Writing Empirical Research Report PDF

Writing Empirical
Research Reports
A Basic Guide for Students of the
Social and Behavioral Sciences
Fifth Edition
Fred Pyrczak
California State University, Los Angeles
Randall R. Bruce
Editorial Consultant
p yrczak Publishing
P.O. Box 250430 Glendale, CA 91225
"Pyrczak Publishing" is an imprint of Fred Pyrczak, Publisher, A Cali fornia Corporation.
Although the author and publisher have made every effort to ensure the accuracy and
completeness of information contained in this book, we assume no responsibility for
errors, inaccuracies, omissions, or any inconsistency herein. Any slights of people,
places, or organizations are unintentional.
Project Director: Monica Lopez.
Editorial assistance provided by Kenneth Ornburn, Brenda Koplin, Sharon Young, Erica
Simmons, and Cheryl Alcorn.
Cover design by Robert Kibler and Larry Nichols.
Printed in the United States of America by Malloy, Inc.
Copyright 2005, 2003, 2000, 1998, 1992 by Pyrczak Publishing. All rights reserved.
Permission is hereby granted for professors and their students to photocopy Appendix A
for use only in classes in which this book is used as a required textbook. Except for
Appendix A, no portion of this book may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means without the prior written permission of the publisher.
ISBN 1-884585-58-2
ii
Contents
Introduction to the Fifth Edition v
1. Structuring a Research Report 1
2. Writing Simple Research Hypotheses 9
3. A Closer Look at Hypotheses 23
4. Writing Research Purposes, Objectives, and Questions 31
5. Writing Titles 39
6. Writing Introductions and Literature Reviews 49
7. Writing Definitions 69
8. Writing Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations 79
9. Writing Method Sections 85
10. Writing Analysis and Results Sections 97
1 1. Writing Discussion Sections 105
12. Writing Abstracts 113
13. A Closer Look at Writing Reports of Qualitative Research 119
14. Preparing a Reference List 133
References 139
Appendix A Checklist of Guidelines 143
Appendix B Thinking Straight and Writing That Way 151
Appendix C The Null Hypothesis and Significance Testing 1 57
iii
Notes:
iv
Introduction to the Fifth Edition
This book presents guidelines frequently followed by writers of empirical

research reports. The guidelines describe the types of information that should be
included, how this information should be expressed, and where various types of
information should be placed within a research report.
Students whose professors require them to write research-based term papers
that resemble journal articles will find this book useful. The exercises at the end of
each chapter are designed for their use. Graduate students who are writing theses
and dissertations will find that most of the guidelines also apply to their writing.
Interspersed throughout the text are pointers for such students. Finally, students
who are writing research proposals will also find that most of the guidelines apply
to their writing.
What This Book Will Not Do for You
This book is not a traditional style manual that prescribes mechanical

details such as the forms for levels of headings, typing requirements, and so on. A
number of excellent style manuals, including the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association, already cover these matters. Neither will you
find here a discussion of the mechanics of standard English usage; it is assumed
that you have already mastered these. Finally, it is also assumed that you have
already selected an important research topic, applied sound research methods, and
analyzed the data. Thus, these topics are not covered.
Cautions in Using This Book
The guidelines presented in this book are based on generalizations that we

reached while reading extensively in journals in the social and behavioral sciences.
If you are a student using this book in a research class, your professor may ask you
to ignore or modify some of the guidelines you will find here. This may occur for
two reasons. First, as a learning experience, your professor may require you to do
certain things that go beyond the preparation of a paper for possible publication.
For example, we suggest that the literature review for a j ournal article should
usually be highly selective. Your professor may have you write a more extensive
literature review, however, in order for you to show that you know how to conduct
a comprehensive search of the literature on a topic. Second, as in all types of
writing, there is a certain amount of subjectivity concerning what constitutes
effective writing; even experts differ. Fortunately, these differences are less
pronounced in scientific writing than in many other types.
v
Experienced writers may violate many of the guidelines presented in this
book and still write effective research reports that are publishable. Beginners are
encouraged to follow the guidelines rather closely until they have mastered the art
of scientific writing.
Where to Begin in This Book
F or a quick overview of five fundamental principles for effective research

writing, begin with Appendix B, Thinking Straight and Writing That Way. Then
read Chapter l, which will provide an overview of the structure of typical research
reports.
About the Fifth Edition
The most important change from the Fourth to the Fifth Edition is the
addition of two new chapters: Chapter 1 on structuring a research report and
Chapter 14 on preparing a reference list.
All the guidelines that were in the Fourth Edition are included in this one.
You will find that many of the examples that illustrate the guidelines have been
updated with newer ones that deal with contemporary issues. In addition to the
new guidelines in the two new chapters, the following new guidelines are included
in other chapters in this edition: 2.2, 2.7, 6.7, 6.8, 6.20, 9.6, 9.7, 1 3 . 8 , 1 3 . 1 0, and
1 3 . 1 1.
Acknowledgments
The authors are grateful to Dr. Dean Purcell of Oakland University, who
provided many helpful comments on the First Edition of this book. Dr. Robert
Morman of California State University, Los Angeles, provided many useful
suggestions. Any errors, of course, remain the responsibility of the authors.
vi
Chapter 1
Structuring a Research Report
This chapter provides an overview of the elements typically included

in research reports. Each of these is discussed in greater detail in later
chapters.
Guideline 1 . 1 A research report typically has a brief

title.
Titles of published research reports typically are brief. They usually

refer to the population of interest and to the variables studied. Example
1.1.1 shows a title of about average length for a research report published
in an academic journal. In it, the variables are self-concept and
employment status. The population consists of individuals with epilepsy.
Example 1 . 1 . 1
The Relationship Between Self-Concept and Employment Status Among

Individuals with Epilepsy
Chapter 5 in this book covers how to write titles in more detail.
Guideline 1 .2 A n abstract usually follows the title.
An abstract is a brief summary of the research. It is often stated in as

few as 150 words or less. Its purpose is to help individuals who are
searching for literature quickly identify research reports of particular
interest to them. Abstracts are especially important to such individuals
because abstracts are more informative than titles.
An abstract should normally be written after the body of the report
has been completed. Hence, guidelines for writing them are presented near
the end of this book in Chapter 12.
1
Chapter 1 Structuring a Research Report
Guideline 1 .3 The body of a basic research report

should have an introduction that includes a literature
review, a section on research methods, a section on
results, and a discussion.
The elements specified in this guideline are almost always covered

in the order in which they are named. For instance, the introduction and
literature review almost always precede the section describing the research
methods that were employed to conduct the study.
Writing introductions and literature reviews is covered in Chapter 6,
writing method sections is covered in Chapter 9, writing analysis and
results sections is covered in Chapter 10, and writing discussion sections
is covered in Chapter 11.
Guideline 1 .4 The section on research methods

almost always has two main subsections: "Participants"
and "Instrumentation."
The subsection on the participants describes how they were

identified and selected. The subsection on instrumentation describes the
measuring tools, such as tests and attitude scales.
While there may be variations in wording of the subheadings (such
as "Sample" instead of "Participants" or "Measures" instead of
"Instrumentation"), these two subsections are almost always included in
the method section. Chapter 9 describes guidelines for writing method
sections.
Example 1.4.1 shows the structure of a basic research report with the
elements discussed up to this point in this chapter.
Example 1 .4.1
Title in Upper- and Lower-Case Letters

Abstract
An introduction including a literature review (typically with no heading)
Method (a main heading that is centered)
Participants (a subheading that is flush left)
Instrumentation (a subheading that is flush left)
Results (a main heading that is centered)
Discussion (a main heading that is centered)
2
A third subheading, "Procedure," is sometimes included under

"Instrumentation" in the Method section. This is the appropriate place to
describe the treatments given in an experiment, including details such as
which participants received each treatment, who administered the
treatments, and how long the treatments lasted.
Normally, researchers do not describe how they computed widely
used statistics. However, when they use new statistical methods or when
they have chosen a lesser known method of analysis over a more
commonly used one, it is appropriate to label the results section with the
main heading of "Analysis and Results" instead of just "Results."
Guideline 1 .5 Be generous in using subheadings

within each m ain section of the report.
Subheadings help readers follow the structure of a research report.

Also, researchers often find that using subheadings that break up each
major section of a research report into manageable shorter subsections
makes writing a research report easier.
Example 1. 5 .1 shows the structure of a research report with a
number of subheadings.
Example 1 .5 . 1
Title
Abstract
An introduction that begins here without a heading, followed by a literature
review with the following subheadings.
Pervasiveness of the Problem 1
Conflicts in the Literature
Gaps in the Literature
Theoretical Perspectives
Rationale for Hypothesis 1
Rationale for Hypothesis 2
Method
Participants
Identifying the Population
Selecting the Sample
Demographics of the Sample
Instrumentation
The Achievement Test
1 This is the first subheading within the integrated introduction and literature review. It would be preceded
by one or more paragraphs that provide a general introduction to the research topic.
3
The Attitude Scale

Procedu re
Assignment to the Treatments
Administration of the Treatments
Results
Results for Hypothesis 1
Descriptive Statistics
Significance Tests
Results for Hypothesis 2
Descriptive Statistics
Significance Tests
Discussion
Summary
Implications
Implications for Clinical Psychologists
Theoretical Implications
Limitations of the C urrent Research
Suggestions for Future Research
Conclusions
Note that the number of subheadings and their names can vary
greatly depending on the topic and the research methods used. Also note
that the research hypotheses, research objectives, or research questions are
typically stated just before the Method section, as is done in Example
1 .5 . 1 above (e.g., "Rationale for Hypothesis 1 ") . Writing research
hypotheses, objectives, questions, and purposes is covered in Chapters 2,
3, and 4.
Example 1 .5 .2 shows the headings and subheadings used in a
recently published research report. Note that the paragraph under the title
in italics is the complete abstract. Only portions of the text are shown
under each of the headings and subheadings.
Example 1 .5.2
Adolescent Mothers in a Transitional Living Facility:

An Exploratory Study of Support Networks and Attachment Patterns
Most of the research literature on attachment and adolescent transitions has

addressed youth in family settings. This article explores these issues with a
sample of 25 pregnant and parenting teens living in a transitional shelter. Using
case records and interview data as well as results of standardized measures of
depression, self-esteem, child abuse potential, and emotional autonomy, insights
on relationships between adolescent mothers and their parents, romantic
partners, staff, and children are explored, and implications are provided for
agencies serving this population.
[Note: The introduction to the report begins here without a heading.]
4
According to psychoanalytic theory, the processes of separation and

individuation are the main tasks of adolescence and the transition to young
adulthood (Kenny, 1994). However, Bowlby (1988) and Ainsworth (1989) have
long held that attachment is a lifelong need, not something children outgrow.
Even as individuals achieve a high degree of autonomy and establish....2
3
Attachment Theory
At the heart of attachment theory is the primacy of intimate bonds for
human functioning (Bowlby, 1988). Unlike psychoanalytic theory, attachment
theory states that emotional bonds are....
Attachment and Adolescence
According to attachment theorists, the developmental changes of
adolescence do not have an impact on attachment patterns. Adolescents face....
The Importance of Attachment for Adolescents
Insecure parental attachments have been correlated with a number of
negative outcomes in adolescents. Allen et al. (1996) found....
The Influence of Teen Pregnancy on Attachment
Limited research has been conducted on the attachment relationships of
adolescent mothers. Many of these women confront. ...
Research Questions
Using Bowlby's theoretical perspective on attachment, this study was
designed to explore....
The literature on attachment theory suggested the following [research]
questions for the population under study:
What is the nature of the attachments between....
What outcomes do participants exhibit that may be related to....
What outcomes do participants' children exhibit that may be related to....
Method
4
Participants
The sample for this study consisted of 25 adolescent mothers participating
in the first 18 months of a transitional living program located....
Instru mentation
Qualitative Measures. This study is based on a comprehensive analysis of
multiple data sources used by researchers in....
Quantitative Measures. Several standardized measures were used to assess
participants' emotional well-being and....
Results
Relationships with Parents
For most of the participants, relationships with parents have been tenuous
and often disrupted. For some, their parental relationships have been....
2 This paragraph is the beginning of the integrated introduction and literature review. It begins directly
under the abstract without a heading.

3 This is the first subheading within the integrated introduction and literature review. It indicates that the
literature on attachment theory will be discussed in this section.

4 This is the first subheading under "Method."
5
Romantic Relationsh ips

A majority of these adolescent participants indicated that they either had a
boyfriend or were currently....
Relationships with Children
Because the participants have experienced insecure attachments with their
own early attachment figures and face many challenges to ....
Discussion
Although it is impossible to generalize or draw strong conclusions from....
References
Ainsworth, M. ( 1 989). Attachments beyond infancy. American Psychologist, 44,00 . . 5
Guideline 1 .6 In a thesis or dissertation, the

introduction and the literature review are often
presented in separate chapters.
Unlike j ournal articles in which the literature review is typically

integrated into the introduction, theses and dissertations typically have
two separate chapters for these elements. Chapter 1 presents the
introduction, which defines the topic of the research and establishes its
importance, and Chapter 2 provides a synthesis of the literature on the
topic.
If you are writing a research report for a class, check with your
instructor on whether you should write a separate introduction or write an
introduction that integrates the literature review within it.
Concluding Comments
The essential elements in a research report are the title, abstract,

introduction, literature review, a description of research methods, a
section that presents results, and a discussion. Additional headings and
subheadings may be used as needed for clarity or presentation.
Note that researchers also present definitions as well as descriptions
of their assumptions, limitations, and delimitations in their research
reports. These elements may be integrated within various sections of a
report or may be presented in separate sections. Guidelines for writing
these elements are presented in Chapters 7 and 8 .
5 Example 1.5 .2 i s loosely based on Schwartz, McRoy, & Downs (2004).
6
Exercise for Chapter 1
PART A
1 . "Titles of published research reports typically are very lengthy."

According to this chapter, is this statement true or false?
2. Is the abstract usually placed above or below the title?
3 . "An abstract is an extensive summary of the research." According to

this chapter, is this statement true or false?
4. What are the two main subsections that are almost always included
within the section on research methods?
5 . According to this chapter, should subheadings be used sparingly or

should they be used generously?
6. Are the introduction and literature review always integrated into a

single section? Explain.
PART B: Examine two reports of research published in joumals, and

answer the following questions.
7. Were the titles and abstracts brief or lengthy? Explain.
8. Were the headings and subheadings consistent with what you

expected based on your reading of this chapter? Explain.
PART C: If you will be writing a thesis or dissertation in the near future,

examine two of them, and answer the following questions.
9. Were the introductions and literature reviews presented in separate

chapters?
1 0. Were the headings and subheadings consistent with what you

expected based on your reading of this chapter? Explain.
7
Notes:
8
Chapter 2
Writing Simple Research Hypotheses
In a single sentence, a simple research hypothesis describes the

results that a researcher expects to find. In effect, it is a prediction. The
following are guidelines for writing this type of hypothesis.
Guideline 2.1 A simple research hypothesis should

name two variables and indicate the type of relationship
expected between them.
In Example 2 . 1 . 1 , the variables are "psychomotor coordination" and

"self-esteem." The researcher expects to find higher self-esteem among
individuals who have more psychomotor coordination and lower self
esteem among those who have less coordination. Note that the word
"positive" may be substituted for "direct" without changing the meaning
of the hypothesis.
Example 2 . 1 . 1
There i s a direct relationship between level o f psychomotor coordination and

degree of self-esteem.
In Example 2 . 1 .2, "length of light deprivation" is a stimulus or

independent variable, which will be manipulated by the researcher. The
hypothesis suggests that some rats will be deprived of light longer than
others will. The second variable is "performance in a maze task," which is
an outcome or dependent variable. The hypothesis indicates that the
researcher expects to find longer periods of light deprivation associated
with poorer maze performance.
Example 2.1 .2
Among rats, length of light deprivation from birth is inversely associated with
performance in a maze task.
9
Chapter 2 Writing S imple Research Hypotheses
Example 2. 1 .3 also contains an independent variable: the type of

paper given to teachers. The anticipated relationship of this variable to the
willingness of teachers to accept learning-disabled students is clear in the
hypothesis. Their willingness to have learning-disabled students in their
classrooms is the dependent variable.
Example 2 . 1 .3
Teachers who are given a paper containing practical tips on teaching learning
disabled students will be more willing to have such students in their classrooms
than teachers who are given a theoretical paper on learning disabilities.
In Example 2 . 1 .4, two variables are named, but the expected

relationship between them is not stated. The Improved Version of
Example 2 . 1 .4 makes it clear that the researcher believes that those with
more free-floating anxiety have less ability to form friendships.
Example 2 . 1 .4
College students differ in their levels of free-floating anxiety, and they differ in
their ability to form friendships.
Improved Version of Example 2 . 1 .4
Among college students, there is an inverse relationship between level of free

floating anxiety and ability to form friendships.
Note that in the Improved Version of Example 2 . 1 .4, the word

"negative" could be substituted for "inverse" without changing the
meaning of the hypothesis.
Guideline 2.2 When there is an independent variable,

name a specific dependent variable.
As you know from the previous guideline, some studies have

independent variables, which are sets of treatments that are manipulated
by the researchers. The outcome that results from a set of treatments is
known as the dependent variable. The purpose of such a study (known as
an experiment) is to determine the effects of the independent variable on
the dependent variable. I The hypothesis for an experiment should name a
I A study without an independent variable such as one investigating the relationship between participants'
gender and voting behavior (in which, of course, neither gender nor voting behavior are treatments that will
be given by the researcher) is known as a nonexperimental study.
10
Chapter 2 Writing Simple Research Hypotheses
specific dependent variable. In Example 2.2. 1 , the independent variable is

the use of guest speakers. Furthermore, the term "more effective" implies
that there is a dependent variable, which is not specified. The improved
version specifies that the dependent variable is the number of career
choices considered by the participants.
Example 2.2.1
Career counseling supplemented with guest speakers holding various occupations

will be more effective than career counseling without guest speakers.
Improved Version of Example 2.2.1
Participants receiving career counseling supplemented with guest speakers

holding various occupations will report that they have considered a larger
number of career choices than participants who receive career counseling without
guest speakers.
Because the purpose of all experiments is to determine the effects of

the independent variable on a dependent variable, it is never sufficiently
specific to state only that the dependent variable is the "effects" or any
variation on this term such as "more effective."
Example 2.2.2 also fails to name a specific dependent variable. The
improved version specifies that "lower blood-pressure readings" is the
dependent variable.
Example 2.2.2
Middle-aged males who regularly exercise vigorously will be better off than
those who do not exercise vigorously.
Middle-aged males who regularly exercise vigorously will have lower blood
pressure readings than those who do not exercise vigorously.
Guideline 2.3 When a relationship is expected only in

a particular population, consider naming the population
in the hypothesis.
In Example 2.3.1, "young children" are identified as the researcher's

population of interest.
11
Example 2.3. 1
Among young children, there is a direct relationship between level of

psychomotor coordination and degree of self-esteem.
In Example 2.3 .2, "student nurses" are identified as the researcher' s

population o f interest.
Example 2.3.2
Student nurses who receive computer-assisted training in calculating drug

dosages will make fewer calculation errors than student nurses who do not
receive computer-assisted training.
Guideline 2.4 A simple hypothesis should be as

specific as possible, yet expressed in a single sentence.
The hypothesis in Example 2.4. 1 violates this guideline because it is

stated in two sentences. This is corrected in the improved version.
Example 2 .4.1
Social anxiety may impede the speech-giving performance of college students in

speech communication classes. As a result, students with such anxiety will
perform more poorly in such classes.
Students with high levels of social anxiety will exhibit poorer speech-giving
performance than students with low levels of social anxiety.
The Improved Version of Example 2.4.2 is more specific than the

original because the meanings of "computer literacy" (i.e., training in the
use of computers) and "computer use" (i.e., number of administrative
tasks they perform using computers) are indicated in the improved
version.
Example 2.4.2
There is a direct relationship between administrators' computer literacy and their

computer use.
Among administrators, there is a direct relationship between the amount of

training they have had in the use of computers and the number of administrative
tasks they perform using computers.
12
Likewise, the Improved Version of Example 2.4.3 is more specific

than the original version because the improved version indicates that
being "better administrators" will be measured in terms of employees '
perceptions of leadership qualities. Also, the improved version is more
specific because it indicates that two types of administrators will be
compared.
Example 2 .4.3
Administrators who provide wellness programs for their employees will be better
administrators.
Administrators who provide wellness programs for their employees will receive
higher employee ratings on selected leadership qualities than administrators who
do not provide wellness programs.
Deciding how specific to make a hypothesis requires good judgment

because it is usually not possible to provide full definitions of all terms in
the single sentence that states a hypothesis. Instead, complete definitions
should be provided elsewhere in a research report. Guidelines for writing
definitions are presented in Chapter 7.
Guideline 2.5 If a comparison is to b e made, the

elements to be compared should be stated.
Comparisons start with terms such as "more," "less," "higher," and

"lower." Be sure to complete any comparisons you start with these terms.
The comparison that is started in Example 2.5 . 1 is not complete, forcing
the reader to make an assumption about the group(s) to which the low
achieving students will be compared. The improved versions are superior
because they complete the comparison that starts with the word more.
Note that the improved versions illustrate that the comparison can be
completed in more than one way, clearly showing that the original version
IS vague.
Example 2.5.1
Low-achieving primary-grade students are more dependent on adults for

psychological support.
13
Improved Versions of Example 2.5.1

psychological support than average achievers.
psychological support than high achievers.
psychological support than average and high achievers.
Guideline 2.6 Because most hypotheses deal with the

behavior of groups, plural forms should usually be used.
In Example 2.6. 1 , singular terms are used to refer to the participants

(i.e., "a husband" and "a wife"). Because the hypothesis will undoubtedly
be tested using groups of husbands and wives, the improved version of the
hypothesis is preferable.
Example 2.6.1
Retirement satisfaction will be greater when a husband or a wife has greater

marital satisfaction than when he or she has less marital satisfaction.
Married individuals who have greater marital satisfaction will have greater
retirement satisfaction than those who have less marital satisfaction.
Guideline 2.7 Avoid sex-role stereotypes in the

statement of a hypothesis.
In Example 2.7. 1 , use of the term "her level" reflects the sex -role
stereotype that nursing is an occupation for women only. The problem has
been corrected in the improved version by substituting the plural terms
"nurses" and "their level." Of course, it is important to avoid sex-role
stereotyping throughout research reports.
Example 2.7.1
There is a direct relationship between a nurse's participation in administrative

decision making and her level of job satisfaction.
14
There is a direct relationship between nurses' participation in administrative

decision making and their level of job satisfaction.
Guideline 2 . 8 A hypothesis should be free of terms

and phrases that do not add to its meaning.
The Improved Version of Example 2.8. 1 is much shorter than the

original version, yet its meaning is clear.
Example 2.S.1
Among elementary school teachers, those who are teaching in year-round schools
will report having higher morale than those who are teaching in elementary
schools that follow a more traditional school-year schedule.
Improved Version of Example 2.S.1
Elementary school teachers who teach in year-round schools will report having
higher morale than those who teach on a traditional schedule.
Guideline 2.9 A hypothesis should indicate what will

actually be studied-not the possible implications of a
study or value j udgments of the author.
In Example 2.9.1, the author is expressing a value judgment rather

than the anticipated relationship between the variables to be studied. The
improved version indicates how "religion" will be treated as a variable
(i.e., attendance at religious services) and indicates the specific outcome
(i.e., cheating behavior) that will be studied.
Example 2.9.1
Religion is good for society.
Attendance at religious services is inversely associated with students' cheating

behavior while taking classroom tests.
Note that if the hypothesis in the Improved Version of Example

2.9.1 is supported by the data generated to test the hypothesis, the
researcher may want to assert that less cheating is "good for society" in
15
his or her research report. Such an assertion is acceptable as long as the

researcher makes it clear that the assertion is a value judgment and not a
data-based conclusion.
Guideline 2 . 1 0 A hypothesis usually should name

variables in the order in which they occur or will be
measured.
In Example 2 . 1 0. 1 , the natural order has been reversed because the

deprivation will precede, and possibly produce, the anticipated anxiety.
This problem has been corrected in the improved version.
Example 2 . 1 0. 1
More free-floating anxiety will be observed among adults who are subjected to
longer periods of sensory deprivation.
Improved Version of Example 2 . 1 0 . 1
Adults who are subjected to extended periods of sensory deprivation will

experience more free-floating anxiety than those exposed to less deprivation.
In Example 2 . 1 0.2, the natural order has been reversed. Because

political advertising precedes winning elections, advertisements should be
mentioned before election to office. The problem has been corrected in the
improved version.
Example 2 . 1 0.2
Politicians who win elective offices tend to focus their political advertisements
on a limited number of issues while those who lose elections tend to focus on a
larger number of issues.
Politicians who focus their political advertisements on a limited number of issues

are more likely to win elective office than those whose advertisements cover a
larger number of issues.
Of course, we would expect the researcher to define at some point in

the research report what is meant by "limited number" and "larger
number."
16
Guideline 2.11 Avoid using the words "significant"

or "significance" in a hypothesis.
The terms "significant" and "significance" usually refer to tests of

statistical significance. Because most empirical studies include these tests,
reference to them in hypotheses is not necessary; knowledgeable readers
will assume that the issue of statistical significance will be dealt with in
the results section of a quantitative research report.
Guideline 2.12 Avoid using the word "prove" in a

hypothesis.
Empirical research does not prove its outcomes for three primary
reasons. First, empirical research is usually based only on samples from
populations, and it is safe to assume that no sample is perfectly
representative of its population. Second, it is safe to assume that no test or
other measurement procedure is perfectly valid and reliable. Finally, it is
always possible that research has been influenced by unintentional biases.
These biases can take an infinitive variety of forms, such as
unintentionally testing the control group in a noisier environment than the
one used for testing the experimental group or a research assistant
unintentionally suggesting answers to respondents (without the
researcher' s knowledge) in an opinion survey. Thus, researchers should
not naively set out to prove something with empirical research methods.
Instead, they should recognize that they will be collecting data that offer
varying degrees of confidence regarding various conclusions. The greater
the degree of care taken in reducing errors, the more confidence in the
results researchers are justified in having.
Guideline 2.13 Avoid using two different terms to

refer to the same variable in a hypothesis.
In Example 2 . 1 3 . 1 , it is not clear whether the "literature-based

approach" is the same as the "new approach" because two different terms
are being used. This problem has been corrected in the improved version.
17
Example 2 . 1 3. 1
Students who receive a literature-based approach t o reading instruction plus

training in phonetics will have better attitudes toward reading than those who
receive only the new approach to reading instruction.
Students who receive a literature-based approach to reading instruction plus

training in phonetics will have better attitudes toward reading than those who
receive only the literature-based approach to reading instruction.
Note that clarity of communication is of utmost importance in

scientific writing. Varying the terms used to refer to a single construct, as
one might do in creative writing, is likely to impede clear scientific
communication.
Guideline 2.14 Avoid making precise statistical

predictions in a hypothesis.
Precise statistical predictions are rarely justified. In addition, they

may make it almost impossible to confirm a hypothesis. Consider
Example 2 . 1 4. 1 . If contamination were reduced by any percentage other
than 3 5 , the hypothesis would have to be rej ected. For example, if there
was a 99% reduction in bacterial contamination, the hypothesis would
need to be rej ected because it is more than 3 5%. Likewise, if there was a
1 % reduction, the hypothesis would also need to be rej ected because it is
less than 3 5%. The improved version indicates the direction of the
expected relationship without naming a precise statistical outcome.
Example 2 . 1 4 . 1
Thirty-five percent less bacterial contamination will be found in the air of

operating rooms in which the staff wears polypropylene coveralls than in the air
of operating rooms in which they wear conventional surgical clothing.
Less bacterial contamination will be found in the air of operating rooms in which
the staff wears polypropylene coveralls than in the air of operating rooms in
which they wear conventional surgical clothing.
18
Because the application of many of the guidelines in this chapter

involves a certain amount of subjectivity, there may be some legitimate
differences of opinions on the best answers to some of the following
questions.
PART A: Name the two variables in each of the following hypotheses.
1 . There is an inverse relationship between ability to read and frequency

of voting among elderly citizens.
2. Among college graduates, authoritarianism and anxiety are directly

related.
3 . Homeless women are subjected to more spousal physical abuse than

are housed women.
4. Children who are shown a film with numerous instances of physical

violence will demonstrate more aggressiveness during a free play
period than children who are shown a control film without violence.
5. Among first graders, there is a direct relationship between level of

eye-hand coordination and achievement in volleyball.
6. Among adolescents, interest in recreational reading is inversely

associated with amount of time spent watching television.
PART B: For each of the following hypotheses, identify the independent

variable and the dependent variable. (See pages 9 through 1 1 to review
these terms.)
7. Negative political advertisements are more likely to motivate citizens

to vote in general elections than positive advertisements.
19
8 . Disruptive children who are given token rewards for remaining in

their seats in a classroom setting will exhibit more in-seat behavior
than disruptive children who are given verbal praise.
9. Postcardiac adults who receive telephone counseling to encourage

engaging in physical exercise will report walking more miles per day
than postcardiac adults who do not receive the telephone counseling.
PART C: For each of the following hypotheses, name the guideline(s), if

any, that were not followed. Revise each hypothesis that you think is
faulty. In your revisions, you may need to make some assumptions about
what the authors had in mind when writing the hypotheses.
1 0. The hypothesis is to prove that first-born boys are more athletically

competitive than are second-born boys.
1 1 . Children differ in age, and they also differ in their ability to attend to
instructional presentations.
1 2. The rate of development of speech in young children is directly

related to the verbal fluency of their parents.
1 3 . Among high achievers, there will be a higher level of sibling rivalry.
1 4 . An individual who experiences marital dissatisfaction will tend to be

more depressed than an individual who experiences marital
satisfaction.
1 5 . Other things being equal, more rewards result in better performance.
1 6. The social agenda of the present administration is weak.
1 7. There is a direct relationship between a mechanical engineer' s ability

to visualize objects rotating in space and his success on the job.
1 8 . Fifty percent of employees with poor attendance records will be found

to have alcohol-related syndromes.
20
19. College applicants who take test preparation courses will exhibit less
test-taking anxiety.
20. First graders whose parents read to them on a regular basis will have
greater reading achievement.
21. Students who take Psychology 101 will report less self-insight on a
questionnaire given at the beginning of the course than on a posttest
given at the end of an introduction to psychology course.
22. People who cheat the welfare system are disreputable.
23 . There will be a 25% reduction in the incidence of smoking after high

school students complete a unit on the harmful effects of tobacco.
24. Using discussion groups in college sociology classes will be more

effective than a traditional lecture approach to instruction.
PART D: Write a simple hypothesis on a topic of interest to you that

includes an independent and a dependent variable. Then name the
variables in the spaces provided.
Your hypothesis:
Independent variable:
Dependent variable:
PART E: Write a simple hypothesis on a topic of interest to you that does

not have independent and dependent variables. Mention a population in
the hypothesis.
Your hypothesis:
The population:
21
Notes:
22
Chapter 3
A Clo ser Look at Hypotheses
This chapter presents some advanced guidelines for writing

hypotheses and explores some of the principles from Chapter 1 in greater
detail.
Guideline 3.1 A "statement of the hypothesis" may

contain more than one hypothesis. It is permissible to
include them in a single sentence as long as the sentence
is reasonably concise and its meaning is clear.
In Example 3. 1 . 1 , there is one independent variable (supplementary

group therapy) and two anticipated outcomes or dependent variables.
Therefore, there are two hypotheses: (1) those who receive the group
therapy supplement will report more relief and (2) those who receive the
group therapy supplement will be more satisfied with the counseling
process.
Example 3. 1 . 1
Depressed clients whose individual counseling is supplemented with group

therapy will report more relief from their symptoms and greater satisfaction with
the counseling process than comparable clients who receive only individual
counseling.
Guideline 3.2 When a number of related hypotheses

are to be stated, consider presenting them in a numbered
or lettered list.
Example 3 .2 . 1 shows three related hypotheses stated by researchers

for a study of social learning theory.
23
Chapter 3 A Closer Look at Hypotheses
Example 3.2. 1
I t was hypothesized that adolescent high school students' desire t o learn

academic subjects will be more greatly influenced by:
1 . same-gender peers than opposite-gender peers,
2 . peers who are elected to student-body positions than those who have
not been elected, and
3. peers who have excelled in nonacademic areas such as sports than
those who have not excelled.
Such a numbered list will be helpful when writing other sections of the
research report. For instance, when discussing research results, researchers
can make statements such as the ones shown in Examples 3 .2 . 2 and 3 .2 . 3 .
Notice that numbering the hypotheses early in a research report makes it
easy to clearly refer to a specific hypothesis without having to restate the
entire hypothesis. In Example 3 .2.2, this was done with a parenthetical
phrase; in Example 3 .2 . 3 , there is no parenthetical phrase. Either form is
correct. However, modem copyeditors discourage the overuse of
parentheses.
Example 3.2.2
Regarding the first hypothesis (same- versus opposite-gender influence), the

results are clear. The mean score for the ....
Example 3.2.3
Regarding the influence of same- versus opposite-gender peers specified in

Hypothesis Number 1 , the results are clear. The mean score for the....
Guideline 3.3 The hypothesis or hypotheses should

be placed before the section on methods.
The method section of a research report describes how the researcher

tested the hypothesis. Therefore, the hypothesis should be stated before
describing the methods used.
In journal articles, hypotheses are usually stated in the paragraph
immediately preceding the major heading of "Method," which is the last
paragraph of the integrated introduction and literature review (see Chapter
6). In theses and dissertations, the placement is usually at the end of the
second chapter, which is the literature review. (In a thesis or dissertation,
the first chapter is usually the introduction, while the second chapter is the
literature review.) Placement of hypotheses may vary from institution to
24
institution. Before you begin writing, determine the specific guidelines for
your university or department.
Guideline 3.4 It is permissible to use terms other

than the term " hypothesis' to refer to a hypothesis.
The context and placement of the statement just before the method
section usually make it clear that a hypothesis is being stated even if the
word "hypothesis" is not used. In Example 3 .4. 1 , the researchers describe
two expectations, which were their hypotheses.
Example 3.4.1
Based on prior research, we expected that the effects of religiosity on the

decision to use alcohol and on the intensity of involvement in drinking will be
strong even when controlling for peer, family, and school influences.I
Other writers begin the statements of their hypotheses with phrases

such as "In light of the literature review, it was predicted that . . . " and "We
speculated that. . . . " Generally, however, it is best to use the formal term
"hypothesis" or "hypothesized" in phrases such as: "In light of the
literature review, it was hypothesized that. . . " or "The hypothesis is
that. . . . "
Note that in a research proposal, the present tense should be used
(e.g., "The hypothesis is . . . ") while in a research report, the past tense is
usually more appropriate (e.g., "The hypothesis was . . . ") .
Guideline 3.5 In a research report, a hypothesis

should flow from the narrative that immediately
precedes it.
Aresearch report typically begins with an introduction and literature

review, which we will consider in detail in Chapter 6. These elements of a
report should logically lead the reader to the hypothesis. Example 3 . 5 . 1 is
drawn from the last paragraph in a combined introduction and literature
review. Prior to stating this hypothesis, the researchers discuss the
increase in adolescents ' rates of smoking cigarettes, research on the use of
I Based loosely on the work of Mason & Windle (2002, p. 350).
25
visual imagery in advertising, and theories relating to the influence of

strong positive images in advertisements for cigarettes as well as the
efficacy of cigarette advertisements. The hypothesis in this example
clearly flows directly from the researchers' discussion of these issues.
Example 3.5. 1
Given the seeming efficacy of cigarette advertisements in promoting smoking

uptake by adolescents and the seeming inefficacy of antismoking advertising in
preventing smoking uptake, we hypothesized that cigarette advertising imagery
would be evaluated more positively than antismoking advertising imagery.
Confirmation of this hypothesis would suggest that antismoking advertisements
may need to be reconceptualized and redesigned so that they are perceived more
positively by adolescents. 2
Note that Example 3 .5 . 1 ends with a broadly stated possible

implication, which helps to justify a study to the hypothesis.
Guideline 3.6 A hypothesis may be stated without

indicating the type of relationship expected between
variables. To qualify as a hypothesis, however, it must
specify that some unknown type of relationship is
expected.
A hypothesis that states that an unknown type of relationship exists

is called a nondirectional hypothesis. (Up to this point in this book, all the
hypotheses have been directional.) Example 3 .6 . 1 illustrates a
nondirectional hypothesis for a nonexperimental study. Notice that the
hypothesis does not indicate which group of police officers is predicted to
be higher in its level of authoritarianism; it just states that the two groups
differ. Also, note that it implies that a nonexperimental study will be
conducted because no treatments will be given to the officers in order to
influence their authoritarianism.
2 Shadel, Niaura, & Abrams (2002, pp. 1 73-1 74).
26
Example 3.6 . 1
Police officers reared in low socioeconomic status families differ in their level of
authoritarianism from police officers reared in middle socioeconomic-status
families. 3
Example 3 .6.2 shows a nondirectional hypothesis for an

experimental study, in which Drugs A and B are the treatments that will
be administered in the experiment.
Example 3.6.2
Adult males with Condition X who are administered Drug A will, on average,
report a different level of pain than a comparable group of males who are
administered Drug B.
Nondirectional hypotheses are less frequently used in research than

directional hypotheses. This is probably true for two reasons: ( 1 )
researchers often have opinions about the variables they study, and their
opinions usually lead them to formulate directional hypotheses, and (2)
when researchers do not want to speculate on the direction of a
relationship, they may use a statement of the research purpose or a
research question instead of a hypothesis. This type of substitution is
discussed in detail in Chapter 4.
Guideline 3.7 When a researcher has a research

hypothesis, it should be stated in the research report; the
null hypothesis need not always be stated.
A research hypothesis is the hypothesis that a researcher believes

will be supported by his or her data. The null hypothesis is a statistical
hypothesis that states that any difference is attributable to random errors.
In other words, it says that there is no true difference-only a random one.
Significance tests are used to test the null hypothesis. (Those of you who
have not taken a statistics course should consult Appendix C for an
introduction to the null hypothesis and significance testing.)
.
In journal articles, formal statements of null hypotheses are almost
always omitted because they always have the same content-regardless of
3 An example of a directional hypothesis for the same variables is "Police officers reared in low
socioeconomic status families are more authoritarian than police officers reared in middle socioeconomic
status families."
27
how they are worded (i.e., they always attribute any differences to random
errors). Thus, it would be redundant to repeatedly state the null hypothesis
in all quantitative research reports.
In term projects, theses, and dissertations, however, students are
often required to state null hypotheses in order to demonstrate that they
understand the purpose of the significance tests they conducted. (The
purpose, as you may know, is to test the null hypothesis.) Examples 3 .7. 1
and 3 .7.2 illustrate some ways the null hypothesis can be stated. Because
there is more than one way to word a null hypothesis, two statements are
shown in each example. Only one statement, however, should be used in a
research report.
Example 3.7.1
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS:
Social standing in campus organizations is directly related to gregariousness.
ONE VERSION OF THE CORRESPONDING NULL HYPOTHESIS:

There is no true relationship between social standing in campus organizations
and gregariousness.
ANOTHER VERSION OF THE CORRESPONDING NULL HYPOTHESIS:

The relationship between social standing in campus organizations and
gregariousness is nonexistent in the population from which the sample was
drawn.
Example 3.7.2
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS:
Private school graduates have a higher proportion of fathers In high-status
occupations than public school graduates.
ONE VERSION OF THE CORRESPONDING NULL HYPOTHESIS:

There is no true difference in the proportion of fathers in high-status occupations
between the populations of private school and public school graduates.
ANOTHER VERSION OF THE CORRESPONDING NULL HYPOTHESIS:

The observed difference between the proportions of fathers in high-status
occupations for private school graduates and public school graduates is the result
of chance variations associated with the random sampling process.
28

differences of opinions on the best answers to some of the questions.
PART A: Answer the questions based on the guidelines presented in this

chapter.
1 . Is it permissible to include more than one hypothesis in a single

sentence? Explain.
2 . Very briefly explain why it is desirable to write a numbered (or

lettered) list of hypotheses when more than one hypothesis will be
examined in a single research study.
3 . Why should the hypothesis or hypotheses be stated before the

research methods are described?
4. Is the phrase "The hypothesis is . . . " or the phrase "The hypothesis

.
was . . . . " more appropriate in a research proposal?
5 . Is the following sentence a hypothesis? Explain.

"Based on the literature reviewed above, it was predicted that
politicians who emphasize position XXX will be viewed more
favorably by the electorate than politicians who emphasize position
YYY."
6. Rewrite the following directional hypothesis to make it

nondirectional.
"Primary-grade students taught reading with the XYZ method will
obtain higher reading comprehension test scores than those taught
with the ABC method."
7. Write a null hypothesis that corresponds to the following research

hypothesis.
"It is hypothesized that there is a direct relationship between the
29
extent to which social workers empathize with their clients and the
clients' rate of compliance with the XYZ rule."
PART B
8 . Write a directional hypothesis on a topic of interest to you. Then write

a corresponding null hypothesis for it.
9. Rewrite the directional hypothesis that you wrote for Question 8 to

make it nondirectional.
PART C
1 0. Review j ournal articles and/or theses or dissertations, and locate a

statement that contains two or more hypotheses incorporated in a
single sentence. Copy the statement, and bring it to class for
discussion.
1 1 . Review three j ournal articles and/or theses or dissertations that

contain explicit statements of hypotheses, and make note of the
following:
a. In how many cases are the hypotheses stated in the last paragraph
before the heading "Method"? (Note: In a thesis or dissertation, a
hypothesis usually will be stated before the chapter on research
methods.)
b. In how many cases did the authors use alternative terms such as
"predict" or "expect" instead of "hypothesize" in the statements of
the hypotheses?
c. How many of the hypotheses are directional, and how many are
nondirectional? If both types are found, copy an example of each.
d. How many of the statements of the hypotheses can be improved in
some way? Explain.
1 2 . If you will be writing a thesis or dissertation, examine theses or

dissertations in your college/university library. Do any of them
contain statements of the null hypothesis? If yes, copy one, and bring
it to class for discussion.
30
Chapter 4
Writing Research Purpose s ,

Obj ectives, and Questions
Often, researchers do not state hypotheses either because they are

not interested in examining relationships between variables or because
they believe that there is too little knowledge on a topic to permit
formulation of hypotheses. Under these circumstances, a research purpose
(also called a research objective) or a research question should be
substituted for a hypothesis.
The principles for writing hypotheses should be followed when
writing research purposes and questions. The following guidelines
indicate when to state the latter instead of hypotheses and illustrate the
application of some of the guidelines in Chapters 2 and 3 when writing
purposes and questions.
Guideline 4.1 If you will be conducting qualitative

research, consider writing a research purpose o r
question instead of a hypothesis.
Many qualitative researchers approach their research topics without

imposing hypotheses derived from theory or previous research.
Nevertheless, they need to state a research purpose or question at the onset
of their research, even if the purpose or question is quite general. Many
qualitative researchers "follow the data." For example, during the course
of a sequence of interviews, they may shift directions based on the early
respondents ' replies, change the nature of the questions for subsequent
respondents, and, as a result, they might even modify their initial research
purpose or question.
In quantitative research, research hypotheses, purposes, or questions
also can be used. Note, however, that in such research, the specific
research plans, including hypotheses, purposes, or questions, are very
seldom modified during the course of the research.
31
Chapter 4 Writing Research Purposes, Obj ectives, and Questions
Guideline 4.2 WheI!1l the g o a l of research is to

describe one or m o re grou.ps without describing
relationships among variables, write a research purpose
or question instead of a hypothesis.
As you recall from Chapter 2, a simple research hypothesis predicts

a relationship between two variables. Note that in Example 4.2. 1 , no
relationships are being examined. Instead, the researchers want to
determine only one thing-the "level of public support." Hence, it would
be inappropriate to try to state it as a hypothesis. A statement of the
purpose is appropriate.
Example 4.2 . 1
Our purpose was to determine the level of public support for the bond issue for
funding the construction of additional public libraries.
Likewise, no relationship is implied in Example 4.2.2. Instead, the

researchers want to determine only what is being done to provide
"practical training on ethical issues . . . . "
Example 4.2.2
The purpose of our research was to determine what traditional graduate training
programs in nursing were doing to provide practical training on ethical issues
regarding euthanasia.
Notice that Examples 4.2. 1 and 4.2.2 could have been stated as
research questions, as illustrated in Example 4.2.3 .
Example 4.2.3
What is the level of public support for the bond issue for funding the construction
of additional public libraries?
What are traditional graduate training programs in nursing doing to provide
practical training on ethical issues regarding euthanasia?
The choice between stating a research purpose or a research question

is a matter of choosing the form that reads more smoothly in a particular
context. One form is not inherently preferable to the other.
32
Guideline 403 WllieIDl there is insufficient evidence to

permit formulation of a hypothesis regarding a
relationship betweelDl variabJ.es write a research purpose
or question.
Prior t o the terrorist attack on S eptember 1 1 , 200 1 , there had been no

research on the psychological effects of terrorism of such great magnitude
on children in the United States. In light of the lack of previous research,
it would have been more appropriate after the attack to state a research
question instead of a hypothesis, as is done in Example 4.3 . 1 .
Example 4.3. 1
Research Question: What was the nature and extent of the psychological impact
of the terrorist attack of September 1 1 , 200 1 , on middle-school children residing
in the greater New York City metropolitan area?
Example 4.3 . 1 could be rewritten as a research purpose without

changing the meaning of the author' s question, as illustrated in Example
4.3.2.
Example 4.3.2
Research Purpose: To explore the nature and extent of the psychological impact
of the terrorist attack of September 1 1, 200 1 , on middle-school children residing
in the greater New York City metropolitan area.
Guideline 404 When writing a research question,

avoid writing a question that imJPlUes that the data will
lead to a simple "yes" or " n o " answer 0
Example 4.4. 1 violates this guideline. Most research is based on

complex concepts, and the results are usually not simple. Yet Example
4.4. 1 implies that the researchers are interested only in a "yes" or "no"
answer. The improved version is a more interesting question, and the
results will facilitate a comparison of the effectiveness of the new drug
with existing ones.
Example 4.4. 1
Research Question: Does the new drug (XXX) decrease blood pressure?
33
Chapter 4 Writing Research Purposes, Objectives, and Questions
Improved Version of Example 4.4. 1
Research Question: To what extent does the new drug (XXX) decrease blood
pressure?
Compare Example 4.4.2 and its improved version. Research on

complex human behavior such as reading comprehension seldom yields a
simple "yes" or "no" answer.
Example 4 .4.2
Research Question: In the long run, is a literature-based approach to teaching

reading better than a phonics-based approach?
Research Question: In the long run, what are the relative contributions of
literature-based and phonics-based approaches to teaching reading?
Of course, the terms "long run," "literature-based approach," and

"phonics-based approach" will need to be defined in the research report.
We will consider definitions in Chapter 7 of this book.
Guideline 4.5 The research purpose or question

should be as specific as possible, yet stated concisely.
The need for specificity in hypotheses is discussed in Chapters 2 and

3 . Application of this guideline to hypotheses, purposes, and questions is
often more problematic than one might realize at first. Consider, for
instance, Example 4.5 . 1 . It is quite specific, actually naming two specific
scales (i.e., measuring tools). However, for readers who are not familiar
with the specific instruments (e.g., tests, questionnaires, and scales), the
research purpose may be too specific. 1 Thus, writers must judge whether
their audiences are likely to be familiar with the specific item(s)
mentioned-in this case, the specific scales.
Example 4.5. 1
The purpose was to determine the extent to which college students' scores on the
Voloskovoy Self-Esteem Scale correlate with scores on the Smith-Doe Cultural
Tolerance Inventory.
I Instruments such as attitude scales need to be described in detail in the section of the research report on
methods. This topic is covered in Chapter 9.
34
For readers who are not familiar with the specific scale and
inventory, the First Improved Version of Example 4.5 . 1 is superior. The
Second Improved Version does not mention "scores" and "measure," yet
the purpose is still clear. Since the Second Improved Version is stated
more simply than the first, it is arguably better. Of course, readers of the
research report will expect to learn later in the report how the two
variables were measured.
First Improved Version of Example 4.5. 1
The purpose was to determine the extent to which college students ' scores on a
measure of self-esteem correlate with scores on a measure of their tolerance of
cultural differences.
Second Improved Version of Example 4.5. 1
The purpose was to determine the extent to which college students' self-esteem
correlates with their tolerance of cultural differences.
Guideline 4.6 When stating related purposes or

questions, consider presenting them in a numbered or
lettered list.
In Example 4.6. 1 , the researchers present a numbered list of

questions.
Example 4.6.1
1 . How are mothers ' perceptions of their parenting strengths different from the
impressions reported by early adolescents about the same characteristics?
2. In the overall ratings of mothers, what are the prominent strengths identified
by each generation?
3. What are the most important learning needs of mothers from both respondent
groups?2
The numbered list in Example 4.6. 1 allows the researchers to refer to

individual research questions by number later in the report. For instance,
in the results section, a researcher might say, "The results for Research
Question 2 clearly indicate that. . . . "
In Example 4.6.2, the researchers start with a general, overarching

research question followed by a lettered list of the specific questions on
2Based on Strom et al. (2002, p. 398). For instructional purposes, some of the researchers' questions are
omitted in this example.
35
which data were collected. This arrangement is usually desirable when

there are a number of related research questions that were investigated.
Example 4.6.2
This study examined the following research question: How do community

dwelling adults communicate their end-of-life preferences to their significant
others and to their health care providers? The more specific research questions
included (a) With whom did they discuss their end-of-life preferences? (b) What
prompted the discussions? (c) What do adults include as content in their end-of
life discussions? and (d) How did they carry out these discussions? 3
Guideline 4.7 In a research report, a research

purpose or question should flow from the narrative that
immediately precedes it.
Research reports typically begin with an introduction and literature

review. These elements of a report should logically lead the reader to the
research purposes or questions (or hypotheses). Example 4.7. 1 shows the
final two sentences of the last paragraph of an introduction that included a
literature review on self-cutting (an increasingly popular form of self
mutilation, especially among adolescents). The research questions that
follow the paragraph flow directly from it.
Example 4.7.1
Nevertheless, up to now, there has been no research in Hong Kong to study

the self-cutting behavior of adolescents, especially the parental influence and
response (Yip, 1 998). .. .we conducted a qualitative study of parental influence
on and response to adolescent self-cutting in Hong Kong.
Research Questions
There were three research questions in this study:
1 . In what ways have the parents influenced their children's self-cutting?
2. How did the parents respond to their children's self-cutting?
3. How was the parent-child relationship affected by the self-cutting?4
3 McDonald et aI. (2003 , p. 656).

4 Yip, Ngan, & Lam (2003 , p. 406).
36
PART A
1 . For which of the following types of research would stating a

research hypothesis be less likely?
A. Quantitative research. B. Qualitative research.
2 . According to this chapter, i s stating a research question inherently

better than stating a research purpose?
3 . Rewrite this research purpose as a research question: "The purpose

of this research is to estimate the extent to which religious
affiliation predicts voter sentiment regarding bond issues for public
schools."
4. If a researcher wanted to poll hospital nurses only to determine if a

majority favored a strike if a new labor contract was not agreed on
by a specific date, would it be appropriate to state a research
hypothesis? Explain.
5 . Which o f the guidelines in this chapter i s clearly violated i n the

following research question?
"Is the Internet useful for teaching geography?"
6. Which of the guidelines in this chapter is violated by the following

research purpose?
"The purpose is to determine whether the use of the B arnes
Advocacy Teaching Method results in higher scores on the
Dobrowsky Scale of International Understanding."
7. Which of the following arrangements is recommended in this

chapter?
A. Present a narrative introduction that flows from the research
purpose or question that is stated first.
B. Present a research purpose or question that flows from the
narrative that immediately precedes it.
37
PART B
8 . Write a research purpose on a topic of interest to you. Then rewrite it

as a research question. Which form (i.e., purpose or question) do you
prefer? Why?
PART e
9. Review three j ournal articles and/or theses or dissertations that

contain statements of purposes or questions, and make note of the
following:
A. In how many cases are the purposes or questions presented in the
last paragraph before the section on methods?
B. In how many cases are the purposes or questions stated in the last
sentence before the section on methods?
38
Chapter 5
Writing Titles
Because titles perform the important function o f helping consumers

of research identify research reports that are of interest to them, titles
should be written with considerable care.
Guideline 5.1 If only a small number of variables is

studied, the title should name the variables.
In Example 5 . 1 . 1 , there are two variables: ( 1 ) self-esteem and (2)

aggressIveness.
Example 5 . 1 . 1
The Relationship Between Self-Esteem and Aggressiveness
Notice that the title in this example is not a complete sentence and
does not end with a period mark, which are appropriate characteristics of
titles.
Guideline 5.2 If many variables are studied, o nly the

types of variables should be named.
Suppose a researcher examined how students ' attitudes toward school

change over time with attention to differences among urban, suburban, and
rural groups; various socioeconomic groups; girls and boys; and so on.
Because there are too many variables to name in a concise title, only the
main variable(s) needs to be specifically named; the others may be referred
to by type, as illustrated in Example 5 .2 . 1 , where the main variable of
"attitudes toward school" is mentioned, while the term "demographic
variables" is used to stand for a variety of background variables such as
socioeconomic status and gender.
39
Chapter 5 Writing Titles
Example 5.2.1
Relationships Between Students' Attitudes Toward School with Selected

Demographic Variables
Guideline 5 .3 The title of a j ournal article should be

concise; the title of a thesis or dissertation m ay b e longer.
Titles of journal articles tend to be concise. A simple survey that we

conducted illustrates this point. A count of the number of words in the
titles of a random sample of 1 52 research articles on mathematics
education that appeared in 42 journals in a recent year revealed that the
median (average) number of words was close to 1 1 . Example 5 . 3 . 1 is the
shortest one identified in the survey; it is exceptionally short and could be
improved by incorporating reference to the variables studied.
Example 5.3.1
The Mathematics Department
Example 5 . 3 .2 is the longest one identified in the survey. It is long

only because the specific countries are listed. If it ended with "in Various
Countries" instead of the list, it would be more concise but less descriptive.
If the research report was for dissemination in the United States, an
alternative would be to end the title with " . . . in the United States and Other
Countries."
Example 5.3.2
Grade Placement of Addition and Subtraction Topics in Japan, Mainland China,

the Soviet Union, Taiwan, and the United States
Example 5 .3 .3 shows a title of about average length for the sample of

titles examined. It illustrates Guideline 5 .2; the types of variables,
"personality factors" and "biographical factors," are referred to; the
specific personality traits and types of biographical data collected are not
spelled out.
Example 5.3.3
Contributions of Some Personality and Biographical Factors to Mathematical

Creativity
40
Chapter 5 Writin g Titles
For a random sample of titles of di s sertations on mathematics

education during the same recent year, the average number of words in the
titles was almost 1 9, which is considerably more than the average of 1 1 for
journal articles. A variation on the longest dissertation title is shown in
Example 5 .3 .4.
Example 5.3.4
A Descriptive Study of Verbal Problems in Mathematics Textbooks for Grades

Seven and Eight from Five Time Periods: The Late 70s, the Early 80s, the Late
80s, the Early 90s, and the Late 90s
Ask your instructor or chair of your thesis or dissertation committee

whether they want you to write a concise title, such as those commonly
used in journals, or a longer title, which is more typical (but not universal)
in theses and dissertations. If a shorter title is desired, the shortened version
shown immediately below could be used.
Shortened Version of the Title in Example 5.3.4
Verbal Problems in Mathematics Textbooks for Grades Seven and Eight from the
Late 70s Through the Late 90s
Guideline 5.4 A title should indicate what was studied

- not the results or conclusions of the study.
All the previous examples illustrate this principle. Example 5 .4. 1

violates the principle; it is corrected in the improved version. Note that the
researchers studied a large number of symptoms, which makes their
improved version of the title more appropriate than the first version
because the first version mentions only depression and muscle aches,
which may mislead potential readers into assuming that these are the only
symptoms studied.
Example 5.4.1
The Most Prevalent Symptoms of HIV-Infected Women are Severe Depression

and Muscle Aches, Which Reduce the Quality of Life
The Influence of Symptoms on Quality of Life Among HIV-Infected Women l
I Hudson, Kirksey, & Holzemer (2004, p. 9).
41
Guideline 5 .4 may surprise some beginning students of empirical

methods because results and conclusions are often stated in titles in the
popular press. This is the case because the press frequently reports
straightforward facts; "Five Die in Downtown Hotel Fire" is a perfectly
acceptable title for a factual article of limited scope. Because empirical
research reports are likely to raise as many questions as they resolve, a title
that states a simple factual result or conclusion is usually inappropriate.
Guideline 5.5 Consider mentioning the population(s)

in a title when a study is deliberately delimited to a
particular type of population.
In Example 5 . 5 . 1 , the popUlation is delimited to African American

college students.
Example 5.5.1
Spirituality and Academic Performance Among African American College

Students 2
In Example 5 . 5 .2, the title indicates that the population consists of

ethnically diverse middle-school students. Such information helps
consumers of research decide whether the research article will be of
interest to them.
Example 5.5.2
Gender Labels and Gender Identity as Predictors of Drug Use Among Ethnically
Diverse M iddle School Students3
Note that sometimes a particular type of participant is studied only

because that type is readily available to a researcher. For instance, a
researcher might conduct a study on a theory of learning using students
enrolled in his or her introductory psychology class (because they are
readily available) even though the researcher is interested in the application
of the theory to students in general. In such a case, mention of the type of
population in the title is less important than when a researcher deliberately
selects students enrolled in introductory psychology classes because their
behavior is of particular interest in the research.
2 Walker & Dixon (2002, p. 1 07).

3 Kulis, Marsiglia, & Hecht (2002, p. 442).
42
Guideline 5.6 C onsider the use of subtitles to amplify

the purposes or methods of study.
The following three examples illustrate this guideline.
Example 5.6. 1
The Role of Alcoholism in Dysfunctional Families: A Pilot Study
Example 5.6.2
Kindergarten Teachers ' Definitions of Literacy: A Survey of Experienced

Teachers
Example 5.6.3
The Effects of Dynamic Therapy on Returning Soldiers: A Field Experiment
Guideline 5.7 If a study is strongly tied to a p articular

model or theory, consider mentioning it in the title.
Some consumers of research are especially interested in studies that

shed light on particular models or theories. If a study was designed to
explore some aspect of these, mentioning this fact in the title will help
consumers locate relevant research. The following two titles illustrate this
guideline.
Example 5.7. 1
The Role of Male Siblings in the Mathematics Achievement of Adolescent Girls:

A Social Learning Theory Perspective
Example 5.7.2
Self-Control and Alcohol Restraint: An Initial Application of the Self-Control

Strength Model4
Guideline 5.8 A title may be in the form of a questio n ;

this form should b e used sparingly and with caution.
Questions, when used as titles, are less formal than titles in the form
of statements. Thus, questions as titles are sometimes preferred in less
4 Muraven, Collins, & Nienhaus (2002, p. 1 1 3).
43
formal types of publications such as staff newsletters and workshop

materials.
When using a question as a title for a research report, avoid stating it
as a question that implies that it can be answered with a simple "yes" or
"no." Notice that Example 5 . 8 . 1 implies that the result will be a simple
"yes" or "no" answer, which is seldom the case in empirical research.
Remember that empirical methods give us only varying degrees of
confidence in results-not final answers. In the First Improved Version of
Example 5 . 8. 1 , the problem has been fixed by posing the question in such a
way that it cannot be answered with a simple "yes" or "no." The Second
Improved Version of Example 5 . 8 . 1 shows that the problem can be avoided
by not using the question form.
Example 5.8. 1
Do Private Colleges and Universities Accommodate Students with Physical

Disabilities?
First Improved Version of Example 5.8.1
To What Extent Do Private Colleges and Universities Accommodate Students

with Physical Disabilities?
Second Improved Version of Example 5.8.1
The Accommodation of Students with Physical Disabilities by Private Colleges

and Universities
Guideline 5.9 In titles, use the words "effect" and

"influence" with caution.
The words "effect" and "influence" are frequently used in the titles of
research reports in which cause-and-effect relationships were studied. To
examine such relationships, true experimental, quasi-experimental, or
rigorous ex post facto methods should usually be employed. As a general
rule, only reports on these methods should contain these words in their
titles.
Examples 5 .9. 1 and 5 .9.2 illustrate the typical use of the word
"effect" in a title. The general form is: "The effect(s) of an independent
variable (treatments or stimulus) on a dependent variable (outcome or
response). "
44
Chapter 5 Writin g Titles
Example 5.9.1
The Effects of Three Schedules of Reinforcement on the Maze Performance of

Rats
Example 5.9.2
The Effects of Having Students Retell Stories in Writing on Their Achievement on

a Standardized Test of Writing Skills
Note that "effect" is used as a noun in the two examples. As a noun, it

means "influence." When used as a noun, the word "affect" means
"feelings or emotions." Clearly, "effect" is the correct noun to use in these
examples.
Guideline 5 . 1 0 A title should be consistent with the

research hypothesis, purpose, or question.
In Example 5 . l 0. l , a research purpose is stated. The corresponding

title closely mirrors the statement of the purpose.
Example 5.1 0.1
RESEARCH PURPOSE: Thus, the purpose of this study was to assess whether
separate groups of exercisers, based on their resting heart rate, differed in scores
on self-efficacy.
CORRESPONDING TITLE: Psychophysiological Comparison of Self-Efficacy

and Resting Heart Rate 5
In Example 5 . 1 0.2, the title refers to the variable named m the

hypothesis.
Example 5.1 0.2
RESEARCH HYPOTHESIS: Specifically, we hypothesized that adolescents

whose families had been in the United States for fewer generations would be more
resistant to peer pressure than their counterparts whose families had been in the
United States for more generations.
CORRESPONDING TITLE: Generational Differences in Resistance to Peer

Pressure Among Mexican-Origin Adolescents 6
5 Wi gg ins (2002, p. 720).

6 Umana-Taylor & Bamaca-G6mez (2003 , p. 1 83).
45
Guideline 5 . 1 1 Consider mentioning unique features

of a study in its title.
Suppose you conducted the first long-term follow-up study on the

effects of a drug. You would be wise to indicate that your study is a long
term one in the title, as shown in Example 5 . 1 1 . 1 .
Example 5.1 1 .1
The Long-Term Effects of Tetracycline on Tooth Enamel Erosion
Guideline 5 . 1 2 Avoid clever titles, especially if they

fail to communicate important information about the
report.
In Example 5 . 1 2 . 1 , only "Publishing Criminal Justice Research" is

informative. The reader will assume that an article deals with
contemporary issues unless the title indicates that the study is historical;
thus, reference to the new millennium is not needed. The subtitle is
completely uninformative. It very vaguely refers to what is not covered
instead, it should specifically indicate what is presented in the report.
Example 5.12.1
Publishing Criminal Justice Research in the New Millennium: Things Gutenberg

Never Taught You
In Example 5 . 1 2.2, the words "Taking the Sting Out of Stuttering" is

a rhetorical phrase that does not contribute to our understanding of the
topic of the research. The phrase should be omitted.
Example 5.1 2.2
Taking the Sting Out of Stuttering: A Comparison of the Effectiveness of Two

Methods for Treating Stuttering
In general, throughout research reports, avoid the temptation to be

clever or humorous. The function of a research report is to inform-not
entertain.
46
PART A
1 . When should only the types of variables studied be mentioned in a

title?
2. Do the titles of journal articles tend to be longer than the titles of

theses and dissertations?
3 . Why should the title of a report of empirical research not state the
results of a study?
4. According to this chapter, which are more formal as titles : statements

or questions?
5 . Which of the following titles is correct?

A. The Affects of Treatment A on Outcome B
B . The Effects of Treatment A on Outcome B
PART B : Comment on the adequacy of each of the following titles for

research articles.
6. Registered Nurses Employed in Hospitals Report Higher Levels of Job

Satisfaction When They Are Permitted to Participate in Decision
Making
7 . Watering the Proverbial Garden: Effective Communication Between

Teachers and School Administrators
8 . The Political Scientist
9. Are Age and Tenure Related to the Job Satisfaction of Social Workers?
10. Can Economists Predict Recessions?
47
1 1 . The Effects of Peer Coaching on Achievement in English,

Mathematics, History, Foreign Language, Geography, and Physics
Among Tenth-, Eleventh-, and Twelfth-Graders: An Experiment
Conducted in Five Major Urban Areas During the 200 1 -2002 School
Year Using Multiple Measures of Achievement with Analyses by
Gender and Grade Level
1 2 . Forbidden Fruit Tastes Especially Sweet: A Study of Lawyers ' Ethical

Behavior
1 3 . The Out-Migration from Southern California Is Driven by High

Housing Costs
PART C : Write a title that you think would be appropriate for a research
report that has this purpose: "The purpose of this research was to explore
the effects of second-shift work schedules on psychological distress in
young blue-collar families."
PART D : Name a purpose for research on a topic of interest to you, and

write an appropriate title.
48
Chapter 6
Writing Introductions and

Literature Reviews
The purpose of an introduction in an empirical research report is to

introduce the problem area, establish its importance, and indicate the
researcher' s perspectives on the problem. Introductions usually conclude
with an explicit statement of the research hypotheses, purposes, or
questions explored in the study.
In a research report published as a journal article, the introduction is
almost always integrated with the literature review into a single essay. In
theses and dissertations, it is common to have the first chapter present the
introduction and the second one present the literature review.
The guidelines that follow apply to all types of empirical research
reports and proposals, except where noted.
>- Guideline 6.1 Start the introduction by describing

the problem area; gradually shift its focus to specific
research hypotheses, purposes, or questions.
To implement the first guideline, write a topic outline of what will be

covered. Example 6. 1 . 1 shows a simple outline that starts with the broad
topic and becomes more specific, ending with research purposes.
Example 6.1 . 1
Topic Outline for the Introduction

1. Importance of question asking by children
a. As a skill used in learning in school
b. As a functional skill in the home and other nonschool settings
2. Introduction to two types of questions
a. Request for factual information (who, what, and when)
b. Questions about causation (why)
c. Functions of the two types in school
3. Relationhip between parents' and children ' s verbal behavior
49
Chapter 6 Writing Introductions and Literature Reviews
a. On other verbal variables

b . O n question-asking behavior: quantity and type
4. Relationship between culture and verbal behavior
a. Examples of how and why cultures may vary in their question-asking
behavior
b. Functions of questions in target cultures
5 . Statement o f the research purposes
a. Determine types and numbers of questions asked by children in a
structured learning environment
b . Determine the relationship between question asking b y children and by
parents, with attention to both number and type
c. Determine differences in question-asking behavior among target cultures
If this outline was for a thesis or dissertation, the author would write
the introduction with an emphasis on his or her own views and
observations regarding these topics with few citations of published
literature. It would be appropriate to point out that the topics will be
covered in more detail in the literature review, which is usually the second
chapter.
If Example 6. 1 . 1 was an outline for an introduction to a research
report written to be published as a journal article, the literature review
would be integrated with the author' s introductory remarks.
If you are writing a research report as a term proj ect, check with
your instructor to see if you should write a separate introduction or one
that is integrated with the literature review.
Guideline 6.2 Start long introductions and literature

reviews with a paragraph that describes their
organization, and use subheadings to guide readers.
The numbered topics in Example 6.2. 1 (e.g., Importance of question

asking by children and Introduction to two basic types of questions) could
be used as subheadings.
In theses and dissertations, where the introduction and literature
review are usually each a fairly long chapter, the use of subheadings is
especially desirable. Begin each chapter with an overview of what is
covered in it, and begin each subsection with such an overview. This is
illustrated in Example 6.2. 1 , in which the first paragraph provides an
overview of the chapter, and the second paragraph provides an overview
of the first subsection. The third paragraph then begins a discussion on the
50
topic covered by the first subsection with citations to the literature (i.e.,
"Two major studies . . . ). "
Example 6.2.1
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
This chapter describes literature relevant to the research purposes of this
thesis. It is organized into four sections: ( 1 ) the importance of question asking by
children, (2) an introduction to two basic types of questions, (3) the relationship
between parents' and children' s verbal behavior, and (4) the relationship between
culture and verbal behavior. At the end of each section, the relevance of the
literature to the research reported in this thesis is discussed.
Importance of Question Asking by Children
Most of the literature on the importance of question asking deals with the
behavior of students in school settings during learning activities. This literature is
reviewed first in order to establish the importance of question asking as a tool in
the learning/teaching process. Then, the more limited literature on the importance
of question asking by children as a functional skill in the home and other
nonschool settings is reviewed. Throughout, there is an emphasis on the
principles of learning theories as well as theories of social interaction that
underlie the literature.
Two major studies examined the relationship between students ' question
asking behavior and . . . .
Guideline 6.3 The importance of a topic should be

explicitly stated in the introduction.
Be specific in giving reasons for the importance of the topic, as

illustrated in Example 6 .3 . 1 , which is the beginning of the first paragraph
in the introduction to a research report.
Example 6.3 . 1
Poor eating habits and inactive lifestyles that begin during childhood can lead to
numerous health problems, including obesity, diabetes, heart disease and cancer
(U. S . Department of Health and Human Services, 1 997). Only one in five
children eat five servings of fruit and vegetables a day as recommended by the
National Cancer Institute to reduce cancer risk later in life (Krebs-Smith et at ,
1996). In addition . . . . 1
1 Bauer, Yang, & Austin (2004, p . 34).
51
Guideline 6.4 A statement on the imp o rtance of a

topic should be specific to the topic investigated.
Example 6.4. 1 was submitted as the statement on the importance of a

topic in the first draft of a proposal for a thesis in which a functional skills
program in adult schools was to be evaluated. Notice that the statement
fails to deal specifically with functional skills in adult education. In fact,
the statement is so broad that it could refer to almost any curriculum and
instruction topic in education, which is clearly a violation of the guideline.
Example 6.4.1
Human resource is one of the greatest resources of this country, and education
plays a major rol e in maintaining, nurturing, and protecting that resource. Thus, it
is imperative that we find, evaluate, and utilize educational systems that yield the
results necessary for the country's progress.
Guideline 6.5 Consider pointing out the number or

p ercentage of people who are affected by the p roblem
you are studying.
Being able to show that many people are affected by a problem helps
to establish the importance of a research problem (see Guidelines 6.3 and
6.4). Of course, the numbers and percentages should be specific-not just
stated in the form of nonspecific generalizations such as "A large
percentage of high school students report that . . . " or "An increasing
number of people have . . . . "
The authors of Examples 6.5 . 1 and 6.5 .2 followed this guideline.
Example 6.5.1
Depression is one of the most frequently diagnosed psychiatric disorders in

youth, with as many as 9% of children having experienced at least one episode of
. . . major depression by the age of 14 (Lewinsohn, Rohde, Seeley, & Fischer,
1 993). Prevalence rates for subsyndromal depressive symptoms are even greater,
with between 1 0% and 30% of youth exceeding cutoff scores on self-report
measures of depressive symptoms (Hammen & Rudolph, 2003) and between
20% and 59% of youth experiencing . . 2. .
2 Abela & Sullivan (2003 , p. 3 84).
52
Example 6.5.2
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) has become the most widely
diagnosed psychiatric condition among children in the United States. Estimates
of the percentage of children with ADHD vary from study to study, ranging from
two to nine percent, but is generally accepted to affect five percent of the
population of children under age 1 8 (Taylor, 1 997).3
Guideline 6.6 The literature review should be

presented in the form of an essay- not in the for m of an
annotated list.
An annotation is a brief summary; a list of annotations indicates

what research is available on a topic but fails to organize the material for
the reader by indicating how the individual citations relate to one another
and what trends the researcher has observed in the published literature on
his or her topic.
An effective review of literature is an essay based on a topic outline
(see Guideline 6. 1 ) that takes the reader from topic to topic. The literature
on a topic is cited during a discussion of that topic. Research reports with
similar findings or methodologies may be cited together, as in Example
6.6. 1 . Notice that the first point is supported by two references while the
last point (i.e., "girls tend to have . . . higher levels of depressive symptoms
than do boys") is supported by three sources in the literature.
Example 6.6.1
Thus, adolescents who are dissatisfied with their body or physical appearance
tend to report more depressive symptoms (Baron & Joly, 1 98 8 ; Brooks-Gunn &
Warren, 1 989). The body image-depressed mood relationship seems to exist in
both girls and boys (Lewinsohn, Roberts, Seeley, Rohole, Gotlieb, & Hops,
1 994), but since girls tend to have a more negative body image, they also (on
average) report higher levels of depressive symptoms than do boys (Allgood
Merten et aI. , 1 990; Andrews et aI . , 1 993; Mori & Morey, 1 99 1 ).4
Example 6.6.2 also illustrates this guideline. Notice that the excerpt
is organized around topics -not the findings of individual researchers. In
fact, two of the references (i.e., Chang, 1 997, and Weisner & Schmidt,
1 992) are each cited two times-in support of two different points the
author makes in the paragraph.
3 Glass (200 1 , p. 70).

4 Holsen, Kraft, & R.0ysamh (200 1 , p. 6 1 5).
53
Example 6.6.2
Epidemiological studies indicate that alcohol abuse and dependence occur about
twice as often among men as among women (Chang, 1 997; Weisner & Schmidt,
1 992). However, women are underrepresented among individuals entering
treatment for alcohol abuse, dependency, and related problems (Beckman, 1 994;
Dawson, 1 996). Although there is some indication that the underutilization of
alcohol treatment by women is changing, men have persistently outnumbered
women in treatment by a ratio of almost 4 : 1 (Chang; Weisner & Schmidt).
Among individuals in treatment for alcoholism, the proportion of women
increased from 22 percent in 1 982 to 29 percent in 1 993 (U. S . Department of
Health and Human Services [DHHS] , 1 997). This coincided with a similar
national increase in specialized treatment services for women (DHHS). 5
Guideline 6. 7 Avoid using long strings of reference

citations for a single finding or theory.
Some findings or theories have been very widely reported in the

literature. Suppose, for instance, that you found 3 2 journal articles that
reported data that support the XYZ theory. It would be distracting as well
as unproductive to make a simple statement to this effect followed by 3 2
reference citations i n parentheses. One solution i s to simply use "e.g.,"
standing for "for example," and cite only a few, as illustrated in Example
6.7. 1 .
Example 6.7.1
More than 3 0 experiments reported in journal articles have lent support to the
XYZ theory (e.g., Doe, 2003 ; Smith & Smith, 2004; and Jones, 2005).
Another solution is to indicate the time span over which the support
has been reported while citing only some of the early and some of the
more recent experiments, as in Example 6.7.2.
Example 6.7.2
More than 30 experiments reported in journal articles have lent support to the
XYZ theory, starting with studies conducted more than 50 years ago (e.g., Black,
1 949; Barnes, 1 950) and continuing to the present (Smith & Smith, 2004; Jones,
2005).
Still another solution is to cite only those that are strongest in terms
of research methodology, as in Example 6.7.3 .
5 Parks, Hesselbrock, Hesselbrock, & Segal (2003 , p. 1 5 1 ).
54
Example 6.7.3
XYZ theory. Among these, three used true experimental designs with random
assignment to treatment groups (Tanner, 200 1 ; Clive, 2003 ; Banner & Brown,
2005).
Yet another solution is to distinguish among the reports based on the

strength of their support, as in Example 6.7.4.
Example 6.7.4
XYZ theory. While the support is weak in about half the studies (e.g., Green,
2004; Blake, 2005), stronger support has been reported in the others (e.g., White,
200 1 ; Shoemaker, 2002).
In a thesis or dissertation, you may be expected to cite all relevant

references to demonstrate that you have conducted a comprehensive
literature search. Even in this circumstance, long strings of citations can
be avoided by referring to the references in smaller groups. For instance,
you can cite the methodologically strong ones in one place in the literature
review, cite the older ones for a historical perspective in another place,
cite the ones that led to turning points in thought on the issue in yet
another place, and so on.
Guideline 6.8 Discuss theories that h ave relevance to

the research.
A theory is a cohesive set of principles that help explain

relationships among variables. Pointing out how the research relates to
one or more theories helps to establish the context for the research and
helps to establish its importance. Discussion of theories can be integrated
throughout the introduction and literature review, as indicated by this
statement from Example 6.2. 1 in this chapter: "Throughout, there is an
emphasis on the principles of learning theories as well as theories of social
interaction that underlie the literature." If there is an extended discussion
of one or more related theories, it is also appropriate to discuss them in a
separate section of the literature review with a subheading such as
"Theoretical Rationale" or with a subheading that names the theory such
as "Attachment Theory" in Example 1 .5 .2 in Chapter 1 .
55
Guideline 6.9 The literature review should emphasize

the findings of previous research- not j ust the research
methodologies and names of va:riables studied.
Example 6.9. 1 violates this guideline. In the improved version, the

major finding is summarized (i.e., respect for authority declined after the
imposition of censorship).
Example 6.9.1
Doe (2003) studied respect for authority and how it changed after the imposition
of censorship. This study is important because, being based on a two-year case
study, it is the most intensive study to date of the effects of censorship on college
students.
Doe (2003) found that respect for authority among this group declined
significantly after the imposition of censorship. This study is important because,
being based on a two-year case study, it is the most intensive study to date of the
effects of censorship on college students.
Guideline 6 . 1 0 Feel fr e e to express op i n i ons abo ut the

quality and importance of the research b eing cited.
If a study is especially strong methodologically, consider mentioning

it, as was done in the last sentence of the Improved Version of Example
6.9. 1 above.
When there are contradictory findings among the studies on the
research topic, give more weight to strong studies than to seriously flawed
studies when reaching generalizations about the results of previous
research.
Readers will assume that the research being cited is reasonably
sound unless the writer states otherwise. Thus, it is desirable to point out
major weaknesses in previous studies, as is illustrated in Example 6 . 1 0. 1 .
Example 6.1 0 . 1
Another commonly used method for assessing helping skills [of professionals
such as counselors] has been to have judges code verbal response modes (e.g.,
reflection of feelings, interpretation) in transcripts of sessions (see Hill &
Corbett, 1 993 ). Although this coding method is adequate for assessing what
helpers overtly do in sessions, it does not capture how clients perceive the skills.
56
A helper may deliver an interpretation, but the client may not hear it because she
or he is distracted. What the client hears is undoubtedly more important than
what judges code obj ectively. 6
Note that it is not always necessary to discuss weaknesses in detail.

Sometimes, it is sufficient to tip off readers to weaknesses with short
phrases such as "In a preliminary pilot study, Doe (2004) found . . . . " and
"Although the researchers did not use random assignment to experimental
and control groups, the study by Jones and Black (2005) is . . . . "
Guideline 6. 1 1 Point out trends and themes in the

literature.
In Example 6. 1 1 . 1 , the researcher points out a recent trend in the

literature.
Example 6. 1 1 . 1
A recent trend i n the literature i s the self-reflection o f White teachers who teach
in predominantly African American settings. These teachers admit to having to
shift their attitudes about teaching and learning to obtain acceptable achievement
outcomes (Diller, 1 999; Kottler, 1 997; Weiner, 1 999). Traditional teaching
methods often failed to yield desirable outcomes in these teachers ' classrooms.
Success in the classroom came only after a shift in their attitudes about teaching,
learning and culture. Shifts in attitudes of these teachers involve viewing culture
as a tool in teaching rather than ignoring it. ?
Guideline 6. 1 2 Point out gaps in the liter ature.
In Example 6 . 1 2. 1 , the researchers point out gaps in the literature on

the role of religion in the lives of young people.
Example 6 . 1 2 . 1
Although previous investigations provide some insight into these [research]

questions [stated immediately above] , research in this area generally . . . focuses on
young adults (i .e., college students) rather than on early, middle, or late
adolescents . . . [and] its findings are based on samples that are often small . . . [and]
limited to a single location . . . . 8
6 Hill & Kellems (2002, p. 264).

7 Bakari (2003 , p. 64 1 ).
8 Wallace, Forman, Caldwell, & Willis (2003 , pp. 1 03-1 04).
57
In Example 6. 1 2.2, the gap in the literature IS referred to as a

"limitation" of the body of research on the topic.
Example 6.1 2.2
One final limitation of most prior studies of maternal teaching interactions is that
they have neglected children ' s contributions to the learning environment. The
simple framework of most of the literature on parental teaching is that mothers
teach and children learn. Yet children, too, contribute to the learning environment
through their use of questions and their own discussion of complex ideas. 9
Students who are writing term proj ect papers, theses, and
dissertations should note that when they point out gaps in the literature,
they may be asked by their professors to defend such assertions. Thus, it is
a good idea to keep careful records of how the literature search was
conducted (i.e., what indices and databases were examined-including the
dates) and which descriptors (i.e., subject index terms) were used in the
search. Students should consider including a statement such as the one in
Example 6. 1 2.3 in their reports; such statements are usually not included
in research reports published in journals.
Example 6 . 1 2.3
A search of the ABC Index for the years 1 975 through 2005 using the subj ect
index terms "term a" and "term b" yielded only two studies of adolescents (i.e.,
Doe, 2003 ; Jones, 2005) and no studies of children.
>- Guideline 6 . 1 3 Point out how the current study

differs from previous studies.
Unless you are conducting a strict replication of a previous study,

you should point out how your study differs from previously published
research. The differences may be in terms of your selection of variables,
how you conceptualized and measured the variables, the composition of
the sample, the method of analysis, and so on. After showing that the
literature supports the generalization that violence in TV programming
reduces memory of the associated commercials, the authors of Example
6. 1 3 . 1 point out how their study differs from the previous ones.
9 Eisenberg (2002, p. 2 1 0).
58
Example 6.13.1
However, we could find no published studies on the effect of televised sex on

memory for commercial messages. The main purpose of the current study is to
examine whether sexual content in TV programming reduces memory for
commercials in the same way that violent programming does. 1 0
Guideline 6 . 1 4 Peripheral research may be cited in a

thesis or dissertation when no literature with a direct
bearing on the research topic can be located.
When Los Angeles first started implementing year-round school

schedules, for example, there was no published research on the topic.
There was research, however, on traditional school-year programs in
which children attended school in shifts, on the effects of the length of the
school year on achievement, and on the effectiveness of summer school
programs. Students who were writing theses and dissertations on the Los
Angeles program had to cite such peripheral literature in order to
demonstrate their ability to conduct a search of the literature and write a
comprehensive, well-organized review of literature. Remember that a
thesis or dissertation is, in part, a test of a student' s ability to locate,
collect, and integrate references into a cohesive essay.
In a research report published as a journal article, it would probably
suffice to say that a systematic search of the literature revealed no studies
on this topic.
Guideline 6. 1 5 Use direct quotations sparingly in

literature reviews.
This guideline is suggested for three reasons. First, direct quotations

often do not convey their full meaning when quoted out of context; on the
other hand, quoting the context is usually less efficient than paraphrasing
the main idea(s) of the author. Second, frequent quotations may disrupt
the flow of the review because of the varying writing styles of the authors.
Finally, quotations often bog the reader down in details that are not
essential for the purpose of obtaining an overview of the literature. By
paraphrasing, you can easily omit minor details.
10 Bushman & Bonacci (2002, p. 5 5 8).
59
Direct quotations are appropriate when the writer of the review ( 1 )

wants to illustrate either the original author' s skill at writing or lack
thereof or (2) believes that the wording of a statement will have an
emotional impact on the reader that would be lost in paraphrase. These
purposes seldom arise in presenting literature in an empirical research
report.
Guideline 6. 1 6 Report sparingly on the details of the

literature being cited.
Because the research being cited has usually been published, the
reader can obtain copies to learn the details.
Typically, reviews of literature in theses and dissertations contain
more details on cited research than reviews in research reports published
as j ournal articles. Even in theses and dissertations, however, the
researcher should be selective in reporting details. For example, it may be
appropriate to describe an especially important study in more detail than
other, less important studies. Also, if your study builds directly on a
previous study, it would be appropriate to discuss that study in detail so
your readers can see the connection between them.
Guideline 6. 1 7 Consider using literature to provide

the historical context for the present study.
Following this guideline is especially desirable in theses and

dissertations where students should demonstrate that they have a
comprehensive knowledge of the literature on their topics. It is also
appropriate in research reports published as j ournal articles when
researchers wish to ( 1 ) acknowledge the original proponents ' theories and
principles that underlie their current studies or (2) show that their research
is a logical continuation of the historical chain of thought on a topic.
Example 6. 1 7. 1 shows how the history of a topic might be briefly traced.
In this example, the researchers trace the history of graphology, which
claims that personality traits are revealed by handwriting characteristics.
Example 6. 1 7.2 traces the history of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity
Disorder (ADHD).
60
Example 6. 1 7. 1
The rules o n the method o f classification o f the system of [graphological] signs

used today were laid down by Jean Crepieux-Jamin in his book . . . published in
1 88 8 . Authors of graphology texts intended both for the serious student (e.g.,
Singer, 1 986; Nezes, 1 993) and the popularist market (e.g., Branstson, 1 995) do
indeed claim that indicators of personality traits or types of intellectual ability
can be so identified. Supporting evidence from studies that used conventional,
scientific methodology is, however, relatively rare or limited (Klimoski &
Rafaeli, 1 98 3 ; Beyerstein, 1 992; Klimoski, 1 992) . . . . Within the last 1 5 years or
so, a number of controlled experiments have been reported in the (English
language) academic press. These have generally involved attempts to match
. 1 1
handwriting characteristics with other measures of personality . . .
Example 6.1 7.2
ADHD has gone through a series of names since it was first documented in 1 845,
including (but not limited to) "restlessness syndrome," "minimal brain
dysfunction," and "hyperkinetic reaction disorder" (Eisenberg & Esser, 1 997;
Moghadam & Fagan, 1 994). However, in those earlier years, children who
displayed the behaviors that are now commonly known as "ADHD" were often
viewed as trouble-making, lazy, or disobedient children. In the 1 970s, researchers
began to more closely study these behaviors. As this research progressed during
12
the following two decades, ADHD came to be viewed as a medical disorder. . . .
Guideline 6. 1 8 Consider citing prior literature

reviews on your topic.
If there is a solid previous review of literature on your topic,

consider citing it. Typically, you should describe the conclusions of the
previous reviewer and indicate whether your reading of the literature has
led you to the same conclusions. If so, it will lend support to your
conclusions. If not, you should describe why you think the previous
reviewer was led astray.
Of course, you will want to read the literature cited by the previous
reviewer and present it in your own words. Finally, you will want to bring
your readers up-to-date by discussing the literature published since the
review you are citing was published.
II
Lowis & Mooney (200 1 , pp. 367-3 68).
12
Glass (200 1 , pp. 70-7 1 ).
61
Guideline 6. 1 9 When using the Harvard method for

citing references, decide whether to emphasize the
authorship or the content of each reference.
Note that in the Harvard method for citing references (also known as
the "author-date method" popularized by the American Psychological
Association), only the authors ' last names and year of pUblication are
given. The names may be made part of the sentence, as in Example 6 . 1 9. 1 ,
or they may be included parenthetically, as in Example 6 . 1 9.2. In Example
6. 1 9 . 1 , the emphasis is on the authorship; in Example 6. 1 9.2, the emphasis
is on the content or idea being expressed. The choice of forms depends on
the desired emphasis. Because a literature review should be an essay that
integrates and evaluates the content of previous research on a topic,
presenting the researcher' s name in parentheses, as in Example 6 . 1 9 .2, is
usually preferable because it deemphasizes the authorship.
Example 6 . 1 9 . 1
Doe (2004) reported that a major source of dissatisfaction among teachers

appears to be the low social status accorded their profession.
Example 6.1 9.2
A major source of dissatisfaction among teachers appears to be the low social

status accorded their profession (Doe, 2004).
Guideline 6.20 Avoid referring to the credentials and

affiliations of the authors of the literature that is
reviewed.
In an "appeal to authority," writers in the popular press often refer to

a researcher' s credentials (e.g., being a professor) and affiliations (e.g.,
Harvard University) when summarizing research. Thus, in a newspaper
article on recently released research, it would not be uncommon to see a
statement such as "Professor Doe of Harvard University' s School of
Public Health reported in an article published today in the Journal of
Studies that. . . . " Such a statement in a formal academic report of empirical
research should almost never be used because confidence in the results of
a research study should rest on the strength of the evidence presented (in
light of the care with which empirical methods were used in the
research)-not in terms of the credentials or affiliations of the researchers.
62
Guideline 6.2 1 Use of tile first person is acceptable if

used sparingly to refer to personal observations,
experiences, and beliefs.
Use of the first person is especially appropriate when referring to the

author's personal observations, experiences, and beliefs, as is the case in
Example 6.2 1 . 1 . The use of "I" in this example is less stilted than using
the term "the author" to refer to the writer.
Example 6.2 1 . 1
I began to speculate on the origins of this problem during my three years as an

assistant to a teacher of the learning disabled.
Frequent use of the first person throughout the introduction and

elsewhere in a research report, however, can be distracting. It is especially
inappropriate when referring to matters that are not personal such as the
lack of experimental studies mentioned in Example 6.2 1 .2 .
Example 6.2 1 .2
When I realized that all the previous research on this topic was non experimental,
I decided that it would be especially important for me to conduct an experimental
study for the current investigation.
Improved Version of Example 6.2 1 .2
Because all the previous research on this topic was nonexperimental, it seemed
especially important to conduct an experimental study for the current
investigation.
Concluding Comments
For many students, writing the introduction and review of literature

is the most difficult part of writing an empirical research report. The
guidelines in this chapter will help you avoid some maj or pitfalls. They do
not, however, cover other important matters in effective writing such as
providing clear transitions and writing with a sparse but clear style. The
latter can be mastered only through guided learning under the tutelage of
an experienced writer and through extensive reading of effective prose.
If you lack confidence in your ability to write introductions and

literature reviews, follow these suggestions:
63
1 . Write a topic outline, as illustrated in Guideline 6 . 1 , and take it with

you when you consult with your instructor or committee. The outline
will help them understand what you are trying to accomplish and make
it easier for them to help you.
2. Read numerous reviews of literature, paying attention to how they are
organized and how the authors make transitions from one topic to
another.
3 . After writing a first draft, have it reviewed by friends and colleagues
even if they are not experts on your topic. Ask them to point out
elements that are not clear. Effective introductions are usually
comprehensible to any intelligent layperson.
4. Be prepared to revise and rewrite. Because effective writing is
achieved through this process, expect your instructor, committee, or
j ournal editor to request revisions.

differences of opinions on the best answers to some of the following
questions.
PART A
1 . According to this chapter, should the introduction/literature review

begin with a statement of hypotheses/purposes/questions? Explain.
2. It is suggested that long introductions and literature reviews begin

with what?
3 . Critique the following paragraph, which was submitted by a student to

indicate the importance of the topic she selected for her research (i.e.,
the prevalence of depression among inner-city adolescents).
In the new millennium, the public is increasingly aware of the importance
of the psychological well-being of all citizens. Because of this recognition
by the public, it is important to conduct more studies that shed light on the
prevalence of well-being, starting with the psychological well-being of
adolescents, who will soon be adults.
64
4. Critique the following portions of a literature review.

Smith (2002) conducted a national survey of women' s attitudes toward
national politically liberal policy issues. He found that. . . .
Jones (2004) also studied the tendency (on average) for women to hold
more liberal positions on . . . .
Doe (2005) conducted an experiment in which college women were . . . .
5. Critique the following description of the research by Jones. For

instructional purposes, assume that the description is complete (i.e. ,
other information about Jones ' research is not described elsewhere in
the research report) .
Jones (2003) conducted an experiment in which one random half of a
group of college men attended a lecture on sexual harassment issues in the
workplace. During the lecture, the lecturer told a mildly misogynous j oke.
The other random half heard the same lecture but was not told the joke.
Immediately afterwards, all the men were administered a scale that
measured their attitudes toward laws designed to protect women in
employment settings. This is an important study since it utilized random
assignment to treatments.
6. According to this chapter, what might readers assume if you cite

literature without commenting on weaknesses in it?
7. How could the following beginning of the introduction to a research

report be improved?
In recent years, homelessness has been dramatically increasing. Now,
large numbers of individuals are living on the streets in major American
cities. Due to financial constraints, many social service organizations are
unable to keep up with the demand for. . . .
8. Suppose you located reports on 24 studies that indicated that X is

larger than Y. According to this chapter, is it sufficient to make a
statement to that effect followed by the 24 reference citations in
parentheses? If no , what should be done?
9. A student wrote a literature review with a large number of quotations

from the literature in the belief that the quotations would substantiate
the points being made. According to this chapter, is this appropriate?
1 0 . In the following statement from a literature review, the writer is

critical of the research being cited. According to this chapter, is this
acceptable?
65
The findings by Smith (2004) on the prevalence of substance abuse by

middle-school students are highly questionable because she failed to
collect the data anonymously.
1 1 . "According to this chapter, it is appropriate to cite only recently

published studies in a literature review." Is this statement true or
false? Explain the basis for your answer.
1 2 . Critique the following statement from a literature review.

Dr. Richard Doe (2004), professor of education at Stanford University
and former head of research for the New York Public Schools, reported
on the effects of variable schedules of reinforcement on the mathematics
achievement of. . . .
1 3 . Is the use of the first person (e.g., "I" and "me") ever acceptable
in an introduction to a research report? Explain.
PART B
1 4 . Examine the introductions to three research reports published in

j ournals and/or theses or dissertations on a topic of interest to
you, and answer the following questions.
a. How many are organized according to Guideline 6. 1 ?
b. In how many does the author explicitly state why the research topic
is important and cite specific numbers or percentages to support the
statement? If any, copy one statement, and bring it to class for
discussion.
c. In how many does the author cite references to relevant theories? If
any, what are the names of the theories? Are the discussions of the
theories brief or in-depth?
d. In how many is the literature review integrated with the
introduction?
e. In how many does the author express opinions on the quality of
some of the research cited? If any, copy an example, and bring it to
class for discussion.
f. In how many cases are direct quotations from the literature
included?
66
PART C: Write a topic outline for an introduction to a research proj ect of

interest to you. Have it reviewed by two friends or colleagues, and revise
it in light of their comments. Bring the first and second drafts to class for
discussion.
67
Notes:
68
Chapter 7
Writing Definitions
Two types of definitions are usually found in empirical research

reports. Conceptual definitions, which resemble dictionary definitions that
refer to general concepts, are often presented in the introduction.
Operational definitions, which define traits in concrete, step-by-step
physical terms, are usually presented in the section on methods.
In theses and dissertations, conceptual definitions are sometimes
provided in a separate section of the introduction, with its own
subheading. In journal articles, conceptual definitions are usually
integrated into the introductory statement.
This chapter presents guidelines on what to define and how to write
both conceptual and operational definitions.
Guideline 7 . 1 All variables in a research hypothesis,

purpose, or question should be defined.
Example 7. 1 . 1 is a hypothesis. "Newspaper reading habits" and

"cultural literacy" need to be defined in the research report.
Example 7. 1 . 1
There is a direct relationship between newspaper reading habits and cultural

literacy.
"Newspaper reading habits," for instance, can be defined in a number of

ways. At the conceptual level, it might be generally defined in terms of
"regularity of referring to newspapers for information and entertainment."
At the operational (i.e., physical) level, the definition might refer to daily
average number of minutes spent reading, the typical number of
newspaper sections scanned, number of newspaper stories read, and so on.
Obviously, how newspaper reading habits are defined at the operational
level could have an important influence on the results of the study.
69
Chapter 7 Writing Definitions
Guideline 7.2 The definitions of defining attributes of

a population (also called "control variables") should be
specific.
In the hypothesis in Example 7.2. 1 , "adult education learners" is a

defining attribute that should be specifically defined.
Example 7.2.1
There is a direct relationship between newspaper reading habits and cultural

literacy among adult education learners.
The definition of "adult education learners" in Example 7 .2 .2 is not

sufficiently specific. The improved version contains more details that help
readers understand the characteristics of the population.
Example 7.2.2
"Adult education learners" are adults enrolled in formal education programs.
"Adult education learners" are individuals over 1 8 years of age who are enrolled
in one or more classes in adult schools operated by the Los Angeles Unified
School District.
Guideline 7.3 Theories and models on which the

research is based should be defined.
The "stress-coping theory" mentioned in Example 7.3 . 1 should be

defined. Notice that the researchers provide a reference where more
information on the theory can be found.
Example 7.3.1
In the introduction to a research report, researchers state:

The stress-coping theory of addictive behaviors (Wills & Shiffman, 1 985) has
been successfully applied to alcohol abuse and has the potential to increase
understanding of gambling. 1
Then the researchers who wrote Example 7.3 . 1 devote seven paragraphs
to fleshing out the definition of this theory as well as the definitions of
I Lightsey & Hulsey (2002, p. 202).
70
these two psychological constructs that underlie the theory: "stress" and
"coping." For instance, they define a particular type of coping in Example
7.3 .2. Notice the use of an example in parentheses to help readers
understand the definition.
Example 7.3.2
Escape-avoidance coping consists of avoiding a stressful situation by engaging in

a task not related to the stressor (e.g., drinking alcohol instead of interacting with
the family). 2
Guideline 7.4 Conceptual definitions should be

specific.
The definition of "imitation " in Example 7.4. 1 is not sufficiently

specific. In the improved version, much more information regarding the
conceptual meaning of the term is provided. Note that it is perfectly
acceptable to cite a definition previously offered by an expert (in this case,
Wyrwicka, 1 996). In fact, this is often preferable to trying to devise a new
way to define a concept that already has a widely accepted definition.
Example 7.4.1
Imitation is the process of one person copying the behavior of another.
Imitation is a particular activity that involves both social and cognitive

dimensions and can be defined generally as "the copying by an individual of a
certain motor or vocal act performed by another individual, usually of the same
species" (Wyrwicka, 1 996, p. 1 ) . The findings of social learning show that the
behavioral repertoire of infants can be modeled by seeing the actions of others
(Bandura, 1 997). Imitation occurs from birth (Meltzoff & Moore, 1 977, 1 997)
and is an important functional basis for human development, including gestures,
vocalizations, obj ect manipulation, and tool using, as well as motor-social
expressions, etc. 3
2 Lightsey & Hulsey (2002, p . 202).

3 Toselli, Fameti, & Grossi (200 1 , p. 524).
71
>- Guideline 7.5 Operational definitions should b e

provided, usually i n the method section of a repo rt.
An operational definition is one that is stated in terms of physical

steps. After reading an operational definition, the reader should be able to
see in his or her mind' s eye the physical operations that were used to
measure a variable, give treatments, define a population, or identify the
relevant aspects of a model or theory.
In a study of anticipation strategies used on the first day of smoking
cessation, the researchers who wrote Example 7.5 . 1 refer to specific
physical behaviors-an essential characteristic of operational definitions.
Example 7.5.1
Stimulus control strategies include getting rid of all cigarettes and other smoking
paraphernalia such as ashtrays and lighters and avoiding situations in which one
usually smokes. Symptom prevention strategies include using nicotine
replacement therapy (NRT) to decrease or prevent urges and withdrawal
symptoms. Social support strategies involve telling others you are quitting in
order to garner their help or understanding. 4
Example 7.5.2 is not operational because it does not describe the

specific physical actions taken in the presence of the participants in the
experiment. This flaw has been corrected in the improved version.
Example 7.5.2
The stress-producing condition for the experimental group was a mild verbal
threat given by the experimenter.
In order to produce the stress-producing condition for the experimental group, a

male experimenter dressed in a white doctor' s j acket seated the participants. He
introduced himself as a physician with a specialty in internal medicine and stated
that for the purposes of the experiment, "You will receive a mild electric shock
while we measure your blood pressure."
4 O ' Connell, Gerkovich, Bott, Cook, & Shiffman (2002, p. 1 50).
72
Guideline 7.6 For each conceptual definition, there

should be a corresponding operational definition .
For each conceptual definition in the introduction, there should be an

operational definition, usually in the method section. Example 7.6. 1
illustrates this guideline.
Example 7.6.1
Conceptual definition in the introduction :

Ainsworth ( 1 989) . . . and others (e.g. , Sroufe & Waters, 1 977) defined attachment
as a meaningful and enduring emotional bond between two people. The secure
attachment relationship was thought to provide the child with a sense of security,
comfort, and predictability. Such a bond would be an important resource for
children charting new developmental terrain.
Corresponding operational definition in the method section:
ATTACHMENT TO PARENTS. The Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI; Parker,
Tupling, & Brown, 1 979) is a 50-item self-report questionnaire, with 25 items
assessing relations with one's mother and the same 25 items assessing relations
with one ' s father . . . . Participants are instructed to recall their impressions of their
parents, as formed during the first 1 6 years of their lives, and then to respond to
items that reflect these impressions on a 4-point scale ranging from very like my
motherlfather ( 1 ) to very unlike my motherlfather (4). Two dimensions of parent
child attachment are assessed by the PBI: care and protection. s
Notice that the authors of Example 7.6. 1 have operationalized

"attachment" by describing a published questionnaire used to measure the
variable "attachment to parents." This possibility is discussed under the
next guideline.
A conceptual definition of a "hate crime" and a corresponding
operational definition are provided in Example 7.6.2.
Example 7.6.2
Conceptual definition in the introduction :

Bias is a preformed negative attitude toward a group based on race, religion,
ethnicity/national origin, sexual orientation, or disability status. A bias crime,
also known as a hate crime, is a criminal offense committed against person or
property that is motivated, in whole or in part, by the offender' s bias.
Corresponding operational definition in the method section :
It is acknowledged that some hate crimes reported to law enforcement were not
reported to [the FBI] and that other hate crimes were not reported to any local
5 Rice, Cunningham, & Young ( 1 997, p. 9 1 ).
73
law enforcement agency. However, data used in this analysis represented the
complete universe of hate crimes that have been properly reported to the FBI as
required by the Hate Crimes Statistics Act. 6
Notice that the conceptual definition in Example 7.6.2 allows for

hate crimes to be operationally defined in many ways such as surveying
individuals to see if they believe they have been the victims of hate
crimes. In contrast, the operational definition in the example is sufficiently
specific that it rules out alternative methods of defining the variable. Also,
note that reporting crimes to the FBI as well as obtaining the data from the
FBI are physical acts that operationalize the variable.
Guideline 7.7 If a published instrument was used, the

variable measured by it may be operationally defined by
citing the reference for the instrument.
A published instrument, such as an achievement test, almost always

comes with specific, step-by-step physical directions for its use. By citing
the test with a reference to the author and publisher of the test, a
researcher can provide an operational definition. Example 7.7. 1 provides
such a definition.
Example 7.7. 1
Beginning mathematics skill was defined as the composite score on Form S of

the Primary Level 2, multiple-choice/open-ended Mathematics Test of the
Stanford Achievement Test Series, Ninth Edition (Harcourt Brace, 2002).
To further operationalize the definition in Example 7.7. 1 , the author

could provide an overview of the physical properties of the test (e.g.,
content of the items, number of items, types of items such as multiple
choice, and time limits) and the statistical properties of the test, especially
reliability and validity. This would be a courtesy to the reader, who could
also obtain this information by referring to a copy of the test and its
manual.
6 McMahon, West, Lewis, Armstrong, & Conway (2004, pp. 68-69).
74
Guideline 7.8 If an unpublished instrument was used,

consider reproducing sample questions or the entire
instrument in the report.
For specialized research purposes, researchers often have to

construct their own instruments (e.g. , tests, scales, and checklists). If such
an instrument is very short, a copy may be included in the research report.
Longer instruments should be included in appendices in term projects,
theses, and dissertations, but usually are not included in research reports
published in journal articles. Authors of journal articles should be
prepared to supply copies of longer, unpublished instruments to readers
who request them. When it will not violate test security, providing sample
items from the instrument is a good way to increase the operationalization
of the variable measured with longer instruments. Example 7 . 8 . 1 is from a
journal article in which the researchers describe new scales that they
developed for their research. They give sample items to help
operationalize their meanings of "family support" and "general peer
support."
Example 7.8.1
Family support. This 8-item scale assessed participants' perceived family support
during college . . . . Sample items included "If ! needed my family for support and
understanding, they would be there for me" and "My family really doesn 't
understand Geneseo ' s college environment and the type of stress that I am under"
(reverse coded).
General peer support. This 8-item scale assessed participants' perceptions of
peer support. . . . Sample items included "The friendships I have developed at
Geneseo are personally satisfying" and "Few of the Geneseo students that I know
would be willing to listen to me and help me if I had a personal problem (reverse
coded). 7
Guideline 7.9 Operational definitions should be

sufficiently specific so that another researcher can
replicate the study.
A replication is an attempt to reproduce the results of a previous

study by using the same research methods. Replicability is the maj or
7 Schneider & Ward (2003, p . 543).
75
criterion for judging the reliability and validity of the results of empirical
research.
Even definitions that appear to be highly operational at first glance
may be inadequate when one attempts to replicate a study. The definition
in Example 7.9. 1 illustrates this point. When a researcher prepares to
replicate a study involving "visual acuity," questions about the physical
process arise: How large were the letters? What type of screen was used?
What type of film was used to produce the letters? and so on. Answers to
these questions could easily affect individuals ' ability to recognize letters
of the alphabet flashed on a screen.
Example 7.9.1
Visual acuity was defined as the ability to name the letters of the alphabet when
flashed on a screen in a random order for a period of two seconds for each letter.
This guideline is often not followed to the letter. In practice, a writer

must consider how operational a definition needs to be to permit a
reasonably close replication. For making fine discriminations among very
similar shapes, answers to the questions posed above about Example 7.9. 1
may be crucial to a successful replication.
Guidelie 7. 1 0 Even a highly operational definition

may not be a useful definition.
An operational definition that is too narrow or is too far afield from

how others define a variable may be inadequate. Example 7 . 1 0. 1
illustrates this point. It is fairly operational, but the definition of "self
concept" is much more narrow than that used by most psychologists and
teachers.
Example 7 . 1 0 . 1
Self-concept was defined as the number of times each child smiled during the
first 1 5 minutes of homeroom for five consecutive days. A smile was defined as a
noticeable upward tum where the lips meet-based on agreement by three
independent observers. Each observer was a graduate student in clinical
psychology. Counts of smiles were made from videotapes, which permitted the
observers to reexamine facial expressions that were questionable.
76
C oncluding Comments
Writing satisfactory operational definitions is sometimes more

difficult than it might appear at first. When writing them, assume that you
are telling someone exactly how to conduct your study. Then have your
definitions reviewed by colleagues and ask them if they could perform the
same study in the same way without requesting additional information.
P ART A: For each of the following definitions, describe what additional

types of information, if any, are needed to make it more operational.
1 . Language skill was defined as scores on a scale from one to ten on an

essay test that required students to write three essays in a 5 0-minute
class period.
2. Depression was defined as the raw score on the Second Edition of

Araron' s Depression Inventory for Adults (Araron, 2004).
3 . Computer phobia was defined as clear signs o f anxiety when being

seated in front of a computer.
4. Hispanic students were defined as those students whose surnames

appeared on a master list of Hispanic/Latino/a surnames developed by
the author in consultation with a linguist. This list may be obtained by
writing to the author at P.O. Box xxx, Any City, State, Zip Code.
5 . Potential high school dropouts were defined as those who have a poor
attitude toward school.
6. Discrimination was defined as acts against individuals that limit their

opportunities solely because of preconceived biases against the groups
to which the individuals belong.
PART B : For each of the following variables, write a highly operational

definition. Because you may not have studied some of these variables, do
77
Chapter 7 Writing De finitions
not concern yourself with whether your definitions are highly useful. (See
Guideline 7. 1 0.) Instead, make them sufficiently operational so that they
would make a study of them replicable. (See Guideline 7.9 ) .
7 . Political involvement
8 . Math anxiety
9. Ability to fonn friendships
1 0. Desire to achieve in school
PART C : Name a variable you might want to study. Write a conceptual

definition and a highly operational definition of it. (For this activity, do
not cite a published test or scale in order to define the variable you have
selected.) Have the first draft of your definitions reviewed by colleagues,
and then revise them. Bring both drafts of the two definitions to class for
discussion.
PART D : Examine three research articles in j ournals and/or theses and

dissertations. Note how the variables are defined. Copy the definition you
think is most operational, and bring it to class for discussion.
78
Chapter 8
Writing As sumptions , Limitations ,

and Delimitations
An assumption is something that is believed to be true even though

the direct evidence of its truth is either absent or very limited.
A limitation is a weakness or handicap that potentially limits the
validity of the results. A delimitation is a boundary to which a study was
deliberately confined. To understand the difference, consider a researcher
who wants to study artistic creativity in general, but uses only a measure
of creative drawing. This would be a limitation because it is a weakness in
the execution of the study. On the other hand, if the researcher only wants
to study creative drawing and deliberately chooses a measure of this type
of creativity, his or her findings would be delimited to this type of
creativity, which is not a flaw in light of the researcher' s purpose.
Authors of research reports published in j ournal articles often
integrate statements of assumptions, limitations, and delimitations in
various sections of their articles, including the introduction, method
section, and very frequently in the discussion section at the end of the
report. These authors usually are very selective in deciding which ones to
state, naming only the major ones. Students who are writing term projects,
theses, and dissertations are often expected to discuss these issues in some
detail in order to show that they understand these concepts. In theses and
dissertations, the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations are
sometimes described in separate subsections of one of the chapters
often, the first chapter or the last chapter.
Guideline 8. 1 When stating an assumption, consider

providing the reason(s) why it was necessary to make the
assumption.
In Example 8 . 1 . 1 , this guideline has not been followed because while

it states what was assumed, it does not state why the assumption was
79
Chapter 8 Writing Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
necessary. Because no measure of human behavior is perfectly valid,

Example 8 . 1 . 1 adds little to the research report. In the first sentence of the
improved version, the authors describe the circumstances that led to the
use of a scale that may have limited validity.
Example 8. 1 . 1
I t was assumed that the cheerfulness scale was valid.
Improved Version of Example 8 . 1 . 1
Because we did not have the resources to make direct observations and ratings of
cheerfulness over time in a variety of settings, we constructed a self-report
measure of cheerfulness. It was necessary to assume that the participants were
honest in reporting their typical levels of cheerfulness in their self-reports. To
encourage honest responses, the cheerfulness scale was administered anony
mously, and the participants were encouraged to be open and honest by the
research assistant who administered it.
Guideline 8.2 If there is a reason for b elieving that an

assumption is true, state the reason.
The last sentence in the Improved Version of Example 8 . 1 . 1 above

suggests a basis for believing that the assumption is true. Likewise, the
last sentence in Example 8.2. 1 provides the basis for such a belief.
Example 8.2.1
Because the investigator could not be present in all the classrooms while the
experimental method was being used, it was necessary to assume that the
teachers consistently and conscientiously used the experimental method of
instruction. This assumption seems tenable because the teachers were given
intensive training in the method, as described in the method section of this report,
and they reported enthusiasm for the method, as described in the results section.
Guideline 8.3 If an assumption is highly

questionable, consider casting it as a limitation.
Example 8 .3 . 1 refers to a common flaw in research: use of a small

sample. Unless a researcher has some empirical basis for believing that
those in the small sample are representative of the larger population, it
would be better to describe this problem as a limitation, as is done in the
80
improved version. Note that researchers should not use assumptions to

"wish away" fundamental flaws.
Example 8.3.1
It is assumed that the results we obtained with our small sample are generalizable
to the larger population.
Limitations and caveats need to be noted. First, our sample size was small, which
may limit the generalizability of the findings. 1
Guideline 8.4 C onsider speculating on the possible

effects of a limitation on the results of a study.
Example 8 .4. 1 illustrates this guideline; the authors speculate that

their results may underestimate drug use because the data was collected
via face-to-face interviews. The tendency of people to underreport illegal
activities is a limitation of the interview method, which can be overcome,
in part, by using confidential, anonymous questionnaires. 2
Example 8.4.1
Our findings have several limitations . . . . As with other interviewer-administered

surveys, it is possible that personal behaviors and illegal activities such as drug
use may have been underreported. Hence, our survey would have underestimated
the prevalence of drug use. 3
Guideline 8.S Discuss limitations and delimitations

separately.
Because they are separate issues, discuss the limitations

(methodological weaknesses or flaws) in separate paragraphs or sections
from delimitations (boundaries to which the study was deliberately
limited). Example 8 . 5 . 1 points out a delimitation, while Example 8 . 5 .2
describes some limitations of the same study.
I Shadel, Niaura, & Abrams (2002, p. 1 75).

2 Of course, interviews have some advantages over questionnaires, such as providing more flexibility and
allowing researchers to probe for additional information.
3 Thiede et al. (200 3 , p. 1 920) .
81
Example 8.5.1
Background notes on a delimitation of a study:

For a study of the effects of a domestic violence treatment program, researchers
delimited their study to participants who had been arrested for misdemeanor
domestic violence offenses. This was not a limitation (i.e., flaw) because the
researchers were interested only in the effects of the treatment on participants
who were mandated by the courts to attend the treatment program.
Example 8.5.2
Excerpt on the limitations ofthe study described in Example 8. 5. 1 :

. . . study limitations involve the sole reliance on police records [as an outcome
measure] . Actual rates of recidivism are likely to be underreported in this study.
We used police records of incident reports, arrests, and convictions for DV
related [domestic-violence related] offenses. However, a relatively small
proportion of domestic violence incidents results in official charges . . . . We did
not contact the victims to assess whether the batterers committed any [additional]
violent offenses that were not reported to the police . . . . Without partner reports,
we do not know how many men continued to be involved in relationships and
thus even had an opportunity to reoffend over the two years post-arrest. Ideally,
we would include partners ' reports of batterers' violence as a measure of
recidivism, in addition to using police records. Also, in this study, rates of threats
and emotional abuse are unknown. It is possible . . . . 4
Guideline 8.6 If a study is seriously flawed by

important limitations, consider labeling it as a pilot
study.
A pilot study is an exploratory study that is used to try out and refine
instruments, see if participants will be cooperative, check for preliminary
support for a hypothesis, and so on. When this guideline is followed, it is
sometimes done in the title, with a subtitle such as "A Pilot Study."
Labeling a study as a pilot study can also be done in the introduction as
well as in the discussion at the end of the research report.
4 Babcock & Steiner ( 1 999, p. 53).
82
PART A
1 . Suppose you mailed a questionnaire to each member of a population

but only 28% completed and returned questionnaires to you. Suppose
you have no information on how the nonrespondents differ from the
respondents. Would you be willing to assume that your sample is
sound, or would you state that the nonresponse rate is a limitation?
Why?
2 . Suppose you administered both the experimental and control

treatments to a sample of mice. You took extreme care to be sure that
all mice were treated in the same way (e.g., diet, temperature, cage
size, etc.) except for the administration of different treatments to the
two groups. Nevertheless, you realize that there is always the potential
for human error no matter how careful a researcher tries to be, and
you might have unintentionally treated the experimental mice
differently from the control mice. Would you state the fact that errors
are always possible as an assumption, as a limitation, as a
delimitation, or simply not refer to it in your research report? Why?
3 . Suppose you used a standardized test that had been validated for the
type of population you were studying. Furthermore, suppose the test
had high validity but, as with all tests, was somewhat less than
perfectly valid. Would you describe this circumstance as a limitation,
or would you be willing to assume that the test is reasonably valid?
Why?
PART B
4. Consider a research project that you might plan to undertake. If you

know of an assumption you would probably need to make, write a
statement describing it.
5 . Consider a research project you might plan to undertake. If you know

of a limitation (i.e., methodological flaw) that you would probably
have if you conducted the study, write a statement describing it. For
83
the same study, describe a delimitation to which your study probably

would be confined.
PART C
6. Examine three research reports published in journals and/or theses or

dissertations that contain explicit statements of assumptions and/or
limitations. Copy the relevant portions of them, and bring them to
7. How many of the individual assumptions/limitations that you

examined for Question 6 involved generalizing from a sample to a
population? How many involved the measuring tools or tests? How
many involved the administration of experimental treatments? How
many involved other issues? Name them.
84
Chapter 9
Writing Method S ections
The section o n methods contains a description o f the physical steps

taken to gather data. Typically, the section begins with a description of the
individuals (such as schoolchildren) or objects (such as textbooks)
studied. Then the instrumentation (i.e., measuring tools) and any
additional procedures (such as the administration of experimental
treatments) should be described.
In reports on completed research, use the past tense to describe
methods; in proposals, use the future tense.
Guideline 9 . 1 Decide whether to use the term subjects

or participants to refer to the individuals studied.
Subjects is the traditional term used to refer to individuals studied in

empirical research. Increasingly, researchers are using the term
participants to refer to these individuals. The latter term conveys the idea
that these individuals freely chose to participate in a research study. !
When individuals freely consent to participate in a study, it seems
logical to call them participants. Of course, informed consent is not
always obtained. For instance, if you were conducting an observational
study of the behavior of adolescents in a large shopping mall, you might
not need consent to observe these public behaviors (although it would still
be highly desirable to maintain confidentiality in your data-handling
procedures). In such a study, the term subjects seems more appropriate
because the individuals are not knowingly participating and, of course,
have not consented to participate. Consent and confidentiality are
discussed under the next guideline.
I Other tenns that are sometimes used are respondents (e.g., to refer to those who respond to a mailed
questionnaire) and ex aminees (e.g., to refer to those who are participating in test development research).
85
Chapter 9 Writing M ethod Sections
Guideline 9.2 Describe the informed consent

p rocedures, if any, as well as steps taken to m aintain
confidentiality.
Institutions such as colleges and universities as well as funding

sources such as government agencies usually require researchers to obtain
informed consent from the individuals who will be participating in
research studies. A consent form that describes the purpose of the study,
the possible benefits and harm that might result from participation, and the
identification of those who are conducting the research should be
prepared. Individuals are asked to sign the form acknowledging that they
freely agree to participate and understand that they are free to withdraw
from the study at any time without penalty. 2
Example 9 .2 . 1 illustrates how to briefly describe the use of informed
consent in a research report. Note that the authors indicate that all those
contacted signed the form. If the rate is less than 1 00%, the percentage or
the number that signed (and, therefore, participated in the research) should
be reported.
Example 9.2 . 1
Participants were 1 08 undergraduates enrolled in an introductory sociology

course. Each was given an informed consent form, which had been approved by
the university's institutional research review board. The form indicated that the
study concerned attitudes toward road rage, that the students were not required to
participate, and, if they did participate, they could withdraw from the study at any
time without penalty. All students signed the form and participated fully.
Measures taken to protect the rights of participants to confidentiality

are described in Example 9.2.2. Also notice that permission from the
parents of minors was obtained.
Example 9.2.2
A consent form for parents to give their permission for their children to
participate in the study was developed using the school district ' s guidelines for
such forms. It was approved by the district' s research and evaluation committee.
Copies of the forms were mailed to the parents ' homes. Permission was received
by return mail for 49 out of the 50 children initially identified for participation in
the study.
2 Obtain precise requirements for preparing an informed consent form from your institution or funding
agency.
86
Chapter 9 Writing Method Sections
In order to maintain confidentiality, the questionnaires were administered in

the school cafeteria by a research assistant rather than the teachers. Although the
teachers were present, they were instructed not to walk around the cafeteria to
observe students' responses because of the sensitive nature of some of the
questions. In addition, after completing the questionnaires, students folded them
in half and put them into a ballot box as they filed out of the cafeteria. At no time
were the teachers allowed to examine the questionnaires. As soon as the data
were recorded on data collection forms and double-checked, the questionnaires
were shredded. They were destroyed because some of the extended responses on
the questionnaires contained information that could be used to identify individual
respondents.
Guideline 9.3 The participants should be described

in enough detail for the reader to visualize them.
Example 9.3 . 1 helps readers visualize the participants ' ethnicity, age,
and socioeconomic status. Note that the symbol n stands for number of
cases and M is the symbol for the mean (the most popular average).
Example 9.3 . 1
Participants were 4 1 8 sixth and seventh graders (M 1 2 .4 years) who attended

=
an ethnically diverse middle school with a sixth-grade through eighth-grade

configuration. Ethnicity of participants was determined by self-report. On the
research questionnaire, students identified themselves as belonging to one of six
groups that captured the range of ethnicities in the school . Twelve respondents
did not answer the ethnicity question, resulting in a final sample of 406 students
for this study. The ethnic breakdown of the study sample was as follows: 29. 1 %
Latino (n 1 1 8 ; 5 9 girls, 59 boys), 28.6% African American . . . .
=
At the principal' s request, no data on individual student socioeconomic status

(SES) were gathered. In terms of school-level indicators, 68% of the students
were eligible for free or reduced-price lunch programs, and the school qualified
for Title I compensatory education funds. Thus, by available indicators, the
school population primarily was low SES. 3
Because the number of characteristics that might be used to describe

participants is almost limitless, researchers must be highly selective in
deciding on which ones to report. As a general rule, describe those that are
most relevant to the issues being studied. For example, in a study on
physicians' attitudes toward assisted suicide, "religious background"
would be a relevant demographic variable. For a study on algebra
achievement, it would not be relevant.
3 Graham & Juyonen (2002, pp. 1 78-1 79).
87
Tables such as the one in Example 9.3.2 make it easy for readers to
scan the information that describes the participants. Note the use of the
term demographic characteristics in the title of the table. These are
background characteristics that help readers visualize the participants.
Example 9.3.2
Table 1
Demographic Characteristics of the Participants
Characteristic Number Percent
Gender
Girl 81 72
Boy 31 28
Current grade level
Third 16 14
Fourth 37 33
Fifth 55 49
Sixth 4 4
Qualify for subsidized school lunch program?
Yes 99 88
No 13 12
Family status
Living with both parents 72 64
Living with one parent 35 31
Living with neither parent 5 4
Guideline 9.4 When a sample is very small, consider

providing a description of individual p articipants.
After summarizing in general terms the ages and psychiatric histories

of ten participants in their study, the authors of Example 9.4. 1 presented a
table providing information on each individual. A portion of the table is
shown in Example 9.4. 1 .
Example 9.4.1
Table 1
Select Demographic Characteristics and Psychiatric Diagnoses
of the Participants
Client Age Sex Psychiatric diagnosis
1 25 M Conduct disorder
Attention deficit disorder
Learning disability
Continued
88
Table 1 continued
Client Age Sex Psychiatric diagnosis
2 19 M Dysthymic disorder
Major depression
3 22 F Major depression
Etc.
Guideline 9.S A population should be named, and if

only a s ample was studied, the method of sampling
should be described.
Example 9.5 . 1 illustrates this guideline.
Example 9.5.1
From the population of all registered voters in Dallas, Texas, 250 were selected
at random.
When a researcher fails to name a population, it is usually safe to

assume that he or she used a sample of convenience-very often students
at the college or university where the researcher is employed. Example
9.5 .2, where no population is named, illustrates the common violation of
this guideline.
Example 9.5.2
The sample consisted of 42 women and 34 men enrolled as students at a large

public university in the southwestern United States. All participants were
volunteers who had responded to a flyer seeking participants to take part in a
study of sibling rivalry. The flyer indicated that the study would take about 45
minutes and that an honorarium of $ 1 0 would be paid to each participant.
Guideline 9.6 Explicitly acknowledge weaknesses in

sampling.
When the method of sampling is clearly deficient, such as the one in

Example 9.5.2 above, it is a good idea for the author to acknowledge this
fact with a sentence such as "Because a sample of convenience was used,
generalizations to populations should be made with extreme caution," or
"The use of volunteers as participants in this study greatly restricts the
generalizability of the results." Inclusion of statements such as these is
89
especially important in student projects, theses, and dissertations. In their

absence, instructors may not know whether students are aware of this
important limitation.4
Guideline 9.7 Provide detailed information o n

nonparticipants when possible.
Information on individuals who refuse to participate in a study is

often known and, usually, can be ethically reported on by using group
averages or percentages with no identifying information on the individuals
themselves. For instance, in a study in a school setting, the cumulative
records of nonparticipating students might be accessed for information
that would indicate differences between participants and nonparticipants.
The researcher who wrote Example 9.7. 1 sent letters soliciting
participation in her study to all families referred to a program for child
abuse prevention in a 1 2-month period, but only 26% of them participated
in the study. The information in the last sentence of the example helps
reassure readers that nonparticipants are not substantially different from
participants (i.e., helps reassure them that the nonparticipants are not an
idiosyncratic subgroup of the population).
Example 9.7.1
Initial recruitment letters were sent, on a rol1ing basis, to al1 participants who had
been referred to the program within a 1 2-month period. The letters were sent
within 2 months of the referral. A second recruitment letter and a fol1ow-up
phone call followed, if needed. In 1 2 months, 76 referred clients were solicited
for research participation; 23 responded that they were interested, with 20
ultimately participating. An analysis of this subgroup yielded no significant
differences from the 56 participants who chose not to participate in terms of race,
age, number of children, zip code, or socioeconomic status. 5
Guideline 9.8 If there was attrition, state the number

who dropped out, the reasons for dropping out, if
known, and information on the dropouts, if available.
The previous guideline refers to individuals who were asked to
4 While statements regarding generalizing from a sample are often made in the Method section, many
researchers also make them in the Discussion section at the end of the research report.
s Altman (2003 , p. 472).
90
participate but refused. This guideline refers to the attrition of individuals

who began to participate in the study but then dropped out. Attrition can
make the interpretation of the results of a study difficult whenever there is
the possibility that those who dropped out are different from those who
remained. For instance, in a study of an experimental drug, those who
dropped out of the experimental group might have been the ones who
experienced serious side effects, leading the researchers to underestimate
the side effects of the drug. One partial solution to this problem is to ask
dropouts for the reasons why they dropped out. Of course, often not all
dropouts can be located for questioning and not all are cooperative in
providing such information.
Because attrition can be an important problem, the demographics
and other information about dropouts should be provided, if possible.
Example 9.8. 1 illustrates this guideline.
Example 9.8.1
Two boys (ages 1 0 and 1 1 ) and three girls (all age 1 0) dropped out of the study
because their families had moved out of the school district. All five were Latino/a
and spoke English as a second language. Their percentile ranks on the
Metropolitan Reading Test (English Version) ranged from 45 to 65, which is
similar to the percentile ranks of the participants who did not drop out.
Guideline 9.9 Unpublished instruments should be

described in detail.
Instruments are measuring tools (such as achievement tests, attitude

scales, questionnaires, checklists, and interview schedules). The
instrument used to measure a construct defines it. For instance, if a
researcher is studying attitudes toward capitalism, the items on the attitude
scale constitute his or her definition of this type of attitude. If another
researcher uses a different set of questions to measure attitudes toward
capitalism, he or she will have a different definition of this construct than
the first researcher. Obviously, it is important to provide readers with
detailed information on the instruments, including the questions or sample
questions, when possible.
Frequently, researchers have to build their own instruments because
none are available for their particular research purposes. When this is
done, the section on methods should provide a detailed description of the
instrument. Consider Example 9.9. 1 , which has insufficient detail, and its
91
improved version. Notice that the researcher has included the

questionnaire in an appendix, which is desirable when space permits.
Example 9.9.1
Attitude toward school was measured with a nine-item questionnaire developed

for use in this study.
Attitude toward school was measured with a questionnaire developed for use in
this study. It contains nine statements. The first three measure attitudes toward
academic subj ects; the next three measure attitudes toward teachers, counselors,
and administrators; the last three measure attitudes toward the social environment
in the school. Participants were asked to rate each statement on a five-point scale
from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree). The complete questionnaire is
shown in Appendix A of this journal article.
Guideline 9. 1 0 If a published instrument was used,

b riefly describe the traits it was designed to measure, its
format, and the possible range of score values.
There is less obligation for a researcher to describe in detail a

published instrument than an unpublished instrument because published
instruments are usually available for inspection by other researchers.
Nevertheless, as a courtesy to their readers, researchers should provide
some general information about published instruments, such as those
elements named in this guideline.
Guideline 9. 1 1 For both unpublished and published

instruments, information on reliability and validity,
when available, should be reported.
The two most important characteristics of an instrument are its

reliability (consistency of results) and validity (the extent to which the
instrument measures what it is designed to measure). For published
instruments that are well known and in widespread use, it is sometimes
sufficient to refer only briefly to the availability of reliability and validity
information in other published sources such as j ournal articles and test
manuals.
92
In Example 9. 1 1 . 1 , the researchers name the traits the survey scale is

designed to measure. Then they provide specific statistics on internal
consistency and reliability (i.e., a test-retest reliability coefficient of .78).
They conclude by giving a reference where information on its validity can
be found.
Example 9. 1 1 . 1
The M O S Social Support Survey (Sherbourne & Stewart, 1 99 1 ) measures four

dimensions of social support. . . . The MOS Social Support Survey offers excellent
reliability, with high internal consistency for the overall scale (a .97) and the
=
subscales . . . plus a high I -year test-retest reliability at 78 Criterion validity has

. .
been documented (McDowell & Newell, 1 996). 6
For less well known published as well as unpublished instruments,

more detail on these issues is desirable, especially if other sources of
information about them are limited or nonexistent.
Students who are writing theses and dissertations may be expected to
describe the reliability and validity of the instruments they use in
considerable detail. They may be expected, for example, to summarize
how the reliability and validity studies were conducted and to interpret the
results of these studies in light of any methodological flaws in the studies.
Guideline 99 1 2 Experimental procedures, equipment,

and other mechanical matters should be described in
sufficient detail so that the study can be replicated.
Some subjectivity enters into deciding how much detail to provide.

In most cases, authors of journal articles do not provide every detail.
Instead, they try to provide enough information to permit a reasonably
close replication. Example 9. 1 2 . 1 shows a description that might permit a
rough replication, especially because the test used as part of the stimulus
materials is published and available to other researchers.
Example 9 . 1 2 . 1
All groups took the Connors Continuous Performance Test II (Connors & MHS
Staff, 2000). The test requires the individual to respond to simple visual cues
(pressing a button every time they see a letter except for the letter X).
Subj ects in [one group] were told: "You are going to take a test to see how
distracting other passengers in the car are. You will take a test where you have to
6 Hughes, Nosek, Howland, Groff, & Mullen (2003 , pp. 1 83-1 84).
93
press the spacebar when you see every letter except X while I sit here and ask
you simple questions." The questions asked during the test were standard
questions given in the same order for each subject, asking for demographic
information and personal information such as someone' s favorite movie. 7
Generally, more detail on experimental procedures, equipment, and

other mechanical matters are expected in term proj ects, theses, and
dissertations than in journal articles because students are expected to show
that they can write precise, detailed descriptions.
PART A
1 . According to this chapter, what idea is conveyed by the term

"participants"?
2 . Consider Examples 9.2. 1 and 9.2.2. In your opinion, would it have

been as effective simply to say that "participants signed an
institutionally approved consent form and confidentiality was
maintained" without the other details? Explain.
3 . Name at least two demographic variables not mentioned in this

chapter that researchers could measure and describe in their research
reports.
4. According to this chapter, should demographics always be reported in

terms of group statistics such as percentages and averages?
5 . Consider Example 9.5 .2. In your opinion, how important is this

description of the method of recruitment of the participants? Explain.
6. In research, what does "attrition" refer to?
7. What two types of information should be reported for both

unpublished and published instruments? (Hint: The two most
important characteristics of an instrument.)
7 Golden, Golden, & Schneider (2003 , pp. 3 86-3 87).
94
PART B
8. Locate a description of participants in a research report in a journal

article, thesis, or dissertation that you think lacks sufficient detail.
Copy it, and briefly describe other types of information that might
have been included to give a better picture of the participants. Bring
your work to class for discussion.
9. Locate a description of the instrumentation in a research report in a

journal article, thesis, or dissertation that describes its reliability and
validity. Bring it to class for discussion.
1 0. Locate a description of the procedures, equipment, and other

mechanical matters in a research report in a journal article, thesis, or
dissertation. Bring it to class for discussion. Be prepared to discuss
whether the description is sufficiently detailed.
95
Notes:
96
Chapter 1 0
Writing Analysis and Results S ections
The analysis and results section usually follows the section on

methods. In a proposal, the proposed method of analysis should be
described; the anticipated results may also be discussed.
Guideline 1 0 . 1 Organize the analysis and results

section around the research hypotheses, purposes, or
questions stated in the introduction.
This is an overarching guideline that helps your readers understand

the organization of your results. Example 1 0. 1 . 1 shows the three research
questions posed in the introduction to a research report on economically
disadvantaged preschoolers. It also shows a portion of the results. Notice
how the results are organized around the three research questions.
Example 1 0.1.1
Research questions posed in the introduction :

Specifically, three questions guided this research: (a) Is parental involvement
associated with program effectiveness in terms of students ' achievement? (b) Is
parental involvement associated with attendance rates? and (c) Is parental
involvement associated with their children' s desire to continue to take part in the
program?
Portions of the results section, which illustrate the organization around the three
research questions :
The first research question concerned the possible association between parental
involvement and students ' achievement. Table I shows the means and standard
deviations on three achievement tests for two groups of students : students whose
parents were highly involved and students whose parents were less involved. A
statistically significant difference was found between . . . .
To examine the second research question, parents ' scores on the involvement
scale were correlated with their children ' s attendance in program sessions.
Specifically, the involvement scores were correlated with number of days
attended. This analysis indicated that parents ' involvement was significantly
correlated with . . . .
97
Chapter 1 0 Writing Analysis and Results Sections
The third research question concerned the aSSocIatIOn between parental

involvement and children's desire to continue to take part in the program. The
analysis of the data on this question revealed . . . .
Guideline 1 0.2 Standard statistical procedures need

only be named ; it is usually not necessary to show
formulas or calculations.
Likewise, it is usually unnecessary to name the particular computer

program used to perform the analysis.
Guideline 1 0.3 The scores of individual participants

usually are not shown ; instead, statistics based on the
scores should be reported.
Suppose you had tested a random sample of 50 students in an

elementary school with a standardized achievement test battery. Normally,
you would not list the scores of individual children. Instead, you would
provide summary statistics such as the mean and standard deviation. Note,
however, that some instructors may require students who are writing term
projects, theses, and dissertations to include participants' scores In an
appendix so that the instructor can check the analysis.
Guideline 1 0.4 Present descriptive statistics first.
F or each set of continuous scores, provide information on central

tendency and variability (usually means and standard deviations) before
presenting correlation coefficients, if any, and the results of inferential
statistical tests such as the t test. For example, correlation coefficients may
provide direct information on a research hypothesis; even if this is the
case, report measures of central tendency and variability first. These
measures will show your reader what the average participant was like and
how variable the group was.
For categorical (nominal) data, present frequencies and percentages
before presenting the results of inferential statistical tests such as the chi
square test.
98
Guideline 1 0.5 Organize large numb ers of statistics

in tables, and give each table a number and descriptive
title (i.e., caption).
Tables are especially effective for helping readers compare groups.

The table in Example 1 0. 5 . 1 makes it easy to compare the ages of women
and men.
Example 1 0.5. 1
Table 1
Percentages o/ Women and Men in Various Age Groups
Women Men
Age (n = 830) (n = 723)
18 years and under 4.8% (n = 40) 8.7% (n = 63)
19-24 years 9.9% (n = 82) 13.3% (n = 96)
25-34 years 18.2% (n = 1 5 1 ) 25.4% (n = 1 84)
35-44 years 22.8% (n = 1 89) 19.4% (n = 1 40)
45-54 years 20.0% (n = 1 66) 15.4% (n = l l l )
55-64 years 13.7% (n = 1 1 4) 13.8% (n = I OO)
65-74 years 5.3% (n = 44) 2.6% (n = 1 9)
75 years and over 5.3% (n = 44) 1.4% (n = 1 0)
Total 100.0% 100.0%
The titles of tables (also known as captions) should name the

statistics presented in the table and the variables that were studied.
Example 1 0.5 .2 shows four titles that do this.
Example 1 0.5.2
Table 1 Number and Percentage ofParticipants by Gender and Welfare Status

Table 2 Means and Standard Deviations on Reading and Mathematics
Table 3 Intercorrelation Matrixfor Voting-Behavior Variables
Table 4 Analysis of Variance for Mathematics Scores
When separate tables are presented for two or more groups, the title
of each table should also name the group. Example 1 0. 5 . 3 shows the titles
of tables for two different groups.
Example 1 0.5.3
Table 1 Intercorrelation Matrix ofMiddle-Level Managers ' Personality Scores

Table 2 Intercorrelation Matrix of ChiefExecutive Officers ' Personality Scores
99
Guideline 1 0.6 When describing the statistics

p resented in a table, point out only the highlights.
Briefly describe the important points in each table you present.

Because the values of the statistics are presented in a table, it is not
necessary to repeat each value in your discussion of the results. This is
illustrated in Example 1 0.6. 1 , which shows a statistical table, and
Example 1 0.6.2, which shows the discussion of it. Note that in the
discussion only certain specific statistics are mentioned in order to assist
the reader in getting an overview of the tabled results.
Example 1 0.6.1
Table 1
Percentage afSubstance Use in Past Month af Urban and Suburban Samples
Drug A Drug B Drug C
Grade Urban Suburban Urban Suburban Urban Suburban
11 33.6 23.2 1 3. 1 1 4.0 5.2 4.3
12 34.2 24. 1 1 3 .9 1 3.8 4.7 4.8
Example 1 0.6.2
Table 1 shows the percentage of urban and suburban 1 1 th and 1 2th graders who
reported using three illicit drugs during the previous month. Overall, Drug A had
the highest percentages reporting its use, with percentages for subgroups ranging
from 23 .2% to 34.2%. Use of Drug B was reported by much smaller percentages
of students (from 1 3 . 1 % to 1 4.0% for subgroups). Use of Drug C was reported by
relatively small percentages of students, with the highest percentage being 5 .2%
for urban 1 1 th graders. Consistent with the hypothesis, the most striking
difference between urban and suburban students was in the reported usage of
Drug A, with more than 1 0% more urban students than suburban students
reporting its use.
Guideline 1 0.7 Statistical figures (i.e., drawings such

as bar graphs) should be professionally drawn and used
sparingly in j ournal articles.
Figures may be used to organize and describe data. They usually

take up more space, however, than would a corresponding statistical table.
Because space in journals is limited, figures should be used sparingly. In
term proj ects, theses, and dissertations, where space is not an issue, they
may be used more frequently.
1 00
Because figures attract the eye better than tables, their best use is to
present important data, especially striking data that might otherwise be
overlooked in a table of statistical values. Example 1 0.7. 1 shows such a
figure, which illustrates a striking difference between the experimental
groups and the control group on a scale from zero (no improvement) to 50
(outstanding improvement).
Like statistical tables, statistical figures should be numbered and
given captions (titles) that name the variables and the statistics presented,
which is done in the following example. Typically, figure numbers and
titles are placed below the figures. For tables, they are placed above.
Example 1 0.7. 1
Experimental Experimental Control

Group 1 Group 2 Group
(Drug A) (Drug B) (Placebo)
Figure 1. Mean improvement scores for three groups .
Guideline 1 0.8 Statistical symbols should be

underlined or italicized.
In Example 1 0 . 8 . 1 , the statistical symbols (i.e., t, df, and p) are

italicized. Without italics, "p" is just the letter "p." With italics, "p" stands
for "probability." If you do not have the ability to italicize, underline the
symbols; typesetters recognize underlining as a direction to italicize.
101
Example 1 0.8.1
The mean of the experimental group was significantly higher than the mean of
the control group (t 2.3 1 0, df 1 0, p < .05, two tailed).
= =
Guideline 1 0.9 Use the proper case for each

statistical symbol.
As statistical symbols, upper- and lowercase letters often stand for

entirely different statistics. For example, a lowercase ''I' stands for
"frequency," while an uppercase "F' is an inferential statistic used in
significance testing. Also, a lowercase "t" is the symbol for a statistic
frequently used to test the difference between two means, while an upper
case "T' is a special type of standardized test score.
For some statistics, the upper- and lowercases stand for the same
statistic but communicate important information about sampling, in which
the lowercase indicates that the value is an estimate based on a sample
while the uppercase indicates that the value is based on a population. For
instance, researchers use "m " to stand for an estimated mean (an average)
based on a sample but use "M" to stand for the mean when it is based on
the population. The same is true for the symbols for the standard deviation
("s " and "S " ) and for number of cases ("n" for the number in a sample
and "N" for the number in a population). !
Guideline 1 0 . 1 0 Spell out numbers that are less than

ten. Spell out numbers that start sentences.
The main exceptions to this guideline are when referring to elements

in a numbered list such as "Chapter 1 " and "Chapter 2" and when
presenting precise numerical results (e.g., "The median equals 8").
I Symbols used for the mean and standard deviation may vary among researchers. Because statistics
textbooks often use X-bar (an X with a bar over it) as the symbol for the mean, a small percentage of
researchers use it instead of m or M in their research reports. In addition, some researchers prefer to use sd
and SD instead of s or S as the symbol for the standard deviation.
1 02
Guideline 1 0. 1 1 Qualitative results should be

organized and the organization made clear to the reader.
In qualitative studies, statistics are usually not reported. Instead,

researchers report on major trends and themes that emerged from
subjective and obj ective analyses of data such as transcribed interviews.
The presentation of such results should be organized; consider using
subheadings to guide the reader through the results. This is illustrated in
Example 1 0. 1 1 . 1 , which is the first paragraph in the results section of a
report on a qualitative study. Note that it provides readers with a
description of the organization of the results. The remaining portion of the
results (not shown in the example) is divided into three parts with
subheadings suggested in the example (e.g., Educational Aspirations of
Parents and Youth).
Example 1 0. 1 1 . 1
Key findings of the current study are divided into three sections. The first section
addresses parents ' educational and occupational aspirations, as well as those of
their youth. The second section discusses parental knowledge of youth
aspirations. The final section delineates the barriers to attainment of aspirations
from parent and youth perspectives, and their input on what resources they
needed to attain their aspirations. 2
See Chapter 1 3 for additional guidelines on reporting the results of

qualitative research.
Exercise for Chapter 1 0
PART A
1 . An "overarching guideline" for the organization of the analysis and

results section is to organize them around what?
2. Is it usually necessary to show formulas and calculations in the

analysis and results section of a research report?
2 Behnke, Piercy, & Diversi (2004, pp. 2 1 -22).
1 03
3 . Should "descriptive statistics" or "inferential statistics" usually be

presented first?
4. The titles of tables (i.e., captions) should name what two things?
5 . Should all the values in statistical tables be described in the narrative

of the report? Explain.
6. How does "p" differ from ''p'' in terms of their meanings?
" "
7. How does n differ from "N' in terms of their meanings?
PART B
8 . Examine the results sections of two research reports published in

j ournals. Determine whether the authors followed Guideline 1 0.4. Be
prepared to discuss your findings in class.
9. Locate a statistical table in a published article that you think has a

good title (i.e., caption). Copy it, and bring it to class for discussion.
1 0. Locate a statistical figure in a research report published in a j ournal.

Discuss whether presentation in the form of a table of statistical
values would have been as effective as presentation of the figure.
1 04
Chapter 1 1
Writing Discussion S ections
This chapter presents guidelines for writing the last section of a

research report in a journal article or the last chapter of a thesis or
dissertation, which typically begins with one of various headings such as
Summary and Discussion, Discussion and Conclusions, Conclusions and
Implications, or simply the term Discussion.
Guideline 1 1 . 1 Consider starting the discussion with

a summary.
Authors of long research reports, theses, and dissertations often

begin their discussion section with a summary of the highlights of the
material that preceded it. For short reports, a summary is usually not
necessary.
Guideline 1 1 .2 E arly in the discussion section, refer

to the research hypotheses, purposes, or questions stated
in the introduction.
Briefly restate the hypotheses, purposes, or questions and indicate

whether the data support the hypotheses, whether the research purposes
were achieved, or what answers were obtained for the research questions.
Of course, you did this in the results section also-probably in some detail
with a number of statistics. In the discussion, do not repeat all the details.
Instead, reiterate only the highlights.
Following this guideline helps to refocus readers ' attention on the
fundamental purposes of the research report and sets the stage for other
aspects of the discussion.
1 05
Chapter 1 1 Writing D iscussion Sections
Guideline 1 1 .3 Point out whether results of the

current study are consistent with the results and theories
described in the introduction.
Because the review of the literature near the beginning of a research

report helps set the stage for the current study, it is important to discuss at
the end how the current findings relate to those reported earlier in the
literature review as well as how they relate to theories described in the
introduction. This is illustrated in Example 1 1 .3 . 1 in which the researchers
note that their results are inconsistent with those of an earlier study, which
they described in the introduction to their research report. In contrast, they
note that their results are consistent with a theory (i.e., they say that their
results provide some support for the theory). The theory was first
discussed in the introduction to the research report.
Example 1 1 .3.1
Our findings indicate that the image of God as being present, accepting, and
offering challenge to one's growth in life is associated with greater incidence of
both religious practices and religiously motivated volitional behaviors. These
data, thus, appear to provide preliminary evidence that, contrary to the findings
of Lee and Early (2000), God-image and religious behavior are not independent
of each other when . . . .
These data appear to provide some support for the assertions of attachment
theorists, that subj ects ' perceptions of God as a "stronger, wise, other" who is
lovingly present would be associated with greater attachment to God via religious
behavior. In particular. . . I .
In the introduction to their research report, the authors of Example

1 1 .3 .2 discuss the fact that most of the previous research on gender
differences in perceived attractiveness and body weight involved girls and
women, especially female undergraduates and adolescents. They point
out, however, that there is some "indirect" evidence that overweight
women are less likely to be satisfied with their weight than overweight
men. The example is drawn from the discussion section of their research
report in which they used adults aged 20 to 29 as participants. As you can
see, the researchers have come full circle by reviewing in their discussion
section an important issue raised in their introduction.
I Buchko & Witzig (2003 , p. 1 1 46).
1 06
Chapter I I Writing Discussion Sections
Example 1 1 .3.2
A significant proportion of normal-weight men felt they were underweight, and

an even larger percentage of overweight men thought they were normal weight.
The opposite emerged for women: A large number of normal-weight women felt
they were overweight. These findings support those from research with
adolescents and university students, suggesting that weight misperceptions
evident in early through late adolescence are also found in adults. 2
Guideline 1 1 .4 Consider interpreting the results and

offering explanations for them in the discussion section.
Following this guideline helps readers understand the results and put
them in context. Since interpretations and explanations go beyond the data
actually collected, researchers should be careful not to imply that they are
data-based explanations; rather, they are possible explanations that are
consistent with the data. The authors of Example 1 1 .4. 1 offer an
explanation of their findings.
Example 1 1 .4.1
It is interesting to speculate on possible reasons why the fear levels expressed by

the l O-year-old children were so much greater than those expressed by the 8-
year-old children in this study. One possibility is that the younger children did
not have the conceptual background to fully understand the presentation made in
the experimental setting. Specifically, they might have . . . .
It is especially desirable to offer possible explanations for

unexpected findings. In Example 1 1 .4.2, the researchers were surprised to
find that residential instability did not predict behavior problems III a
sample of children age six and older.
Example 1 1 .4.2
To our surprise, residential instability did not predict behavior problems and, in
fact, children who had moved more often in the past year were less likely to have
either internalizing or externalizing behavior problems. . . . Although not a
definitive finding, a possible explanation is that some children may habituate to
residential instability and be less affected by moving to a shelter than children
who have experienced greater housing stability prior to becoming homeless. 3
2 McCreary & Sadava (200 1 , p. 1 1 3 ).

3 Buckner, Bassuk, Weinreb, & Brooks ( 1 999, p . 253).
1 07
Chapter I I Writing Discussion Sections
Guideline 1 1 .5 Mention important strengths and

limitations in the discussion.
Strengths and limitations of the research methodology are sometimes

first mentioned in the introduction or the section on methods. Because
strengths and limitations can affect the interpretations of data described in
the discussion section, it is usually appropriate to mention the most
important ones in the discussion. The authors of Example 1 1 .5 . 1 point out
some strengths of their study. By pointing out that a study is especially
strong methodologically, researchers encourage their readers to give more
credence to their study, which is especially important if there are
conflicting conclusions reached in weaker studies.
Example 1 1 .5.1
The current study has several strengths. It collected infonnation on IPV [intimate
partner violence] from both partners, which enhances the probability of
identification of spousal violence. . . . [In addition,] interviews with Hispanics
were conducted in English or Spanish, which allows for inclusion of bilingual
and monolingual respondents. [Third,] the longitudinal design allows for the
assessment of incidence and recurrence of violence. 4
Example 1 1 . 5 .2 shows a statement regarding the limitations of a

study. A frank discussion of limitations helps warn readers to be cautious
in drawing conclusions from a study.
Example 1 1 .5.2
Some limitations of the present research design . . . should be addressed. The

samples were only Japanese university students, so the validity of the findings in
different cultural settings is unknown. The present findings were based on
university students ' responses, not those of practicing managers and employees.
In addition, students reported what they imagined they would do, not what they
would actually do. 5
Students who are wrItmg theses and dissertations should provide

detailed descriptions of the limitations of their research. Such statements
will help to reassure their committee members that the students are
knowledgeable of important methodological issues in their research.
Students who are writing research reports as term projects should
determine how detailed their professors want their discussions to be.
4 Caetano, Ramisetty-Mikler, & McGrath (2004, p. 75).

5 Matsui, Kakuyama, & Tsuzuki (2003, p . 1 1 3 9).
1 08
Chapter II Writing Discussion Sections
Guideline 1 1 .6 It is usually inappropriate to

introduce new data or new references in the discussion
section.
The discussion section of a research report should be used to

summarize and interpret what was presented earlier. The introduction of
new data or references distracts from this purpose.
Guideline 1 1 .7 When possible, state specific

implications in the discussion section.
The implications of a study are usually cast in the form of actions

that individuals or organizations should take based on the results of the
study. In Example 1 1 .7. 1 , the researchers state an implication for bum
teams that treat individuals with bum injuries.
Example 1 1 .7.1
Our findings further suggest that psychological complaints are more prevalent
than physical ones after burn injuries. This highlights the importance of burn
teams attending to the needs of the "whole patient" rather than simply to physical
domains. With the passage of time, important concerns such as unhappiness with
appearance, posttraumatic stress, sleep problems, and sexual dysfunction may be
increasingly salient but underaddressed patient concerns. 6
After presenting data indicating that family factors are important in

retaining soldiers as well as in supervisors' ratings of the soldiers, the
authors of Example 1 1 .7.2 (which is from the discussion section of their
report) suggest a practical implication for the military. Note that they did
not study their suggestion for giving soldiers adjusted schedules so that
they could take care of family matters. Instead, the researchers are
suggesting that this is a logical implication of their results.
Example 1 1 .7.2
For example, leaders might aIlow a soldier time off for a child' s dental
appointment, while a post commander might designate Thursday afternoon after
1 500 hours as a commander' s time for family support. In addition, giving most
soldiers time during normal working hours to handle family business [and]
making work schedules as predictable as possible . . . are useful ways to improve
6 Williams, Doctor, Patterson, & Gibran (2003 , p. 1 93).
1 09
Chapter 1 1 Writing Discussion Sections
the quality of military family life . . . . Morale can be improved by ensuring that
soldiers are aware that leaders really do care about family concerns . . . . 7
If you have conducted a pilot study, you probably should hedge in

your statement of implications by beginning the statement with a caution
such as the one shown in Example 1 1 .7.3 .
Example 1 1 .7.3
If the results obtained in this pilot study are confirmed in more definitive studies,
the following implications should be considered by . . . .
In a proposal, you should discuss the possible implications of the

study. Sometimes this is done in the introduction, and sometimes it is
done in the discussion section of a proposal. Example 1 1 .7.4 shows how
this might begin.
Example 1 1 .7.4
If the research hypothesis is supported by the data collected in the proposed

study, the implications will be as follows . . . .
Guideline 1 1 .8 Be specific when making

recommendations for future research.
It is uninformative to end a research report with a vague statement

such as "Further research is needed." Instead, researchers should point out
what specific directions this research might take in order to advance
knowledge of a topic. Examples 1 1 .8 . 1 and 1 1 . 8 .2 illustrate the degree of
specificity often found in research reports published in journal articles.
Example 1 1 .8 . 1
Future research on tutorials such as the one used in the present study is needed to
investigate several factors, including the following: (a) Which components of the
tutorial contribute to its effectiveness? (b) What roles do social features of the
tutorials play in children' s progress? For example, does language that suggests a
warm and caring tutor disposition tend to positively affect children' s
development more than on-task, take-charge directive language? and (c) Does
tutor experience play a role? For example, do children tutored by tutors who
continue from year to year tend to do better than others? 8
7 Schumm, Bell, & Resnick (200 1 , p. 1 63).

8 Fitzgerald (200 1 , p. 45).
1 10
Example 1 1 .8.2
Further research should be directed at replication of the present study using a

larger sample of Chinese adolescents in order to explore and understand their
development more thoroughly. Moreover, a comparison of Chinese family
environment and adolescent coping style with those of Western cultures would
be useful in delineating universal as well as culture-specific components.
In addition, research should focus on examining various family-adolescent
relationships when adolescents are in stressful circumstances . . 9
. .
If you are writing a thesis or dissertation, you might be expected to

discuss your suggestions for future research in more detail than shown in
Examples 1 1 . 8 . 1 and 1 1 . 8 .2.
PART A
1 . According to this chapter, should discussion sections always begin

with a summary? Explain.
2. Should writers refer to the literature cited at the beginning of their

reports in their discussion sections? Why? Why not?
3 . Is it acceptable for researchers to offer explanations for their results

that go beyond the data actually analyzed?
4. Is it usually appropriate to introduce new references in the discussion

section of a research report?
5 . Is it appropriate for researchers to describe possible implications of

their results, or should they just restrict themselves to an objective
discussion of the actual data?
6. According to this chapter, is it appropriate to end a research report

with only this sentence : "Further research is needed."? Explain.
9 Hamid, Yue, & Leung (2003 , p. 1 27).
111
PART B
7 . Read three research articles published in journals and/or theses or

dissertations, and examine the discussion sections of them carefully.
a. In how many do the authors discuss the consistency of their results
with previously published results?
b. In how many do the authors mention important strengths and
weaknesses of their studies?
c. In how many do the authors introduce new data or new references?
d. In how many do the authors explicitly state the implications of their
results?
8. Compare the three discussion sections you examined for Question 7,

and select the one you think is the best. Copy it, and bring it to class
for discussion.
1 12
Chapter 1 2
Writing Ab stracts
An abstract is a summary of the report that is placed below the title

in a journal article. In a thesis or dissertation, it is usually placed on a
separate page following the title page.
Guideline 1 2 . 1 In the abstract, refer to the research

hypotheses, purposes, or questions.
Researchers often begin their abstracts with very brief statements of

their research hypotheses, purposes, or questions. Examples 1 2. 1 . 1 and
1 2. 1 .2 show the beginnings of two abstracts that follow this guideline.
Example 1 2 . 1 . 1
The hypothesis that High and Low Spiritual Well-Being groups have different
personality profiles was tested with 3 1 9 psychology undergraduates 1
. . . .
Example 1 2 . 1 .2
The purpose was to examine whether Japanese individuals were oriented toward
collective and masculine values attributed to cultures 2. . . .
Guideline 1 2 .2 Highlights of the methodology should

be summarized.
Information on methodology (such as how variables were measured

or what treatments were given in an experiment) helps potential readers
determine whether the report will be of interest to them. Example 1 2.2. 1
shows a complete abstract. Notice that the second through fourth
sentences describe research methodology.
1 Ramanaiah, Rielage, & Sharpe (200 1 , p. 659).

2 Hirokawa, Dohi, Vannieuwenhuyse, & Miyata (200 1 , p. 243).
1 13
Chapter 1 2 Writing Abstracts
Example 1 2.2.1
The authors evaluated the effect of listening to stories on children' s vocabulary

growth. Forty-seven children listened to 2 stories read to them in a small-group
setting on 3 occasions, each 1 week apart. Target vocabulary items and items
assessing generalization to nontarget words were selected, and pre- and posttest
multiple-choice vocabulary measures were designed to measure vocabulary
gains. In addition, a reading-retelling task was used to measure the subj ects'
knowledge of target and generalization words. For 1 story, children listened to
the reading and were given explanations of target word meanings; for the other,
children were not given explanations. The children acquired new vocabulary
from listening to stories, with both frequency of exposure and teacher
explanation of the target words enhancing vocabulary learning. However, the
interventions were not sufficient to overcome the Matthew effect, as the higher
ability children made greater vocabulary gains than lower-ability children across
all conditions. 3
Guideline 1 2 .3 Highlights of the results should b e

included i n the abstract.
In Example 1 2.2. 1 above, the results are mentioned in the last two
sentences. In Example 1 2 .3 . 1 , the abstract provides a more detailed
description of the results. Notice that the authors of both examples begin
with references to their purpose, followed by information on their research
methods, and end with information on their results. This arrangement is
recommended.
Example 1 2.3.1
The use of the telephone has become an increasingly popular mode for providing
counseling. However, little is known about its effectiveness. This study is an
initial effectiveness study on telephone counseling. Participants (N 1 86) who
=
had received counseling from a telephone counseling service rated the

effectiveness of telephone counseling and the quality of their counseling
relationship. Generally, respondents indicated that telephone counseling was
helpful for both global and specific improvement and that they were satisfied
with the counseling they received. Respondents also rated the counseling
relationship and level of interpersonal influence similarly to face-to-face
counseling studies measuring the same attributes. The telephone counseling
results are given in the context of face-to-face counseling data from other
studies. 4
3 Penno, Wilkinson, & Moore (2002, p. 23).

4 Reese, Conoley, & Brossart (2002, p. 233).
1 14
Guideline 1 2 .4 If a study is based on a theory, name

the theory in the abstract.
Typically, theories provide principles that help explain a wide

variety of observations. For example, social learning theory applies to a
large number of phenomena observed in teaching and learning studies.
When the results of individual studies are consistent with predictions
based on a theory, they lend support to the theory. On the other hand,
when results of individual studies are inconsistent with a theory, the
theory, or at least portions of it, should be reconsidered.
Because of the importance of theories in advancing knowledge, they
are sometimes mentioned in the titles of research articles. More often, they
are mentioned in the abstracts. Examples 1 2.4. 1 and 1 2.4.2 illustrate how
to follow this guideline. Note that less-encompassing "theories" are
sometimes called "models."
Example 1 2.4.1
The authors examined the effects of both general and task-specific writing
experiences on college students' writing-skill development. On the basis of
theories of expertise development and a cognitive process theory of writing-skill
development, the authors predicted that repeated practice would be associated
with superior writing skills and that after controlling for repeated practice,
writing within a specific task domain would be associated with superior writing
skills. Undergraduate students participated in a field experiment in which 279
students practiced their writing skills in a professionally relevant task domain,
whereas another group of 3 8 5 students practiced their writing skills in a more
general domain. The results were consistent with the predictions. The authors
discuss implications for teaching writing skills and for general theories of
expertise development in writing. 5
Example 1 2 .4.2
The authors investigated whether people can feel happy and sad at the same time.
1. A. Russell and 1. M. Carroll 's ( 1 999) circumplex model holds that happiness
and sadness are polar opposites and, thus, mutually exclusive. In contrast, the
evaluative space model (J. T. Cacioppo, & G. G. Berntson, 1 994) proposes that
positive and negative affect are separable and that mixed feelings of happiness
and sadness can co-occur. The authors both replicated and extended past research
by showing that whereas most participants surveyed in typical situations felt
either happy or sad, many participants surveyed immediately after watching the
film Life Is Beautiful, moving out of their dormitories, or graduating from college
felt both happy and sad. Results suggest that although affective experience may
5 Johnstone, Ashbaugh, & Warfield (2002, p. 305).
1 15
typically be bipolar, the underlying processes, and occasionally the resulting

experience of emotion, are better characterized as bivariate. 6
Notice that Examples 1 2.4. 1 and 1 2 .4.2 are of typical length for
j ournal articles.
Guideline 1 2 .5 An abstract should usually be short;

however, there are exceptions.
Many j ournals limit the number of words that may be included in

abstracts-some as short as 200 or less. For instance, j ournals published
by the American Psychological Association limit abstracts to a maximum
of 1 20 words. Example 1 2 .5 . 1 shows the suggested organization for a
short abstract. Some journals encourage long abstracts. Students who are
writing theses and dissertations should determine their institution ' s
requirements regarding length and number o f words. When long abstracts
are permitted (or required), consider incorporating information on the
importance of the problem and the implications of the results in addition
to the other elements mentioned in the earlier guidelines in this chapter. In
a long abstract, you may want to use subheadings such as those shown in
Example 1 2 . 5 .2 .
Example 1 2.5.1
Suggested elements to cover in a short abstract (no subheadings) :

1. Research hypotheses, purposes, or questions. These may need to be
abbreviated or summarized if they are extensive.
2. Highlights o f the research methods.
3. Highlights o f the results.
Example 1 2.5.2
Suggested elements to cover in a long abstract (subheadings shown in italics) :

1. Background
Describe the problem area and its importance.
2. Research Hypotheses
(or Research Purposes or Research Questions)
3 . Method
4. Results
5 . Implications
6. Suggestions for Further Research
6 Larsen, McGraw, & Cacioppo (200 1 , p. 684).
1 16
The amount of emphasis to put on each element in an abstract is a

subjective matter. When writing it, keep in mind that your goal is to
provide enough information for potential readers to make informed
decisions on whether to read your entire research report or not. Elements
that make your research unique generally deserve more emphasis than
other elements. For instance, if you are the first to conduct a true
experiment on a problem, be sure to point it out in the abstract.
PART A
1 . Generally, with what should a typical abstract (not a long one) start?
2. In light of this chapter, would you expect to find highlights of the

research methodology described in an abstract?
3 . Should highlights of the results be included in an abstract?
4. If a study is based on a theory, should this fact be mentioned in the

abstract?
5 . Are there any major deficiencies in the following abstract? Explain.

A bstract: Two hundred second-grade students were administered a battery
of published cognitive tests that measured a variety of academic
achievement variables. The students were drawn from 3 elementary
schools in a large, urban school district. All were tested near the end of
second grade. Test administrators administered the tests in 3 sessions
because students might become fatigued by taking the entire battery in a
single testing session. The 3 research hypotheses were confirmed.
Implications for cognitive development and directions for future research
are discussed.
PART B : Locate an abstract for a research report published in a j ournal

that you believe illustrates the guidelines in this chapter. Bring a copy to
1 17
p ART C : Locate a research report published in a j ournal, and read the

article without reading the abstract. Write your own abstract for the
article, and compare it with the abstract prepared by the author(s) of the
article.
1 18
Chapter 1 3
A Closer Look at Writing Reports of

Qualitative Research
With certain obvious exceptions such as some of the guidelines on

reporting statistical results, the guidelines in the previous chapters should
be considered when writing reports of qualitative research. This chapter
presents guidelines that are specific to reporting qualitative research.
Guideline 1 3 . 1 Consider using the term "qualitative"

in the title or abstract of the report .

Because the vast majority of research in the social and behavioral

sciences continues to be quantitative, using the term qualitative in a title
or abstract helps interested readers locate qualitative research. Examples
1 3 . 1 . 1 and 1 3 . 1 .2 show how some researchers have used the term in titles.
Example 1 3 . 1 . 1
Managing Conflict After Marriages End: A Qualitative Study of Narratives of

Ex-Spouses 1
Example 1 3 . 1 .2
Factors Affecting Employment Following Spinal Cord Injury: A Qualitative

Study 2
Notice that in both the above titles, the term qualitative was used in
the subtitles instead of the main titles. This is appropriate because most
readers searching for research reports are probably more interested in the
variables studied (e.g., "spinal cord injury") than in the methodological
approach (i.e., "a qualitative study").
I Walzer & Oles (2003 , p. 1 92).

2 Chapin & Kewman (200 1 , p. 400).
1 19
Chapter 1 3 A Closer Look at Writing Reports of Qualitative Research
The researcher who wrote the abstract shown in Example 1 3 . 1 .3 did

not use the term "qualitative" in the title, but did use it in the first sentence
of the abstract.
Example 1 3. 1 .3
This exploratory study examined the identity constructions of African American

men using a qualitative research methodology. Seven African American men,
ranging in age from 20 to 47 years and whose education levels ranged from a I st
year university student to a Ph.D., were interviewed for this study. Central to
how all of these men defined themselves was the breadwinner or provider role.
Participants emphasized education as "insurance" against discrimination and an
awareness of educational and occupational opportunities. For these participants,
education was a means of ensuring opportunity, which afforded fulfillment of the
provider role. This study supports the work of N. Cazenave ( 1 979, 1 98 1 ), who
demonstrated the salience of the provider role among African American men.
The implications of the provider role among African American men for research
are also discussed. The data also suggested diversity within the African American
male experience. As one participant described African American men, "We come
like flowers, you know. Some in bouquets, and some wild." By providing
constructions of identity that diverge from existing negative stereotypes of
African American men, this study attempted to deconstruct those stereotypes.
Finally, this study provided a voice to an underrepresented group in the research
Ii terature. 3
Also note that mentioning methods traditionally associated with

qualitative research such as "in-depth interviews," "focus groups," and
"participant observation" in an abstract will help readers identify the
research as qualitative.
This guideline is especially important when qualitative research has
been conducted on a topic that has traditionally been approached
quantitatively, in which case the use of qualitative methodology on such a
topic is a distinguishing characteristic of the research.
Guideline 1 3 .2 Consider discussing the choice of

qualitative over quantitative methodology.
A discussion of the choice of qualitative over quantitative

methodology is usually placed in the introduction of a research report or
in the section on methods. This guideline is especially recommended
3 Diemer (2002, p. 30).
120
Chapter l 3 A Closer Look at Writing Reports of Qualitative Research
when writing research for an audience that is quantitatively oriented such

as readers of a journal that usually publishes quantitative research.
Example 1 3 .2 . 1 illustrates this guideline. The researchers who wrote
it were interested in gaining a better understanding of the lives of
preadolescent foster children. The stories that the researchers analyzed
were stories the children told in interviews about their lives.
Example 1 3 . 2 . 1
Qualitative approaches are particularly suited to exammmg the stories of

children. Stories reflect a social contextualization of ideas and contain rich
content that does not lend itself well to traditional quantitative approaches . . . .
Interviewing children gives this "socially silenced group . . . [whose] opinions are
not heard in the public sphere" an opportunity to have a voice . . . . 4
Example 1 3 .2.2 also illustrates Guideline 1 3 .2 . This is a more

elaborate discussion than Example 1 3 .2. 1 . Longer, detailed discussions of
the reasons for choosing qualitative methods are often included in theses
and dissertations, but also can be included in term projects and journal
articles.
Example 1 3 .2.2
Because the purpose of the current study is to explore mothers ' perceptions of the
impact of homelessness and shelter life on their relationships with their children,
the qualitative research paradigm was selected as most appropriate. Qualitative
methodology is particularly useful in studying families because of the emphasis
on meanings, interpretations, interactions, and subjective experiences of family
members (Daly, 1 992; Gilgun, 1 992). The theoretical underpinnings of the
qualitative research paradigm in family research are phenomenology and
symbolic interactionism. Phenomenology attempts to "understand the meaning of
events and interactions . . . and the SUbjective aspects of people' s behavior"
(Bogdan & Bicklen, 1 992, p. 34). Symbolic interactionism asserts that "human
experience is mediated by interpretation . . . . Obj ects, people, situations, and
events do not possess their own meaning, rather meaning is conferred on them"
(Bogdan & Bicklen, 1 992, p. 3 6). Thus, to understand how homelessness and
shelter life might impact family relations, it is important to explore the subj ective
experience of families within the context of homelessness and how mothers
interpret and make meaning of that experience. 5
4 Whiting & Lee (2003 , p . 289).

5 Lindsey ( 1 998, p . 245).
121
Guideline 1 3 .3 Describe the qualitative method o r

approach used i n the research.
Having stated that the research is qualitative and the reasons for
selecting a qualitative approach, it is desirable to describe the particular
approach that was used. This is especially important when addressing a
quantitatively oriented audience or when using a relatively new qualitative
approach. In Example 1 3 . 3 . 1 , the researcher indicates the use of a
modified grounded theory approach. Note that the paragraph in the
example was the first paragraph under the major heading of "Method."
Also, note that the researcher provides references where more information
on the qualitative method used in the study can be obtained.
Example 1 3 .3 . 1
An exploratory, modified grounded theory approach to qualitative research was

employed in this study. Exploratory or discovery-oriented research methods are
purported to be a "necessary first step in the systematic inquiry of a phenomenon,
with the goal of describing what is actually happening and then generating
hypotheses for future study" (Werstlein & Borders, 1 997, p. 1 22). In the
grounded theory tradition, researchers typically conduct interviews during
several visits to the field to develop new hypotheses and theory (Creswell, 1 998).
This approach was modified for the present study in that participants were only
interviewed one time. These methods fit well with the maj or obj ective of this
preliminary study, which was to generate research questions for further study. 6
Guideline 1 3 .4 Consider "revealing yourself' to your

reader.
While quantitative researchers are taught to be "obj ective" and

distance themselves from their research participants to avoid influencing
the outcome, qualitative researchers recognize the inherently subj ective
nature of research. In addition, most qualitative researchers use methods
that involve direct interactions between researchers and their participants
such as in-depth interviews, participant observation, and focus groups.
Because of the interactive nature of much qualitative research, it is
sometimes appropriate for researchers to describe themselves when the
descriptions are relevant to what is being studied. For instance, the
researcher who wrote Example 1 3 .4. 1 joined a support group in order to
6 Linton (2003, pp. 2 1 6-2 1 7).
1 22
study the group from the point of view of a participant in the group (i.e.,
by being a "participant observer"). Because the purpose of the research
was to study group support for families with children with mental health
needs, the personal revelation in the example is relevant to the research.
Example 1 3 .4 . 1
The group members and I decided that because I was a family member with
psychiatrically ill relatives and had experience with working with groups, a high
level of personal involvement with the group' s activities was desirable. 7
Guideline 1 3 . 5 Avoid calling a sample "purposive" if

it is actually a sample of convenience.
A purposive sample is one that is believed to be especially well

suited for obtaining meaningful data on a particular research problem. In
other words, it is a group of participants that a researcher selects because
they have characteristics that make them especially worthy of attention.
When researchers use participants who are selected simply because
they are convenient (such as students who happen to be enrolled in a
professor's psychology course), the sample should be identified as one of
convenience-not purposive-by using a phrase such as "a sample of
convenience" or "accidental sample." This is illustrated in Example
1 3 .5 . 1 .
Example 13.5.1
We obtained a convenience sample of 10 families by inviting youth and families

from a local Latino after-school program to participate in the study. s
Guideline 1 3 . 6 If a purposive sample was used, state

the basis for selection of particip ants.
In Example 1 3 .6. 1 , the researchers purposefully selected cases at the

extreme of a distribution.
Example 1 3.6.1
Because we were interested in exploring factors that support involvement in
7 Mohr (2003, p. 678).

8 Behnke, Piercy, & Diversi (2004, p. 1 9) .
1 23
extracurricular activities, we selected a purposive sample of the most highly

involved and competent individuals in childhood to interview about their
decisions when they reached adolescence. This sampling procedure is in
accordance with Patton' s ( 1 990) recommendation for qualitative researchers to
purposefully select cases at the extremes of a distribution because they are more
likely to contain rich information. Moreover, other scholars have suggested this
sampling procedure when examining understudied populations . . . . 9
Guideline 1 3 . 7 Describe how participants were

recruited.
Whether a sample of convenience or a purposive sample was used,

readers are likely to be interested in how the participants were recruited.
This is especially true when studying potentially sensitive issues because
poor recruitment procedures may lead to highly atypical samples.
Example 1 3 .7. 1 shows a portion of a longer, detailed description of the
recruitment of divorced individuals in a study of after-marriage conflict.
Note that the researchers used a variety of recruitment procedures, which
would be expected to result in a more diverse sample than if only one
recruitment method had been used.
Example 1 3 .7.1
The sample, from the capital district in upstate New York, was generated through
a variety of means. We advertised our study in a local newspaper and used a
county clerk ' s computer listing of people who had filed legal documents as our
mailing list for sending outreach letters. We also interviewed people who were
legally mandated to attend a class about minimizing negative effects of divorce;
to balance these higher conflict participants, we interviewed couples who had
voluntarily used mediation. 10
Guideline 1 3 . 8 Provide demographic information.
Demographics (i.e. , background variables) help readers "see" the

participants. While a variety of statistics may be used to summarize
demographic data (e.g., means and standard deviations), sometimes it is
possible to provide demographics by using some simple numbers, which
is illustrated in Example 1 3 . 8 . 1 .
9 Fredricks et al. (2002, p. 72).

10 Walzer & Oles (2003 , p. 1 93).
1 24
Example 13.S.1
There were 13 men and 12 women in our sample. The age range of the
participants interviewed was 29 to 68. Most of the participants were White; one
person self-identified as Latina and another as Native American. The sample was
primarily working-class and middle-class, although 2 women had very little
income and 2 men were quite wealthy. I I
Guideline 1 3 .9 Provide specific information o n data

collection methods.
In an interview study, it is insufficient to state merely that "in-depth,

semistructured interviews were conducted." Readers will want to know
how the initial questions were developed as well as the topics these
questions were meant to cover. Example 1 3 .9. 1 illustrates this.
Example 13.9.1
An interview format was selected due to the depth of data it can offer and its
ability to reveal participants ' own perspectives on their experiences. The
semistructured nature of the interview protocol allowed for exploratory probing
and further questioning when necessary. The interview questions explored family
functioning, reasons for immigration, and experiences in the United States,
especially with regard to school, family, and peers. There were also questions
about mental health concerns and coping as related to immigration.
The interview protocol was developed after performing an extensive review of
the literature. The questions were primarily based on the research on cultural
adjustment (Rosenthal & Feldman, 1 990, 1 996; Padilla et aI. , 1 985) and
acculturation . . . . Questions were designed specifically for Asian immigrant
youth. Interviewers were encouraged to probe further if there were any
ambiguities in participants' responses. 1 2
Note that it may not be necessary to state the actual questions used,
especially if the wording of the questions varied somewhat from
participant to participant and the content of the questions changed over the
course of a qualitative study in light of the data collected from earlier
participants. On the other hand, if there are key questions that were asked
of all participants, consider including them in the research report. If there
are many questions, either provide just a sample for each domain of
interest or provide them all in a table or appendix. In Example 1 3.9.2, the
researchers describe the areas covered by the questions and then refer the
II Walzer & DIes (2003, p. 1 93 ) .

12
Yeh et al. (2003, p. 486).
1 25
readers to a table that contains 1 7 key questions (e.g., "Will you tell me
about a time when your child had difficulty breathing during the night?")
organized under six topics (e.g., "Family response to asthma"). Also, note
these desirable characteristics of Example 1 3 .9.2: (a) the researchers
identify the individual who conducted the interviews, (b) the researchers
state when and where the interviews were conducted, and (c) the
researchers indicate the basis for developing the interview guide.
Example 13.9.2
The primary author interviewed families three times in their homes for 3-6
months after the hospitalization of their child. The home was chosen as the most
convenient and relaxed setting for parents of young children. The interview guide
was modified for this study from an interview guide used by Chesla ( 1 988) in her
study of families coping with chronic illness in children. Parents were asked to
describe how they evaluated symptoms [of asthma] , assessed severity, managed
compromised breathing in young children, took the step of seeking emergency
care, and responded during hospitalization. [Seventeen] key interview questions
are presented in Table 3 . 1 3
Providing details on data collection is also desirable when reporting

on observational studies. Consider answering questions such as these
when writing the description: Was the observer a participant or
nonparticipant? When were the observations made? How often were they
made? How were the data recorded? For what types of behaviors did the
researcher initially look? What types of changes took place in the data
collection method as the collection of data proceeded?
Guideline 1 3 . 1 0 Describe steps taken to ensure the

trustworthiness of the data.
Qualitative researchers use a variety of methods to ensure that their

data is trustworthy. These should be described in enough detail to reassure
readers that the data are not merely the reflection of one researcher' s
personal opinions. For instance, when "member checks" are used,
describe how the activity was conducted and by whom, as illustrated in
Example 1 3 . 1 0. 1 .
Example 1 3 . 1 0. 1
Before proceeding with the analysis o f the focus group data, the major themes
13 Koenig & Chesla (2004, pp. 59-60).
1 26
identified by the researchers as well as the examples selected to support the

themes were presented in writing to a sample of 1 0 of the 20 participants.
Although all 20 were invited to participate in this phase of the research, only 1 0
were available at the appointed time for this activity. The first stage of the
member check was to have the ten participants highlight with a marker those
themes and examples that they deemed most important. They were also asked to
cross out any that seemed to be off track or unrepresentative of their
understandings of the members' meanings in the focus groups. The second stage
was to hold two small-group meetings with five participants each to discuss the
material they highlighted and crossed out. This activity was conducted by . . . .
Likewise, if "triangulation of data sources" was used to ensure

trustworthiness, describe what each source was (e.g., parents, children,
and teachers) and specifically how the data were collected from each
source. Also, if "triangulation of methods of data collection" was used
(e.g., interviews as well as observations), describe each clearly.
As a general rule, the methods used to ensure trustworthiness,
including others not mentioned here, should not be simply referred to in a
research report. Instead, they should be described in some detail.
Guideline 1 3 . 1 1 Provide a specific description of the

method of analysis.
A variety of methods have been proposed for the analysis of

information gathered through qualitative research. It is usually desirable to
not only name the methodes) used, but to describe how they are applied.
Such information helps readers understand how the researchers
approached the analysis.
The researchers who wrote Example 1 3 . 1 1 . 1 used multiple data
analysis methods, which is often desirable. The example shows their
description of one of them (i.e., the "constant comparative approach").
Note that they provide a reference where readers can obtain more
information on this approach. Providing such references is also desirable.
Example 1 3 . 1 1 . 1
Multiple data analysis tactics were applied. [AJ pervasive method o f analysis was
the constant comparative approach (Glaser & Strauss, 1 967). This method
consists of going back and forth from the data to the display of words and
concepts, constantly checking and revising, if needed. Basic to the method was
reading and rereading the data, immersing in the data, incubating time to think
and reflect, verifying themes that occurred over time, and re-examining
1 27
conditions , context, and consequences presented in the data, thus confirming

14
subthemes (Glaser and Strauss). Other methods included . . . .
Guideline 1 3 . 1 2 If two or more researchers

participated in analyzing the data, describe how they
arrived at a consensus.
One specific technique often used in qualitative research is to have

two or more individuals participate in the analysis of the data. When this
is done, readers will be interested in knowing about the extent to which
these individuals were in agreement. Questions that might be addressed in
light of this guideline are: Did the researchers analyze the data
independently and then confer, or did they analyze it together from the
beginning? If there were disagreements on some aspects of the
interpretation, how were they resolved? How confident does each
researcher feel in the final interpretations presented in the report?
Guideline 1 3 . 1 3 In the results section of a qualitative

report, provide quantitative results o n quantitative
matters.
Conducting qualitative research does not preclude the use of

statistics when they are appropriate. Some matters naturally lend
themselves to quantification. Note that the term "many" in Example
1 3 . 1 3 . 1 is a quantitative term because it clearly implies that some number
had their heads down. Yet, "many" is unnecessarily vague if the
researcher knows how many students or what percentage of students did
this. The improved version is consistent with this guideline.
Example 1 3 . 1 3 . 1
Many of the students were observed to have their heads down on their desks
during the mathematics lesson.
About 25% of the students were observed to have their heads down on their
desks during the mathematics lesson.
14 Colvin, Chenoweth, Bold, & Harding (2004, pp. 5 1 -52).
1 28
In short, just because the main analysis in a qualitative research

project is nonquantitative does not rule out the use of statistics when they
are appropriate for other purposes in a report on qualitative research.
Guideline 1 3 . 1 4 C onsider using the maj or themes as

subheadings in the results sectiono
Often, the results of qualitative research are described in terms of

major and minor themes. If the results section of a report on qualitative
research is long, consider using the names of the maj or themes as
subheadings in the results section. This will help your readers understand
your results. In a report on women who had Hepatitis C, the authors of
Example 1 3 . 14. 1 used the themes shown as subheadings.
Example 1 3 . 1 4 . 1
Major themes used as subheadings (in bold) in the results section :

Seeking a diagnosis
Our respondents ' encounter with Hepatitis C began in 1 977, some 1 2 years
before the virus was . . . .
Constructing alternative explanations
When mainstream medicine failed to identify a reason for their ill health,
individual women constructed various kinds of explanations . . . .
Labile emotional reactions to the diagnosis
Initially, participants were relieved, as the following excerpts illustrate . . . .
Concern about emerging dysfunction
Cognitive dysfunction in terms of failures of concentration, memory loss,
difficulty in comprehending . . . .
P rogressive erosion of existing and expected roles
Role erosion emerged from the impact on everyday activities of the physical
limitations that the women . . . .
Negative impact on familial and other close relationships
The women ' s descriptions of the impact of their condition on relationships fell
into four categories . . . .
[Author' s note: There were four subheadings for minor themes under Negative
impact on familial and other close relationships. They are: Social life with and
within the family, Effect on partners, Effect on children, Effect on relatives
15
and friends.]
15 Dunne & Quayle (200 1 , pp. 682-689).
1 29
Guideline 1 3 . 1 5 If quotations are reported, consider

stating the basis for their selection.
In qualitative research, large amounts of narrative material (the raw

data) are often collected. Readers will be interested in learning the basis
for your selection of the limited number of quotations presented in the
results section of a research report. Note that there may be different
reasons for the selection of various quotations. Some might be selected
because they are the most articulate expressions of a recurring theme.
Others might be selected because they are the most emotional. Still others
might be presented to illustrate a typical response to some issue.
The most common basis for selecting quotations is that they are
somehow "typical" or "representative." When making this claim about
quotations, consider indicating how typical they are by indicating the
number of participants who expressed similar sentiments. Example
1 3 . 1 5 . 1 illustrates this.
Example 1 3 . 1 5 . 1
Results are presented in terms of the number of cases (participants) in each

domain/category (see Table 1 ). We described a category as general if it applied
to all 8 participants, typical if it applied to 4-7 participants, and variant if it
applied to 2-3 participants. Categories that applied to only 1 participant were
16
dropped.
[Author' s note: Only one o f the nine domains and only two of the 3 7 categories
in the original table are shown here.]
Table 1
Domains and Categories ofResponses
Domain Category
Family A. Family problems were denied (typical; n 4) =
B. Participant' s mother has difficulty with English

(variant; n 3)
=
Note that Example 1 3 . 1 5 . 1 is taken out of context from a report in

which the meanings of the categories and quotations are discussed and
interpreted in some detail. The results section of a qualitative report
should not consist merely of a listing of categories and the associated
percentages or numbers of cases. Instead, they should be interpreted and
discussed in terms of the points they illustrate and the meanings attached
to them by the researchers and participants.
16
Yeh et al. (2003 , pp. 487-489).
1 30
Guideline 1 3 . 1 6 Consider discussing alternative

interpretations of the data and why they were rej ected.
If there are obvious alternative interpretations, explicitly discuss the

reasons for rej ecting them. For instance, a researcher might use quotations
or talk about trends in the data that run counter to the alternatives, which
would help explain why one interpretation was selected over another.
Concluding Comments
Writing effective reports of both qualitative and quantitative

research is an art that can be mastered only with practice and careful
modeling of the writing of skilled professionals. To move beyond this
book and become a master of empirical research writing, the most
important thing you can do is read numerous examples of the research
written by others-with attention to detail, style, and mechanics.
Skimming articles or, worse yet, reading only the abstracts is not
sufficient. Instead, you should read research reports in their entirety while
evaluating them by asking questions such as: What makes a report
effective or ineffective? At what points did you get lost while reading a
report? What else could the researcher have done to assist you in
following his or her line of reasoning? In short, by becoming a critical
consumer of research written by others, you will become a skilled writer
of empirical research reports.
PART A
1 . According to this chapter, is it more appropriate to put the term

"qualitative" in a subtitle or to put it in the main title? Explain.
2 . According to this chapter, when is it especially important to discuss

the choice of qualitative methods over quantitative methods in a
research report?
131
3 . Because qualitative research often involves direct interactions, what

should researchers consider describing?
4. How is a "purposive sample" defined in this chapter?
5 . When should researchers refer to their sample as a "sample of

convenience"?
6. According to this chapter, is it necessary to use elaborate statistics to

present demographic information?
7. According to this chapter, methods used to ensure trustworthiness

should not be simply referred to in a research report. Instead, what
should be done?
8 . If two or more researchers participated in analyzing the data, what

should be described in the research report?
9. Is it ever desirable to report quantities in the results section of a report

on qualitative research?
1 0. According to this chapter, what is the most common basis for

selecting quotations from participants to include in a report on
qualitative research?
1 1 . Should alternative interpretations of the data be discussed in a

qualitative research report?
PART B : Locate a report on qualitative research that you think illustrates

many of the guidelines in this chapter. Bring it to class for discussion.
1 32
Chapter 1 4
!
Preparing a Reference List
The reference list is usually the last element in a research report. 2 It

begins with the word "References" as its heading.
In the social and behavioral sciences, the most popular method for
citing references is the Harvard method, which is also known as the
"author-date method." As you know from Guideline 6. 1 9 in Chapter 6,
the author' s last name and year of publication can be made the noun of a
sentence, as in: Doe (2004) reported that X is larger than Z. The name and
year can also be made parenthetical to a sentence, as in: X has been
reported as being larger than Z (Doe, 2004).
Researchers usually cite mainly journal articles in their research
reports because journal articles are the major source of primary (i.e. ,
original) reports of the research of others. Thus, this chapter emphasizes
the preparation of a reference list that refers to journal articles. For details
on referencing other types of sources, consult a style manual (see
Guideline 14. 1 ).
Guideline 1 4 . 1 Select a style manual and carefully

follow its directions for preparing a reference list.
A style manual specifies mechanical features such as spacing,

margins, levels of heading, as well as the preparation of reference lists for
manuscripts written for a particular audience. For instance, the
Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association prescribes
mechanics for the preparation of manuscripts for publication in the
journals published by the Association. Because of its comprehensive
nature, it is also the style manual for many journals in other fields such as
education, sociology, nursing, and physical education.
It is important to notice and pay attention to the details in a style
manual because some matters are a matter of preference, which can be
I Portions of this chapter were adopted with permission from Pan (2004).
2 If there are appendices to a research report, these should be included after the reference l ist.
1 33
Chapter 1 4 Preparing a Reference List
handled in a number of different ways. Example 1 4. 1 . 1 shows a reference

list entry for a journal article formatted in American Psychological
Association (APA) style. Notice that many of the details of the style
cannot be derived from intuition. For instance, the first and middle names
of authors are not spelled out and the "&" sign, not the word "and," is
used when there are multiple authors. Likewise, APA style does not use
the abbreviation "pp." before the page numbers ( 1 65-1 77). People
familiar with this style know that the numbers at the end of the reference
must be the page numbers because the style manual says that they should
be the last element.
Example 1 4. 1 . 1
Schleicher, D. J . , Watt, J . D . , & Greguras, G. J . (2004). Reexamining the j ob

satisfaction-performance relationship : The complexity of attitudes. Journal
ofApplied Psychology, 89, 1 65- 1 77.
Notice the use of a hanging indent (i.e., the first line is not indented
but the subsequent lines in the reference are indented) in Example 1 4. 1 . 1 .
The hanging indent makes the authors ' names stand out in a reference list
(examine the reference list after this chapter). In Microsoft Word, a
hanging indent can be easily created by clicking on "Format," then
"Paragraph," which will default to the "Indents and Spacing" dialog box.
To reveal the word "Hanging," click on the down arrow under the word
"Special." Then click on the word "Hanging" to create a hanging indent.
Guideline 1 4.2 A j ournal title is treated like a book

title; either underline or italicize it.
Traditional academic libraries usually collect all the issues of a

journal for a year and have them case bound (i.e., put into a hardback
cover). This results in a "book" for each year of the j ournal. As you
learned in freshman English, underline the titles of books, and, in this
case, journal titles.
Because most typewriters do not have the capability of producing
italics, underlining is used to tell a typesetter to italicize what is
underlined. With modern word processors, however, italicizing words is
quite easy. If you are writing a research report for a class using a word
processing program, check with your instructor to determine whether you
should italicize or underline the titles of journal articles.
1 34
Guideline 1 4.3 While volume numbers are important

in identifying a j ournal article, issue numbers are not.
Certain conventions in numbering journals are almost always

followed. For instance, each issue of a journal has an issue number,
almost always starting with " 1 " for the first issue of a year, followed by
"2" for the second issue of a year, and so on. All issues within a year have
a volume number. Thus, the volume number 66 (italicized) in Example
14.3 . 1 indicates that the reference is in the volume published in the 66th
year of the journal' s existence.
Example 1 4.3 . 1
Martino, S. C., Collins, R. L., & Ellickson, P. L. (2004). Substance use and early
marriage. Journal ofMarriage and the Family, 66, 244-257.
Within each volume, page numbers are consecutive. Thus, the first
issue of a journal for a year begins with page 1 . If that issue ends on page
223 , then the next issue for the same year begins with page 224. Thus,
when all issues for a year (i.e., the volume) are case bound by a library,
each page in a volume has a unique number. As a result, when you are
looking for an article in the library, you can pick up the volume of
interest, which will be numbered on the spine of the volume, and tum to
the pages of the article. It is not necessary to look for a particular issue
number. Hence, many journals have authors omit issue numbers in their
reference lists.
Guideline 1 4.4 Double-check punctuation in

accordance with the style manual.
A style manual will specify the punctuation to be used in a reference

list. For instance, if the style manual being used shows a period mark at
the close of the parentheses containing the year of publication, be careful
not to substitute a comma.
Guideline 14.5 Double-check capitalization in

accordance with the style manual.
In APA style, for instance, only the first letter of the first word in the
main title and in the subtitle of the article begins with capital letters.
135
Capping the letters of all major words in the title in a reference list is not
APA style and could cost points when a research paper is graded. 3
Guideline 14.6 A reference list should contain entries

only for those that have been cited in the research
report.
Do not treat the reference list as a suggested reading list. Include

only those that were actually cited in the body of the research report.
Guideline 1 4 .7 Cross-check reference citations in the

body of the report with those in the reference list.
Examine each citation in the body of the research report and check to
see that (a) it is included in the reference list, (b) names are spelled the
same in both places, and (c) years of publication are the same.
1 . What is missing from the following reference?

Jones, B. F., & Smith, A. D. (2004). The relationship between j ob
satisfaction and income level. Journal ofLabor, 1 4-20.
2 . What is missing from the following reference?

Jones, B . F., Smith, A. D. (2004). The relationship between j ob
satisfaction and income level. Journal ofLabor, 35, 1 4-20.
3. Are italics used appropriately in the following reference? Explain.

Jones, B. F . , & Smith, A. D. (2004). The relationship between job
satisfaction and income level. Journal of Labor, 3 5 , 1 4-20 .
3 This guideline only applies to the reference list. The first letters o f all major words i n the title o f a
research report (i.e., the title that appears at the beginning of the report) should be capitalized.
136
4. What should be deleted from the following reference?

Jones, B. F., & Smith, A. D. (2004). The relationship between job
satisfaction and income level. Journal ofLabor, 35, pp. 1 4-20.
5 . What should be changed in the following reference?

Jones, Bernard F., & Smith, Amy D. (2004). The relationship between
job satisfaction and income level. Journal ofLabor, 35, 1 4-20.
6. What is wrong with the punctuation in the following reference?

Jones, B. F. , & Smith, A. D. (2004), The relationship between job
satisfaction and income level. Journal ofLabor, 35, 1 4-20.
7. What is wrong with the capitalization in the following reference?

Jones, B. F . , & Smith, A. D. (2004). The Relationship Between Job
Satisfaction and Income Level. Journal ofLabor, 35, 1 4-20.
137
Notes:
138
References
Abela, 1. R. Z., & Sullivan, C . (2003). A test of Beck's cognitive diathesis-stress theory of depression
in early adolescents. Journal ofEarly Adolescence, 23, 3 84-404.
Altman, J. C. (2003). A qualitative examination of client participation in agency-initiated services.
Families in Society: The Journal of Contemporary Human Service, 84, 47 1 -479.
Babcock, J. C., & Steiner, R. ( 1 999). The relationship between treatment, incarceration, and
recidivism of battering: A program evaluation of Seattle' s coordinated community response to
domestic violence. Journal ofFamily Psychology, 13, 46-59.
Bakari, R. (2003). Preservice teachers' attitudes toward teaching African American students:
Contemporary research. Urban Education, 38, 640-654.
Bauer, K. W., Yang, Y. W., & Austin, S. B . (2004). "How can we stay healthy when you ' re throwing
all of this in front of us?" Findings from focus groups and interviews in middle schools on
environmental influences on nutrition and physical activity. Health Education & Behavior, 3 1 ,
34-46.
Behnke, A. 0., Piercy, K. W., & Diversi, M. (2004). Educational and occupational aspirations of
Latino youth and their parents. Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, 2 6, 1 6-3 5 .
Buchko, K . J . , & Witzig, T . F . , Jr. (2003). Relationship between God-image and religious behaviors.
Psychological Reports, 93, 1 1 4 1 - 1 1 48.
Buckner, 1. C., Bassuk, E. L., Weinreb, L. F., & Brooks, M. G. ( 1 999). Homelessness and its relation
to the mental health and behavior of low-income school-age children. Developmental Psychology,
35, 246-257.
Bushman, B . 1., & Bonacci, A. M . (2002). Violence and sex impair memory for television ads.
Journal ofApplied Psychology, 8 7, 557-5 64.
Caetano, R., Ramisetty-Mikler, S . , & McGrath, C. (2004). Acculturation, drinking, and intimate
partner violence among Hispanic couples in the United States: A longitudinal study. Hispanic
Journal ofBehavioral Science, 26, 60-78.
Chapin, M . H . , & Kewman, D. G. (200 1 ) . Factors affecting employment following spinal cord injury:
A qualitative study. Rehabilitation Psychology, 46, 400-4 1 6.
Colvin, J., Chenoweth, L., Bold, M . , & Harding, C. (2004). Caregivers of older adults: Advantages
and disadvantages of Internet-based social support. Family Relations, 53, 49-57.
Diemer, M . A. (2002). Constructions of provider identity among African American men: An
exploratory study. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 8, 3 0-40.
Dunne, E. A., & Quayle, E. (200 1 ). The impact of Iatrogenically acquired Hepatitis C infection on the
well-being and relationships of a group of Irish women. Journal of Health Psychology, 6, 679-
692.
Eisenberg, A. R. (2002). Maternal teaching talk within families of Mexican descent: Influences of
task and socioeconomic status. Hispanic Journal ofBehavioral Sciences, 24, 206-224.
Fitzgerald, J. (200 1 ). Can minimally trained college student volunteers help young at-risk children to
read better? Reading Research Quarterly, 36, 28-47.
Fredricks, J. A., Alfeld-Liro, C . , Hruda, L. Z., Eccles, J. S., Patrick, H., & Ryan, A. M . (2002). A
qualitative exploration of adolescents' commitment to athletics and the arts. Journal ofAdolescent
Research, 1 7, 68-97 .
Glass, C. S. (200 1 ). Factors influencing teaching strategies used with children who display attention
deficit hyperactivity disorder. Education, 1 22 70-79.
,
139
References
Golden, C . , Golden, C. J., & Schneider, B. (2003). Cell phone use and visual attention. Perceptual
and Motor Skills, 9 7, 3 8 5-3 89.
Graham, S., & Juvonen, J. (2002). Ethnicity, peer harassment, and adjustment in middle school : An
exploratory study. Journal ofEarly Adolescence, 22, 1 73-1 99.
Hamid, P . N., Yue, X. D., & Leung, C. M. (2003). Adolescent coping in different Chinese family
environments. Adolescence, 38, 1 1 1-1 30.
Hill, C. E . , & Kellems, I . S . (2002). Development and use of the helping skills measure to assess
client perceptions of the effects of training and of helping skills in sessions. Journal of Counseling
Psychology, 49, 264-272.
Hirokawa, K., Dohi, I., Vannieuwenhuyse, B., & Miyata, Y. (200 1 ). Comparison of French and
Japanese individuals with reference to Hofstede' s concepts of individualism and masculinity.
Psychological Reports, 89, 243-25 1 .
Holsen, I . , Kraft, P . , & Reysamb, E. (200 1 ). The relationship between body image and depressed
mood in adolescence: A 5-year longitudinal study. Journal ofHealth Psychology, 6, 6 1 3-637.
Hudson, A., Kirksey, K., & Holzemer, W. (2004). The influence of symptoms on quality of life
among HIV-infected women. Western Journal ofNursing Research, 26, 9-23 .
Hughes, R. B . , Nosek, M . A., Howland, C. A., Groff, J. Y., & Mullen, P. D . (2003) . Health promotion
for women with physical disabilities: A pilot study. Rehabilitation Psychology, 48, 1 82-1 8 8 .
Johnstone, K. M . , Ashbaugh, H., & Warfield, T . D. (2002). Effects of repeated practice and
contextual-writing experiences on college students ' writing skills. Journal of Educational
Psychology, 94, 305-3 1 5 .
Koenig, K., & Chesla, C . A . (2004). Asthma management among low-income Latino and African
American families of infants and young children. Family Relations, 53, 5 8-67.
Kulis, S., Marsiglia, F. F . , & Hecht, M. L. (2002). Gender labels and gender identity as predictors of
drug use among ethnically diverse middle school students. Youth & Society, 33, 442-474.
Larsen, J. T., McGraw, A. P., & Cacioppo, J. T. (200 1 ) . Can people feel happy and sad at the same
time? Journal ofPersonality and Social Psychology, 81 , 684-696 .
Lightsey, O. W., & Hulsey, C. D. (2002). Impulsivity, coping, stress, and problem gambling among
university students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 202-2 1 1 .
Lindsey, E. W. ( 1 998). The impact of homelessness and shelter life on family relationships. Family
Relations, 4 7, 243-252.
Linton, J. M . (2003) . A preliminary qualitative investigation of group processes in group supervision:
Perspectives of master' s level practicum students. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 28, 2 1 5-
226.
Lowis, M . J., & Mooney, S . (200 1 ). Examination performance and graphological analysis of students'
handwriting. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 93, 367-3 8 1 .
Martino, S . C . , Collins, R. L., & Ellickson, P. L. (2004). Substance use and early marriage. Journal of
Marriage and Family, 66, 244-257.
Mason, W. A., & Windle, M. (2002). A longitudinal study of the effects of religiosity on adolescent
alcohol use and alcohol-related problems. Journal ofAdolescent Research, 1 7, 346-3 6 3 .
Matsui, T., Kakuyama, T., & Tsuzuki, Y . (2003). Effects of situational conditions o n students ' views
of business ethics. Psychological Reports, 93, 1 1 3 5-1 1 40.
McCreary, D . R., & Sadava, S . W. (200 1 ) . Gender differences in relationships among perceived
attractiveness, life satisfaction, and health in adults as a function of body mass index and
perceived weight. Psychology ofMen and Masculinity, 2, 1 08-1 1 6.
McDonald, D . D., Deloge, J. A., Joslin, N., Petow, W. A., Severson, J. S . , Votino, R., Shea, M. D.,
Drenga, J. M. L., Brennan, M . T., Moran, A. B., & Del Signore, E. (2003) . Communicating end
of-life preferences. Western Journal afNursing Research, 25, 652-666.
1 40
References
McMahon, B. T., West, S. L . , Lewis, A. N . , Annstrong, A. J., & Conway, J. P. (2004). Hate crimes
and disability in America. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 4 7, 66-75 .
Mohr, W. K. (2003). The substance of a support group. Western Journal of Nursing Research, 25,
6 7 6--6 9 2.
Muraven, M., Collins, R L., & Nienhaus, K. (2002). Self-control and alcohol restraint: An initial
application of the self-control strength model. Psychology ofAddictive Behaviors, 1 6, 1 1 3- 1 20.
O'Connell, K. A., Gerkovich, M . M., Bott, M. J., Cook, M. R , & Shiffman, S. (2002). The effect of
anticipatory strategies on the first day of smoking cessation. Psychology of Addictive Behaviors,
1 6, 50-1 56.
Pan, M . L. (2004). Preparing Literature Reviews: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches (2nd ed.).
Glendale, CA: Pyrczak Publishing.
Parks, C. A., Hesselbrock, M. N., Hesselbrock, V. M., & Segal, B. (2003). Factors affecting entry
into substance abuse treatment: Gender differences among alcohol-dependent Alaska Natives.
Social Work Research, 2 7, 1 5 1- 1 6 1 .
Penno, J. F . , Wilkinson, I. A. G., & Moore, D. W. (2002). Vocabulary acquisition from teacher
explanation and repeated listening to stories: Do they overcome the Matthew Effect? Journal of
Educational Psychology, 94, 23-3 3 .
Ramanaiah, N . V., Rielage, J. K . , & Sharpe, J . P. (200 1 ). Spiritual well-being and personality.
Psychological Reports, 89, 659-662.
Reese, R. J., Conoley, C . W . , & Brossart, D. F. (2002). Effectiveness of Telephone Counseling: A
Field-Based Investigation. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 49, 2 3 3-242 .
Rice, K. G., Cunningham, T. J., & Young, M. B . ( 1 997). Attachment t o parents, social competence,
and emotional well-being: A comparison of Black and White late adolescents. Journal of
Counseling Psychology, 44, 89- 1 0 1 .
Schleicher, D . J., Watt, J. D., & Greguras, G. J. (2004). Reexamining the job satisfaction
perfonnance relationship: The complexity of attitudes. Journal of Applied Psychology, 89, 1 65-
1 77.
Schneider, M. E . , & Ward, D. J. (2003). The role of ethnic identification and perceived social support
in Latinos' adjustment to college. Hispanic Journal ofBehavioral Sciences, 25, 5 3 9-5 54.
Schumm, W. R , Bell, D . B., & Resnick, G. (200 1 ) . Recent research on family factors and readiness:
Implications for military leaders. Psychological Reports, 89, 1 53-1 6 5 .
Schwartz, A. E., McRoy, R G . , & Downs, A . C. (2004). Adolescent mothers in a transitional living
facility: An exploratory study of support networks and attachment patterns. Journal ofAdolescent
Research, 1 9, 85-1 1 2.
Shadel, W. G., Niaura, R, and Abrams, D. B . (2002). Adolescents' reactions to the imagery displayed
in smoking and antismoking advertisements. Psychology ofAddictive Behaviors, 1 6, 1 73- 1 76.
Strom, R , Dohnnann, J., Strom, P . , Griswold, D., Beckert, T., Strom, S . , Moore, E . , & Nakagawa, K.
(2002). African American mothers of early adolescents: Perceptions of two generations. Youth and
Society, 33, 394-4 1 7 .
Thiede, H . , Valleroy, L. A., MacKellar, D. A., Celentano, D. D., Ford, W. L., Hagan, H., Koblin, B .
A., LaLota, M . , McFarland, W., Shehan, D. A., & Torian, L. V. (2003). Regional patterns and
correlates of substance use among young men who have sex with men in seven US urban areas.
American Journal ofPublic Health, 93, 1 9 1 5-1 92 1 .
Toselli, M . , Farneti, P., & Grossi, E . (200 1 ) . Role of motor imitation in traversability o f surfaces by
walking infants. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 93, 523-530.
Umafia-Taylor, A. J., & Bamaca-G6mez, M. y. (2003). Generational differences in resistance to peer
pressure among Mexican-origin adolescents. Youth & Society, 35, 1 83-203 .
141
References
Walker, K. L . , & Dixon, V. (2002). Spirituality and academic performance among African American
college students. The Journal 0/Black Psychology, 28, 1 07-1 2 1 .
Wallace, J. M . , Forman, T. A., Caldwell, C. H., & Willis, D. S . (2003). Religion and U . S . secondary
school students: Current patterns, recent trends, and sociodemographic correlates. Youth &
Society, 35, 98- 1 25 .
Walzer, S . , & Oles, T . P . (2003). Managing conflict after marriages end: A qualitative study of
narratives of ex-spouses. Families in Society: The Journal o/ Contemporary Human Services, 84,
1 92-200.
Whiting, J. B., & Lee, R. E., III. (2003). Voices from the system: A qualitative study of foster
children' s stories. Family Relations, 52, 288-295 .
Wiggins, M . S. (2002). Psychophysiological comparison of self-efficacy and resting heart rate.
Perceptual and Motor Skills, 94, 720-722 .
Williams, R , Doctor, J., Patterson, D., & Gibran, N. (2003) . Health outcomes for bum survivors: A
2-year follow-up. Rehabilitation Psychology, 48, 1 89- 1 94.
Yeh, C. J., Arora, A. K., Inose, M., Okubo, Y., Li, R H., & Greene, P . (2003). The cultural
adjustment and mental health of Japanese immigrant youth. Adolescence, 38, 48 1 -500.
Yip, K., Ngan, M., & Lam, I . (2003). A qualitative study of parental influence on and response to
adolescents ' self-cutting in Hong Kong. Families in Society: The Journal 0/ Contemporary
Human Services, 84, 405-4 1 6.
1 42
Appendix A
Checklist of Guidelines
Instructors may wish to refer to the following checklist numbers when

commenting on students ' papers (e.g., "See Guideline 5 . 2"). Students can use this
checklist to review important points as they prepare their research reports and
proposals.
Chapter 1 Structu ring a Research Report
1.1 A research report typically has a brief title.

1 .2 An abstract usually follows the title.
1 .3 The body of a basic research report should have an introduction that includes a
literature review, a section on research methods, a section on results, and a discussion.
1 .4 The section on research methods almost always has two main subsections :
"Participants" and "Instrumentation."
1 .5 Be generous in using subheadings within each main section of the report.
1 .6 In a thesis or dissertation, the introduction and the literature review are often presented
in separate chapters.
2. 1 A simple research hypothesis should name two variables and indicate the type of
relationship expected between them.
2.2 When there is an independent variable, name a specific dependent variable.
2.3 When a relationship is expected only in a particular population, consider naming the
population in the hypothesis.
2 .4 A simple hypothesis should be as specific as possible, yet expressed in a single
sentence.
2.5 If a comparison is to be made, the elements to be compared should be stated.
2.6 Because most hypotheses deal with the behavior of groups, plural forms should
usually be used.
2.7 Avoid sex-role stereotypes in the statement of a hypothesis.
2.8 A hypothesis should be free of terms and phrases that d o not add t o its meaning.
2.9 A hypothesis should indicate what will actually be studied-not the possible
implications of a study or value judgments of the author.
1 43
Appendix A Checklist of Guidelines
2 . 1 0 A hypothesis usually should name variables in the order in which they occur or will be
measured.
2 . 1 1 Avoid using the words "significant" or "significance" in a hypothesis.
2 . 1 2 Avoid using the word "prove" in a hypothesis.
2 . 1 3 A void using two different terms to refer to the same variable in a hypothesis.
2 . 1 4 Avoid making precise statistical predictions in a hypothesis.
3.1 A "statement o f the hypothesis" may contain more than one hypothesis. It is
permissible to include them in a single sentence as long as the sentence is reasonably
concise and its meaning is clear.
3 .2 When a number of related hypotheses are to be stated, consider presenting them
in a numbered or lettered list.
3 .3 The hypothesis or hypotheses should be placed before the section on methods.
3 .4 It is permissible to use terms other than the term "hypothesis" to refer to a hypothesis.
3.5 I n a research report, a hypothesis should flow from the narrative that immediately
precedes it.
3 .6 A hypothesis may be stated without indicating the type of relationship expected
between variables. To qualify as a hypothesis, however, it must specify that some
unknown type of relationship is expected.
3 .7 When a researcher has a research hypothesis, it should be stated in the research report;
the null hypothesis need not always be stated.
4. 1 If you will be conducting qualitative research, consider writing a research purpose or

question instead of a hypothesis.
4.2 When the goal of research is to describe one or more groups without describing
relationships among variables, write a research purpose or question instead of a
hypothesis.
4.3 When there is insufficient evidence to permit formulation of a hypothesis regarding a
relationship between variables, write a research purpose or question.
4.4 When writing a research question, avoid writing a question that implies that the data
will lead to a simple "yes" or "no" answer.
4.5 The research purpose o r question should b e a s specific a s possible, yet stated
concisely.
4.6 When stating related purposes or questions, consider presenting them in a numbered
or lettered list.
4.7 In a research report, a research purpose or question should flow from the narrative that
immediately precedes it.
1 44
5.1 If only a small number of variables i s studied, the title should name the variables.
5.2 If many variables are studied, only the types of variables should be named.
5 .3 The title of a journal article should be concise; the title of a thesis or dissertation
may be longer.
5 .4 A title should indicate what was studied-not the results or conclusions of the
study.
5.5 Consider mentioning the population(s) i n a title when a study is deliberately
delimited to a particular type of population.
5 .6 Consider the use of subtitles to amplify the purposes or methods of study.
5 .7 If a study is strongly tied to a particular model or theory, consider mentioning it
in the title.
5.8 A title may be i n the form o f a question; this form should b e used sparingly and
with caution.
5 .9 In titles, use the words "effect" and "influence" with caution.
5 . 1 0 A title should be consistent with the research hypothesis, purpose, or question.
5 . 1 1 Consider mentioning unique features of a study in its title.
5 . 1 2 Avoid clever titles, especially if they fail to communicate important information
about the report.
Chapter 6 Writing Introdu ctions and Literature Reviews
6. 1 Start the introduction by describing the problem area; gradually shift its focus to
specific research hypotheses, purposes, or questions.
6.2 Start long introductions and literature reviews with a paragraph that describes
their organization, and use subheadings to guide readers.
6.3 The importance of a topic should be explicitly stated in the introduction.
6.4 A statement on the importance of a topic should be specific to the topic
investigated.
6.5 Consider pointing out the number or percentage of people who are affected by the
problem you are studying.
6.6 The literature review should be presented in the form of an essay-not in the
form of an annotated list.
6.7 Avoid using long strings of reference citations for a single finding or theory.
6.8 Discuss theories that have relevance to the research.
6.9 The literature review should emphasize the findings of previous research-not
just the research methodologies and names of variables studied.
6. 1 0 Feel free to express opinions about the quality and importance of the research
being cited.
6. 1 1 Point out trends and themes in the literature.
1 45
6 . 1 2 Point out gaps in the literature.

6 . 1 3 Point out how the current study differs from previous studies.
6 . 1 4 Peripheral research may be cited in a thesis or dissertation when no literature with
a direct bearing on the research topic can be located.
6 . 1 5 Use direct quotations sparingly in literature reviews.
6. 1 6 Report sparingly on the details of the literature being cited.
6. 1 7 Consider using literature to provide the historical context for the present study.
6. 1 8 Consider citing prior literature reviews on your topic.
6. 1 9 When using the Harvard method for citing references, decide whether to
emphasize the authorship or the content of each reference.
6.20 Avoid referring to the credentials and affiliations of the authors of the literature
that is reviewed.
6.2 1 Use of the first person is acceptable if used sparingly to refer to personal
observations, experiences, and beliefs.
Chapter 7 Writing D efinitions
7. 1 All variables in a research hypothesis, purpose, or question should be defined.

7.2 The definitions of defining attributes of a population (also called "control
variables") should be specific.
7.3 Theories and models on which the research is based should be defined.
7 .4 Conceptual definitions should be specific.
7.5 Operational definitions should be provided, usually in the method section of a
report.
7.6 For each conceptual definition, there should be a corresponding operational
definition.
7.7 If a published instrument was used, the variable measured by it may be
operationally defined by citing the reference for the instrument.
7.8 If an unpublished instrument was used, consider reproducing sample questions or
the entire instrument in the report.
7.9 Operational definitions should be sufficiently specific so that another researcher
can replicate the study.
7. 1 0 Even a highly operational definition may not be a useful definition.
Chapter 8 Writing Assu mptions, Limitations, and Delimitations
8. 1 When stating an assumption, consider providing the reason(s) why it was

necessary to make the assumption.
8.2 If there is a reason for believing that an assumption is true, state the reason.
8.3 If an assumption is highly questionable, consider casting it a s a limitation.
1 46
8 .4 Consider speculating on the possible effects of a limitation on the results of a

study.
8.5 Discuss limitations and delimitations separately.
8.6 If a study is seriously flawed by important limitations, consider labeling it as a
pilot study.
Chapter 9 Writin g Method Sections
9. 1 Decide whether to use the term subjects or participants to refer to the individuals
studied.
9.2 Describe the informed consent procedures, if any, as well as steps taken to
maintain confidentiality.
9.3 The participants should be described in enough detail for the reader to visualize
them.
9.4 When a sample is very small, consider providing a description of individual
participants.
9.5 A population should be named, and if only a sample was studied, the method of
sampling should be described.
9.6 Explicitly acknowledge weaknesses i n sampling.
9.7 Provide detailed information on nonparticipants when possible.
9.8 If there was attrition, state the number who dropped out, the reasons for dropping
out, if known, and information on the dropouts, if available.
9.9 Unpublished instruments should be described in detail .
9. 1 0 If a published instrument was used, briefly describe the traits it was designed to
measure, its format, and the possible range of score values.
9. 1 1 For both unpublished and published instruments, information on reliability and
validity, when available, should be reported.
9. 1 2 Experimental procedures, equipment, and other mechanical matters should be
described in sufficient detail so that the study can be replicated.
Chapter 10 Writing Analysis and Results Sections
1 0. 1 Organize the analysis and results section around the research hypotheses,
purposes, or questions stated in the introduction.
1 0.2 Standard statistical procedures need only be named; it is usually not necessary to
show formulas or calculations.
1 0.3 The scores of individual participants usually are not shown; instead, statistics
based on the scores should be reported.
1 0.4 Present descriptive statistics first.
1 0. 5 Organize large numbers of statistics i n tables, and give each table a number and
descriptive title (i.e., caption).
1 0.6 When describing the statistics presented in a table, point out only the highlights.
1 47
1 0.7 Statistical figures (i.e., drawings such as bar graphs) should be professionally
drawn and used sparingly in journal articles.
1 0. 8 Statistical symbols should b e underlined or italicized.
1 0.9 Use the proper case for each statistical symbol.
1 0. 1 0 Spell out numbers that are less than ten. Spell out numbers that start sentences.
1 0. 1 1 Qualitative results should be organized and the organization made clear to the
reader.
Chapter 1 1 Writing D iscussion Sections
1 1.1 Consider starting the discussion with a summary.

1 1 .2 Early in the discussion section, refer to the research hypotheses, purposes, or
questions stated in the introduction.
1 1 .3 Point out whether results of the current study are consistent with the results and
theories described in the introduction.
1 1 .4 Consider interpreting the results and offering explanations for them in the
discussion section.
1 1 .5 Mention important strengths and limitations in the discussion.
1 1 .6 I t is usually inappropriate to introduce new data o r new references i n the
discussion section.
1 1 .7 When possible, state specific implications in the discussion section.
1 1 .8 Be specific when making recommendations for future research.
Chapter 12 Writing Abstracts
12.1 I n the abstract, refer to the research hypotheses, purposes, or questions.

1 2 .2 Highlights of the methodology should be summarized.
1 2. 3 Highlights of the results should b e included i n the abstract.
1 2.4 If a study is based on a theory, name the theory in the abstract.
1 2. 5 A n abstract should usually b e short; however, there are exceptions.
Ch apter 1 3 A Closer Look at Writing Reports of Qualitative Research
13.1 Consider using the term "qualitative" in the title or abstract of the report.
1 3 .2 Consider discussing the choice of qualitative over quantitative methodology.
1 3 .3 Describe the qualitative method or approach used in the research.
1 3 .4 Consider "revealing yourself' to your reader.
1 3 .5 Avoid calling a sample "purposive" if it is actually a sample of convenience.
1 3 .6 If a purposive sample was used, state the basis for selection of participants.
1 3 .7 Describe how participants were recruited.
1 3.8 Provide demographic information.
1 48
1 3 .9 Provide specific infonnation on data collection methods.

1 3 . 1 0 Describe steps taken to ensure the trustworthiness of the data.
1 3 . 1 1 Provide a specific description of the method of analysis.
1 3 . 1 2 If two or more researchers participated in analyzing the data, describe how they
arrived at a consensus.
1 3 . 1 3 In the results section of a qualitative report, provide quantitative results on quantitative
matters.
1 3 . 1 4 Consider using the major themes as subheadings in the results section.
1 3 . 1 5 If quotations are reported, consider stating the basis for their selection.
1 3 . 1 6 Consider discussing alternative interpretations of the data and why they were rejected.
Chapter 14 Preparing a Reference List
1 4. 1 Select a style manual and carefully follow its directions for preparing a reference list.
1 4.2 A journal title is treated like a book title; either underline or italicize it.
1 4.3 While volume numbers are important in identifying a journal article, issue numbers are
not.
1 4.4 Double-check punctuation in accordance with the style manual.
1 4. 5 Double-check capitalization i n accordance with the style manual.
1 4.6 A reference list should contain entries only for those that have been cited in the
research report.
14.7 Cross-check reference citations in the body of the report with those in the reference
list.
1 49
Notes:
1 50
Appendix B
Thinking Straight and

!
Writing That Way
Ann Robinson
University o f Arkansas at Little Ro ck
Everyone who submits manuscripts to top-flight j ournals gets

rejected by the reviewers more than once in his or her publishing career.
Often the rejections seem, at best, inexplicable and, at worst, biased.
Rejections sting.
In a cooler moment, the disappointed author looks over the
rejected paper and tries to read the reviewers ' comments more calmly.
What do journal reviewers look for in a manuscript? What makes a
submission publishable? How can you increase the likelihood that your
work will be accepted? These are good questions for any would-be author
-seasoned or new-to ask.
In general, sessions on publishing "how-to ' s" rarely get beyond the
obligatory lecture on the importance of the idea. We are told that if the
idea is good, we should carry out the research study and proceed to
submit the work for publication. If the how-to-get-published session gets
past the point of explaining that a good study is one that asks an important
question, then we are told that a publishable study is one that is
reasonably free of design flaws. It seems to me that these two points
ought to be considered givens. Although it is not always easy to think of a
good idea, translate it into a researchable question, and design a
competent study, most of us already understand the importance of these
things. What we want to know now is how to increase our chances of
getting competent work published.
Over the last eight years, I have developed the following questions
to use when reviewing research manuscripts. They are offered as one
I Originally published in Gifted Child Quarterly, 32, 3 67-369 as "Thinking Straight and Writing That Way:
Publishing in Gifted Child Quarterly. " Copyright 1 988 by the National Association for Gifted Children.
Reprinted with permission.
151
Appendix B Thinking Straight and Writing That Way
reviewer' s "test" of the publishability of a manuscript and may be helpful

as guides for the prospective author.
Reviewer Question 1 : What's the point?
Early on in the first "quick read," I ask why I should be interested

in this manuscript. Will this study fill a gap in the existing literature? Will
this study reconcile apparently contradictory research results from studies
already published? Is this study anchored to a real problem affecting the
education and upbringing of children and youth? Is this study
"newsworthy"? Does the author convince me in the first few paragraphs
that this manuscript is going to present important information new to the
field or be investigated from a fresh perspective?
The manuscripts that most effectively make their "point" often
have brief introductions that state the essence of the issue in the first or
last sentence of the first or second paragraph. As a reviewer, I look for
that "essence of issue" sentence. It is a benchmark for clear thinking and
writing.
Reviewer Question 2 : Can I find the general research question ?
Reviewer Question 2 is related to the first, but I am now looking

for something a bit more technical. The general research question should
be stated clearly, and it should serve as the lodestone for the specific
questions generated for the study. Congruence is important here. If I were
to take each of these specific questions and check them against the
general question, I would easily see the connection. For example, in a
study of the family systems of underachieving males, the general question
is, "What are the interactional relationships within families of gifted
students?" (Green, Fine, & Tollefson, 1 98 8). Two specific questions
derived from the general one are:
( 1 ) Is there a difference in the proportion of families of achieving
and underachieving gifted students that are classified as functional
and dysfunctional? (2) Do family members having achieving or
underachieving gifted students differ in their satisfaction with their
families? (p. 268).
The manuscripts that most effectively answered Reviewer Ques
tion 2 placed the general question at the end of the review of the
literature. It will be stated as a question and prefaced with a lead-in like
"the general purpose of this study" or "an important research question is."
Then the specific questions for the study are enumerated and set apart in a
1 52
list. The combination of text and visual cues makes it difficult for the
reviewer to overlook the focus of the manuscript.
Reviewer Question 3 : Can I get a "picture" of the p articipants of this

study?
The appropriate level of description for the participants is difficult

to judge. However, it is better to over- rather than underdescribe them.
This is true whether the study is experimental or a naturalistic inquiry.
Insufficient information about the participants in the study leaves the
reviewer wondering if the conclusions are suspect. Would the results be
the same if other participants had participated? Go beyond the
breakdowns by age or grade, sex, and ethnicity. If the participants are
students in a gifted program, describe the identification procedure. If the
participants are school personnel, describe their professional positions,
years in service, or other variables that might affect the results. As a
reviewer, I always try to determine the extent to which a participant
sample is volunteer and how seriously volunteerism might bias the
results. If a study is conducted in one school building, district, or one
teacher or parent advocate group, I look for descriptions of this context.
How large is the school or organization? Is it rural, urban, or suburban?
Who is responding to surveys? Fathers or mothers? Are families intact,
single parent, or extended? What is the socioeconomic level?
For example, in a study of learning styles, Ricca ( 1 984) included
the following information to give a thorough picture of the subjects.
The study population included 425 students in grades four, five, and
six from one city school and one suburban school district in Western
New York. Descriptive contrast groups represented participants who
were identified as gifted and a contrast group taken from the
remaining general school students available. Gifted students were
identified by a multidimensional screening process with data sources
indicated in Table 1 (p. 1 2 1 ).
This information is followed by a further explanation of the
identification process and three brief tables that provide a tidy summary
of student demographics and cognitive and academic characteristics. The
combination of text and tables gives the reviewer a clear picture of the
participants in the study.
The reviewer may ultimately ask the author to trim the text on
participants, but overzealous descriptions serve two purposes. First, they
demonstrate to the reviewer that the author is a careful worker. Second,
they rein in generalizations, which appear in the Conclusions and
1 53
Implications sections of the manuscript. An author may well be entitled to

make statements about the population from which the sample of
participants is drawn, but if the demographics of the group change, the
conclusions may not be safely generalized.
The manuscripts that most effectively create a picture of their
sample include the basics like age, grade, sex, and ethnicity succinctly,
sometimes in tabled form. Case study researchers are less likely to use
tables because of smaller samples, but they do identify the reasons why
they believe a participant is representative of a large group. In studies of
gifted children, the most effective manuscripts clearly state the selection
procedure and identify specific instruments or checklists, if appropriate,
under the Participants section of the paper.
Reviewer Question 4 : Is this author killing flies with an elephant

gun?
As a reviewer, I examine the manuscript for a comfortable fit

among the research questions, the kinds of data that have been collected,
and the tools of analysis. In the case of manuscripts that present
quantitative data and statistical analyses, I apply Occam ' s razor. The
simplest statistics are usually the best. A good research question can be
insightfully investigated with relatively simple analyses provided the
assumptions are not too badly violated. The purpose of statistics is to
summarize and clarify, not to fog.
Of course, authors who seek to control confounded variables
through the use of more sophisticated statistical treatments like the
currently popular LISREL increase the likelihood that multiple causation
is disentangled. We certainly gain from technological innovation;
however, the key is to determine if the impetus for the study is a
substantive research question or a fascination with the newest techniques.
The manuscripts that answer Reviewer Question 4 most effectively
are those in which hypotheses do not sink under the weight of the
analyses. As I read the Design and Analysis sections, am I able to keep
my eye on the important variables? A good indicator is a sentence in the
Design section that gives me the rationale for using quite sophisticated or
new statistical and qualitative techniques. For example, a study of ethnic
differences in a mathematics program for gifted students included the
following explanation for the selection of a specialized kind of regression
analysis (Robinson, Bradley, & Stanley, in review) :
1 54
Regression discontinuity is a quasi-experimental design that allows

the experimenter to test for treatment effects without a randomized
control group and the attendant withholding of services. This a priori
design statistically controls for prior differences by using the
identification variable along with program participation (status) as
independent variables in a multiple regression model (p. 7).
Another indication that the study is being driven by its questions
rather than its statistics is the author' s effort to make connecting
statements between a technique and its interpretation. To return to the
previous regression example:
If the associated t test of the regression coefficient is significant, it is
indicative of a program that impacts on its participants (p. 7).
Reviewer Question 5: Would George Orwell app rove?
Dogging the reviewer through both the "quick read" and the "close
read" of the manuscript is the ease with which the author has answered the
first four questions. If we look back at those questions, we see the common
thread of clarity running through them. What is the point? Where is the
question? Who is this study about? Does the analysis illuminate rather than
obfuscate?
Reviewer Question 5 is the final test. Would George Orwell
approve? In 1 946, Orwell published "Politics and the English Language,"
one of the clearest statements on writing effectively ever to appear in print.
The thesis of his essay was that "modern English, especially written
English, is full of bad habits, which spread by imitation and which can be
avoided if one is willing to take the necessary trouble . . . prose consists less
and less of words chosen for the sake of their meaning, and more and more
of phrases tacked together like sections of a prefabricated hen-house" (p.
1 59). Orwell was clearly unhappy with vague writing and professional
j argon. He felt that poor writing was an indication of sloppy thinking, and
he excused neither the social scientist nor the novelist from his strict dicta
of good, vigorous writing. He had a particular dislike of using ready-made
phrases like "lay the foundation," and he was equally appalled at the
indiscriminate use of scientific terms to give the impression of obj ectivity
to biased statements.
As a reviewer, I apply Orwell' s tough rules to the test of every
manuscript I receive. It means that the manuscript author has answered
Reviewer Questions 1 through 4 successfully.
According to Orwell, "the following rules will cover most cases:
155
Appendix B Thinking S traight and Writing That Way
1 . Never use a metaphor, simile, or other figure of speech that you

are used to seeing in print.
2 . Never use a long word where a short one will do.
3 . If it is possible to cut a word out, always cut it out.
4. Never use the passive where you can use the active.
5. Never use a foreign phrase, a scientific word, or a j argon word if
you can think of an everyday English equivalent.
6. Break any of these rules sooner than say anything outright
'barbarous' " (p. 1 70).
Orwell had the good sense to include the sixth rule as a disclaimer.
All writers make errors and violate rules, sometimes out of carelessness,
sometimes for effect. It is also true that writing for highly specialized
j ournals does require the judicious use of technical language, just as sheep
shearers need specialized terms to describe differing grades of wool.
However, moderation in the use and the arbitrary, spontaneous creation of
specialized vocabulary is certainly warranted in our field. It is refreshing to
read an author who states that the subjects in the study are "thinking
critically" rather than "realizing greater cognitive gains."
Orwell makes many fine points about the importance of sincerity in
thinking and writing. For the prospective social science writer, none are
more important than the careful selection and lively use of technical terms.
I know of no more rigorous test to apply to a manuscript than to ask if
George Orwell would approve. Passing this "test" means the author is
thinking straight and writing that way.
References
Green, K., Fine, M. J., & Tollefson, N. ( 1 988). Family systems characteristics and
underachieving gifted adolescent males. Gifted Child Quarterly, 32, 267-276.
Orwell, G. ( 1 953). Politics and the English language. In G. Orwell (Ed.), A Collection of
Essays (pp. 1 56--1 7 1 ). San Diego: Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich.
Rica, J. ( 1 984). Learning styles and preferred instructional strategies. Gifted Child
Quarterly, 28, 1 2 1-1 26.
Robinson, A., Bradley, R., & Stanley, T. D. (in review). Opportunity to achieve: The
identification and performance of Black students in a program for the mathematically
talented.
156
Appendix C
The Null Hypothesis and

l
S ignificance Testing
Formal significance testing begins with the null hypothesis. This is a

statistical hypothesis that asserts that any differences we observe when
studying random samples are the result of random (chance) errors created
by the random sampling. For example, suppose you asked a random
sample of men from some population and a random sample of women
from the same population whether they support legalizing physician
assisted suicide for the terminally ill and found that 5 1 % of the women
supported it while only 49% of the men supported it. At first, you might
be tempted to report that women are more supportive of this proposition
than men. However, the null hypothesis warns us that the 2-percentage
point difference between women and men may have resulted solely from
sampling errors. In other words, there may be no difference between men
and women in the population - we may have found a difference because
we administered our questionnaire to only these two particular samples.
Of course, it is also possible that the men and women in the
population are truly different in their opinion on physician-assisted suicide
and the population difference is responsible for the difference between the
percentages for the two samples. In other words, the samples may
accurately reflect the gender difference in the population. This possibility
is called an alternative hypothesis (i.e., an alternative to the null
hypothesis ).
Which hypothesis is correct? It turns out that the only way to answer
this question is to test the null hypothesis. If the test indicates that we may
rej ect the null hypothesis, then we will be left with only the alternative
hypothesis as an explanation. When we reject the null hypothesis, we say
that we have identified a reliable difference-one we can rely on because
it probably is not just an artifact of random errors.
Through a set of computational procedures that are beyond the scope
of this book, a significance test results in a probability that the null
I The authors are grateful to Mildred L. Patten, who wrote this appendix.
1 57
Appendix C The Null Hypothesis and Significance Testing
hypothesis is true. The symbol for this probability is p. By conventional

standards, when the probability that the null hypothesis is true is as low as
or lower than 5 in 1 00, we reject the null hypothesis. (Note that a low
probability means that it is unlikely that the null hypothesis is true. If
something is unlikely to be true, we reject it as a possibility.)
The formal term that researchers use when discussing the rej ection
of the null hypothesis is statistical significance. For example, the
following two statements might appear in the results section of a research
report:
"The difference between the means for the liberals and conservatives
is statistically significant (p < .05)."
"The difference between the means for the men and women is not
statistically significant (p > .05)."
The first statement says that the probability that the null hypothesis
is true is less than ) 5 in 1 00; thus, the null hypothesis is rejected, and
the difference is declared to be statistically significant. The second
statement says that the probability that the null hypothesis is true is greater
than ( 5 in 1 00; thus, the null hypothesis is not rej ected, and the
difference is not statistically significant.
In other words, significance tests are helping us make decisions
based on the odds that something is true. We all do this in everyday life.
For example, when you prepare to cross a busy street, you look at
oncoming cars to judge their speed and distance to see if it is safe to cross.
'
If you decide that there is a low probability that you will be able to cross
the street safely, you reject the hypothesis that it is safe to cross the street.
158

Writing Empirical Research Report PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Writing Empirical Research Report PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Writing Empirical

Project Director: Monica Lopez.

Cover design by Robert Kibler and Larry Nichols.

Printed in the United States of America by Malloy, Inc.

Introduction to the Fifth Edition v

1. Structuring a Research Report 1

2. Writing Simple Research Hypotheses 9

3. A Closer Look at Hypotheses 23

4. Writing Research Purposes, Objectives, and Questions 31

6. Writing Introductions and Literature Reviews 49

8. Writing Assumptions, Limitations, and Delimitations 79

9. Writing Method Sections 85

10. Writing Analysis and Results Sections 97

1 1. Writing Discussion Sections 105

12. Writing Abstracts 113

13. A Closer Look at Writing Reports of Qualitative Research 119

14. Preparing a Reference List 133

Appendix A Checklist of Guidelines 143

Appendix B Thinking Straight and Writing That Way 151

Appendix C The Null Hypothesis and Significance Testing 1 57

This book presents guidelines frequently followed by writers of empirical

What This Book Will Not Do for You

This book is not a traditional style manual that prescribes mechanical

Cautions in Using This Book

The guidelines presented in this book are based on generalizations that we

Where to Begin in This Book

F or a quick overview of five fundamental principles for effective research

About the Fifth Edition

Structuring a Research Report

This chapter provides an overview of the elements typically included

Guideline 1 . 1 A research report typically has a brief

Titles of published research reports typically are brief. They usually

The Relationship Between Self-Concept and Employment Status Among

Chapter 5 in this book covers how to write titles in more detail.

Guideline 1 .2 A n abstract usually follows the title.

An abstract is a brief summary of the research. It is often stated in as

Guideline 1 .3 The body of a basic research report

The elements specified in this guideline are almost always covered

Guideline 1 .4 The section on research methods

The subsection on the participants describes how they were

Title in Upper- and Lower-Case Letters

A third subheading, "Procedure," is sometimes included under

Guideline 1 .5 Be generous in using subheadings

Subheadings help readers follow the structure of a research report.

The Attitude Scale

Adolescent Mothers in a Transitional Living Facility:

Most of the research literature on attachment and adolescent transitions has

According to psychoanalytic theory, the processes of separation and

under the abstract without a heading.

literature on attachment theory will be discussed in this section.

Romantic Relationsh ips

Guideline 1 .6 In a thesis or dissertation, the

Unlike j ournal articles in which the literature review is typically

The essential elements in a research report are the title, abstract,

5 Example 1.5 .2 i s loosely based on Schwartz, McRoy, & Downs (2004).

Exercise for Chapter 1

1 . "Titles of published research reports typically are very lengthy."

2. Is the abstract usually placed above or below the title?

3 . "An abstract is an extensive summary of the research." According to

5 . According to this chapter, should subheadings be used sparingly or

6. Are the introduction and literature review always integrated into a

PART B: Examine two reports of research published in joumals, and

7. Were the titles and abstracts brief or lengthy? Explain.