Introduction to Shock Waves

by Gajanan V Honnavar,
Department of Science and Humanities,
PES Institute of Technology - Bangalore South Campus,
Hosur Road, Bangalore - 100.

1 Introduction:
In the twentieth century, the eld of aeronautics made very rapid progress both in theory
and experiment. The research made in the eld of gas dynamics enabled us to design the
rst supersonic air craft, Bell X-1, by 1946.
Gas dynamics is one of the important branch of mechanical engineering especially
aeronautical engineering, which deals with the study of the behavior of air when
compressibility and temperature changes becomes important. Compressibility is a
phenomenon by virtue of which the uid ow changes its density with change in speed.
There are two types of ows: one in which the the density of the uid undergoes a
signicant change - compressible ows; and the other in which density is assumed to be
invariant - in-compressible ows. However, when the ow velocity is very small, changes
in density can be neglected and assumption of constant density can be made.
Air is considered to be the best example of compressible uid. Sound waves traveling
in air can be considered as innitely small pressure disturbances. The speed with which
this disturbance (sound) travels is an important parameter in gas dynamics. It is given by
the formula,
p
a = RT

where a is the speed of sound in air, R is universal gas constant, T is the temperature and
is the ratio of specic heats and is constant for perfect gas. R = 287 m 2/s2K and =
1.4 and from the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), T at sea level is taken to be
15o C or 288 K. Putting all these values in the above equation, we get:
p
a= 1.4  287  288 m/s =340.17 m/s

This constant value is a bench mark for most of the calculations in gas dynamics.

2 Mach number and Classication of sound waves:

An Austrian physicist Ernst Mach made one of the rst detailed study of objects moving
faster than the speed of sound and showed that it creates a compression of air in front of
it. A dimensionless parameter which gives a measure of how fast an object moves with
respect to the speed of sound in a particular medium is named after Mach. Figure 1 shows
a portrait of Ernst Mach and his photograph of shock wave created by a moving bullet.

1
2 Section 2

Figure 1. Ernst Mach and his early photograph of shock wave.

Denition 1. Mach number: Ratio of speed of the ow in a particular medium to the
speed of sound in that particular medium.

M =V /a

where V is the speed of the ow in a particular medium and a is the speed of sound in
that medium. Mach number is very important in compressible ow theory. In general,
both V and a are functions of position and time, so that the Mach number is not just
the ow speed made dimensionless by dividing by a constant. Therefore we cannot write
M / V in general. However, it is almost always true that M increases monotonically with
V . Depending on the value of Mach number the ows are classied into dierent regimes.

Denition 2. Acoustic waves are a type of longitudinal waves that propagate by means
of adiabatic compression and decompression. Longitudinal waves are waves that have the
same direction of vibration as their direction of travel. Important quantities for describing
acoustic waves are sound pressure, particle velocity, particle displacement and sound
intensity. Acoustic waves travel with the speed of sound which depends on the medium
they're passing through.

Audible range of sound has frequency range from 20 - 20,000 Hz. If the sound has
frequency lesser than 20 Hz, it is called as infrasonic and if the sound frequency is more
than 20,000 Hz it is called as ultrasonic.

2.1 Classication of ow regime:

On the basis of Mach number the ows can be categorized as follows:

Mach number Range Regime of ow Characteristics

0 < M < 0.3 In-compressible Flow density is unchanged
M<1 Subsonic Flow speed is lower than the local speed of sound
0.8 < M < 1.2 Transonic Mixed feature of subsonic and supersonic
1<M<5 Supersonic Flow speed is higher than the local speed of sound
M>5 Hypersonic Special class of supersonic ow with unique properties
Mach number and Classification of sound waves: 3

The threshold Mach numbers that separates the regime of ow are not xed and there
is no sudden change that happens to ows as it crosses that number. These numbers are
only indicative of the point where the dierent features of the particular ow regime starts
to appear.
In subsonic ow ( M < 1), the velocity of the ow is lesser than the local speed of
sound in that medium. Thus one can able to `feel'(hear) the approaching ow before hand.
Cars, trains and passenger aircraft travel with this speed.
On the other hand, a supersonic ow ( M > 1), is characterized by the ow velocity
V higher than the local speed of sound a. In such situations the information of the ow
( like sound, pressure variation etc) reaches after the ow has crossed a particular point.
Fighter aircraft, missiles travel at supersonic speed.

Figure 2. Propagation of disturbance at dierent speeds.

a) when the object is stationary.
b) when the object is moving with a speed equal to the speed of sound.
c) when the object is moving with speed less than that of sound.
d) when the object is moving with speed more than that of sound.

The propagation of disturbance waves created by an object moving with velocity V =

0, V = a,
V < a and V > a is shown in Fig. 2. The disturbance waves reach a stationary
observer before the source of disturbance could reach him in subsonic ow as shown in
Fig. 4(c). But in supersonic ows, it takes considerable amount of time for an observer
to perceive the pressure disturbance, after the source has passed him. This is one of the
fundamental dierence between subsonic and supersonic ow. In Fig. 2 (d), it is shown
that for supersonic motion of an object there is a well-dened conical zone in the ow eld
with the object located at the nose of the cone. This cone is known as Mach cone. The
ow eld out side the cone does not even feel the disturbance. For this reason the zone
inside the cone is called as zone of action and the region outside is known as zone of
silence. The angle between direction of motion and the surface of the Mach cone is called
as Mach angle, . From the Fig. 2 (d):

at a
sin  = =
Vt V

1
sin  =
M
4 Section 3

3 Shock waves:

When an object moves through a uid medium, waves are emitted from each point on the
object and travel outward at the velocity of sound. In an in-compressible uid, the velocity
of sound in innite; therefore, the entire ow eld is able to feel the motion of the object
instantaneously. In a compressible medium, the velocity of sound has a nite value, and
therefore, if a body travels at a velocity greater than that of sound in that medium, the uid
ahead of the body is not able to sense the motion of the object. But, for subsonic motion
of an object, the uid ahead of the object is able to sense the motion of the object. Thus,
for subsonic motion, the uid adjusts smoothly around the object, resulting in smooth
continuous streamline pattern, whereas for supersonic case, the uid is forced to adjust
rapidly to a moving object, resulting in a shock wave. This is depicted in Fig. 3.

Figure 3. Streamlines of (a) subsonic ( M < 1 ) and (b) supersonic ( M > 1 ) ows.

Denition 3. Shock waves: It can be dened as a propagating disturbance in a supersonic

ow across which there is an abrupt, nearly discontinuous change in the uid properties
like, pressure, temperature and density.

Shock waves are generated during a sudden release of large amount of energy such as
bomb explosion or lightening strike.
In Fig 3, when the ow is subsonic ( M < 1), i.e., when the object is moving slower than
the sound speed, the molecules of the uid far upstream (molecules in front of the direction
of motion of the object), get the information about the presence of the body through the
signals which travel with the speed of sound, well in advance before reaching the object.
Thus the molecules orient themselves around the object as shown in Fig 3(a). But when
the ow is supersonic, the molecules travel faster than the signal and there is no possibility
that they will be informed of the presence of the body before they reach it. The reected
signals from the face of the body coalesce and forms a thin compression wave called as
shock wave. as shown in Fig.3(b). Upstream of the shock, the ow has no information about
the presence of the body. The streamlines behind the normal shock quickly compensate
for the obstruction, as the ow is subsonic after a normal shock. The formation of shock
takes place after the uid impinge on to the face of the body and rebound and not when
the ow just starts.
Normal Shocks and Normal Shock Relations: 5

4 Normal Shocks and Normal Shock Relations:

A normal shock wave is the one where the wave is perpendicular to the orientation of
the ow. When the ow traverses across a normal shock, the velocity instantaneously
drops to a subsonic value. Simultaneously, the static pressure, temperature and density
are instantaneously elevated to a new unknown values. The ow across a normal shock is
always one dimensional.

Figure 4. Flow across a normal shock

Figure 4 depicts the streamline that encounters a normal shock. Region 1 is the
upstream where the ow is supersonic (M1 > 1). Temperature, static pressure and density
all have known (given) values or conditions. Region 2 is the downstream after the encounter
of the shock. Here the ow is always subsonic (M2 < 1). In the downstream the values
of static temperature, pressure and densities are higher than the values of the upstream
but not known. Since the non-equilibrium (shock) region, in principle is very thin, the
continuity (jump) of the ow parameters can be considered. There is no heat added or
taken out from the ow as it passes through the shock; thus the ow can be considered
as adiabatic but irreversible.
Considering the gas to be calorically perfect, i.e., one in which the ideal gas equation:
p = RT holds and Cp, specic heat at constant pressure, remains independent of
temperature and pressure. and considering continuity of the ow across region 1 and
2, following conservation laws can be written, which connects the quantities in region
1 to the unknown quantities of region 2.
Conservation of mass:
1V1 = 2V2
Conservation of momentum:
p1 + 1V12 = p2 + 2V22
Conservation of energy:
V12 V2
h1 + = h2 + 2
2 2
where h is the enthalpy of the gas given by: h = CpT .
6 Section 4

4.1 Derivation of normal shock relations:

To begin an analysis of the changes across the normal shock, we need to assume certain
things. Let M * be the hypothetical Mach no. = 1. The speed of sound at this Mach no.
is a*, so that M  = V /a. The M * is related to real Mach no. M by the formula:
( + 1)M 2
M 2 =
( 1)M 2 + 2

Prandtl relation gives the connection between a* and the velocities of up and downstream
V 1 and V 2. i.e., a2 = V1V2.
Let us now consider the continuity equation, conservation of mass. Rearranging this
equation we have:
2 V V2 V12
= 1 = 1 = 2 ; from Prandtl relation:
1 V2 V1V2 a

2 V
but M  = V /a; thus = 1 = M12:
1 V2

From the relation between M  and M ; we have:

2 V1 ( + 1)M12
= = (1)
1 V2 ( 1)M12 + 2

To obtain the pressure ratio, Let us consider the momentum relation:

p1 + 1V12 = p2 + 2V22

Rearranging the equation, we get:

p2 p1 = 1V12 2V22

p2 p1 = (1V1)V1 (2V2)V2

By using conservation of mass relation, the above equation can be rewritten as:

p2 p1 = (1V1)V1 (1V1)V2
= (1V1)(V1 V2)
 
V2
= 1V1 1
2
V1

deviding throughout by p1; we get:

 
p2 p1 1V12 V2
= 1 (2)
p1 p1 V1
p p
speed of sound can be written as; a = RT = p/ ;
 Production and analysis of shock waves in laboratory: Shock tubes 7

using this relation equation(2) can be written as:

 
p2 p1 V12 V2
= 1
p1 a21 V1

But; V1 /a1 = M1

The ratio of velocities can be obtained from equation(1): Thus:

 
p2 p1 2 + ( 1)M12
= M1 1
2
p1 ( + 1)M12

Which can be simplied to:

p2 2
= 1+ (M 2 1) (3)
p1 +1 1
p2 p1
The ratio p1
is called as shock strength.

To obtain the ratio of temperatures, we use state equation: p = RT. From this the
temperature ratio of up and down streams T1 and T2 can be written as:
  
T2 p2 1
=
T1 p1 2

SubstitutingthevaluesfromEq:(3) andEq:(1); weget:

  
T2 2 2 + ( 1)M12
= 1 (M 2 1) (4)
T1 +1 1 ( + 1)M12

Equations (1), (3) and (4) gives the ratios of the ow parameters from up and
downstream parameters. They are known as `jump equations'. The are also known as
Rankine-Hugoniot relations in honor for the pioneering work done by W.J.M. Rankine
and P.H. Hugoniot in the eld of shock waves.

5 Production and analysis of shock waves in laboratory:

Shock tubes
Shock tubes are devices used to produce and analyze shock waves in a controlled manner.
It consists of a compartment where high pressure is created, called as driver section and
a long tube where the shock waves travel, called as driven section. These two sections
are separated by a metal diaphragm.This diaphragm ruptures to create shock wave.
Figure 5 shows the schematic of a simple shock tube with the distinct parts and an image
of a working shock tube at Laboratory of Hypersonic and Shock Wave Research (LHSR)
in Aerospace department at Indian Institute of Science (IISc), Bengaluru.
8 Section 5

Figure 5. (a) Schematic of a simple shock tube.

(b) A chemical shock tube at Aerospace dept. IISc, Bengaluru.
To create a high pressure in driver section a compressed gas can be used. In this case
the tube is known as compressed gas-driven shock tube. One create a small blast in
the driver section which will then propagate to the driven section. In such case the shock
tube is known as blast-driven shock tube.

5.1 Working of a shock tube:

Figure 6 shows the various stages of the shock wave traversing inside a shock tube. Fig. 6(a)
shows the condition just before the diaphragm ruptures. The driver section is lled with
a pressurized air (referred as region 4) which is just sucient to rupture the diaphragm.
The driven section (region 1) is lled with a test gas at a predetermined pressure.

Figure 6. Working of a shock tube. (a) Initial condition before diaphragm rupture,
(b) Primary shock formed after diaphragm rupture, (c) The shock moves forward
into the driven gas, (d) The primary shock is reected o the end wall and
re-compresses the driven gas.
Fig. 6(b) shows the situation when the diaphragm is just ruptured. The high pressure
is released into the driven region. Since it is a sudden release, the ow moves faster than
the `information' and a shock is created (region 2). Following this several compressive waves
will enter into the driven section (shown as region 3). These waves will travel in the shock
tube as shown in Fig. 6(c) and reach the end of the tunnel from which the shock wave
will be reected and re-compress the driven gas while moving backwards (right to left as
shown in Fig. 6(d)).
Reddy tube: 9

5.2 Analysis and calculation:

To analyze the nature of shock waves and to calculate the speed and Mach number of the
shock being created, two pressure sensors (piezoelectric gauges) are placed at the end of the
tube with a specied distance between them (X ) as shown in Fig. 7. As the shock wave
pass through each of these sensors the voltage of these sensors shows a steep rise with a
time lag between the signals from each of them. This time lag is noted(
t). The voltage
vs time graph is shown in Fig. 8.

Figure 7. Figure 8.

The speed with which the primary shock is moving can be estimated using the following
relation:
X
Vs =

t

where Vs is the velocity of the shock wave generated in the shock tube. The Mach number
of the shock wave is given by:
Vs V
Ms = =p s
a1 R1T1

where a1, R1 and T1 are the velocity of sound, gas constant and temperature of the test
gas lled in region 1 of Fig. 6(a).

6 Reddy tube:

A Reddy tube is a miniaturized shock tube rst conceived by Prof. K.P.J. Reddy of IISc.
It is a manually operated shock tube where the driver section uses a piston to produce
required pressure to rupture the diaphragm, which in this case, is either made of plastic
sheet or tracing sheet. The rst version of the Reddy tube was built around a medical
syringe shown in Fig. 9. It is a open ended manually driven shock tube. Compression tube
and plunger makes the driver section; needle is the driven section. Plastic sheet between
the compression tube and needle acts as diaphragm.
10 Section 7

Figure 9. First version of Reddy tube using

medical syringe.
When the piston is pushed in, the gas present inside the compression tube is pressurized
and when the pressure is just enough the diaphragm ruptures sending a shock wave
across the needle. At such a small dimensions, the eect of viscosity on the uid becomes
important and the shock created slows down quickly.
A slightly modied version is shown in Fig. 10 which uses a larger diameter cylinder
to enable mounting of the sensors. It, never the less, works on the same principle.

Figure 10. Modied version of the Reddy tube

It is used in the demonstration of shock waves.

7 Uses of Shock waves:

 Aerodynamics  Hypersonic shock tunnels, scram jet engines.
 High temperature chemical kinetics  ignition delay.
 Rejuvenating depleted bore wells.
 Material studies  eect of sudden impact pressure, blast protection materials.
 Investigation of traumatic brain injuries.
 Needle-less drug delivery.
 Industrial (tea, pencil, bamboo)