Particulate pollutants (smoke, dust,aerosals), Radioactive pollutants (Radon 222,Iodine 131)

CAUSES/SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTION:

a)Natural source: Forest fires, volcanic eruptions.
b)Man-made: vehicular emissions, Thermal power plants.
EFFECTS OF AIR POLLUTION:
a) Effects on human health:
i) Sulphur dioxide causes constriction of respiratory passage and cause bronchitis like
condition.
ii) Oxides of Nitrogen especially NO 2can irritate the lungs and cause conditions like chronic
bronchitis and emphysema.
iii) Carbon monoxide reaches lungs and combines with hemoglobin (Hb). So Hb is unable
to transport oxygen to various parts of the body.
iv) Other air pollutants like benzene, formaldehyde, PCBs, toxic metals and dioxins can
cause mutations, reproductive problems and even cancer.
b) Effects on plants:
i) Air pollutants will enter plant stomata, destroy their chlorophyll and affect
photosynthesis. Pollutants also erode waxy coating of leaves called cuticle.
ii) Damage of leaf structure causes necrosis (dead areas of leaves), chlorosis (loss or
reduction of chlorophyll causing yellowing of leaf) epinasty (downward curling of leaves) and
even abscission (dropping of leaves).
iii) SO2 causes bleaching of leaves and chlorosis. NO 2 causes increased abscission and
suppressed growth, O3 causes premature aging and necrosis, ethylene causes epinasty, leaf
abscission and dropping of flowers.
c) Effects on aquatic life:
i) Air pollutants mixed with rain can cause high acidity (low pH) in fresh water lakes.
Some of fresh water lakes have experienced total fish death.
d) Effects on materials:
i. Presence of SO2 and moisture can accelerate corrosion of metallic surfaces due to
formation of sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid also damages buildings and causes
disfigurement of statues made of marbles and lime stone.
ii. Ozone in atmosphere can cause cracking of rubber.
iii. Oxides of ozone and nitrogen can cause fading of cotton and rayon fibers.
CONTROL OF AIR POLLUTION:
 i. Sitting of industries after proper Environmental Impact Assessment studies.
ii. Minimize activities which cause pollution like transportation and energy production.
iii. Removing sulphur from coal (with the help of bacteria).
iv. Controlling flow of air and fuel in boilers.
v. Shifting to less polluting fuels.
vi. Planting more trees.

WATER POLLUTION
DEFINITION: Water pollution can be defined as alteration in physical, chemical or biological
characteristics of water making it unsuitable for designated use in its natural source.

SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION: Water has property to dissolve many substances in it and hence
gets polluted easily. Pollution of water can be caused by

a) Point sources: These are specific sites like industries, power plants, oil tanks etc., which directly
discharge effluents into them.
b) Non-point sources: These are not specific sites rather these sources are scattered which
individually or collectively pollute water. Eg) surface run off from agricultural fields, over
flowing small drains etc.,
c) Major sources and pollutants of surface water pollution are sewage, Industrial effluents, synthetic
detergents, Agrochemical and oil.
d) Major sources and pollutants of ground water pollution are septic tanks, Industry (textile,
chemical and tanneries), mining, deep well injections etc., Ground water pollution with arsenic,
fluoride and nitrate are posing serious health hazards.

EFFECTS OF WATER POLLUTION:

1) Lowering of Dissolved Oxygen:

Organic matter which reaches water bodies is decomposed by microorganisms
present in water. For this degradation oxygen dissolved in water is consumed.
Dissolved oxygen is the amount of oxygen dissolved in given quantity of water at
particular temperature and atmospheric pressure.
Saturation value of Dissolved oxygen varies from 8-15mg/L. Lower DO will be
harmful to animals especially will affect fish population.
2) Water borne diseases: Many waste water especially sewage contain many pathogenic and non-
pathogenic microorganisms and many viruses. It may lead to water borne diseases like cholera,
dysentery, typhoid, Jaundice etc.,
3) Change in Physico-chemical characteristics of water:
Addition of compounds containing Nitrogen and phosphorous help in growth of algae and
other plants which when die and decay consume oxygen present in water. Excess growth or
decomposition of plant material will change concentration of carbon dioxide which will further
change pH of water. Changes in pH, temperature and oxygen will change many physic chemical
characteristics of water.
4) Increase of Toxic compounds: Pollutants such as heavy metals, pesticides, cyanides and many
other organic and inorganic compounds are harmful to aquatic organisms.
 5) Increase in Biological Oxygen Demand: BOD (Biological Oxygen Demand) is defined as amount
of Dissolved Oxygen (DO) required to aerobically decompose biodegradable organic matter of
given volume of water over a period of 5 days at 20C. More BOD values of water sample are
associated with poor quality of water.
6) Bioaccumulation and bio magnification:
Substances like pesticides methyl mercury etc., move into bodies of organisms from
contaminated water.
Substances like DDT which are not water soluble tend to accumulate in body of aquatic
organisms. This process is called bioaccumulation.
The concentration of these toxic substances builds up at successive food chain. This
process is called bio magnification.
7) Diseases caused due to water pollution: Water pollution may lead to many diseases like Minamata
Disease (accumulation of methyl mercury in fish), Itali-Itali (accumulation of cadmium)
Blue baby syndrome or Methaemoglobin (Conversion of Hb to non-oxidized form).
8) Quality of drinking water gets affected: Drinking water should be free from pathogens, should
have required quantity of salt and should not have high amount of minerals and organic matter
and should not contain toxic chemicals. It is estimated that 80% of sickness in the world is due to
improper quality of drinking water.

CONTROL OF WATER POLLUTION:

Treatment of waste water is essential before being discharges.

Waste Water should be properly treated by primary and secondary treatments to reduce BOD,
COD level up to permissible levels for discharge.
Use of Nitrogen fixing plants to supplement the use of fertilizers.
Adopting IPM to reduce reliance on pesticides.
Prevent run off of manure. Divert such run-off to basin for settlement.

MARINE POLLUTION

Definition: Most of rivers join ocean. In the sea the pollutants get diluted and organic matter is finally
broken down. Still many pollutants specially the recalcitrant ones remain unchanged or partially degraded
causing marine pollution.

SOURCES OF MARINE POLLUTION:

1. Rivers, which bring pollutants from their drainage basins.

2. Catchement area i.e., from hotels, industries and agricultural practices.
3. Oil drilling and shipment.
4. Leaking of toxic substances, radioactive waste etc., which are stored in large containers and
dumped into sea.
5. Tankers and other shipping means through industries, automotive waste, refineries, and ship
accidents add to marine pollution.
6. Tankers transporting oil contribute to marine pollution significantly. After delivering oil through
sea-route empty tankers used to be filled with water called ballets water to maintain a balance.
The ballast water containing residual oil was released into sea on completion of return journey
causing oil pollution.
 EFFECTS OF MARINE POLLUTION:

1. Decaying organic matter causes change in DO. So there could be death of marine plants and
animals. This will result in changes in biodiversity.
2. High amount of Nitrogen and Phosphorous in polluted water cause eutrophication and algal
blooms.
3. Pathogens in water cause infection of stomach, ear-nose throat infection and diseases like
typhoid, cholera etc.,
4. Pathogens will accumulate in tissues of aquatic organisms and cause potential health hazards.
5. Oils interfere with respiration in plants and animals, affect thermal insulation in sea birds and
also affect reproduction.
6. Persistent organic pollutants like DDT and PCBs bio accumulate in bodies of animals and
will enter into food chain.
7. Dioxins from pulp and paper bleaching process can cause genetic disorders and on reaching
human through food chain can cause cancer.
8. Heavy metals from industrial effluents bio magnify in food chain and affect animals in top of
food chain eg) Minamata disease caused by eating sea food contaminated with methyl
mercury.
9. Radioactive materials cause various types of effects due to radiations.
10. Aquatic animals may entangle in plastic debris. Marine animals may eat garbage in plastic
bags which may reach animal gut and may lead to death.
11. In coastal areas pollution ultimately causes loss or degradation of coastal ecology. It also
affects coastal plants, mangroves, fisheries and reduction in benthic organism in beaches.

CONTROL OF MARINE POLLUTION:

Introduction of sewage treatment plants to reduce BOD of final product before discharging into
sea.

Cleaning oil from surface waters and contaminated beaches can be accelerated through the use of
chemical dispersants which can be sprayed on the oil.

Municipal waste and sewage from residences and hotels in coastal towns must not be
discharged into sea.

Organic fertilizers and pesticides can be used

Spillage or leakage of oils should be avoided during oil extraction by drilling

Dumping of waste in marine areas should be avoided and strict laws and punishment should be
implemented in government laws for causing marine pollution.

Runoff from agricultural lands should not be diverted into oceans.

Dumping toxic wastes into seas and oceans should be banned.

Construction on coastal areas should be minimized

Oils and grease used in service stations should be re-used.

 Ecologically sensitive areas must be protected.

SOIL POLLUTION

DEFINITION: Soil pollution can be defined as The addition of substances to the soil, which
adversely affect physical, chemical and biological properties of soil and reduce its productivity. The
process of soil formation is very slow, therefore the soil may be considered as non-renewable
resource. This makes the problem of soil pollution more acute.

SOURCES OF SOIL POLLUTION:

1. Industrial waste:
Both solid and liquid waste of industries is dumped over the soil.
The waste contain toxic chemicals such as mercury, lead, copper, zinc, cadmium,
cyanides,acids,alkalis, organic substances etc.,
Some toxic chemicals reach soil by mining operations also.
2. Pesticides:
Pesticides are sprayed on plants in the form of fine mist or powder. They will reach
soil and may affect the ecosystem.
3. Fertilizers and manures:
Chemical fertilizers are added to the soil for increasing crop yield.
Excessive use of chemical fertilizers decreases population of useful bacteria and
crumb structure of soil.
It also increases salt content of soil and reduces productivity of soil.
4. Discarded materials:
These include concrete, leather, rugs, cans, plastics,glasses,food, paper etc.,
A large number of discarded materials are dumped on soil by man.
5. Radioactive waste:
Radioactive waste from mining and nuclear power plants find their way into water
and then into soil.
6. Other pollutants:
Many air pollutants, acid rain and water pollutants ultimately become part of soil.
The soil also receives some toxic chemicals during weathering of certain rocks.

EFFECTS OF SOIL POLLUTION:

1. Water logging. And Salination.

2. Effect on Health of Humans
3. Effect on Growth of Plants
4. Bioaccumulation
5. Decreased Soil Fertility
6. Climatic change
7. Toxic Dust
8. Genetic mutations
9. Changes in Soil Structure
10. Eutrophication
11. Groundwater toxicity

CONTROL OF SOIL POLLUTION:

 1. Pneumatic pipes should be laid for collecting and disposing waste.
2. Special pit or low lying areas should be selected for dumping industrial waste.
3. Materials such as paper, glass and some kinds of plastic can be recycled.
4. Animal refuse and agricultural waste can be utilized for production of biogas.
5. IPM can reduce use of pesticides.
6. Industries should be given regulations for the disposal of hazardous wastes
7. Use of pesticides should be minimized.
8. Organic methods of farming are being supported, which do not use chemical laden pesticides and
fertilizers
9. Use of plants that can remove the pollutants from the soil is being encouraged (Phytoremediation)
10. Special pits should be selected for dumping wastes
11. Planning of soil binding grasses along banks and slopes prone to rapid erosion.
12. Cropping techniques should be improved to prevent growth of weeds.
13. Compost garden from kitchen wastes.

NOISE POLLUTION

DEFINITION: A loud, unwanted or unpleasant sound that causes disturbance is called noise. The release
of unwanted sound in atmosphere is called noise pollution.

Sound level = log Ambient intensity / Reference intensity.

The intensity of sound wave is the average rate per unit area at which energy is transferred by
wave on to the surface. It is expressed as weber per meter square (Wm -2)
Unit of sound level is decibel.
When ambient sound intensity is equal to reference intensity, the sound or noise level is 0dB
Noise level can range from 0 to more than 120dB. Noise beyond 120dB causes physical
discomfort.

SOURCES OF NOISE POLLUTION:

1. Various modes of transportation.

2. Industrial operations.
3. Construction activities.
4. Celebrations.
5. Electric home appliances.

The zone wise noise level recommended by Central Pollution Control Board is as follows.

Zone Day Night

Industrial area 75dB 70dB
Commercial area 65dB 55dB
Residential area 55dB 45dB
Silent zone 50dB 40dB

Silent zone is an area comprising not less than 100m around hospitals, educational institutes,
courts, religious area etc.,

EFFECTS OF NOISE POLLUTION:

1. Interferes with mans communication.

 2. Hearing damage:
Ear drum may be damaged by sudden loud noise.
The sensory cells meant for hearing in our ears, may be permanently damaged if they are
subjected to repeated sounds of high intensity.
3. Physiological and Psychological changes.
Constant exposure to noise causes hormonal imbalance leading to several disorders.
4. Damage to heart, liver and brain has been reported in animals due to prolonged exposure to noise
pollution.

CONTROL OF NOISE POLLUTION:

1. Proper lubrication and maintenance of machine can reduce noise.

2. Noise producing industries, railway stations, aero drums should be located away from human
settlements.
3. Noise by motor vehicles on roads can be reduced by planting several rows of coniferous trees
(trees with border leaves).
4. Use of loud speakers and amplifiers should be restricted to a fixed intensity and in fixed hours of
the day.
5. provision of personal protection devices such as ear plugs for operating noisy machinery
6. Prescribing noise limits for vehicular traffic
7. Ban on honking (usage of horns) in certain areas
8. Creation of silence zones near schools and hospitals
9. Redesigning buildings to make them noise proof
10. Reduction of traffic density in residential areas
11. Giving preference to mass public transport system.

NUCLEAR POLLUTION

DEFINITION: The uptake of radioactive isotopes by an organism from the medium in which they
live, results in bioaccumulation in the body of organism which may lead to noise pollution. Even at
low concentration it may cause physiological disorders.

SOURCES OF NUCLEAR POLLUTION:

1. Natural sources: Nuclear radiations like Cosmic rays from outer space.
2. Anthropogenic sources: Nuclear power plants, Nuclear accidents, X-rays, diagnostic kits
etc.,.

EFFECTS OF NUCLEAR POLLUTION:

1. Ionization radiations can affect living organisms by causing harmful changes in body
cells and also changes in genetic level.
2. Somatic changes include burns, miscarriages, cancer etc.,
3. Radioisotopes enter the environment during mining of uranium. The radioactivity in
earths crust enters the crops grown there and ultimately reaches human beings.
4. Radioactive Iodine (I131) accumulates in thyroid gland and causes cancer.
5. Strontium-90 accumulates in bones and causes leukemia or cancer of bone marrow.
6. Genetic changes like mutations in DNA are also caused by radiations, thereby affecting
genes and chromosomes.
 7. The genetic damage is also seen in offsprings and may be transmitted up to several
generations.

CONTROL OF NUCLEAR POLLUTION:

1. Nuclear power plants should be placed in such a way that if any accident occurs it
should not affect the human beings.
2. Discharge from nuclear power plants should be disposed off properly and should be
monitored regularly.
3. Production of radio isotopes should be minimized.
4. Extreme care should be exercised in the disposal of industrial wastes contained with
radionuclides.
5. Use of high chimney and ventilations at the working place where radioactive
contamination is high.
6. In nuclear reactors, closed cycle coolant system with gaseous coolants of very high
purity may be used to prevent extraneous activation products.
7. Fission reactions should be minimized.
8. In nuclear mines, wet drilling may be employed along with underground drainage.
9. Nuclear medicines and radiation therapy should be applied when absolutely
necessary and earth minimum doses

THERMAL POLLUTION

DEFINITION: Thermal pollution is defined as presence of waste heat in water which can cause
undesirable changes in natural environment.

Thermal Pollution is the harmful increase in water temperature in streams, rivers, lakes, or
occasionally, coastal ocean waters.

It is the degradation of water quality by any process that changes ambient water temperature.

A temperature increase as small as 1 or 2 Celsius degrees can kill native fish, shellfish, and
plants, or drive them out in favor of other species, often with undesirable effects.

CAUSES OF THERMAL POLLUTION:

The major sources of thermal pollution are electric power plants and industrial factories.

Another cause is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers.
When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the
change in temperature decreases oxygen supply, and affects ecosystem composition.

When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or other causes, fish and other organisms
adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt change in water temperature
known as "thermal shock."

Streams and small lakes are naturally kept cool by trees and other tall plants that block sunlight.
People often remove this shading vegetation in order to harvest the wood in the trees, to make
room for crops, or to construct buildings, roads, and other structures.
 Even the removal of vegetation far away from a stream or lake can contribute to thermal pollution
by speeding up the erosion of soil into the water, making it turbid.

EFFECTS OF THERMAL POLLUTION:

1. DO content of water is decreased as the solubility of oxygen in water is decreased at high

temperature.
2. High temperature becomes barrier for oxygen penetration into deep waters.
3. Toxicity of pesticides, detergents and chemicals in effluents increases with increase in
temperature.
4. The composition of flora and fauna changes.
5. Metabolic activities of aquatic organisms increase with high temperature.
6. Fish migration is affected due to formation of various thermal zones.
7. All plant and animal species that live in water are adapted to temperatures within a certain range.
8. This can harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and other aquatic organisms. Thermal
pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in
these organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not
changed.
9. Some organisms do thrive in warm water, often with undesirable effects. Algae and other plants
grow more rapidly in warm water than in cold, but they also die more rapidly.
10. Primary producers are affected by warm water because higher water temperature increases plant
growth rates, resulting in a shorter lifespan and species overpopulation.
11. Temperature changes of even one to two degrees Celsius can cause significant changes in
organism metabolism and other adverse cellular biology effects. Principal adverse changes can
include rendering cell walls less permeable to necessary osmosis, coagulation of cell proteins, and
alteration of enzyme metabolism.

CONTROL OF THERMAL POLLUTION:

1. Thermal pollution from power plants and factories is relatively easy to control. Instead of
discharging heated water into lakes and streams, power plants and factories can pass the heated
water through cooling towers or cooling ponds, where evaporation cools the water before it is
discharged.

2. Alternatively, power plants can be designed or refitted to be more efficient and to produce less
waste heat in the first place.

3. The remainder is from industrial sources such as petroleum refineries, pulp and paper mills,
chemical plants, steel mills and smelters. Heated water from these sources may be controlled
with: cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling by evaporation, convection,
and radiation, cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation
and/or heat transfer

4. cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic and/or industrial heating
purposes

5. There should be implemented laws that will help control, conserve, and protect resources to
counter thermal pollution.
 6. To prevent thermal pollution due to devegetation, the prescription is simple: do not devegetate.
All efforts to control erosion also have the effect of keeping water clearer and, thus, cooler.

UNIT-4

NATURAL DISASTERS

A natural disaster is an extreme event which exceeds the tolerable magnitude within or beyond the certain
limits resulting in catastrophic loss of property, lives and income.

E.g., flood, cyclones, volcanic eruption, earthquake, forest fires or landslide

CYCLONES
 The powerful, destructive, deadly and dangerous storms are called cyclones.

A cyclone is an area of closed, circular fluid motion. It has low pressure on the inside and high
pressure on the outside.

The center of the storm is called the eye and it has the calmest water and the lowest pressure

The speed may vary from 100 to 400 km/hr.

Cyclones turn counter-clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the southern
hemisphere. This is because it follows the rotational movement of the earth

The Indian ocean is one of the major cyclone prone region in the world.

In India the tropical cyclones mainly occur in the coastline stretch of 5700 km (Bay of Bengal
and Arabian sea)

Cyclones are prominent during April- May and October- December.

Great Bhola Cyclone

In November of 1970, the Great Bhola Cyclone hit Bangladesh, formerly East Pakistan.

Between 300,000 and 500,000 people were killed as a result of the Bhola Cyclone, making it the
deadliest cyclone of all time and one of the deadliest natural disasters in recent history.

The storm formed in the Bay of Bengal and then moved over Bohla Island.

On the night of the Bhola Cyclone, winds of 115 mph blew seawater into the narrowing head of
the bay. The tide rose to 25 feet above normal, whipped by winds, deadly waves swept across the
densely populated delta region.

EARTHQUAKE

An earthquake is the perceptible shaking of the surface of the Earth, which can be violent
enough to destroy major buildings and kill thousands of people.

The severity of the shaking can range from barely felt to violent enough to toss people around.

They result from the sudden release of energy in the Earth's crust that creates seismic waves.

The seismic activity of an area refers to the frequency, type and size of earthquakes experienced
over a period of time.

Earthquakes are measured using observations from seismometers

They are measured mostly on the local magnitude scale, also referred to as the Richter magnitude
scale.
 Magnitude 3 or lower earthquakes are mostly almost imperceptible or weak and magnitude 7 and
over potentially cause serious damage.

The most recent large earthquake of magnitude 9.0 or larger was a 9.0 magnitude earthquake in
Japan in 2011

Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, but also by other events such as
volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear tests.

An earthquake's point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The epicenter is the point
at ground level directly above the hypocenter.

At the Earth's surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by shaking and sometimes displacement
of the ground.

When the epicenter of a large earthquake is located offshore, the seabed may be displaced
sufficiently to cause a tsunami.

Earthquakes can also trigger landslides, and occasionally volcanic activity.

JAPAN EARTHQUAKE & TSUNAMI OF 2011

On March 11, 2011, a magnitude-9 earthquake shook northeastern Japan, unleashing a savage
tsunami.The effects of the great earthquake were felt around the world. Tsunami debris continues
to wash up on North American beaches two years later.

In Japan, residents are still recovering from the disaster. Radioactive water was recently
discovered leaking from the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant, which suffered a level 7
nuclear meltdown after the tsunami.

Japan relies on nuclear power, and many of the country's nuclear reactors remain closed because
of stricter seismic safety standards since the earthquake.

Four years after the quake, about 230,000 people who lost their homes were still living in
temporary housing

FLOODS

A flood is an overflow of water that submerges land which is usually dry.

A flood is usually caused by rain, heavy thunderstorms, and thawing of snow.

It also occurs due to damage in dams or due to Low absorption or no soil percolation.

Factors contributing to flooding are Rainfall intensity, Rainfall duration, Topography, Soil
conditions, Ground cover etc

TYPES OF FLOODS
 Aerial floods: Floods can happen on flat or low-lying areas when the ground is saturated and
water either cannot run off or cannot run off quickly enough to stop accumulating. This may be
followed by a river flood as water moves away from the floodplain into local rivers and streams.

Riverine floods: River flows may rise to floods levels at different rates, from a few minutes to
several weeks, depending on the type of river and the source of the increased flow. Slow rising
floods most commonly occur in large rivers with large catchments areas.

Coastal floods: Coastal areas may be flooded by storm events at sea, resulting in waves over-
topping defenses or in severe cases by tsunami or tropical cyclones.

Catastrophic floods: Catastrophic flooding is usually associated with major infrastructure

failures such as the collapse of a dam, but they may also be caused by damage sustained in an
earthquake or volcanic eruption.

EFFECTS OF FLOODS

Water spreads in the surrounding areas and submerges them

Plain surfaces get eroded and silted with mud and sand thereby affecting cultivable land areas.

Extinction of civilization in some coastal areas also occurs.

People suffer huge loss due to damage of their properties.

Destruction of flora and fauna

FLOOD MANAGEMENT

Floods can be controlled by constructing dams or reservoirs

Channel management and embankments also control floods

Flood barriers are constructed on river banks

Flood hazard may be reduced by forecasting or flood warning

Flood hazard may be reduced by reduction of runoff and this can be achieved by increasing
infiltration through appropriate afforestation in the catchments area.

DROUGHT

Normal, recurrent feature of climate.

Occurs everywhere, vary from region to region.

Originates from deficiency of precipitation.

Impact on ecosystem and agricultural of affected region.

 Drought leads to food insecurity, famine, malnutrition, epidemics and displacement of
populations.

TYPES OF DROUGHT

Meteorological Drought: Meteorological drought is usually defined based on the degree of

dryness and the duration of the dry period. Drought onset generally occurs with a meteorological
drought.

Agricultural Drought: Agricultural drought links various characteristics of meteorological

drought to agricultural impacts, focusing on precipitation shortages, soil water deficits, reduced
ground water or reservoir levels needed for irrigation, and so forth.

Hydrological Drought: Hydrological drought usually occurs following periods of extended

precipitation shortfalls that impact water supply i.e., stream flow, reservoir and lake levels,
ground water, potentially resulting in significant societal impacts.

CAUSES OF DROUGHT

Reduced rainfall results in drought.

Occurs because water vapour not brought by air currents to right areas at right times.

Unusual currents of cold and warm water in oceans creates high pressure.

Mountains prevent wind from blowing moisture to needy region.

Human activity directly trigger over farming, excessive irrigation, deforestation.

Global warming result in rainfall in some areas and drought in some areas.

EFFECTS OF DROUGHT

Drought causes hunger, malnutrition and scarcity of drinking water. It also degrades the quality of
drinking water

Drought causes widespread crop failures leading to acute shortage of food thereby adversely
affecting human and livestock populations

Drought indicates the initiation of desertification

Raw materials for agro-based industries are critically affected during drought thereby retarding
industrial and commercial growth.

Drought accelerates degradation of natural resources

Drought leads to large scale migration to urban areas thereby creating slums.
DROUGHT MANAGEMENT

Indigenous knowledge in control of droughts and desertification is very useful for dealing with
drought problems

Rainwater harvesting program is very useful technique used to conserve water and control
drought

Construction of large capacity reservoirs is essential in drought prone areas

Modern irrigation techniques (drip irrigation) is very useful to conserve water and avoid wastage

Afforestation activities improve the potential of water in drought prone areas

Mixed cropping and dry farming are suitable methods that minimize the risk of crop failure in
dry and drought prone areas.

GLOBAL WARMING

Global Warming is the increase of Earth's average surface temperature due to effect of
greenhouse gases, such as carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels or from
deforestation, which trap heat that would otherwise escape from Earth.

Even slight increases in atmospheric levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) can cause a substantial
increase in temperature.

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT

Heat from the Sun warms the Earth's surface but most of it is radiated and sent back into space.

Greenhouse gasses in the troposphere trap some of this heat, preventing it from escaping thus
keep the Earth warm. This trapping of heat is called the "greenhouse effect".

However, if there is too much of greenhouse gasses in the troposphere then it will trap too much
heat. This results in global warming.

Scientists are afraid that the increasing amounts of carbon dioxide would raise the Earth's
surface temperature, bringing significant changes to worldwide weather patterns.

This shifting in climatic zones and the melting of the polar ice caps, which could raise the level of
the oceans.

Although the Earth's atmosphere naturally contains these greenhouse gases, over the past few
decades their presence has increased, causing the temperature of the earth to increase.

The greenhouse gasses are: Water vapour, Carbon dioxide, Methane and Nitrous oxide

Increase of greenhouse gases are due to:

burning gasoline to drive cars and trucks

 burning oil, coal or wood to produce electricity for heating, cooling and other purposes

burning forests to clear land

EFFECTS OF GLOBAL WARMING

Melting of polar ice caps

Raising ocean levels
Extinction of species
Coral reef destruction
Forest fires
Occurrence of hurricanes
Droughts and heat waves

CLIMATIC CHANGE- EL NINO & LA NINA

Changing weather patterns due to variation in surface temperatures of oceans

Fluctuating temperatures between the oceans and atmosphere is noticed in the Equatorial Pacific
region

Lasts between 9 months to 1 year or even longer.

Deviation in the normal surface temperature has larger impact on oceans

It occurs every 2 to 7 years.

EL-NINO

Meaning LITTLE BOY

It is the warm phase

The winds blow from west to east during this phase

It results in 0.5C Increase in the surface temperature of oceans and about 1.5C in the atmosphere
than the normal temperature.

It lasts for 3 to 9 months or even longer. It affects the weather patterns, ocean conditions and
marine fisheries.

LA-NINA

Meaning- LITTLE GIRL. It is the cold phase

The surface temperature drops 3 to 5C below the average temperature.

It lasts for 5 months to 1 year or longer.

The winds blow from east to west during this phase

EFFECTS OF EL-NINO AND LA-NINA

Agricultural output affected

Epidemic diseases spread

Heavy precipitation and flooding occurs

Coral bleaching

Drought conditions in some areas

Inflation occurs

Property damage and deaths

Reduction in monsoon rainfall in India

OZONE LAYER

Ozone in the stratosphere protects us from ultraviolet radiation in sunlight.

The ozone layer is sort of like sunscreen for planet Earth.

Ozone is an unusual type of oxygen molecule. Normally, there are higher concentrations of ozone
at various altitudes in the stratosphere.

Sometimes, under the right conditions, chemical reactions in the ozone layer can destroy most of
the ozone, creating an ozone "hole".

The Ozone Hole is a major "thinning" of the ozone layer in Earth's atmosphere. It was first
noticed in the late 1970s.

Various chemicals that humans release into the atmosphere help cause the hole.

People from many countries have agreed to stop emitting most of the chemicals that destroy
ozone.

Scientists are hopeful that ozone holes will disappear sometime in the future if we continue to
stop emissions of the problematic chemicals.

OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

Scientific evidence indicates that stratospheric ozone is being destroyed by a group of

manufactured chemicals, containing chlorine and/or bromine. These chemicals are called "ozone-
depleting substances" (ODS).

ODS are very stable, nontoxic and environmentally safe in the lower atmosphere

However, their very stability allows them to float up, intact, to the stratosphere.
 Once there, they are broken apart by the intense ultraviolet light, releasing chlorine and
bromine. Chlorine and bromine demolish ozone at an alarming rate.

ODS have a long lifetime in our atmosphere ie up to several centuries..

The main ODS are chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), hydrochlorofluorcarbons (HCFCs), carbon

tetrachloride and methyl chloroform. Halons (brominated fluorocarbons) also play a large role.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) are being developed to replace CFCs and HCFCs. HFCs do not
deplete ozone, but they are strong greenhouse gases. So HFCs are still the better option until even
safer substitutes are discovered.

EFFECTS OF OZONE LAYER DEPLETION

The most basic impact for humans is the increase in skin cancers. Over-exposure to the sun's UV
rays can also cause eye damage, including cataracts, and may even weaken the immune system.

In marine ecosystems, UV can damage the tiny single-celled plants, known as phytoplankton,
which form the base of the food chain.

Increased UV levels will also have an impact on agriculture, including many of the world's
major food crops. It has been observed that some crops, such as barley and oats, have shown
decreased growth as a result of exposure to increased UV radiation

the ozone layer damage ultimately leaves the icecaps and glaciers exposed to excess sunlight
resulting in melting

Higher UV levels causes other stresses on the environment, such as climate change, acid rain and
formation of toxic chemicals in the atmosphere.

DEFORESTATION & DESERTIFICATION

Deforestation is the process of removal of forest or trees where the land is thereafter converted to a non-
forest use.
Since the beginning of civilization, people have been clearing land for agriculture to meet the
food needs of the ever-growing population.
Forest clearing can change the rainfall pattern of a region.
Drought kills more vegetation, forest fires become more numerous and extensive
Forests are also being converted to permanent settlements.
But the ever increasing population can severely deplete the valuable forest resources within a
short time.

CAUSES OF DEFORESTATION

Population Explosion
Forest Fires
Grazing Animals
Pest Attack
Natural Forces
 Shifting cultivation

EFFECTS OF DEFORESTATION

Habitat destruction of wild animals

Increased soil erosion
Reduction in the oxygen
Increase in pollution
Decrease in availability of forest products.
Loss of cultural diversity
Loss of Biodiversity
Scarcity of fuel wood
Lowering of the water table due to more run-off
Rise in Carbon dioxide level

GREEN BELT DEVELOPMENT

A green belt or greenbelt is a policy and land use designation used in land use planning to retain
areas of largely undeveloped, wild, or agricultural land surrounding or neighboring urban areas.

AIM & OBJECTIVE

The Green Belt Development aims at increasing the overall improvement in the environmental
conditions of the region.

It has five objectives:

Prevent land degradation

Enhance forest cover

Provide aesthetic value

Increase ecological equilibrium

Combat soil erosion

NEED FOR GREEN BELT DEVELOPMENT

Protect natural or semi-natural environments;

Improve air quality within urban areas;

Ensure that urban dwellers have access to countryside, with consequent educational and
recreational opportunities; and

Protect the unique character of rural communities that might otherwise be absorbed by expanding
suburbs.

BENEFITS OF GREEN BELT DEVELOPMENT

 Walking, camping, and biking areas close to the cities and towns.

Contiguous habitat network for wild plants, animals and wildlife.

Cleaner air and water

Better land use of areas within the bordering cities.

WORK PLAN

Field investigations

Selection of plant species

Land identification

Infrastructure requirements

Man-power requirements

Feasibility in implementation

Development of landscape

Development of administrative guidance

SALIENT FEATURES

Selection of fast growing plant species for conservation of soil and water.

Project authorities should conduct meetings and monitor projects on regular basis.

They should seek the service of local population.

Cost analysis should be performed for the expenditure during the program like nursery
development, vermiculture production, wages, conservation costs, construction costs etc...

EXAMPLES

Makati City's green belt in Philippines is very green yet full of malls and modern structures.

Islamabad, often called the "green city," is known for its green belts found on most roadsides
which are often decorated and filled with various flora.

Ottawa Greenbelt surrounds the Capital city of Ottawa, Canada.

RAIN WATER HARVESTING

Rainwater harvesting is a technique of increasing the recharge of groundwater by capturing and

storing rainwater.
 This is done by constructing special water harvesting structures like dug wells, percolation pits,
lagoons, check dams etc.

Rainwater, wherever it falls, is captured and pollution of this water is prevented.

Rainwater harvesting is not only proving useful for poor and scanty rainfall regions but also for
the rich ones.

OBJECTIVES

To reduce run off loss

To avoid flooding of roads

To meet the increasing demands of water

To raise the water table by recharging ground water

To reduce ground water contamination

To supplement ground water supplies during lean seasons

HARVESTING METHODS

By storing in tanks or reservoirs above or below ground

By constructing pits, dug wells, lagoons, trench or check dams

By recharging the ground water.

UNIT-5

THE AIR (PREVENTION AND CONTROL OF POLLUTION) ACT, 1981

The presence of various pollutants discharged through industrial emission and from certain
human activities connected with traffic, heating, use of domestic fuel, refuse incinerations etc..in
air, beyond certain limits, has a detrimental effect on the health of the people and also on
animal life, vegetation and property.
 The Central Government legislated the bill to implement the decisions taken regarding the
preservation of the quality of Air and control of air pollution, in Stockholm in the United
Nations Conference on the Human Environment, held in June, 1972.

Bodies governing this act:

Central Pollution Control Board

State Pollution Control Board

FUNCTIONS

To plan a comprehensive Program for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution and
to secure the execution thereof

To advise the State Government on any matter concerning the prevention, control or abatement
of air pollution

To collect and disseminate information relating to air pollution

To collaborate with the Central Board in organizing the training of persons engaged to prevent,
control or abatement of air pollution

To inspect, at all reasonable times, any control equipment, industrial plant or manufacturing
process

To inspect air pollution control areas at regular intervals as it may think necessary, assess the
quality of air therein and take steps for the prevention, control or abatement of air pollution in
such areas

To lay down regulations in consultation with the Central Board and having regard to the
standards for the quality of air, standards for emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere from
industrial plants and automobiles or for the discharge of any air pollutant into the atmosphere
from any other source

Different standards for emission may be laid down under this class for different industrial
plants having regard to the quantity and composition of emission of air pollutants into the
atmosphere from such industrial plants

To advise the State Government with respect to the suitability of any premises or location for
carrying on any industry which is likely to cause air pollution

In addition to the above functions, the State Board may establish or recognize a laboratory or
laboratories to enable the State Board to perform its above functions efficiently.

PENALITIES

Whoever fails to comply with the provisions of the act, shall be punishable with imprisonment
for a term which shall not be less than one year but which may extend to six years and with fine,
 and in case the failure continues, with an additional fine which may extend to five thousand
rupees for every day during which such failure continues after the conviction for the first such
failure.

If the failure continues beyond a period of one year after the date of conviction, the offender shall
be punishable with imprisonment with a term which shall not be less than two years but which
may extend to seven years and with fine.

If someone Damages any works or property belonging to the Board, or Fails to furnish to the
Board or any officer or other employee of the Board any information required by the Board or
such officer or other employee for the purpose of this Act, or Fails to intimate the occurrence of
the emission of air pollutants into the atmosphere in excess of the standards laid down by the
State Board shall be punishable with imprisonment for a term which may extend to three months
or with fine which may extend to ten thousand rupees or with both.

THE WATER ACT, 1974

The aim of this act is prevention and control of water pollution and the maintaining or restoring
of wholesomeness of water.

It is controlled by the State and the Central Government.

It is applicable to all the states of India including the union territories.

MEMBERS OF THE BOARD

A full time chairman

Five members from the state board

Three non-official members

two persons to represent the companies

a full-time member-secretary

A Board shall meet at least once in every three months

FEATURES OF THE ACT

(i) It provides for maintenance and restoration of quality of all types of surface and ground water.

(ii) It provides for the establishment of Central and State Board for pollution control.

(iii) It confers them with powers and functions to control pollution. The Central and State Pollution
Control Boards are widely represented and are given comprehensive powers to advise, coordinate and
provide technical assistance for prevention and control of pollution of water.
(iv) The Act has provisions for funds, budgets, accounts and audit of the Central and State Pollution
Control Boards.

(v) The Act makes provisions for various penalties for the defaulters and procedure for the same.

FUNCTIONS

Advices government to check on pollution.

Organizes training programs

Programs through mass media

Technical assistance and guidance to SPCB

Collect and analyze data about pollution

Manuals for treatment of sewage

Set standards for water quality parameters

Nationwide programs are organized

Establish R & D Laboratories

Advice regarding location of industries

Set standards for effluent discharge

Analyze legal samples of trade effluents

Sanction certificates to industries

Enforces implementation of effluent treatment pants

WILDLIFE PROTECTION ACT, 1972

The wildlife conservation responsibilities were transferred from the State Government to Central
Government.

Indian Board of Wildlife governs this Act.

Conservation of wildlife is practiced by setting up many National Parks and Sanctuaries.

Jammu & Kashmir doesnt abide by this act as they have other set of act for themselves.

FUNCTIONS

Appoints officials for conserving wildlife

Collect the list of endangered species

 Prohibit activities like poaching, hunting, deforestation, logging etc

Take measures to conserve the endangered species

Punish the offenders

Provision for trade on some species

setting up National Parks and Sanctuaries

DRAWBACKS OF THE ACT

Mild penalties to offenders

Illegal trades are promoted

Personal ownership certificates provided to own the skin or hides of animals

No rules to protect migrated endangered species

Improper facilities for animals in mobile zoos

Little emphasis to conserve plants

FOREST CONSERVATION ACT, 1980

It was framed to conserve forests and the related species.

Jammu & Kashmir doesnt abide by this act as they have other set of act for themselves.

It conserves reserve forests, protected forests and forest lands under government or private
ownership.

It is governed by the State & Central Government.

FUNCTIONS OF THE ACT

Forests should be used only for forestry.

State government seeks for funding to conserve forests

Stops non- forest activity

Cutting trees is not permitted until central government allows it.

Cultivation of cash crops in the forest areas

Planting medicinal plants or oil yielding crops

Rearing of silkworm is permitted

Mining and dams construction allowed when approved by central government

 Prepare cost benefit analysis & EIA

Removal of store-beds from rivers in forests.

DRAWBACKS OF THE ACT

Very poor participation of local people.

Tribal knowledge not used

Violation of the acts

Illegal trades are promoted

SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT

Solid Waste Management is the process of collecting, treating, and disposing of solid material
that is discarded because it has served its purpose or is no longer useful.

Improper disposal of municipal solid waste can create unsanitary conditions, and these conditions
in turn can lead to pollution and to outbreaks of vector-borne diseases.

The objective of solid wastes management to control, collect, process, dispose of solid wastes in
an economical way consistent with the public health protection

MUNICIPAL SOLID WASTE

It is generated from hotels, offices, residential areas, schools, commercial buildings etc

The major components are food waste, paper, plastic, rags, metals and glasses

WASTE MANAGEMENT

Door to door Collection and transfer to transfer station

Material recovery, reuse and recycling
Disposal : Open dumping, Land filling, Incineration
Waste treatment technologies : Composting, Anaerobic digestion, Gasification, Autoclave

MSW MANAGEMENT AND HANDLING ACT, 2000

MSW includes commercial, residential and treated biomedical wastes.

It is in solid or semi-solid form.

The Aim of the act is waste minimization using 3R Principle, Energy recovery, treatment and
disposal.

Responsible bodies:
 Central and state government

Municipal authorities

FUNCTIONS

Design, construction and management of landfill according to MSW Act.

Implementation of rules on infrastructure, development, segregation, transportation, processing

and disposal.

Grant authorization to set-up waste processing and landfill units.

Submit annual reports to central and state government before 30 th June of every year.

Monitor changes in the ground water, air, soil etc..

Examine the proposal for waste processing unit or landfill facility to grant approval.

To maintain reports on accidents

Central and state government frames rules, prepares guidelines, manuals and provides financial
assistance

Municipal authorities collect, transport, treat and dispose waste.

BIOMEDICAL WASTE HANDLING AND MANAGEMENT ACT, 1998

These wastes are of medical or laboratory origin.

They are potentially infectious and are in solid or liquid form.

Eg: blood, sharps, microbial cultures, body parts, used bandages, dressings, gloves, expired
medicines, lab wastes.

Colors for waste disposal:

Yellow- infectious waste

Red- plastics

Blue- glass

Black- sharps / metals

Green- biodegradables

MANAGEMENT OF WASTES

Sharps and plastics

recycle or landfill
 Liquid waste

chemical disinfection (soak in 1% bleach i.e. sodium hypochlorite for 1 hour)

Bioassay ( grow fishes in effluent water if 90% survived after 4 days )

Microbial or pathogenic waste

deep burial (Bury in 2m pits half filled with waste and rest with lime (50cm) and soil)

Incineration

Microwave

Autoclave (cook at 121C at 15psi for not less than 60 minutes)

FUNCTIONS OF OCCUPIER

Segregate biomedical waste from the MSW

Set up treatment facility with equipments

No waste storage for more than 48 hours

Transport in labeled and sealed vehicles

Provide training to staff and other workers

Submit annual reports to pollution control board authority

Report the accidents to the PCB authorities.

HAZARDOUS WASTE MANAGEMENT & HANDLING RULES

Hazardous waste is waste that is dangerous or potentially harmful to our health or the
environment.

Hazardous wastes can be liquids, solids, gases, or sludge.

They can be discarded commercial products, like cleaning fluids or pesticides, or the by-products
of manufacturing processes.

It does not include:

Waste water and exhaust gasses from industries

Wastes from ships discharged into oceans

Radioactive wastes under Atomic energy act.

It is governed by the State Pollution Control Board and Central Pollution Control Board.
 Import of Hazardous Waste:

Dumping waste is not allowed

Re-use as raw materials allowed

Central Government gives permission after discussion with SPCB and CPCB.

RESPONSIBILITIES OF OWNER

Ensure wastes are handled and disposed without causing adverse effects

If treated by others the owner has to give full information about the waste.

Label the waste before transport.

Packing should be strong to withstand the physical and chemical conditions.

Submit annual reports to SPCB

RESPONSIBILITIES OF SPCB

Identify dumpsites for hazardous waste disposal

Conduct environmental impact assessment on regular intervals

Issue authorization for waste treatment after analyzing technical capabilities, facilities, equipment
required for waste treatment. This has to be renewed every two years.

Submit annual reports to the CPCB.

ROLE OF IT IN ENVIRONMENT

Internet, Databases, Geographical Information System (GIS), Satellite Information, softwares to

study about impacts of pollution.

DATABASE

Provides information about diseases, geographical information, wildlife, conservation methods,

forests etc

It is easy to access through internet and provides systematic arrangement.

Examples:

National Management Information System (NMIS)

Environmental Information System (ENVIS)

REMOTE SENSING & GIS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Remote sensing involves development of different sensors for environmental and natural
resources mapping and data acquisition.

Thematic maps are constructed using software. They provide information about the land, water,
mineral, soil resources. It also provides information about the success of conservation methods
practiced.

Zoning atlas is used for planning industries, cities etc

ENVIRONMENT MONITORING

The remote sensing data are used for the following applications

i. Deforestation

ii. Species inventory

iii. Watershed protection (riparian strips)

iv. Coastal protection (mangrove forests)

v. Forest health and vigor.

GEOLOGICAL APPLICATION

It is most commonly understood as the exploration and exploitation of mineral and hydrocarbon
resources, generally to improve the condition and standard of living in society.

It is also the study of potential hazards such as volcanoes, landslides, and earth quakes.

Remote sensing is used as a tool to extract information about the land structure, composition or
subsurface.

URBAN MAPPING APPLICATIONS

Urban landscapes are typically a complex combination of buildings, roads, parking lots,
sidewalks, garden, cemetery, soil, water, and so on.

Each of the urban component surfaces exhibits a unique thermal, moisture, and aerodynamic
properties, and relates to their surrounding site environment to create the spatial complexity of
ecological systems.
 To understand the dynamics of patterns and processes and their interactions in heterogeneous
landscapes such as urban areas, one must be able to quantify accurately the spatial pattern of the
landscape and its temporal changes

COASTAL ECOSYSTEM MANAGEMENT

Based on remote sensing a variety of data pertaining to the coastal zone like, identification of
plant community, biomass estimation, shoreline changes, delineation of coastal landforms and
tidal boundary, qualitative estimation of suspended sediment concentration, chlorophyll mapping,
bathymetry of shallow waters, etc. can be collected and all these data will help in effective coastal
ecosystem management.

ROLE OF IT IN ENVIRONMENTAL ETHICS

Environmental ethics are a key feature of environmental studies, that establishes relationship
between humans and the earth.

With environmental ethics, you can ensure that you are doing your part to keep the environment
safe and protected.

Every time that a tree is cut down to make a home or other resources are used we are using
natural resources that are becoming more and more sparse to find.

It is essential that you do your part to keep the environment protected and free from danger. It is
not as difficult to do they are few simple and easy changes.

Environmental ethics builds on scientific understanding by bringing human values, moral

principles, and improved decision making into conversation with science.

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Development means making life better, e.g., to have a better standard of living and an improved
quality of life

Sustainable Development means making sure that the things we do, the goods we buy and the
lifestyle we have today will not harm the environment for us, for people in other places and for
future generations

The use of renewable and nonrenewable resources in a manner that satisfies our current needs but
does not compromise the future availability of resources

According to the UN, sustainable development meets the needs of the present without
sacrificing the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

SUSTAINABLE ECOLOGY

The ecological sustainability of human settlements is part of the relationship between humans and
their natural, social and built environments.
 Fundamental human needs such as the availability and quality of air, water, food and shelter are
also the ecological foundations for sustainable development.

SALIENT FEATURES OF SUSTAINABLE HOUSES

sky-gardens

tropical landscape in the sky gardens

air spaces and wind scoops

Solar panels

natural ventilation

use of cavity walls for insulation

use of natural materials

reduced use of water and power resources

rainwater harvesting unit

THREATS TO SUSTAINABILITY

Population explosion

Urbanization

Over exploitation of resources

OVERCONSUMPTION

Over consumption is a situation where resource use has outpaced the sustainable capacity of the
ecosystem.

A prolonged pattern of over consumption leads to inevitable environmental degradation and the
eventual loss of resource bases.

Generally the discussion of over consumption parallels that of overpopulation.

POPULATION EXPLOSION

Current global population of over 7 billion is already two to three times higher than the
sustainable level.

Currently, over 7 billion of us are consuming about 50% more resources than Earth is producing
during any given time period.
 We are consuming our resource base.

To become sustainable with Earths resources we have to Reduce overall consumption by 50%
Or, reduce the population by 3 to 4 billion would do it.

OVER EXPLOITATION OF RESOURCES

Effects:

Loss of natural habitats, ecosystems, and their biodiversity

Destruction of wetlands

Disappearance of species

Decline in fisheries and food chain problems

Reduction in flora and fauna

Reduction in the flow rates of rivers

Erosion

Pollution of environment

Solutions:

Land planning and resource management

Integrated Marine-Coastal Zone Management jointly between countries

Studies on population dynamics of species to ensure their sustainable use

Controls for efficient natural resource use by the state, through continuous patrols

Involvement of society

STRATEGIES FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Reclamation of waste land

Afforestation
Reforestation
Provide surface cover
Mulching
Changing Ground Topography on hills
Changing agricultural practices
Ecological Succession

WHAT IS GREEN TECHNOLOGY

Environmental friendly technology

 Conserve natural resources and the environment through Sustainable development

Radical thinking to change

Innovative technology

Waste minimization is a process of elimination that involves reducing the amount of waste
produced in society and helps eliminate the generation of harmful and persistent wastes,
supporting the efforts to promote a more sustainable society.

Recycling is a process to change waste materials into new products to prevent waste of
potentially useful materials

Renewing is to make something new which can replenish to overcome usage and consumption,
either through biological reproduction or other naturally recurring processes.

GREEN CITY

Also called sustainable city or eco-city

It is a city designed with consideration of environmental impact, inhabited by people dedicated to

minimize required inputs of energy, water and food, and waste output of heat and pollution.

It should be able to feed itself with a sustainable reliance on the surrounding environment and it
should be able to power itself with renewable sources of energy.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GREEN CITIES

City planning

Zero emission transport

Renewable energy sources

Green roofs

Energy conservation system

Eco industrial park

Urban farming

CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM

The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is one of the Flexible Mechanisms defined in the
Kyoto Protocol that provides for emissions reduction projects which generate Certified Emission
Reduction units which may be traded in emissions trading schemes

KYOTO PROTOCOL
 The Kyoto Protocol was an agreement negotiated by many countries in December 1997 and
came into force on February 16, 2005.

The protocol was developed under the UNFCCC - the United Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change.

The Kyoto Protocol have committed to cut emissions of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases.

If participant countries continue with emissions above the targets, then they are required to
engage in emissions trading.

192 countries have ratified the agreement. Two countries refused to ratify Kyoto until December
2007 - Australia and the USA.

OBJECTIVES

To reduce the emission of greenhouse gases.

To educate and train the public and to bring awareness about the drastic change in climate.

To develop climate friendly technologies.

To improve the research methodology for the systemic observations on climate change.

INTERNATIONAL EMISSIONS TRADING (IET)

Under this mechanism, one Party may transfer Kyoto units to or acquire units from another
Party.

A Party may acquire an unlimited number of units.

The number of units that a Party may transfer to other Parties is limited by the Partys
commitment period reserve (CPR).

The CPR is the minimum level of units that a Party must hold in its national registry at all times.

The requirement for each Party to maintain a CPR prevents a Party from over-transferring units,
and thus impair its ability to meet its commitments

JOINT IMPLEMENTATION (JI)

It is a project-based mechanism

In JI one Party (Developed Country) can invest in a project that reduces emissions or enhances
sequestration in another Party (Developed or Developing Country), and receive credit for the
emission reductions or removals achieved through that project.
 The unit associated with JI is called an emission reduction unit (ERU).

CLEAN DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM

Developed countries can fund emission reduction projects (e.g. solar energy, wind energy and
other green technologies) in developing nations that did not sign Kyoto Protocol.

In exchange, the developed countries earn legally recognized emission credits called CERs
(Certified Emission Reduction) to offset their emission obligations.

Objectives:

to help developed countries fulfill their commitments to reduce emissions

To assist developing countries in achieving sustainable development.