! 
"#$$%'&#
()*+!,-$$#+./ 012! 3!
64 58789;:278<=8>@?A8B8CEDF878GHJIKDH@>@LMH@>@LMBON058P8DF8F8GQSR6GP8<AG
46GT8D<U@LMGF8UJ58VI+58LMT878U@G<WX?>@GF8?GB8I+58<F8GH@HJY6F8>@Z8G,<[Q>@U]\
Abstract $ ]c8[]O]]Of6f fOc6f$cc$c]$$;@Sf@[@+ OyO[S O8) cfO]$f]Of8]cc$$]c O[3sS@@O yO 3 +OOOS $+c$c]$[Of
qgfa$k _cl8^Kvfmfwf_;a$_cn e df`8ofe
a$p_cn eb$_cn_cbp3dfeKb$_c_cbghe`8b*_cq0dfzca$_cn mfgfijpxk k gfgyk _ l8q eqmfa$n gfa$zcndfne _cb$o.dfgfprezce iqn mfmfofdfas_cgfdk
p3{fe n ofdfgf_;ne d[g}ltn|fe gf_cp3p3b$_cb$g[~_cu,e n b3p3wfngfd a k ]O]8O}]@X[8O$X [O]S)$3] f*}]}c 8O][]OcS@ }O ]} 8 cO]}Xf8][ 8]f@$8c$
FI

|}gfb$n_dfegf_]a$l8_a$gfc_ce _cabrk mfgd[l8{f~_]`8e ofo _qn b$a$_cb$gfea$zceo2a$gfb$ce _ca$a$gfb$e gf_]lfkmmqqmfe ofwf_a )@f.fff f6ff }cf[f8ffffSf}8f2ff@f@@)@ f6cc] ]ccc[ O]]O] c$}cfOO $8$,OO]
FI
e of_{fa$gfn ee ofgfp
algo
n e _c3p3wfb$_caen kpgf`8e e kn _czcp3__cidfn ee gfoe n_ qmfqd_czcmeq2n ce _8of_S`8ab$wf_ dfgfn a$d[zcl)op3b$e _ca$zcgfo}e _]gflfdf6n b$zcp3mfb$p3~ |fn df_cb O c} +3c8[cf6] f[]8OfO$c[ O8c O[][)8S [OK$[]6. O c$c[cO]O}Mcf Of$cc$
- - FI

ggfdc_c_ q a$qe nn zczcngf_ckdfe|fn a$e _cp3k gfg[`e n ca$__]`8|fa$n e_cp3b$_cg[df`e gfze mfn mfpd`8a$mqy_cb$b$e ofn mf_)d{fb$gfzce ofgf_c|fp3gfb$gf_)~,idyn e og 6$O][ 3]}$3@ff ff6}$f @SO ])6 O$]] ]O$f Oe ]3
FCI X closed
ea$of_cmfgfa$kmfw[{fl8gfoe g[_]uc`8i_c_a$n p3n b$_cmfdfk gfe gfe _k2gfe d}ofgf_tk _b$q n qb;_czcmeqmmfqwfa;e ofgf_k l8mfn dfa$n{fe nofcpn {fwfmfgfd k c[}e+] M
6 ] hf @3Oc c] O}$$[]c.]X) 'O$$cXc]2 OO]3 O O
does X

zcdfmfwfpp3`8|fmf_cdfa$b_cdfb$ofe bmfiMmqe ofgfe eofm}_wfagfgfk lOk l8mfmfa$na$e n ofe ofp3p~ mfwfe 3`8_cwfa arqmfa$`8p3_cab*q`8mfa$a$p3_ccgfn mfdfwfzc_b f . 8
c ] [8} Of f$
t(Y)
Y

imfa$|[2g*qgfzce mfaJmq3e ofa$_c_e m*qn _c~ $O]x$]O O$]f ]K O$c][c}f]][f Of])xf ][6}x O}}f]@ Of6S c[8 ) ]hJ 8O]]
2]O@OO]
MFI FCI FI.
MFI

8]J .]@ Oc[}f]c}] OcS )f}O ]c6]$8 O]}f c$]f$] )fO O2c[fO]}c
FCI

FI

X8XX@8 c] 6[$O]6[O]c+ fO$cM$ ]).$6s}@f6@c+J8 $]f ]] OO]$]cfc[]Of8] c

f[8O ]c c$$f]] O[f]]O Sf}[88] $cs }] ]fSf68[]@[]O} OccfO][@c8] @[$cf}]]Exff fcc
-

c
h
]
f
8

c
]

[
O
$
s
O
c
8
[
O

c
[
8

f
6
]

)
]
]
O
]
]f8 cO] ][OJ*@SffO@] Sc$c]])S6 Off[}]O]] 8c
8ccccOc$]Jr f]fO$ f O]OX$)O]$8][@@@ 8 }x ]88] []@Ofx]c ] ff]jfff8fc}}@ c[O]f
6$]$c@ ]} 8ff}ff}f}f}f}
-

[
)
@

practi -

 O)Sc$$[f]]M][]K@O[@ ) Ofcf c8f]8[8fO$Sc}ffK8K[@ c [8c f]]Occ fff.ffff}.f}fff.ff[OOO O]$O]J3f }cy[O]]}}68c], ]c@O[O]]f [86$] )$J[@f
@fff]3 82$].* 6] f6 O)]Of] ]OO]y)ff fc[ [6O$c@. 6]OOffc}c][ }}8f8)ccf)K }]6]6$] $]c}
-

hf.S OcJc8 ]8]8 OK[} 6f$$X.]Of]O]Sc cc ) f,c$$@ 8f} Occ 8 }ch8$] $

]fO}cc]Sf @ [@ 68$c]$,c;Oc) }[[@$ c ff6}].c][OfX}SfcO
FI FCI

SO8+ c]$[s Ofc M}8.$O] 6f$ +]$8 y ] f]]8c$ 8;8+O fc[f}[}OO[cOfc$ccfc$3 .[ch}]c[[2O8c6f Oy;f$})]fS$O8c$]EfOcS ]}[@) 6f6 O]sff8$rO8$
-
I k
-
X I k-itemset X

8]c]}c}f 6$]$ O] O] c[Of]@ 8h+ ]Of*ff2fc ]O6O$ ]c$ O[ 8}sMc]ff f c]6t$] $S3 8)c[O
X k T
I support(X)
@fO ][ ]) f c]}O }Of8f[@]y]8fc$c] 6$]26cc}c2O. cc }O $EfM O f[O]8ccf$ OcO$ O [8}]
Y T X Y breadth- -

$]f$
c8O] c[O3}8 6$]$. )$+]O O)cf []OO][}]OO Oc
[)O]]f@, $8X]f ]@Of*]Ofc } O[]f]f8fcc]])[Oc$}cfJ}8]c]cfccfcc}]}c cO
X support(X) minSup

O}8]$] cf[O } 6 c][fOO}Syf]O$[ 8 OO] $]Jfc

X frequent

c][hO jf]O]8c $@ ]]fOc$]}fh] [}]O]] cO$j]O Sc[8}[}@]8}

FI X -
[1].
6]f) c[O} 6$]$,f
X X
maximally
MFI
 6$]$ O36$] 
c]X ]cf$c[$]}]c ][f}]OOhcc[ Of}] O$6}$] Ocf}f$  Oc8 Occ[8} c O
]f]c]]@SO }e 8
e e  ,8 f fc[ OOSJcf }f[c@c $fX6f
Generating Y)
cc[[}}8 [8O}$f fcfc' $$ [} hxc }f@c $ f]} ]Occ O$t8]f O
-

Oc$2S$]O[f@c[.}c.O.c c]K}.8]f Oc$2]}f ] 8]K8cX$ ][8}$c}] c[cO

O

counting

8h]s[c@[)OcO OcfX E OcK] ]fr*[c ]E8+s}[[@$ fOx[Efc] }[}f

support(Z) T

ccO]6c ] @O] K} $]f8 O$ccf] f $S[6f ]O}[ $f ;]c$$ f ]f]$3 s[ O

$] 8e 3 O 8 fcf@ f]f f}f}f8O[K@}c][@} }c c8]@f$cc$]}c]] [[8c@ .3
vertical

3@@8
X work.

f][8@ c]@ }]f+} 8 O]8[c]O}2[@) 6f} ]6Occ ] c}O3 66;$]]f$$fhfc 3]f}[s8)f O$c [)c+@ ]}[] c}f$f].$O}c][Of]@} 8O$]f c] ]f@c 8c O+y O f 66c [OO]c]f OOc
f
c[ ]OO]]}Oc $hf66c$}c][S@ Of ]}S[@ XOfsf)cJf O}s]f}]X]f8cc]$]s ccS@c]8Oc}]}@c[ @] ff]6. fO]]s]8c$cyf]OO[}8.fc}
8 2[}["f!]@ O)+Oc+]+[8fX]@O O$c}
MAFIA MA
F I A I
i
f}]]S}f O6]8].X ]OX$] .} $]y ] cch[yfXc8 ]O@ cO8[8f]]@@ Oc
6c@cO)]]}[}8]O+c O$cS [O OOc}c[ @ f.6O}c@]}8 ]6c ]) ,) f6X)[@]c i L j

]c}f;]}f] ]8$}c]$.c}O6cf] ]@O 8$Kf [ .O8 Occ}[)06f]}fcK )8[Of ]cf]c ]c 686c c[}3 [f] [#%$ #%& O) O #%& #%$ y S I
-
[ O]8,Oc ] [O}  O[f]@ O}
S
[}3$ fc[ ]}8$] ] c[
S1 if S2

O}}fc}cfyf O2[ 8OSO[[X8}X]8]y] S@O 8 }] 2f6c6] cc c*)f] ]O8cc$cc$

y- S1 S2
][O}S8cc]66$ .]O [}6c c) c6}]}]OOc 3,. ]} Oc * O63$]$f$6$O]
cc }}[[@@ ff66 O[ [O@[ 8 cf] ] c[ f}@;O f ]$]8 cO$ c $O[]O


]cO] 6cc$]]$}}8 $[]]O]s+[]fO]}f]Oc][]]}[Occ)f c}]xfc}( Oc'3c O ]}]c f8c+c]]f]f} c[ c}]c
-

).@8S[8fhO[@f OO]}[X[8O8][c [])]}}X8O ]Oc@]868[][}} ]O Occ]}Oc OO]c .O [}t[K O

k-
-
CPU-
b$wf|f b$f_ce6e a$_c]_fO[]@K cO[ O ccSfOcs$} ] c hc.X O} 6k _]u,n zc@m[[l88a$g[`8]ofOn z
88[O]]]}[[ @@$)) yOO Occy .. c;O
f c]c}c[]@y } f]86O[
K[hO]cfy cO*][$8c[c]OO} 8O]2[yy).OO cf[fcO

f 8)[$ ]OKf}]]}c $ }c8@f2Oc]cO +)SOf]f]f8$ @0f8@

c]@c
c c []O]]ff+f c6$]O$$ @ffO@.} ) f[c@ O f $K8[ 8 O[$ 866f}6Oc c]KOcJcO cff+ O* @}
f8}f f8] f ]} 8 [8cX}]f$ O

fOf Of
Oc]c) fO c 6]c}[J}f]} O O)cO
cc f6) } c{[f,dfgf]fp3}n zca$c_cmfha${f _c]a$n}d[]l
head

O}]]Oc8f;] $ )}] c[]}[fOc}M8]] c ]}[@c]})88]]fO ]f*6]$]cE]Kf]fc$]c O][[c]f

tail -

$O]O}f6} @ccf]}OO]Of]fc[c}cK]} O[]c 28c y [OO8 )c O0}+f 6cc[8O O]ff[3X,*c]X}Oc8]cf 8[cO]Jf

tail
t

2}8[$$]]XOO $S$c[)}O]}c8c][c O$[c][f}fOc ]OfXff8 fc]c8X]]f.[OOJc @f6 $.]cX]$ ];[ ccf] O[
O]cc ]O@]3 $]
[])c.)c[. }8Sc c 6]}$ffO
union

ff@c}$O]@ 8OS O$c]8]cy8cfc]fc c] K$[c+ }[@f cf$]@ 8cO8)O)]fO]f]f83c$

HUT

-fi

-/. Level
0
P
1 2 3 4 1
Cut
1,2 1,3 1,4 2,3 2,4 3,4 2

1,2,3 1,2,4 1,3,4 2,3,4 3

1,2,3,4 013254768:9 4
 c )c}O6scfS]8 [ 8Of}[ ];j8)Of+O}}
}}O][8O 26c [c}Oc[}OK]]}  c6K6$]O$$]]62$cOO]]h8cc  }]+6c c]+ ]@JfffXc8cc[ ]]c SOcf$3 JM]O[fffccOcy3}8$]OK
]O cc$
]fc$]8}[ ] [ [O}h3.f@c}[]@ cO})c[  f68[} ]@ ccc f]
c O) }cO[O]}@}}, 8 $ O]6$$ ]88$ Jcc] .8[Otf}}]2O O) }$c[cO[88}cK .@}M$c8 OOS [`8}}mfb$n [e]n fc @_ }
[
@

f }ffSffScccc f$$ 888)]]f]6h fOOc c
 8OM*]68Oc8c]] cc8c]8]c][[@)cc $O+ cOc] }f[6@ S f2 $
- -

fO@} }dfO_]l8}gfe n c_O|fcmfca${f_caMc[}}  Oy}f8[)@Kcf}]cc$ c2c) O}}

pre-

]Oc]}O  J3@f f @ rc }[@ fEOc8.;X)] Of38c$cK[

border -

]O8h[f}} ]6fO*X] O]x}cOOO[+.8OjO O] cOccc }X]8$ c}8888tc[];fc[][}} 8

c+[j;]OO]]Oc]Kf8rc c O[f
pre-

[f } )]@ cc))] OOf[}O c8$O)[@][)}cc [} 8}]@[f]f @c@}Or$c3O

O fc} f]f} 8M8[f]O]f ]Of ff f $+ O[c};S OKt]O] ;OS8][} 8 }8c[ 8.[K OO }f]]@jcc[,}f@ 8}cc[+}[8@ f c]Ofccc}$ [[O)6f[ j c}[f]]}) 8c[]$
83] [@)c)] O}@O 8MsOx}]]@} c cx$] K]f]fOfc]OO 3.O[s}8]
[O]} O$cS]c
f* cf[ Ofc$c]@ OO}] 8cX*[]Oc} O*J]
]3*fM 88c$ [ ff ff8 ff cc$f$  KO}8O }]]f]8]f;f fc[@$8]}]};;c[fO] 3O}f[]@OO6cc).OS];f]][ O8O]6O]Ofcf} cO$K][8] ] O]c[@OfO)@ f]f@
Con P -
P FI

83 cc[}[O}c} f 63)Sc$]cO[MS8 Of]8}X @ S 6$[}c 3[f}[.O O Xf 8

P MFI

]}O8 [8c]XOcf '3]f}yJ8]JcO h.@fOfx@3})]@]Occc O

f }O]8xc]cJ $.
P FI

f} f c]Osf[OcsSO] X @6 O$Kc OJcfc}s Os$8c]]c[}}cccs )$ ]O$ [[fO].}3f]ff]8Occ$X]]cf fc@f$]f}@ ] $[O[K8][])OcSc]K8

-

[fO 8]2$ O fO f+]fO} ; ff ]fS  Oy c c$}]8$Kcc[f[}Oc ffJy} O

P
P

cf[[@ [
O c O. } 6f$f]$8 $ c [f}}f c$s8]O 8 f f} OS
-   88@ ]" ! 0 #X@8
cc[[ff]]@@ OO}+8}O @$ Oc[f O,)fc2ff]OO]XOc Jcf0O.$$c]}O Scc Of$/cy@2
y }]$c[$O c c][}[ OO6s*f$c]]fO]cr$]@ O886c
c} c8] @[[ O ]f@}}}X8cfc)$8][]@OO8f}f$
 9  8
,8 56  c }[8@  ff ]f ) [ $}}]] $cO 8 2Of@}f}@}8f 8}Oh
[O$f
]@ }O
O66$']Sf}f;[8c}c $])}c[O]f+cf]ff Oc]c8Occc )O c O[@fO@63[]@fS;) c]c h}]f $ccc$[2]O@ ]8Of ff}6]}$, f f[Occ *c] [OJf ]Of f
-

] cOffcf}]Sf }cccO[ 8 c@[)6)]f.O]OK+[;$c fc}}]@XO O*f   $ 9 %7'1 &)(*

,8 + -0 %
]Of @[c@[J} }O f8x}cfc8][ @,O 8ff[h])@f] [.]}8 O]] M 68}]]O[]]6] 8 OOf2f @}cOc.)c]]fc}8  )) c}cJ}[ @)) ffO }3+O]$ffcf]:f *
[ ]},3$[f@}f]O]6] c3c6}c]]cO$
-
frequent

Oc[c}c}8 cK
c8]}f$]8 8 [ O]} c8O[ OO] c,O}f 8O[]@;f  c*

-

8@f]@[@6O , f [cO}]]Oc$c f,)f6}8Of}@f}O}c;][])}}88f]c$]c]O)]cOf@}}cf8 }fO}+OJc 8$c

n
breadth- - n

]cf $@+[@3c[ MO]}c}@]@$}@c]O 3]}c8$ .$[Of]OSccf c[O[@2}38] 6]8]K ] 8O[f[O$K+ f8f2 OO OX+]} f]@O}[@OOf@[ OO]O 83c cc8*.c
} O6c]++ f82c [cO[O6}J}$]6}8$E$]].OO
lookaheads {1- minSup

]ffKfc] ] f 2*]f [f$c f]XcO]8O8]fff[}S@)82]Sf088cO$c]$cJOff]$f}+] OS O fcfc][] 8}]c$ $cc Off8JO] cc cc] cc  O ccOc}
-
-
depth- -
c}]8O[]f$]]).0[O8} ]6;$]},6K O O  } cr c3c.8cc}]][6$c .c}[]Oc}f
@[fO}OOcSXc))fccc[cf [f}O]@2 Of] ff }] @}]J [$[]Oc}]Of
$fcf}c%8$K]]$f] 8 *f x@f[}$c}O]OKOS@$fc@
-
O]c[cc ccOc+cXKS OOc]S $+O3}O8]}$]8J]f$f]O}c$O$[0 fO]
cc[[Ofc]c@3 Of}2 @OS c8;fO OcOc}]O]h68c[cf;cfJcc8];KOfcf] *@
-

6SOc[[f@]s OO]]S8c[}]OJ [f)O]2.Xf 8]f)6 $}] 8 $] Oc } ]$ cO +@8 O )}]8[}O@

]}}
itemset

c][} } 8+K $)]fOf[8f]$Oc fK$]f] [*)$cc]6O]}$]EKfcf[O}cc

[OJ8 O ]}ccf]* O]ff* cc6 $][$Xfc] ccc[cS] O]$] @c} O 
-

OcOf0[ OO]f]O][8c]8$ )}6c68] ]@)]Off]

8c$c[]f Oc[] ]fffc]Oc$ ]  [OO
.

-
 32 56 1 1 8 61 ( ,1   * 84*  78

 
& ,+  
    

3}]x8* [O 8 [
O] M]}fcr O6]f8c)cc s f[O}}8XfyOO[ 3
}]e gfn k 
 fc[[fO}]8f*S[O} 8 ] $],]fO@c}}yO}8 ]O]O of_cgf{ $ %

]ff@f} 8} $ %

$
]O[ffcccf]fc * }]@ ]}Off
conduc
$O]O)ff cffc HUTMFI
*
}@]}Off C MFI
[)$$c,] ]} 8]O]}@



Simple MFI HUT  C.head .tail;
i C
J cO] } X
[cc]
]
HUT MFI
newNode  C i

+ yf J O cc c]O 3 OccO
newNode i C {

Simple(newNode

MFI
MFI) J cO]}
newNode  C I

+ f O cc OccO[
newNode
C MFI HUTMFI(newNode MFI
} C MFI)
 
!
C MFI
}
 
-

3}f] O]5}
$ [+]cOc2]8]]}]} y]}O] []c8f] cOf3s ]O $Oc] 6]$]O 3}]] Oc +Of c f}Oc [8c8 8]}[} O S $[}cc[
f ]@8 O. OSf
OO88]]]} Oc])Oc @cf O],.6).OO]} 6
-

$O]O)ff cffc
)Sff c]

children.

$
]O[ffcccf]fc *}@]]} O.f MAFIA C
 
IsHUT
[)}$],O ]] [.]} []8] }@


PEP C MFI HUT  C.head .tail;
i C.t {
 f}8 }f8 []@$ fff8[@ [ff}Oc]
cc]f8 []}Of88[$@
7M @ O3] Oc[f]
HUT MFI
newNode  C i

c $8
c[O}
newNode " C
C C.head

[cc] 8]O] @S,6Oc .c],  O8
.

+ f J O cccc]O OccO[
newNode

i C
PEP newNode MFI IsHUT  i

[)$c]]]O]cO }} 8Oc][ 8}J) ff cc

C C MFI) newNode  C I
C MFI  ' '&'(/)0*
MAFIA(newNode
}

+ yf J O cc c]O 3 OccO
IsHUT uent)
 #
 
MFI)

3 }]of_cgf{c
e}gf8n k]$.]]O}8c [@8

8]O[@ c) c)S. f ]OO
$ % $ %
}
C MFI
 1

$
]O[ffcccf]fc O f]f )Sff c] 3 }])c ]Of f)c]OfO )]c f ]O+c 0f )]8O2 O
]
X

FHUT C MFI IsHUT

$
]O[ff@cccf]fc )X )] [Off *
i C { support(X)

J ]c O],} O c ).} O8]


8
]

O

newNode  C I


*[c]cc] f]O$fc ] 6]
Project X TAIL
IsHUT  i
I TAIL

+ f J O cc c]O OccO
newNode

0f f 8]Of f $J[f

I
FHUT newNode MFI IsHUT
T

[]}8] O[@ Oc  }}$KO}f[8 Jcy]O Mc[}O]}8c ]s}M c

C C MFI)

*c] f )] cr8 OcsOhcf

T X '2
C MFI
T I }

8 scJO]8}c
IsHUT

] }]$]f0f[$c]cf )] ]O
X
'&'( )+* support(X)
True
I X
}
 , }
Figure 3
 $   64 1 72 
" 8 6 88
  
$ $ +
*& ,
  1 8 5678 61 72 

8]O] c]]y )O xOO]+$86 cxK$fc8]]f] ] ]8 8cMf ccc[f ]}]$Oc]]c]f6OfOf)6c]]Oc[2f t}OcOcf

- c ]c}]hcfOOf]f8f;f]O8cc $[Jcff8]6[}Os}Sf8cf[c@ c ]O}c[ cfc]3@ O.f O}f] .2}[ }[8O])SO.
3 O$ccc]]c)J88]cc[c c}]O$*S8*f@fO}*8]@X. ]c}[]8f]@[O8
.Oc[}O fcf]cO[}}f O8$, OO O}[f,88[@ .f}cf ]f O
-

K [}3] $Oc]f)0fO.88ccOcK c 6]ff3Off *]$

man
-

]]O$c]8 O$]O$Sfff cc*@yO8cc]sO]}r]O }8} f28 })8 ]]h Kc@c$ c)8 ]]}@[8};8OO@

O

6
]
O
f

f

f
@
f
}

@)6O8yO]fJ 8cc][]O0}2 y[86} yf Oc[]OO $}+S8]]Oc}.]8Oc[$83XE$]X6c
})}[$@8 Of ]c[ Oc O}}]c
-    

!       
   
Equivalence
not

OOf fu *$O]c$[ }] Oe u s}S [OO]]]}fc XOO$]c]]f[c[c}[O]}

x n
t(y),
y
O}]OO$ } 6$] [c] ff J8c @
.Sc}[6f]}c 6c8 ][O
S[O[f]OOX]8Xf 8Xc 8 O$fc[f}OcJ]} f

6$] c [}Oc] }O x[fO} 8O[ }MO 8OOS) ]fc[)O] fs}c8[]O$}]
n -
y
z x y
8O]Xc[}}}f ccfc ]OO
6$]$ f f $ f } OOccOc}]
]OO3XOOc[c f(
*[OO][OcfO[fc ccc $u ]]cSu)
c[.}}}]O 6$]$
c[
}O6}]f8$}c c } f83[@}8Of]J@Scc]y]O; ]]c}[O f[3]@c 5cO }]7}cc ]O3yc O(8 87]]f8]} fc]+8]OOfc]K[)c. O}]
(z y)
itemsets x
y
*, y

c] ,[cO c)cf[}}]O[ c}[O:]O

7OO} fc
f0 O8O] ]cX OOcc
n y item y
n

[86$]3$]}OM[c O[Of]]K] O0]6c8sOfy.f Of@}}} f8O yhc3 y]}f}c[86c]y$8]]f $f @8f } 8 *}Sc[
Oh3} c]}[O [f]O]O6f].[[fO]O ]fc
c OfOS]S@ ]O}$f8c[8@6
r8]f]$cOc+c]Sc6$Os3}]$sc] ]8)8f[$8@c8]cf
- !  
!
FHUT

]OKfcy[cX$}c}8ff$}]][$cf] O8c8
y[38 $c][c]O}Oc}X f}8)S2cO]O2 ]}f]f@SSfOO@f @}[X} M O*@
}8
} 3 [ )Sc)]6]+fc f@cf@O8f$c 8 8cxO]}}$fOJ] }O@)$ c s}[@ f) c 8f$}c]yO.]
n
n n
n

}c[cc8 s[OO}$jOc ]) @ )[O2$cc] ]M }8cc cO3.[ Oc]}]$ 8c]@]O

f}@}f}
cO
+3 f [cc]]8 Offc[[ Of]f}r chycf+c c]}}]82[ [ 6@ O }]6$}Of6@}] }cO Of6}ff
n
c}]cc][ [8].[] O)O[$c@8]J]}OXcf O@}c}c8 +6cc]] O[}f6 f2]O+O
8] O} }f[ @cJff[c c2cc]cc]]}28O[ffcc O@) c ]),.OXc8J]OO
FHUT F H U T

O[$c]f}} ]} c}.ff ]
3[}K]O8c c
$3$]]  @ $c @ *c][}[)ff f@j ff

depth-first   #X X @8   " ! 8    
O]*OO}f c)c.X*}8O]$yc}[f$8] 88O O}
f) c.8*f [6cX].O]f],O8f]f  9  8 (768 8  1   * 54 *,1 7"2 %7*4 (*(*6 
     

}]Of]@f]Occf]Otc[$f}fc fc }8@ [fsOh cx cOcy]fh] S]]88]cO$c$fc]$X[@8y$S}O]@s }f]c@c] ]c}8c c.)$fc ]86O]O ]]f cK$][}]Of]8cf[] s+S[[
[O]O +$c[] O]cf$cO])Ofy f +fO O$+f )c]]f[j } KO$] }$]c i

]2 ]O6E]] O Oc]]}$8 ]cX[O$;})}[]8 ]OcfXf]3c[}f[fS f8]2O]]c.O}c8cc}f88[]8@ XcO]f]

- ! -

][}Oc]O8O
.+OcOc2S .}]6@
Oc]cf$ff)fc)] ]]s  OK [6$8]O3J]cOO[
@O}cfc8S[}8Of][3 Off
HUTMFI j j i

X
f ]c c] ]]cf;f fcc[]O]}f] ]
@S
3 O O$$ S }O8)][$]]).]6OS]O
f3fO
x

[cO[@cJc$8[OOc] OO2}}]f@8 [c@c32ff )6]$] O]y]f] c$]}$; O

x x onecount(X)
X
Oc [ O] f
]OcJO3}8}]f$ ]cfffc[c}]0 O OO+ffO3c
[3@c8S[OO[O O8 O]KO$Ocf]f *s$]]$ [O X e6 ] S
8[ hccc]scf f6c]}cO
X bitmap(X)

hc]+8cc8 f,@ }}O

c08+f }8]$]Jf@}}O 3O
r fOff )}c,]S]8 6 }O]] 8cc]SO yOff
X Y

]}[}[]f@)OKc[[O]O
cc3 7$ 8 }8ff]c$]Of[@f}]}O8}].OfhO@]$fOc K

X t(X Y)

[fOS cc}fcf}]f}Occ cc$c .6}fy[[ @J}]c[c}} OOKX}S]8@ ,cc8f} $6[O]

HUTMFI bitwise- bitmap(X) bitmap(Y).

]}
83 [cf8
O]O]cO[c[ )}.O]ccf f]
O3] f ;OO,fc}]f ]8c 8


3yf@}} 8} 6]Of)[[}O]hO]h] Ocf@Of)ccM[}2}$8 .OO2c$]2}.0OcO[Jf}) O]
representati -
 f868$]]@ ]O @]  O.c}3}ccOff[3c] OfSf[8f$ O 8ff.08]}fc8O% *$ Ohcc+f]c)+[O]c]}.cc}S] 6c[Of8]22c}}f] ]Mcc f)[c})J]Of*@f
]
Occ}0.0OS3c}
$c 3 O'38Off]X ])O []8 .[*OOc )f Xf6O $)]]6f[ O)[c$]8 ] OO6}f$f]f}fc ]f)O cfc6)$$][c O] cM[[[[O88]8]c fc[}y]X c8O]y]@] O[ ]s)c};f cO]yfO[c}f] 8[@
N
N
N.

]O+[@ 8 O
cO 2f 6;
@K]}[cc] f]} f$@c3$.$c6 }c] O8]]c]$}c} +cff8cff )[S] O3*@}cfO}]$cc Jc]cc+ [
bitwise- X) - Y X rebuilding_threshold
f02f 6];
@* f[}}K OffS8]fJ%*@O Y X

Of[}.}08J[8} O,+ OO}ff8 [@cff fcK
]8@ cr }SS8+ O $

Offc]fcc;c$]c2$, O O c.f]f cf}c[K$;]f [ OyO 6@$ cc$JOc)Occfsy6s[8
Y
-
rebuilding_threshold rebuilding_threshold

   &)( 68 1  * 6  8 ,8  1  &)(

Y
     
  
ff )$c]]8
cf[O;]]O})cc[S O]S8O+8f6*c O )]2]cO)SffJO O
Of+[c$fc]cf
c8}]c$$]OOc X O.c.cfOOJcc}$f] ]6rfM] 8$O,}$c]@ c]c[Ecc2 Oyc]]f*csO$]f} 6.] ]x}}$]f@ 8c[Oc@ }[8}$$c cO]}}s K}cO[]Oc]c f[+t@KOfhc [}c}c O8M}OO]sO]}8fO]cX$
ffc)$]]O8c$rcOf]) O]
6]6fy$];c]fO c]JO8$[c ] [OO]c$c]OcO8 si [O 6c [@]8]O]$cc'f fOff]O 8 f )Sc} c. EOf f[f
]f[c}$$] }cc}f)f3fS.8c]}]f0 ]8c$ ]c [O8$[]O
 }]6@ $]c$cf]f 86c]]J fOE$cc]fcf.6 )]]f8}$O f[}O38]$Oc ]cfsf fOME]$O M8fO} Oy.6cf8+ 8f
rebuilding_threshold

8Of$86 c ]O]cf+c6$]}]O] ff;$f )OKO8[O])] ]frc$]fK]O c[c fOX$c]c c[$[S[8c } OcccO. 8$8 Os]86 Oc ]scS}f]@ OccXXff [$)c]]c$
)c ] 8}f }6$6)[]. f$ c2cfc[O ff J)f@]88]Of8[2O .y}[2 OOS6}c[f8]$[c@X yf O c[O]}X 6$]
cO[O f]]jcfcf)[$fc6]c 6c}$] O8$ c}3@ . O}jf8[@cc$]Of]cf$O]$
rebuilding_threshold 

]O$3c[]r ccOc]]@O]] f}8)

c];]f,8c$] ]}$x$.]c]c[]];cS O 8O) s3} }O]]@E c Oc[08 f
CPU-computation. -

]Of $68f[$c]c
f )]8$]8f} Oy}f8[@ }c
-
-

[OO8 3} Of8

)[f[@c3f$]]O}]8c2]O..r} 6]fO$cc]$c$]]]}f]Oc $[]yS}@cSffc]f ]*6$[3f]O88][8}}cc cc
rebuilding_threshold

 
# X    @ 
@[E}@]f@ cfc 6 E )+f]f]c$]]f} ]c ] [}O2c$KyOcc]fc]$]}])} O 

ff c}$c]]Oc[yf]f3f]fc ]Oh}]}cO8$$O O+O } f ]Sf8fc]O}]@6 [c

-
]}O ff.Oh@@]+}f8f8]f @ )f}ff$ c $)][OhfcOc26[O+)[ O[]]c)cf @ffx}[f 8ch:fcf]ff$ fOc
O]f] c$@] }f]f )[Of O6 ]8$c] O$X}+$; c$; ]]f O }8c f]]c$f]$$Kf
O]KOOc }y*8scf f O. ]h}cOJ]] c) [8[
8}]]O ]]@Oc J]@f Of@}c$[O}O]Kc }8f8+[@O$,} Of8)]]@Ot ]8]O $$} ]@@c
]8Ofc}'c} }2] O]}8}].O[]@c]]f882fOcc$+]}cc[fK[}8 $@O}] c6[KO]fSO8ffO}]cf3@ c]c$]}O[Oc 8c[]$}]c ysf}]ff 66$8$3}x$ f]]3 . c]cS}8f8]@[@$[6 O.%;8]
]@]8
-

fc[}}K]c ]}[[8X@ O O$c] $* 8 [])[8 [)O cc O Of[O])O] )% *@ ]8[}*@ [Sc ]Oc $J3}f]] 8c
$]$8X] Sc}[OOO ]$Oc
f8] Oc]] O;

]}f]c ]f8c $Oc

-
X

ff]O O$3c] }fO cc[ff[] c}8]XOOff 6$] f ]O$cc][ }}* Off}cf*8O[[@  9 

32 6'1  *& 1  &)(* 8 * *

1
     

cO}[]f}8][ @2; Of8 O[6*@f$] ]fff[ ]O*$ . OO SOt}Occ]][][68]O c[[)O[+[c;hc[f} } 8c@

X

cc[ }[8@ [ fOS+}O2s..f

]cO]}] $;@
y O@f]cs$c]}]};[@ f}
O 2@$cOycOc]$;[.Mcc][
N T
X X T

O}}8$Jfc O+][}
3[ ][]88]$fc]] c[O+$fc $f8[ M[O.c]]OfOK O+cc }f ] @ 6c2c,c f] )*]6Jf]}
N
O]O$c
3 @r O]8 8cc[ )

[3]63
f
3}8 ] c$]]f0O8@fc}6 8 .:fO@
f
}}3 88
$c]]O+8cccf}]@ ]8cf[ [OO]M[c}@O cSc[c[cf[]O@ ]O82O$
f8fccc@yc$J} rOc]Scfc8 ][O$c[]f Oc[KO$f 2 $}[Oc}]K[8)f$]O ffcfcf 8Offc$ ] @ [fO O6OO}
X N

}c O+f8 Oc2cc8f M [@c8[OfJ) ]O$c] [ X [)}f$ cO

}8 cc[O[O}c O6E
[rfc)c] OOrff$c ]*,]$ 8cc.
 None None
#! !7- &
1232.119s
90,146,85 96,570,77

 FHUT
,  ! # &
HUTMFI
! #
& PEP1
& 
FHUT
1  - - &
HUTMFI
 - # ! & !
PEP
1
! &

#  

1
 3 # 5.7
3 266,534 20,142,05 9,150,058 1,331,158

FH+HM FH+PEP HM+PEP FH+PEP

!  #
& - -
, 1 & ! # &  FH+HM
 - -! - &  ,  ! 1 & HM+PEP

 #- &
3

1
,
#  , ,  ,-  #   1 1-
1 
-
9,150,030 1,134,863

!
ALL
 # &
ALL
 - &
3
 #   #, 1 1-
1 
1
3
 
       
     
 !#"%$   & !#"%$   &
'( )%*+-,.0/1 ,/( 2 3 Scaled
'( )%* . 8 ) +-,. /1 ,/( 2 3

4 $ 5  #6 4 $ 5  #9

fS ,} O S f;[}c ]}f8]cO[ @}[ @ fO.OM[+}OfSOX 8S] O]}f)ff

ccO]f$c]]cc $S]O8][O }c 
c} ]ccc[ 88][]6$cc0O]c+ .c
f}[] ]86

3$ 8O}$
c3  S
f; O[6
h[}$[c }[ E O] 8 }7c
30 sOX]O@fcf]8}O3[ 6 O
sO]c]c@c]$cr3.$+cc ]88c] c8]+[ } hOs$cc]c O }$6K[O] f].+]8$cc$cX .8 }c8[]O]$O].+ O"Off *6M
3}$x .
h
3f[f 88[;]}s8 [c[OO}
c]O_c)a$]e8 n zc}gf+kJ}]b$O@zc gfck $ncd[c l ]Oy
@)K}[$c cO$]c,S}]O@ }ccf;$cc 8$cc c K O[
8cOf 8f6f]f ]*}J
fO30]y OO],SO[f];S }O ]O]  } . [ccfc}$ 3fO[8
]3Sy]SJO} 8]c][OO$]f}f.c
]O])O[cc[[}}8[ 8O]
]}$O
8fc}c}cfO8][8c@}f[08@ f6[$O]]h$ ]@fcc]$]}O+cX 6)
ten

8]f $c 8) [6O@f)cf[]c;2fOO] ]c[y8+ [O}]y@ 6@8ff8}.O 8 s;

6 Oc@S ][O$Mc]ff
]f O86[]M]}8cf 6]J] OO +f7f .$O+]2c ;* cf}O.cOJff@Of}}}O} 8 ccK@)c8]O]ff.O O Oc8 }[ [}@f c ]f8f]@f}c}]c}8c
) }c.)[Of] ]f O}} ] KO8}O @ cc f[)O}}O ]c}6c[]$]cc]3][}O$c3O$]O$ OO . O}Oc]S 7c};cc $
cube

$Oc].])O8cc6K]}[8 [cf88f;  cO}]8$[c [8].; OOy]} O8

.

3cc[[@cf]8@$ [O]O8}f]J]]' c] }8 }c c;]f@ 0 } 8]O6]OffO[}8 ] O}OO$Scf c [f ]@$ [O} Of

@]@cO $ }O] c[ 8)] O[$
OO]f@c O+[ }$[}7
O] O]O[]}S]}8]fc$]}c[ [c}O]SO]rc[Of]@ O]y @}8[SfO]c@ O} ]rf[ f]; f  )7 [} )Of
cc@fK }f[}X86OO]]6c[c Of]fc@}f$}]OO+]8c]c@] $]8]O][ 8]]}*c
O308 [ O }$$))]O]$
)
O3[f O[)]O fOO}K) cfS}) ]6 }]$2 c O]] O@fO f c *8 [] * 7]OO[Sc}[@ff@]@ 8O
readability.
-

}}c8 ]2$}]]]yf@Sf} O]}tcOff $O J O[@8]$J]}O6$6]O

ff08f.    &)(*61   1  + 8 (* 6  +8 

38  6 ]}O $[cO ]OOc ]c@ [$]]} c[O ]O f}[8f}]8Of]
   


 


3  +[} 8][@6

3x@$cKc] [f@;@
c $ [O+h8] ]c@8cX O OcO }}[@ 8fc][6O$@ccKcc fc]]c $]])
c[[@f]@ }f 8f@
Occ]$}Of]c$]]f}8c ]]c} O c}] ]8 ]O8f [*] cc[Occ]x]O ]O 8K c6[fcc[ff} OOS.]]]O8cc$XfO}c] O] O+}f 6[O]8
f}], ]8O8  c$$3 c.38Oc J} $} ffO}8]][ @cf 3 c 6c6 fc$}@O)  ;}[8 88}+c]8,ff8;]c []]}@[8@}f6E @OOc$] @]cO[Sf Occ$cr)[; 8JO[c[;O]} [8}]]O O$c]]8cc
]O[}S$ Oc}c8 S[@8 f[$ 8O ]cf}8$OcfK 8Occx$M8}]S ]6@OOc@S[ O 6]
O f] f[,} Ocf[ }] })8 6O]@ X}]62 ][O8f2fc[KOO O[fKS8]2cf )*8}][@6$cOc]

fccf f O 2O[68c  Osc28f] ]O@O2f]c[]8cf$fc$] [

O[c $[)}2]f8$O} 8}]f 8]@[O@2,8@ff@  OOJ }}$*8$cXO3S fO}$]]@ f8Sc]$3 $ccc S }SO..
-of-the-

]}8]@)}Of]]8c$cE]$cc cj}]@ cc . O8@f}f 8

6c
- -
-

 
  


   
 
  

234 
  
1000 10
MAFIA DepthProject MAFIA DepthProject

100

1
1
K
/0 IJ
10-. GH
+, EF
0.1
1

0.1 0.01
90 80 70 60  "!$50
#$#&%(' )$40* 30 20 10 10 8 576 68:9:;=<=<?>A@ 4BDC 2 0

4 $ 5  # 4 $ 5  #

 
  

4   L  M 3 $N4  
100 45
MAFIA DP MAFIA DP
40
35
K
10 30 1
IJ 25 /0
GH -.
EF 20 +,
1 15
10
5
0.1 0
60 55 50 57456 8:9:;=40
<=<?>A@ BD35C 30 25 20 0 5 POR10QPS TP!=# U QROR15
) %(' 20 25

4 $ 5  #ed 4 $ 5  #ef

DEPTH 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Connect-4 1.23 4.22 16.46 61.07 134.8 169.06 79.98 50.43
Mushroom 1 12.64 51.81 73.15 72.92 56.81 41.29 26.78
Chess 1.33 4.14 5.73 6.51 6.73 6.7 5.97 4.95
V0PW  #    %$ AY4     AZA[-  ]\- AY0$   _^- #% a`b:`c`AY $ Y 5
X
 @ [} S[M} c$2}f 6]Ocfc}]S) O$ :K]f ]*$2c]]+ff[s[}8[) s]cO  cc O} []@ ] Ocf6O)y[$@c]cE]OO.c  O c8]] $ c$[:} h
Of rf]r f]]hO]8cK$O]Ef[ c*cc[O$c.[]}
cOc}f@f).@y O
;[fO }[}fO}cf]8 [8f@ c O $] SO]}[O+cccc$ c
}cf@O8][@fO c}cf
Connect-  
}O$$ .]Xc$cO ]$;8[
}] ]r$}$}cOc )6c
[fX]@ )Oc][c; O]OSf]KOc$]]ff 3f* 8[]$cc].
}]6O$] EK]}f]O]*][$c]
]}O8j ] O}*.8O[@rcf[}f}} 6O ]f ;[}O c]]
- MAFI
-

O)c[[}O]] O$Ms[f]f]c$]f+)@f f }f}OKf ])O$[c] O]O$@$c]S8O $J }O 8] -


 8   
transactions.
$  &)( 768 1'
O ;
[ ]Oc}f}f}) }8 O+}SOff]} [6]]fOc[8}fc 8]}} 8 ]Oc     

fc8cO].cj f [] 8O)]] }.c }}} f8]O[@cfc@}fc f8  O7)[]O)f] f $ 8][3@)2O$fc} c]c O ]sO}8]c@6cc]]SfO[f O]$Ocfj c[}Of]y]c0)8f [+$}O]6c 8[
c[O}2[8[s)O$cc c[}O}c]] [f]fc$]S[fOcc] $8cc c[8}]@ ccKc
rebuilding-
c}]Oc] ]c7)]O)Occ[f[}cc[O]O8.)O 3ff]8 28]frf6O2 ]6} @$]c$
-
threshold

]}ffc[} )) $c $ff fO ff}[ c}}fSc8]t[@f]M] f]O$}cc] O Ot[

-
f6c$O]3Oc]8f Kc]3[ OO3]Xcf[@Of} O[6c]]O[ff$[XO3[X O 27   6]$Of -

cc[}}6c} $S]csfK8]c2O[ff}] fccMc;]+fO]3f sc[7O @[O@}c]O [y7 +f2 [MO})cy] ) c}$c$ c}[8$fccO]}[ O@[8]]@ c[O ]fc8$c[f MS@c6[c[c]8 [ O[ OO)Oc
fh )$]c83$@[8]Of[]O6][f} fS8[c@c
8]}] f O}[3])f8]c x]]c[OcfccSf[ f@SccOc$ $
cO
rebuilding-threshold

 O6}$]f }OO] ]c O]Occ][} }$cfc[O]} [ ccfff28]Of

[ Oc]]]Xf]cc[$O]]$
[ O c OO.}c][8c]  $[c]]2M$;8ccc]SO]]M}$[XO O Oc]c} 8 8[ }+ c@8c]]Of . }]3c] OcO }2O .f 3}}ff88[@[@cc[ffcc$$[[


c}c@J. 0 [O}8 Scfcf OS$cXO] ;

@$[O Sc][f }c f3J.}]fff }O26)} c[][@]f]Of f 8]$c]Mcfc 8


$]} S8)] ]x O. fKf]Sf8]*[f$c] ][O)$cO] +fO]+c$ ] OOc $;$@ffOf OS[

6$c[c]cc 6]O}8K ] OO[c f8+]O;[f c)]ccOc$c[f 8}c$O]+8$[ }[8O
.]O$c}]f 8[O@$J]@O[O 6 O[y)]
.0ff 8 ]cfJ}cf[8O[@}XS } c6O] 
8f ]Oc[@)]]KOc rO OO [. Oc]s]}}8f] 8@[6@f]$}fc$ ]8O]c]O$ Ochc c} f}8c]f[@@cch c
-

KOc]]8f[ * 7[x$Oc]] [ ;3O]8c ]6 scOc.]38 [ }+O[S] c[[Of]] 6SffX6sf}c [}6 .O$}]f]$
-

$cOc ;c}O 2c]]f[8c]f ; $O}6 f]ffM[O8 O])f2O;O.]}f}8O

nnect-

O) 8$ch
[c]6$]fc O]]XO$Oc) $[[fO S )@f }X]cKf f@,c$ O[[f$ c) cc
-
.]3 cc8]jc O Oc[}[}O ]8O' $c[f}]$c]$ }]
c[c f]]f O$ ] -

] }O8c]K@)O6}}fO8][@}]]@ fcc h$ c} c6O cO] 8*OOc)$cf]]c$]8]cOc ]cf[ff[}c )[c $[c}cf 8 ]S[O]) @ 8c[] f]f cO$c$ 8cM O8c[} ]c]Of[8]6]c[.Of
6

rel-threshold
c[O}} K}]]08)[O O+}O]] []O6c[}f 8
 



  R ( ( L  M R

&R  $  
 
 L  M 3 
    " 
 ! 
OPT
400
350
1600
1400  $ 
OPT

300
  K
IJ
1200

 
250 1000
GH
200 EF 800
150 600
100 400
50 200


 #
0 0
10L  M 315
  
 20
&% &'
100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
2  L 3$ (  0 5 25 30

4 $ 5  # 4 $ 5  #
 r
 ZZ!(*/

/  $df/ / 8:(";<(".. . (" #


/ . 0 ),<./  . (4
("("". /), %c"=4
dfmn),2h("("-"(]^^^ $t -

6]f) fcc$[]O}O]}c ;6

$]]]+ $;c[}Otc ]}}[8@} ] @f )]f[f[cE8] Oc[[]O)8 $
Conclusions
,do9),# 0("/ 1M(""9doo
g (""# . (" 99do/ "
12.
W  &
),/ ),(" $!(""# W("-". / (),n.i "# (J#sn.jdf/ / 
nn,qq $,^ -155.
fc]Of.c8[} $}c.f E6OcOfc@]}c[f3 }8f[+@. ]ff8SKcJ[ 02Oc S}8[[yOc[c}}f$]]@c O}cOK.]Oc
,lZ("(gc:ZYc6.\), 2*)$n.f1M/ / WW")-"0(J#2*),
demonstrate
/ . < # /\),a(". ("-". /), HC Au"I"I"K N DUO?A,GaP wIP w  z I"uJBCN P }
DepthProject qq

n Y
 "
= Y
 / 7Yd9 ("("1?$:/ -"("# (J-"0 $("
[} 8]cO f] c6[  fc[[O$c]]8 E[Oft$Oc]]}]@ c8ccctf 6f]8
Symposium
parent- [16] ),/ . 012*),/# -J),("/ . 0(Y1?/ 1M<12h(";<(".# (".# HC Au"vA,G
P wIs P w5zDP { FR:ADGIJC I"Du"IsAD P I"DK N DU5LE P EQEOI6I"u"wDA F AU}
[]6)$]]JccO O]}chc$ O,j Ochf}]t@8OcfcE]f$cc[c} }])f O .} f;8[@ t]+Of
relativ , ("-"/"c"W /  qq
(EDBT),: -
/  6do n
<0 1?$df/ / ##),-"/. /), < (J#$
. / -
c6`(6a
 ),/ . 01?#,=tna,qq$  -493
do)i "# 0(""/    ? c6/ "# . "$J>("i
O*3
O]@c] ].y$K$f[[}S]c }$* 8O[+ $6[[}$$} 8O]M$ OO[ SK6h]f} $ch* $X[[$Oc]] fO ]"O
}y;$} ,]8 1M/ / $ . . ("s/# -J),("p>2h")1b), s
/ (f("is. " #-". /), #
Acknowledgements. Agarwal
&("-"0/ -J t("W ),.& q ,^^n("W. 1(".
),2%),1MW<. ("Mc6-"/ ("-"(J
/ (""# / . p),2!df/ (J#-),."df/ (JW ), /#qq
cf}[ O@ f 5 ]Oc
h c ]}[3@ fy6[ ff}[ Oc$c8]] jO]Occ}8]]@8 ,qXXc:*`"do c:"t0(* *Xc:*< $
Y 22h("-". / ("# 0Y"# ("

 ),/ . 012*),df/ /-##),-"/. /),Y t< (J#Jc6=4
dfmn5),2h("("-"(
f}f8[@]c}Jf ])] f$f
c]8c  c]K]cO} c [.6]}] ]O
,qq $, -186
-
 ]^"# ;</ ("""# . / (J &
"),</ s

`0 $
d
n/# -J),("/ 2h(";<(".s-")# ("/ . (61?# (".#2*),g"##),-"/. /),'< (J#
=tn& qq $Xrq - ,("< # ("1?,="# "(",< p,qqq 
 ] jM!("/f do")$tmc6 &
$
(622h/ -"/ (".
References:  ),/ . 012*),M1M/ / k2h(";<(".Z-")# ("k/ . ("1?# (".#:!"),-Jt),2
td

 
  !""# $%'&("( c6=4
dfmnando nal),` # 0 ),W ,n "#,&,dop,]^^^ 
!*),+ ("-". /)'
 ),/ . 0132*),54
("(6". /),7),298:(";<(".>=. ("1?# (".#  ]]  "# .\),/c60/ 1?$ df/ / >mW. / 1M/ "("s##),-"/. /),
@"A BC DE F*A,G%H E C E F F IJF*EDKMLN OP CN QBP I"K?R:AST BP N DU?V # W("-"/X/## <(Y), t< (J#

/ . 0>. ("),/ -J><1("/ -j
. . / i<. (J#o=tn,qq 
0/ 0MW("2*),1?-"(Z .1M/ / [" V .\)MWW(J["]^^^ m )8:\),/  "8:("ih< p,qq 
 ] _
"?&
?=1M/ (" /  # `/,ab c6/ `.$edf/ /   ] rk
 t/ ),<.#)#8:),".)#$_),1Mi/  .),/W . . ("
"##),-"/. /),gh< (J#ji(". 
("("b# (".#9),2k/ . ("1j#j/ g(l .i "# (J# /# -J),("p/ i/),),/ -Ja# (";<("-"(J#$&0(l&("/ (J# /"#9 ),/ . 01?
c6=4
dfmn,dop,qq r , V qq,["  
rs _
"_ c6/ `.$?8t"# .9
 ),/ . 01j#o2*),ldf/ / 
Bioinformatics  ]  tp1?), $c6(J-"0s. 0"),<-0cp# . (61j. / -9c6(". <1("". /), 
#,#),-"/. /),f t< (J# HC Au"v%A,GjP wIxy P wfzD P { FtR:AD,GIJC I"Du"IADo|IJC } !*),-Jjm2&0/ =. o)2*jm!/ -"/ W (J#),2  ),
 ("(
~:E C UIZLEP EQEOI"O c:. /),t0/  (Jc6("W.qq  t("W(J# (".. /),?hM t(J"#)/ r,q ^ qq]
 ! 
"do/ " !c6/ `.&
),/ ),(">=" !c:"# ("(Jm1M/ ("-"/  # `/!sc:. 0(J$
(622h/ -"/ (".
("`1?)$8t"# .Mn/# -J),("p),2##),-"/. /),9 t< (J# K"EDu"I"OaN D
[25]  ),/ . 012*),1M/ / a6##),-"/. /),?< (J#/ j( .i "# (J#X] # .
tDAF I"KUILN Ou"A"IJC }EDKLE P E>N D N DU t0 W. (",] nk),2h("("-"(J,qq 

= df=&_!(J##qq   ] tZc"0(" ),p / .#"
c:Zc6< "# 0 4t0 ),. /"do
 
cJ<$df/ / 
(5=. (61j# (".#?2*), "jnc60 0 $J&<i ) --"0 h/ ?(". / -Jdf/ / a),2Z
(
#,#),-"/. /), < (J#n.a / ("("/ t<  (". / ] V ,["$Y]r -r n.i "# (J#c6=4
dfmna),2h("("-"(
]^^^ $]] -33
 ]t tc6/ `.! !
"$d/ / k4
("("" / "("s##),-"/. /),
(1998) **
*Xc:*< $6m
 / (4
("("". /),f),2 ##),-"/. /), t< (J#,nqq $^ -419.
t< (J#,=tnaqq$^] -411  ] t!&
),/ )(" $
c:1MW / k
(?n.i "# (J#2*),M##),-"/. /),
 a MjjMphh)$2h2 / -*/ (*.  p1/ / \)Wh. . (*h#2 *),1 t< (J#,nqq$r -145.
h.\hi*# (X#\c"=4Zdjmnqq$\ -93.  ]ql(J $df/ / 8:(";<(". =. ("1?# (".## / 
 MMp!hh)?h? M
"Y\dj/ / _. 0(Yd9)# .%=h. (*h(X# . /  c6<WW ),.) # . "/ .#nk]^^^$* r -52
< (X#\\ z*LL  -154. 4=">("ii $m!c:$
("22h/ -"/ (".1M/#,# / i (? ),/ . 012*),
 qZc:t/   d9),. /n  1? c:&
# <"np 1/ - < )("("5# (J-"0  @"ABC DEF!A,G CP N GN uJN E F!zhD P IJF F N UI*Du"I I"OI"E C u"w 
[30]

/ . ("1j# (".t-J),<. / 9f/ 1MW / -J. /),j< (J#t2*),1?`(".ti "# `(".t ." r,qq 
z" > L9 I"u"A C Kj R: TI"uJN E F"zhD P IJC I"OPJC A B,TMADMEDEUI"SI"D P
3:45- r:
/ W  
)) ")nt0("<h? 0("$
A,G%LE P E ] V ]["$ ] ,qq  (" 9. . / - e-"# ("/  . (c6(".:4
("("". /),
 ),/ . 012*),
,^:n<`("
!c:)W `"$n.m/ J. /),>>-"-"(J## = m' 2h2h/ -"/ (".##),-"/. /), t< (?df/ / ! nn qq t("/ + / 
2*),("22h/ -"/ (".X .1M/ / ,=tnaqqq 1999. r,]:do::`/$Zc6-Ji (?
 ),/ . 01?#
2*),M#,#),-"/. /),kdf/ / 
%J4. /::
:4
("0`(Jtk : 1?`/# 0  $n dfm$ z :C EDOEuJP N ADOAD?DAF I*KUIYEDK?L
E P E DU N DI"IJCN DU ),
df/ / _do)/ .),h/  ), / n.",=tn?]^^^ $r,q -448 ,] ,)rWW_r] -r,q^ ,dop <(Z]^^^ 
,]Jn64
< ),W<)#66do/ ":kc::c: <+"$n/# -J),("/ 
  rrd9""`/Y"# /") $
Y(622h/ -"/ (". ),/ . 01
do)# ._c6W("-"/ 2h/ -c6(". ("-"(J#Mip  ),1M/ "("9
 ),/ . 01?#g=tn& 2*), -")# ("f"##),-"/. /),< (1M/ / CHARM * t!= &("-"0/ -J: t("W ),.Jqq -,^
,qq $]  -229
1999.